DEPARTMENTOFAUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

AT 2401 ENGINE AND VEHICLE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM NOTES

 AT2401 ENGINE AND VEHICLE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS

Microprocessor architecture, open and closed loop control strategies, PID control, Look up
tables, introduction to modern control strategies like Fuzzy logic and adaptive control.
Parameters to be controlled in SI and CI enignes and in the other parts of the automobile.

UNIT II SENSORS
Inductive, Hall effect, hot wire, thermistor, piezo electric, piezoresistive, based sensors. Throttle
position, air mass flow, crank shaft position, cam position, engine and wheel speed, steering
position, tire pressure, brake pressure, steering torque, fuel level, crash, exhaust oxygen level
(two step and linear lambda), knock, engine temperature, manifold temperature and pressure
sensors.

UNIT III SI ENGINE MANAGEMENT

Three way catalytic converter, conversion effciency versus lambda. Layout and working of SI
engine management systems like Bosch L-Jetronic and LH-Jetronic. Group and sequential
injection techniques. Working of the fuel system components. Cold start and warm up phases,
idle speed control, acceleration and full load enrichment, deceleration fuel cutoff. Fuel control
maps, open loop control of fuel injection and closed loop lambda control. Electronic ignition
systems and spark timing control. Closed loop control of knock.

UNIT IV CI ENGINE MANAGEMENT

Fuel injection system parameters affecting combustion, noise and emissions in CI engines. Pilot,
main, advanced post injection and retarded post injection. Electronically controlled Unit
Injection system.Layout of the common rail fuel injection system. Working of components like
fuel injector, fuel pump, rail pressure limiter, flow limiter, EGR valves

UNIT V VEHICLE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

ABS system, its need, layout and working.Electronic control of suspension – Damping control,
Electric power steering, Supplementary Restraint System of air bag system – crash sensor, seat
belt tightening.Cruise control. Vehicle security systems- alarms, vehicle tracking system. On
board diagnostics. Collision avoidance Radar warning system

TEXT BOOKS
1. Understanding Automotive Electronics William B Ribbens, SAE 1998
2. Automobile Electronics by Eric Chowanietz SAE.
REFERENCES
3. Diesel Engine Management by Robert Bosch, SAE Publications.
4. Gasoline Engine Management by Robert Bosch, SAE Publications.
UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS

TWO MARKS

1. CONTROL SYSTEM

Control systems are systems that are used to regulate the operation of other systems. For this
discussion, the system being controlled is known as the system plant. The controlling system is
called an electronic controller.

1. Perform its function accurately.

2. Respond quickly.
3. Be stable.
4. Respond only to valid inputs (noise immunity).
2. Open-Loop Control
The components of an open-loop controller include the electronic controller, which has an output
to an actuator. The actuator, in turn, regulates the plant being controlled in accordance with the
desired relationship between the reference input and the value of the controlled variable in the
plant. Manyexamples of open-loop control are encountered in automotive electronic systems,
such as fuel control in certain operating modes.
3.Closed-Loop Control
It is the potential for change in an open-loop system that led to feedback, or closed-loop, control.
In a closed-loop control system a measurement of the output variable being controlled is
obtained via a sensor and fed back to the controller
4.PID CONTROLLER
A proportional controller (Kp) will have the effect of reducing the rise time and will reduce ,but
never eliminate, the steady-state error. An integral control (Ki) will have the effect of eliminating
the steady-state error, but it may make the transient response worse. A derivative control (Kd)
will have the effect of increasing the stability of the system, reducing the overshoot, and
improving the transient response. Effects of each of controllers Kp, Kd, and Ki on a closed-loop
system are summarized in the table shown below.
5.General tips for designing a PID controller

1. Obtain an open-loop response and determine what needs to be improved

2. Add a proportional control to improve the rise time

3. Add a derivative control to improve the overshoot

4. Add an integral control to eliminate the steady-state error

5. Adjust each of Kp, Ki, and Kd until you obtain a desired overall response. You can always
refer to the table shown in this document to find out which controller controls what
characteristics.

6.FUZZY LOGIC

FL is a problem-solving control system methodology that lends itself to implementation in

systems ranging from simple, small, embedded micro-controllers to large, networked, multi-
channel PC or workstation-based data acquisition and control systems. FL provides a simple way
to arrive at a definite conclusion based upon vague, ambiguous, imprecise, noisy, or missing
input information. FL's approach to control problems mimics how a person would make
decisions, only much faster.
7.ADAPTIVE CONTROL
Adaptive control is a generic term to describe the ability of a control system to react to changes
in circumstances. Most of the optimum control models use some form of adaptive control to
optimize the performance of a given controller architecture .A set of techniques for automatic
adjustment of the controllers in real time, in ordeto achieve or to maintain a desired level of
performance of the control system when the parameters of the plant (disturbance) dynamic
model are unknown and/or change in time
8. Operation Codes
Numeric codes called operation codes (or op codes for short) contain the instructions that
represent the actual operation to be performed by the CPU. The instruction register has a part
that contains the numeric op codes. A decoder determines from the op codes the operation to be
executed, and a data register controls the flow of data inside the CPU as a result of the op code
instructions.
9. Program Counter
The program counter is used by the CPU to address memory locations that contain instructions.
Every time an op code is read (this is often called fetched ) from memory, the program counter is
incremented(advanced by one) so that it points to (i.e., contains the address of ) the next byte
following the op code. If the operation code requires another byte, the program counter supplies
the address, the second byte is fetched from memory and the program counter is incremented.
Each time the CPU performs a fetch operation, the program counter is incremented; thus, the
program counter always points to the next byte in the program. Therefore, after all bytes required
for one complete instruction have been read, theprogram counter contains the address for the
beginning of the next instruction to be executed.
10. LOOKUP TABLE
The engine control unit uses a formula and a large number of lookup tables to determine the
pulse width for given operating conditions. The equation will be a series of many factors
multiplied by each other. Many of these factors will come from lookup tables The basic ignition
advance angle etc is obtained from a memorized cartographic map or a lookup table. These are
held in a ROM chip within the ECU. The parameters for ignition advance calculations are:
Engine rev/min – given by the flywheel sensor

Inlet air pressure – given by the manifold absolute pressure sensor

The above two parameters (speed and load) give the basic setting but to ensure optimum advance
angle the timing is corrected by:
1. Coolant temperature.
2. Air temperature.
3. Throttle butterfly position
11. Control Parameters of an SI Engine
The major physical quantities that are outputs from the controller are:
1. Fuel metering control

2. Ignition control

3. Ignition timing

4. Exhaust gas recirculation control

12. Control Parameters of a CI Engine
The main aim of computer control is to ensure that the engine receives the precise amount of fuel
that is required, at the correct time and under all operating conditions. There are three areas of
computer control The three items are:
1. fuel quantity (spill control)

2. injection timing control

3. idle speed control.

16 MARKS
1. Microprocessor architecture:
The term microprocessor typically refers to the central processing unit (CPU) of aMicro
computer, containing the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the control units. It is
typicallyimplemented on a single LSI chip. This separates the "brains" of the operation from the
other units ofthe computer. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the
control unit for a microcomputer. It is connected to memory and I/O by buses which carry
information between the units. Information is transferred between units of the microcomputer by
collections of conductors called buses. There will be one conductor for each bit of information to
be passed, e.g., 16 lines
FIG .1 LAY OUT FIG 2. BUS STRUCTURE

FIG 3. ALU
for a 16 bit address bus. There will be address, control, and data buses. All the arithmetic
operations of a microprocessor take place in the arithmetic logic unit (ALU). Using a
combination of gates and flip-flops, numbers can be added in less than a microsecond, even in
small personal computers. The operation to be performed is specified by signals from the control
unit. The data upon which operations are performed can come from memory or an external input.
The data may be combined in some way with the contents of the accumulator and the results are
typically placed in the accumulator. From there they may be transferred to memory or to an
output unit. The accumulator is the principal register of the arithmetic logic unit of a
microprocessor. Registers are sets of flip-flops which can hold data. The accumulator typically
holds the first piece of data for a calculation. If a number from memory is added to that date, the
sum replaces the original data in the accumulator. It is the repository for successive results of
arithmetic operations, which may then be transferred to memory, to an output device, etc. The
control unit of a microprocessor directs the operation of the other units by providing timing and
control signals. It is the function of the microcomputer to execute programs which are stored in
memory in the form of instructions and data. The control unit contains the necessary logic to
interpret instructions and to generate the signals necessary for the execution of those instructions.
The descriptive words "fetch" and "execute" are used to describe the actions of the control unit.
It fetches an instruction by sending and address and a read command to the memory unit. The
instruction at that memory address is transferred to the control unit for decoding. It then
generates the necessary signals to execute the instruction.
Memory
Program, data and stack memories occupy the same memory space. The total addressable
memory size is 64 KB.
Program memory - program can be located anywhere in memory. Jump, branch and call
instructions use 16-bit addresses, i.e. they can be used to jump/branch anywhere within 64 KB.
All jump/branch instructions use absolute addressing.
Data memory - the data can be placed anywhere as the 8085 processor always uses 16-bit
addresses.
Stack memory is limited only by the size of memory. Stack grows downward.
First 64 bytes in a zero memory page should be reserved for vectors used by RST instructions.
Interrupts
The 8085 microprocessor has 5 interrupts. They are presented below in the order of their priority
(fromlowest to highest):
INTR is maskable 8080A compatible interrupt. When the interrupt occurs the processor fetches
from the bus one instruction, usually one of these instructions:
 One of the 8 RST instructions (RST0 - RST7). The processor saves current program counter
into stack and branches to memory location N * 8 (where N is a 3-bit number from 0 to 7
supplied with the RST instruction).
 CALL instruction (3 byte instruction). The processor calls the subroutine, address of which is
specified in the second and third bytes of the instruction.
RST5.5 is a maskable interrupt. When this interrupt is received the processor saves the contents
of the PC register into stack and branches to 2Ch (hexadecimal) address.
RST6.5 is a maskable interrupt. When this interrupt is received the processor saves the contents
of the PC register into stack and branches to 34h (hexadecimal) address.
RST7.5 is a maskable interrupt. When this interrupt is received the processor saves the contents
of the PC register into stack and branches to 3Ch (hexadecimal) address.
Trap is a non-maskable interrupt. When this interrupt is received the processor saves the contents
of the PC register into stack and branches to 24h (hexadecimal) address.
All maskable interrupts can be enabled or disabled using EI and DI instructions. RST 5.5,
RST6.5 and RST7.5 interrupts can be enabled or disabled individually using SIM instruction.
I/O ports
256 Input ports
256 Output ports
Registers
Accumulator or A register is an 8-bit register used for arithmetic, logic, I/O and load/store
operations.
Flag is an 8-bit register containing 5 1-bit flags:
 Sign - set if the most significant bit of the result is set.
 Zero - set if the result is zero.
 Auxiliary carry - set if there was a carry out from bit 3 to bit 4 of the result.
 Parity - set if the parity (the number of set bits in the result) is even.
 Carry - set if there was a carry during addition, or borrow during subtraction/comparison.
General registers:
 8-bit B and 8-bit C registers can be used as one 16-bit BC register pair. When used as a pair
the C register contains low-order byte. Some instructions may use BC register as a data pointer.
 8-bit D and 8-bit E registers can be used as one 16-bit DE register pair. When used as a pair
the E register contains low-order byte. Some instructions may use DE register as a data pointer.
 8-bit H and 8-bit L registers can be used as one 16-bit HL register pair. When used as a pair
the L register contains low-order byte. HL register usually contains a data pointer used to
reference memory addresses.
Stack pointer is a 16 bit register. This register is always incremented/decremented by 2.
Program counter is a 16-bit register.
InstructionSet
Instruction set of Intel 8085 microprocessor consists of the following instructions:
 Data moving instructions.
 Arithmetic - add, subtract, increment and decrement.
 Logic - AND, OR, XOR and rotate.
 Control transfer - conditional, unconditional, call subroutine, return from subroutine and
restarts.
 Input/output instructions.
 Other - setting/clearing flag bits, enabling/disabling interrupts, stack operations, etc.
Addressingmodes
Register - references the data in a register or in a register pair.
Register indirect - instruction specifies register pair containing address, where the data is located.
Direct.
Immediate - 8 or 16-bit data.
2. OPEN LOOP AND CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM
Open-Loop Control
The components of an open-loop controller include the electronic controller, which has an output
to an actuator. The actuator, in turn, regulates the plant being controlled in accordance with the
desired relationship between the reference input and the value of the controlled variable in the
plant. Manyexamples of open-loop control are encountered in automotive electronic systems,
such as fuel control in certain operating modes. In the open-loop control system of Figure 4, the
command input is sent to the electronic controller, which performs a control operation on the
input to generate an intermediate electrical signal (denoted i in Figure 4). This electrical signal is
the input to the actuator which generates a control input (denoted u in Figure 4) to the plant that,
in turn, regulates the plant output to the desired value. This type of control is called open-loop
control because the output of the system is never compared with the command input to see if
they match. The operation of the plant is directly regulated by the actuator (which might simply
be an electric motor). The system output may also be affected byexternal disturbances that are
not an inherent part of the plant but are the result of the operating environment. One of the
principal drawbacks to the open-loop controller is its inability to compensate for changes that
might occur in the controller or the plant or for any disturbances. This defect is eliminated in a
closed-loop control system, in which the actual system output is compared to the desired output
value inaccordance with the input. Of course, a measurement must be made of the plant output in
such a system, and this requires measurement instrumentation
FIG 4.OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM
Closed-Loop Control
It is the potential for change in an open-loop system that led to feedback, or closed-loop, control.
In a closed-loop control system a measurement of the output variable being controlled is
obtained via a sensor and fed back to the controller, as illustrated in Figure 5. The measured
value of the controlled variable is compared with the desired value for that variable based on the
reference input. An error signal based on the difference between desired and actual values of the
output signal is created, and the controller generates an actuator signal u that tends to reduce the
error to zero. In addition to reducing this error to zero, feedback has other potential benefits in a
control system. It can affect control system performanceby improving system stability and
suppressing the effects of disturbances in the system. Later chapters will include numerous
examples of closed-loop control, such as idle speed control. The generic closed-loop control
system illustrated in Figure 5 has some of the components found in an open-loop control system,
including the plant to be controlled, actuator(s), and control electronics. In addition, however,
this system includes one or more sensors and some signal-conditioning electronics. The signal
conditioning used in a closed-loop controlsystem plays a role similar to that played by signal
processing in measurement instrumentation. That is, it transforms the sensor output as required
to achieve the desired measurement of the plant output. Compensation for certain sensor defects
(e.g., limited bandwidth) is possible, and in some cases necessary, to allow for the comparison of
the plant output with the desired value. Electronic control systems are classified by the way in
which the error signal is processed to generate the control signal. The major control systems
include proportional, proportional-integral, and proportional-integral-differential controllers.
FIG 5. CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM
3.ADAPTIVE CONTROL
A set of techniques for automatic adjustment of the controllers in real time, in order to achieve or
to maintain a desired level of performance of the control system when the parameters of the plant
(disturbance) dynamic model are unknown and/or change in time.

An adaptive control system is nonlinear since controller parameters will depend upon u and y
ADAPTIVE CONTROL VS CONVENTIONAL FEED BACK

• High performance control systems may require precise tuning of the controller but plant
(disturbance) model parameters may be unknown or time-varying
•“Adaptive Control” techniques provide a systematic approach for automatic on-line tuning of
controller parameters
•“Adaptive Control “techniques can be viewed as approximations of some nonlinear stochastic
control problems
•Objective of “Adaptive Control”: to achieve and to maintain acceptable level of performance
when plant (disturbance) model parameters are unknown or vary
4. FUZZY LOGIC
FL is a problem-solving control system methodology that lends itself to implementation in
systems ranging from simple, small, embedded micro-controllers to large, networked, multi-
channel PC or workstation-based data acquisition and control systems. FL provides a simple way
to arrive at a definite conclusion based upon vague, ambiguous, imprecise, noisy, or missing
input information. FL's approach to control problems mimics how a person would make
decisions, only much faster.
PROGRAM REPRESENTATION

5. Control Parameters of an SI Engine

5.1EGR CONTROL
A second electronic engine control subsystem is the control of exhaustgas that is recirculated
back to the intake manifold. Under normal operatingconditions, engine cylinder temperatures can
reach more than 3,000°F. Thehigher the temperature, the more chance the exhaust will have NOx
emissions..a small amount of exhaust gas is introduced into the cylinder to replace normal intake
air. This results in lower combustion temperatures, which reduces NOx emissions. The control
mode selection logic determines when EGR is turned off or on. EGR is turned off during
cranking, cold engine temperature (engine warm-up), idling, acceleration, or other conditions
demanding high torque. Since exhaust gas recirculation was first introduced as a concept for
reducing NOx exhaust emissions, its implementation has gone throughConsiderable change.
There are in fact many schemes and configurations for EGR realization. We discuss here one
method of EGR implementation that incorporates enough features to be representative of all
schemes in use today and in the near future. Fundamental to all EGR schemes is a passageway or
port connecting the exhaust and intake manifolds. A valve is positioned along this passageway
whose position regulates EGR from zero to some maximum value. Typically, the valve is
operated by a diaphragm connected to a variable vacuum source. The controller operates a
solenoid in a periodic variable-duty-cycle mode. The average level of vacuum on the diaphragm
varies with the duty cycle. By varying this duty cycle, the control system has proportional
control over the EGR valve opening and thereby overthe amount of EGR. In many EGR control
systems the controller monitors the differential pressure between the exhaust and intake manifold
via a differential pressure sensor (DPS). With the signal from this sensor the controller can
calculate the valve opening for the desired EGR level. The amount of EGR required is a
predetermined function of the load on the engine (i.e., power produced). A simplified block
diagram for an EGR control system is depicted in Figure 4. In this figure the EGR valve is
operated by a solenoid regulated vacuum actuator (coming from the intake). An explanation of
this proportional actuator. The engine controller determines the required amount of EGR based
on the engine operating condition and the signal from the differential pressure sensor (DPS)
between intake and exhaust manifolds. The controller then commands the correct EGR valve
position to achieve the desired amount of EGR.

FIG 4 EGR Control

5.2Ignition control
an engine must be provided with fuel and air in correct proportions and the means to ignite this
mixture in the form of an electric spark. Before the development of electronic ignition the
traditional ignition system included spark plugs, a distributor, and a high-voltage ignition coil.
The distributor would sequentially connect the coil output high voltage to the correct spark plug.
In addition, it would cause the coil to generate the spark by interrupting the primary current
(ignition points) in the desired coil, thereby generating the required spark. The time of
occurrence of this spark (i.e., the ignition timing) in relation of the piston to TDC influences the
torque generated. In most present-day electronically controlled engines the distributor has been
replaced by multiple coils. Each coil supplies the spark to either one or two cylinders. In such a
system the controller selects the appropriate coil and delivers a trigger pulse to ignition control
circuitry at the correct time for each cylinder. Figure 7.9a illustrates such a system for an
example 4-cylinder engine. In this example a pair of coils provides the spark for firing two
cylinders for each coil. Cylinder pairs are selected such that one cylinder is on its compression
stroke while the other is on exhaust. The cylinder on compression is the cylinder to be fired (at a
time somewhat before it reaches TDC). The other cylinder is on exhaust. The coil fires the spark
plugs for these two cylinders simultaneously. For the former cylinder, the mixture is ignited and
combustion begins for the power stroke that follows. For the other cylinder (on exhaust stroke),
the combustion has already taken place and the spark has no effect. Although the mixture for
modern emission-regulated engines is constrained by emissions regulations, the spark timing can
be varied in order to achieve optimum performance within the mixture constraint. For example,
the ignition timing can be chosen to produce the best possible engine torque for any given
operating condition. This optimum ignition timing is known for any given engine configuration
from studies of engine performance as measured on an engine dynamometer.

FIG 5. ELECTRONIC IGNITION CONTROL

5.3. Ignition Timing
The ignition system described in the foregoing is an open-loop system. The major disadvantage
of open-loop control is that it cannot automatically compensate for mechanical changes in the
system. Closed-loopcontrol of ignition timing is desirable from the standpoint of improving
engine performance and maintaining that performance in spite of system changes. One scheme
for closed-loop ignition timing is based on the improvement in performance that is achieved by
advancing the ignition timing relative toTDC. For a given RPM and manifold pressure, the
variation in torque with spark advance is as depicted in Figure 6. One can see that advancing the
spark relative to TDC increases the torque until a point is reached at which best torque is
produced. This spark advance is known as mean best torque, or MBT.When the spark is
advanced too far, an abnormal combustion phenomenon occurs that is known as knocking.
Although the details of what causes knocking are beyond the scope of this book, it is generally a
result of a portion of the air–fuel mixture auto igniting, as opposed to being normally ignited by
the advancing flame front that occurs in normal combustion following spark ignition. Roughly
speaking, the amplitude of knock is proportional to the fraction of the total air and fuel mixture
that autoignites. It is characterized by an abnormally rapid rise in cylinder pressure during
combustion, followed by very rapid oscillations in cylinder pressure. The frequency of these
oscillations is specific to a given engine configuration and is typically in the range of a few
kilohertz. Figure 7 is a graph of a typical cylinder pressure versus time under knocking
conditions. A relatively low level of knock is arguably beneficial to performance, although
excessive knock is unquestionably damaging to the engine and must be avoided.
One control strategy for spark advance under closed-loop control is to advance the spark timing
until the knock level becomes unacceptable. At this point, the control system reduces the spark
advance (retarded spark) until acceptable levels of knock are achieved. Of course, a spark
advance control scheme based on limiting the levels of knocking requires a knock sensor such as
that explained in Chapter 6. This sensor responds to the acoustical energy in the spectrum of the
rapid cylinder pressure oscillations, as shown in
Figure 7
 .
FIG 6 TORQUE VS ENGINE FIG 7. CYLINDER PRESSURE
 UNIT II SENSORS

TWO MARKS

1. Typical electronic engine control system

2. What are the variables need to control the engine

1. Mass air flow (MAF) rate

2. Exhaust gas oxygen concentration (possibly heated)
3. Throttle plate angular position
4. Crankshaft angular position/RPM
5. Coolant temperature
6. Intake air temperature
7. Manifold absolute pressure (MAP)
8. Differential exhaust gas pressure
9. Vehicle speed
10. Transmission gear selector position

3. VARIABLE INDUCTANCE TYPE MAP SENSOR

In this type, the iron cylinder moves in or out of the coil under the influence of the diaphragm
and spring. Variations in manifold absolute pressure increase or decrease the suction‘ force
acting on the diaphragm and the resultant changes in inductance are related to the manifold
absolute pressure. The coil (inductance) forms part of an electronic circuit and this circuit is
designed so that the changes in frequency of the square-wave output are accurate representations
of manifold absolute pressure.

4. HALL EFFECT SENSOR

The Hall element is a small, thin, flat slab of semiconductor material. When a current, I, is
passed through this slab by means of an external circuit, a voltage is developed across the slab
perpendicular to the direction of current flow and perpendicular to the direction of magnetic flux.
This voltage is proportional to both the current and magnetic flux density that flows through the
slab. This effect—the generation of a voltage that is dependent on a magnetic field—is called the
Hall effect. A Hall effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in response to
changes in magnetic field. Hall sensors are used for proximity switching, positioning, speed
detection, and current sensing applications.

5. THERMISTOR BASED SENSOR

A typical coolant sensor consists of a thermistor mounted in a housing that is designed to be
inserted in the coolant stream. This housing is typically threaded with pipe threads that seal the
assembly against coolant leakage. A thermistor is made of semiconductor material whose
resistance varies inversely with temperature. The sensor output voltage varies inversely with
temperature; that is, the output voltage decreases as the temperature increases. The sensor is
typically connected in an electrical circuit like that shown in the figure below, in which the
coolant temperature sensor resistance is denoted ‗RT‘. This resistance is connected to a
reference voltage through a fixed resistance R.
6. PIEZO ELECTRIC SENSORS

The steel washer that makes up the seismic mass the sensor has very precise dimensions. The
mechanical vibrations are transmitted by the seismic mass, to the piezoelectric crystal. The
squeezing up‘and relaxing of the crystal in response to this action, produces a small electrical
signal. The electrical signal is conducted away from the crystal by wires that are secured to
suitable points on the crystal.
7. THROTTLE POSITION SENSOR

The throttle plate is linked mechanically to the accelerator pedal. When the driver depresses the
accelerator pedal, this linkage causes the throttle plate angle to increase, allowing more air to
enter the engine and thereby increasing engine power. Most throttle angle sensors are essentially
potentiometers. A potentiometer consists of a resistor with a movable contact, as illustrated in the
figure below. A section of resistance material is placed in an arc around the pivot axis for the
movable contact. One end of the resistor is connected to ground, the other to a fixed voltage Vc.
The voltage Vp at the contact point of the movable contact is proportional to the angle (a) from
the ground contact to the movable contact.
8. AIR MASS FLOW FOR ENGINE
A critically important aspect of fuel control is the requirement to measure the mass of air that is
drawn into the cylinder. An engine requires the correct air–fuel ratio to suit various conditions.
With electronic fuel injection the ECM controls the air–fuel ratio and in order to do this it needs
a constant flow of information about the amount of air flowing to the engine. With this
information, and data stored in its memory, the ECM can then send out a signal to the injectors,
so that they provide the correct amount of fuel. The amount of fuel delivered can then be
calculated such as to maintain the desired air/fuel ratio. There is no practically feasible way of
measuring the mass of air in the cylinder directly. However, the air charge can be determined
from the mass flow rate of air into the engine intake since all of this air eventually is distributed
to the cylinders.
9. CRANK SHAFT ANGULAR POSITION
An engine speed sensor is needed to provide an input for the electronic controller for several
functions. This information is used by the electronic engine controller to set ignition timing and,
in most cases, to set the fuel injector pulse timing. Crank angular position can be sensed on the
crankshaft directly or on the camshaft. Although the crankshaft location is potentially superior
for accuracy because of torsional and gear backlash errors in the camshaft drive train, many
production systems locate this sensor such that it measures camshaft position. It is desirable to
measure engine angular position with a non-contacting sensor to avoid mechanical wear and
corresponding changes in accuracy of the measurement. The two most common methods for
noncontact coupling to a rotating shaft is to employ magnetic fields or optics.

10. RELUCTANCE BASED SPEED SENSOR

This sensor consists of a permanent magnet with a coil of wire wound around it. A steel disk that
is mounted on the crankshaft, in front of the engine, has tabs that pass between the pole pieces of
this magnet. The steel disk has four protruding tabs, which is appropriate for an 8-cylinder
engine. The passage of each tab can correspond to the TDC position of a cylinder on its power
stroke, although other reference positions are also possible.
11. EXHAUST GAS OXYGEN SENSOR
The vehicle application for an oxygen sensor is to provide a closed loop feedback system for
engine management control of the air–fuel ratio. The amount of oxygen sensed in the exhaust is
directly related to the mixture strength, or air–fuel ratio. The ideal air–fuel ratio of 14.7: 1 by
mass is known as a lambda (_) value of one. Exhaust gas oxygen (EGO) sensors are placed in the
exhaust pipe near to the manifold to ensure adequate heating. The sensors operate reliably at
temperatures between 300 ° C & 850 ° C. In some cases, a heating element is incorporated to
ensure this temperature is reached quickly. This type of sensor is known as a heated exhaust gas
oxygen sensor, or HEGO. The amount of oxygen in the exhaust gas is used as an indirect
measurement of the air/fuel ratio. As a result, one of the most significant automotive sensors in
use today is the exhaust gas oxygen (EGO) sensor. This sensor is often called a lambda sensor
from the Greek letter lambda (l), which is commonly used to denote the equivalence ratio
12. MANIFOLD PRESSURE SENSOR
Engine load is proportional to manifold pressure in that high load conditions produce high
pressure and lower load conditions [e.g., cruising] produce lower pressure. Load sensors are
therefore pressure transducers. They are either mounted in the ECU or as a separate unit, and are
connected to the inlet manifold with a pipe. The pipe often incorporates a sensor restriction to
damp out fluctuations and a vapour trap to prevent petrol fumes reaching the sensor. MAP
sensors does not measure manifold pressure directly, but instead measure the displacement of a
diaphragm that is deflected by manifold pressure.
13. Engine speed sensor
Most injection systems, which are not combineddirectly with the ignition, take a signal from the
coilnegative terminal. This provides speed data but alsoengine position to some extent. A resistor
in seriesis often used to prevent high voltage surges reachingthe ECU.

14. Lambda sensor

This device provides information to the ECU onexhaust gas oxygen content. From this
information,corrections can be applied to ensure the engine iskept at or very near to
stoichiometry. Also shown inthis figure is a combustion chamber pressure sensor

16 mark
1. AIR FLOW RATE SENSOR
we showed that the correct operation of an electronicallycontrolled engine operating with
government-regulated exhaust emissionsrequires a measurement of the mass flow rate of air
(Rm) into the engine. Themajority of cars produced since the early 1990s use a relatively simple
andinexpensive mass air flow rate (MAF) sensor. This is normally mounted as partof the air
cleaner assembly, where it measures air flow into the intake manifold.It is a ruggedly packaged,
single-unit sensor that includes solid-state electronicsignal processing. In operation, the MAF
sensor generates a continuous signalthat varies nearly linearly with true mass air flow Rm.The
MAF sensor is a variation of a classic air flow sensor that was knownas a hot wire anemometer
and was used, for example, to measure wind velocityfor weather forecasting. In the MAF, the
hot-wire, or sensing, element isreplaced by a hot-film structure mounted on a substrate. On the
air inlet side ismounted a honeycomb flow straightener that “smooths” the air flow
(causingnominally laminar air flow over the film element). At the lower portion of thestructure is
the signal processing circuitry.The film element is electrically heated to a constant temperature
abovethat of the inlet air. The latter air temperature is sensed using a solid-statetemperature
sensor (explained later in this chapter). The hot-film element isincorporated in a Wheatstone
bridge circuit (Figure). The power supplyfor the bridge circuit comes from an amplifier.The
Wheatstone bridge consists of three fixed resistors R1, R2, and R3 anda hot-film element having
resistance RHW. With no air flow the resistors R1, R2,and R3 are chosen such that voltage va
and vb are equal (i.e., the bridge is saidto be balanced). As air flows across the hot film, heat is
carried away from thefilm by the moving air. The amount of heat carried away varies in
proportionto the mass flow rate of the air. The heat lost by the film to the air tends tocause the
resistance of the film to vary, which unbalances the bridge circuit,thereby producing an input
voltage to the amplifier. The output of theamplifier is connected to the bridge circuit and
provides the power for thiscircuit. The amplified voltage changes the resistance in such a way as
tomaintain a fixed hot-film temperature relative to the inlet temperature.The amplifier output
voltage vc varies with MAF and serves as a measureof Rm. Typically the conversion of MAF to
voltage is slightly nonlinear, asindicated by the calibration curve depicted in Figure. Fortunately,
amodern digital engine controller can convert the analog bridge output voltagedirectly to mass
air flow by simple computation.it is advantageous to convertanalog sensor voltages to a digital
format within the solid-state electronicsassociated with the sensor. This conversion is convenient
since it eliminates theneed for an analog-to-digital converter, One scheme for converting the
analog output voltage to a digital signaluses a device that is known as a voltage-to-frequency (v/f
) converter. Thiscircuit is a variable-frequency oscillator whose frequency f is proportional tothe
input voltage (in this case, the amplifier output voltage).The variable-frequency output voltage
(vf ) is applied through anelectronic gate, which is essentially an electrically operated switch.
Controlcircuitry (also part of the sensor solid-state electronics) repeatedly closes theswitch for a
fixed interval t. Then it opens it for another fixed interval. Duringthe first interval the variable-
frequency signal from the v/f circuit is connectedto the binary counter (BC) (see Chapter 3). The
BC counts (in binary) at theinstantaneous frequency of the v/f, which is proportional to the
amplifieroutput voltage vf , which in turn varies with mass air flow rate.During each cycle of the
electronic gate, the BC contains a binarynumber given by the product of the v/f frequency and
the time interval. Forexample, if the mass air flow were such that the v/f frequency were
1,000cycles/sec and the switch were closed for 0.1 sec, then the BC would contain

2. Indirect Measurement of Mass Air Flow

An alternative to direct mass air flowmeasurement in the form of the so-called speed-density
method. This methodcomputes an estimate of mass air flow from measurements of
manifoldabsolute pressure (MAP), RPM, and inlet air temperature. We consider firstsensors for
measuring manifold absolute pressure.Several MAP sensor configurations have been used in
automotiveapplications. The earliest sensors were derived from aerospace instrumentation
concepts, but these proved more expensive than desirable forautomotive applications and have
been replaced with more cost-effectivedesigns.It is interesting to note that none of the MAP
sensors in use measuresmanifold pressure directly, but instead measure the displacement of a
diaphragmthat is deflected by manifold pressure. The details of the diaphragmdisplacement and
the measurement of this displacement vary from oneconfiguration to another.Strain Gauge MAP
SensorOne relatively inexpensive MAP sensor configuration is the silicondiaphragmdiffused
strain gauge sensor shown in Figure This sensor uses asilicon chip that is approximately 3
millimeters square. Along the outer edges,the chip is approximately 250 micrometers (1
micrometer = 1 millionth of ameter) thick, but the center area is only 25 micrometers thick and
forms adiaphragm. The edge of the chip is sealed to a Pyrex plate under vacuum,thereby forming
a vacuum chamber between the plate and the center area of the silicon chip. A set of sensing
resistors is formed around the edge of this chamber,as indicated in Figure. The resistors are
formed by diffusing a dopingimpurity into the silicon. External connections to these resistors are
madethrough wires connected to the metal bonding pads. This entire assembly isplaced in a
sealed housing that is connected to the intake manifold by a small diametertube. Manifold
pressure applied to the diaphragm causes it to deflect.The resistance of the sensing resistors
changes in proportion to theapplied manifold pressure by a phenomenon that is known as
piezoresistivity.piezoresistivity occurs in certain semiconductors so that the actual resistivity
(aproperty of the material) changes in proportion to the strain (fractional changein length). The
strain induced in each resistor is proportional to the diaphragmdeflection, which, in turn, is
proportional to the pressure on the outsidesurface of the diaphragm. This pressure is the manifold
pressure.A pressure sensor having the configuration of Figure is also used formeasuring absolute
atmospheric pressurethat manifold pressure.An electrical signal that is proportional to the
manifold pressure isobtained by connecting the resistors in a circuit called a Wheatstone bridge,
as
Shown in the schematic of Figure .Note the similarity in the Wheatstonebridge of Figure 6.4a
with that employed in the MAF sensor of Figure . Thevoltage regulator holds a constant dc
voltage across the bridge. The resistorsdiffused into the diaphragm are denoted R1, R2, R3, and
R4 in Figure. When there is no strain on the diaphragm, all four resistances are equal, thebridge
is balanced, and the voltage between points A and B is zero. Whenmanifold pressure changes, it
causes these resistances to change in such a waythat R1 and R3 increase by an amount that is
proportional to pressure; at thesame time, R2 and R4 decrease by an identical amount. This
unbalances thebridge and a net difference voltage is present between points A and B.
Thedifferential amplifier generates an output voltage proportional to the differencebetween the
two input voltages

3.ENGINE CRANKSHAFT ANGULAR POSITION SENSOR

Besides pressure, the position of shafts, valves, and levers must be sensedfor automotive control
systems. Measurements of the angular position orvelocity of shafts are common in automotive
electronics. It is highly desirablethat these measurements be made without any mechanical
contact with therotating shaft. Such noncontacting measurements can be made in a varietyof
ways, but the commonest of these in automotive electronics use magneticor optical phenomena
as the physical basis. Magnetic means of suchmeasurements are generally preferred in engine
applications since they areunaffected by oil, dirt, or other contaminants.The principles involved
in measuring rotating shafts can be illustrated byone of the most significant applications for
engine control: the measurement ofcrankshaft angular position or angular velocity (i.e., RPM).
Imagine the engineas viewed from the rear, as shown in Figure. On the rear of the crankshaftis a
large, heavy, circular steel disk called the flywheel that is connected to androtates with the
crankshaft. Let’s mark a point on the flywheel, as shown inFigure , and draw a line through this
point and the axis of rotation. Let’sdraw another line through the axis of rotation parallel to the
horizontal centerline of the engine as a reference line. The crankshaft angular position is theangle
between the reference line and the mark on the flywheel.Imagine that the flywheel is rotated so
that the mark is directly on thereference line. This is an angular position of zero degrees. For our
purposes,assume that this angular position corresponds to the No. 1 cylinder at TDC(top dead
center). As the crankshaft rotates, this angle increases from zero to360° in one revolution.
However, one full engine cycle from intake through exhaust requires two complete revolutions
of the crankshaft. That is, onecomplete engine cycle corresponds to the crankshaft angular
position goingfrom zero to 720°. During each cycle, it is important to measure the
crankshaftposition with reference to TDC for each cylinder. This information is used bythe
electronic engine controller to set ignition timing and, in most cases, to setthe fuel injector pulse
timing. In automobiles with electronic engine control systems, angular positioncan be sensed on
the crankshaft directly or on the camshaft. Recall that thepiston drives the crankshaft directly,
while the valves and the distributor forthe spark ignition are driven from the camshaft. The
camshaft is driven fromthe crankshaft through a 1 : 2 reduction drivetrain, which can be gears,
belt,or chain. Therefore, the camshaft rotational speed is one-half that of thecrankshaft, so the
camshaft angular position goes from zero to 360° for onecomplete engine cycle. Either of these
sensing locations can be used inelectronic control systems. Although the crankshaft location is
potentiallysuperior for accuracy because of torsional and gear backlash errors in thecamshaft
drivetrain, many production systems locate this sensor such that itmeasures camshaft position. At
the present time, there appears to be a trendtoward measuring crankshaft position directly rather
than indirectly viacamshaft position. In fact, it is sufficient for engine control purposes
tomeasure crankshaft/camshaft position at a small number of fixed points. Thenumber of such
measurements (or samples) is determined by the number ofcylinders.It is desirable to measure
engine angular position with a noncontactingsensor to avoid mechanical wear and corresponding
changes in accuracy of themeasurement. The two most common methods for noncontact
coupling to arotating shaft employ magnetic fields or optics. Let’s consider the conceptsused for
magnetically coupled sensors first.
4.Magnetic Reluctance Position Sensor
One engine sensor configuration that measures crankshaft positiondirectly (using magnetic
phenomena) is illustrated in Figure . This sensorconsists of a permanent magnet with a coil of
wire wound around it. A steeldisk that is mounted on the crankshaft (usually in front of the
engine) has tabsthat pass between the pole pieces of this magnet. In Figure , the steel diskhas
four protruding tabs, which is appropriate for an 8-cylinder engine. Thepassage of each tab can
correspond to the TDC position of a cylinder on itspower stroke, although other reference
positions are also possible.This sensor is of the magnetic reluctance type and is based on
theconcept of a magnetic circuit. A magnetic circuit is a closed path through amagnetic material
(e.g., iron, cobalt, nickel, or synthetic magnetic materialcalled ferrite). In the case of the sensor in
Figure, the magnetic circuit is theclosed path through the magnet material and across the gap
between the polepieces.The magnetic field in a magnetic circuit is described by a pair of
fieldquantities that can be compared to the voltage and current of an ordinaryelectric circuit. One
of these quantities is called the magnetic field intensity. Itexerts a force similar to the voltage of a
battery. The response of the magneticcircuit to the magnetic field intensity is described by the
second quantity,which is called magnetic flux. A line of constant magnetic flux is a closed path
flows when a resistor is connected across a battery to form a closed electricalcircuit.As we shall
see, the voltage generated by the reluctance sensor is determinedby the strength of this magnetic
flux. The strength of the magnetic fluxis, in turn, determined by the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit. Reluctance isto a magnetic circuit what resistance is to an electrical circuit.The path for
the magnetic flux of the reluctance sensor is illustrated in Figure. The reluctance of a magnetic
circuit is inversely proportional tothe magnetic permeability of the material along the path. The
magneticpermeability of steel is a few thousand times larger than air; therefore, thereluctance of
steel is much lower than air. Note that when one of the tabs ofthe steel disk is located between
the pole pieces of the magnet, a large part ofthe gap between the pole pieces is filled by the steel.
Since the steel has a lowerreluctance than air, the “flow” of magnetic flux increases to a
relatively largevalue.On the other hand, when a tab is not between the magnet pole pieces,the
gap is filled by air only. This creates a high-reluctance circuit for which themagnetic flux is
relatively small. Thus, the magnitude of the magnetic flux that“flows” through the magnetic
circuit depends on the position of the tab,which, in turn, depends on the crankshaft angular
position.The magnetic flux is least when none of the tabs is near the magnet polepieces. As a tab
begins to pass through the gap, the magnetic flux increases. Itreaches a maximum when the tab is
exactly between the pole pieces, and thendecreases as the tab passes out of the pole piece region.
In most controlsystems, the position of maximum magnetic flux has a fixed relationship toTDC
for one of the cylinders. The change in magnetic flux induces a voltage, Vo, in the sensing coil
thatis proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux. Since the magneticflux must be
changing to induce a voltage in the sensing coil, its output voltageis zero whenever the engine is
not running, regardless of the position of thecrankshaft. This is a serious disadvantage for this
type of sensor because theengine timing cannot be set statically.

5.Hall-Effect Position Sensor

As mentioned previously, one of the main disadvantages of the magneticreluctance sensor is its
lack of output when the engine isn’t running. A crankshaftposition sensor that avoids this
problem is the Hall-effect position sensor. This sensor can be used to measure either camshaft
position or crankshaftPosition.A Hall-effect position sensor is shown in Figure 6.10. This sensor
is similar to the reluctance sensor in that it employs a steel disk havingprotruding tabs and a
magnet for coupling the disk to the sensing element.Another similarity is that the steel disk
varies the reluctance of the magneticpath as the tabs pass between the magnet pole pieces.
TheHall element is a small, thin, flat slab of semiconductor material.When a current, I, is passed
through this slab by means of an external circuit asshown in Figure, a voltage is developed
across the slab perpendicular tothe direction of current flow and perpendicular to the direction of
magneticflux. This voltage is proportional to both the current and magnetic flux densitythat
flows through the slab. This effect—the generation of a voltage that isdependent on a magnetic
field—is called the Hall Effect. In Figure, the current, I, is represented by electrons, e, which
havenegative charge, flowing from left to right. The magnetic flux flows along the legs of the
magnet as indicated and is generally perpendicular to the face of thesemiconductor Hall element.
Whenever an electron moves through a magneticfield, a force (called the Lorentz force) that is
proportional to the electronvelocity and the strength of the magnetic flux is exerted on the
electron. Thedirection of this force is perpendicular to the direction in which the electron is
moving. In Figure, the Lorentz force direction is such that the electronsare deflected toward the
lower sense electrode. Thus, this electrode is morenegative than the upper electrode and a
voltage exists between the electrodes,having the polarity shown in Figure. As the strength of the
magnetic flux density increases, more of theelectrons are deflected downward. If the current, I, is
held constant, then thevoltage, Vo, is proportional to the strength of the magnetic flux density,
which,in turn, is determined by the position of the tabs. This voltage tends to berelatively weak
so it is amplified, as shown in Figure.

6.THROTTLE ANGLE SENSOR

Still another variable that must be measured for electronic engine controlis the throttle plate
angular position.The throttleplate is linked mechanically to the accelerator pedal. When the
driver depressesthe accelerator pedal, this linkage causes the throttle plate angle to
increase,allowing more air to enter the engine and thereby increasing engine power.Measurement
of the instantaneous throttle angle is important for control purposes. Most throttle angle sensors
areessentially potentiometers. A potentiometer consists of a resistor with a movablecontact, as
illustrated in Figure .A section of resistance material is placed in an arc around the pivot axisfor
the movable contact. One end of the resistor is connected to ground, theother to a fixed voltage V
(e.g., 5 volts). The voltage at the contact point of themovable contact is proportional to the angle
(a) from the ground contact tothe movable contact.

Thus,where v(a) is the voltage at the contact point, k is a constant, and a is the angleof the
contact point from the ground connection.This potentiometer can be used to measure any angular
rotation. Inparticular, it is well suited for measuring throttle angle. The only disadvantageto the
potentiometer for automotive applications is its analog output. Fordigital engine control, the
voltage v(a) must be converted to digital formatusing an analog-to-digital converter.

7.TEMPERATURE SENSORS
Temperature is an important parameter throughout the automotivesystem. In operation of an
electronic fuel control system it is vital to knowthe temperature of the coolant, the temperature of
the inlet air, and thetemperature of the exhaust gas oxygen sensor (a sensor to be discussed in
thenext section). Several sensor configurations are available for measuring thesetemperatures,
but we can illustrate the basic operation of most of thetemperature sensors by explaining the
operation of a typical coolant sensor.
Typical Coolant Sensor
A typical coolant sensor, shown in Figure 6.16, consists of a thermistormounted in a housing that
is designed to be inserted in the coolant stream.This housing is typically threaded with pipe
threads that seal the assemblyagainst coolant leakage.A thermistor is made of semiconductor
material whose resistance variesinversely with temperature. For example, at -40°C a typical
coolant sensor hasa resistance of 100,000 ohms. The resistance decreases to about 70,000 ohmsat
130°C. The sensor is typically connected in an electrical circuit like that shown in Figure , in
which the coolant temperature sensor resistance is denotedRT. This resistance is connected to a
reference voltage through a fixed resistanceR. The sensor output voltage, VT, is given by the
following equation:

The sensor output voltage varies inversely with temperature; that is, the outputvoltage decreases
as the temperature increases.

8.Exhaust Gas Oxygen Sensor

That the amount of oxygen in the exhaust gas isused as an indirect measurement of the air/fuel
ratio. As a result, one of themost significant automotive sensors in use today is the exhaust gas
oxygen(EGO) sensor. This sensor is often called a lambda sensor from the Greek letterlambda
(l), which is commonly used to denote the equivalence ratio:

Whenever the air/fuel ratio is at stoichiometry, the value for l is 1. Whenthe air–fuel mixture is
too lean, the condition is represented by lambda greater than one. Conversely, when the air–fuel
mixture is too rich,the condition is represented by an equivalence ratio of lambda less than one.
The two types of EGO sensors that have been used are based on the useof active oxides of two
types of materials. One uses zirconium dioxide (ZrO2)and the other uses titanium dioxide
(TiO2). The former is the most commonly used type today. Figure is a photograph of a typical
ZrO2 EGO sensor and Figure shows the physical structure. Figure indicates that avoltage, Vo, is
generated across the ZrO2 material. This voltage depends on theexhaust gas oxygen
concentration, which in turn depends on the engineair/fuel ratio.In essence, the EGO sensor
consists of a thimble-shaped section of ZrO2with thin platinum electrodes on the inside and
outside of the ZrO2. Theinside electrode is exposed to air, and the outside electrode is exposed
toexhaust gas through a porous protective overcoat.A simplified explanation of EGO sensor
operation is based on thedistribution of oxygen ions. An ion is an electrically charged atom.
Oxygenions have two excess electrons and each electron has a negative charge; thus,oxygen ions
are negatively charged. The ZrO2 has a tendency to attract theoxygen ions, which accumulate on
the ZrO2 surface just inside the platinumelectrodes.The platinum plate on the air reference side
of the ZrO2 is exposed to amuch higher concentration of oxygen ions than the exhaust gas side.
The airreference side becomes electrically more negative than the exhaust gas side;therefore, an
electric field exists across the ZrO2 material and a voltage, Vo,results. The polarity of this
voltage is positive on the exhaust gas side andnegative on the air reference side of the ZrO2. The
magnitude of this voltagedepends on the concentration of oxygen in the exhaust gas and on the
sensortemperature. partial pressure. Basically, this partial pressure is that proportion of the
totalexhaust gas pressure (nearly at atmospheric pressure) that is due to the quantityof oxygen.
The exhaust gas oxygen partial pressure for a rich mixture variesover the range of 10-16 to 10-32
of atmospheric pressure. The oxygen partialpressure for a lean mixture is roughly 10-2
atmosphere. Consequently, fora rich mixture there is a relatively low oxygen concentration in the
exhaustand a higher EGO sensor output. Correspondingly, for a lean mixture theexhaust gas
oxygen concentration is relatively high (meaning that thedifference between exhaust gas and
atmospheric oxygen concentrations islower), resulting in a relatively low EGO sensor output
voltage. For a fullywarmed EGO sensor the output voltage is about 1 volt for a rich mixture
andabout 0.1 volt for a lean mixture.
Desirable EGO Characteristics
The EGO sensor characteristics that are desirable for the type oflimit-cycle fuel control system
that was discussed in Chapter 5 are asfollows:
1. Abrupt change in voltage at stoichiometry
2. Rapid switching of output voltage in response to exhaust gas oxygenchanges
3. Large difference in sensor output voltage between rich and lean mixtureconditions

UnitIII SI ENGINE MANAGEMENT

Two marks

1. THREE-WAY CATALYTIC CONVERTER

A three-way catalytic converter system differs from the two-way catalytic converter by virtue of
it promoting reactions actually among those constituents of the exhaust gases that are subject to
control. In effect, the unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide remove the oxygen from the
oxides of nitrogen, thereby forming harmless water, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. However, a
three-way catalytic converter only possesses this capability in full when the engine is being
operated within a very narrow margin of its stoichiometric point, so that an extremely precise
means of monitoring and adjusting the air–fuel ratio must be used. In practice, this means
introducing a regulating oxygen sensor into the exhaust stream that responds electrically to
changes in oxygen content of the gases or, more specifically, measures the amount of excess
oxygen in the exhaust relative to that in the air. The oxygen sensor continually signals this
information on the completeness of combustion to the electronic control unit of the engine
management system, which then issues the appropriate commands for adjusting the mixture to
either the fuel injection system or, less commonly, an electronically controlled carburettor. This
provides what is sometimes referred to as a ‗closed-loop‘ control system.
2. ENGINE OPERATION PHASES
For a typical engine there are seven different engine operating modes that affect fuel control:
engine crank, engine warm-up, open-loop control, closed-loop control, hard acceleration,
deceleration, and idle. The program for mode control logic determines the engine operating
mode from sensor data and timers.
3. FUEL CONTROL MAPS
The development of any control system comes from knowledge of the plant, or system to be
controlled. In the case of the automobile engine, this knowledge of the plant (the engine) comes
primarily from a process called engine mapping. For engine mapping, the engine is connected to
a dynamometer and operated throughout its entire speed and load range. Measurements are made
of the important engine variables while quantities, such as the air/fuel ratio and the spark control,
are varied in a known and systematic manner. From this mapping, a mathematical model is
developed that explains the influence of every measurable variable and parameter on engine
performance.
4. Voltage correction
Pulse length is increased if battery voltage falls,this is to compensate for the slower reaction time
ofthe injectors.
5. Cranking enrichment
The injectors are fired every ignition pulse insteadof every other pulse for cranking enrichment.
6. After-start enrichment
This is to ensure smooth running after starting. Thisis provided at all engine temperatures, and it
decaysover a set time. It is, however, kept up for a longerperiod at lower temperatures. The ECU
increasesthe pulse length to achieve this enrichment.
7. Hot-start enrichment
A short period of extra enrichment, which decaysgradually, is used to assist with hot starting.
8. Acceleration enrichment
When the ECU detects a rising voltage from thethrottle sensor the pulse length is increased
toachieve a smoother response. The extra fuel isneeded as the rapid throttle opening causes a
suddeninrush of air and, without extra fuel, a weakmixture would cause a flat spot.
9. Deceleration weakening
The ECU detects this condition from a fallingthrottle potentiometer voltage. The pulse length
isshortened to reduce fuel consumption and exhaustemissions.
10. Full load enrichment
This is again an increase in pulse length but by afixed percentage of the look-up and corrected
value.
11. Overrun fuel cut-off
This is an economy and emissions measure. Theinjectors do not operate at all during this
condition.This situation will only occur with a warm engine,throttle in the closed position and
the engine speedabove a set level. If the throttle is pressed or theengine falls below the threshold
speed the fuel isreinstated gradually to ensure smooth take up.

12. Over speed fuel cut-off

To prevent the engine from being damaged byexcess speed, the ECU can switch off the
injectorsabove a set speed. The injectors are reinstated onceengine speed falls below the
threshold figure.Hot-wire fuel injection is a very adaptable systemand will remain current in
various forms forsome time.

16 mark

1. Catalytic converters

Stringent regulations in most parts of the worldhave made the use of a catalytic converter
almostindispensable. The three-way catalyst (TWC) is usedto great effect by most
manufacturers. It is a verysimple device and looks similar to a standardexhaust box. Note that, in
order to operate correctly,however, the engine must be run at – or very nearto – stoichiometry.
This is to ensure that the right‘ingredients’ are available for the catalyst to performits function.
Figure shows a view of the inside of a catalyticconverter. There are many types of
hydrocarbonsbut the following example illustrates the mainreaction. Note that the reactions rely
on some CObeing produced by the engine in order to reduce theNOx. This is one of the reasons
that manufacturershave been forced to run engines at stoichiometry.This legislation has tended to
stifle the developmentof lean-burn techniques. The fine details of the emission regulations can in
fact, have a verymarked effect on the type of reduction techniquesused. The main reactions in the
‘cat’ are as follows:

The ceramic monolith type of base, when usedas the catalyst material, is a magnesium
aluminiumsilicate and, due to the several thousand very smallchannels, provides a large surface
area. This area iscoated with a wash coat of aluminium oxide, whichfurther increases its effective
surface area by a factorof about seven thousand. Noble metals are usedfor the catalysts. Platinum
promotes the oxidationof HC and CO, and rhodium helps the reductionof NOx. The converter
shown is the latest metalsubstrate type with a built-in manifold. The wholethree-way catalytic
converter only contains about3–4 g of the precious metals. about 400 to 800 ° C. A serious
problem to counter isthe delay in the catalyst reaching this temperature.This is known as the
‘catalyst light-off time’. Variousmethods have been used to reduce this time assignificant
emissions are produced before ‘lightoff occurs. Electrical heating is one solution, as isa form of
burner, which involves lighting fuel insidethe converter. Another possibility is positioning
theconverter as part of the exhaust manifold and downpipe assembly. This greatly reduces light-
off timebut gas flow problems, vibration and excessive temperaturevariations can be problems
that reduce thepotential life of the unit.Catalytic converters can be damaged in two ways.The
first is by the use of leaded fuel, which causeslead compounds to be deposited on the active
surfaces,thus reducing the effective area, and, secondly,by engine misfire, which can cause the
catalyticconverter to overheat due to burning inside the unit.BMW, for example, uses a system
on some vehicleswhere a sensor monitors the output of the ignitionHT system and, if the spark is
not present, will notallow fuel to be injected.

2. Closed loop lambdacontrol

Current regulations have almost made mandatoryclosed loop control of the air–fuel mixture in
conjunctionwith a three-way catalytic converter. It wasunder discussion that a lambda value of 1
shouldbecome compulsory for all operating conditions, butthis was not agreed.Lambda control is
a closed loop feedbacksystem in that the signal from a lambda sensor inthe exhaust can directly
affect the fuel quantityinjected. Figure shows a blockdiagram of the lambda control system.A
graph to show the effect of lambda control anda three-way catalyst (TWC) is shown in Figure
The principle of operation is as follows: the lambdasensor produces a voltage that is proportional
to theoxygen content of the exhaust, which is in turn proportionalto the air–fuel ratio. At the
ideal setting, thisvoltage is about 450mV. If the voltage received by theECU is below this value
(weak mixture) the quantityof fuel injected is increased slightly. If the signalvoltage is above the
threshold (rich mixture) the fuelquantity is reduced. This alteration in the air–fuel ratiomust not
be too sudden as it could cause the engine tobuck. To prevent this, the ECU contains an
integrator,which changes the mixture over a period of time.A delay also exists between the
mixture formationin the manifold and the measurement of the exhaustgas oxygen. This is due to
the engine’s working cycleand the speed of the inlet mixture, the time for theexhaust to reach the
sensor and the sensor’s responsetime. This is sometimes known as ‘dead time’ andcan be as
much as one second at idle speed but only a few hundred milliseconds at higher engine
speeds.Due to the dead time the mixture cannot be controlledto an exact value of 1. If the
integrator is adjusted to allow for engine speed then it is possibleto keep the mixture in the
lambda window(0.97–1.03),
3. Control of dieselemissions
Introduction
Exhaust emissions from diesel engines have beenreduced considerably by changes in the design
ofcombustion chambers and injection techniques.More accurate control of start of injection and
spill timing has allowed further improvements to bemade. Electronic control has also made a
significantcontribution. A number of further techniquescan be employed to control emissions.
Exhaust gas recirculation
In much the same way as with petrol engines,exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is employed
primarilyto reduce NOx emissions by reducing thereaction temperature in the combustion
chamber.However, if the percentage of EGR is too high,increased hydrocarbons and soot are
produced.
Intake air temperature
This is appropriate to turbocharged engines suchthat if the air is passed through an intercooler
andthere are improvements in volumetric efficiency,lower temperature will again reduce the
productionof NOx. The intercooler is fitted in the same area asthe cooling system radiator
Catalytic converter
On a diesel engine, a catalyst can be used to reducethe emission of hydrocarbons but will have
less effect on nitrogen oxides. This is because dieselengines are always run with excess air to
ensurebetter and more efficient burning of the fuel. A normalcatalyst therefore will not strip the
oxygen offthe NOx to oxidize the hydrocarbons because theexcess oxygen will be used instead.
Special NOxconverters are becoming available.
Filters
To reduce the emission of particulate matter (soot),filters can be used. These can vary from a fine
griddesign made from a ceramic material, to centrifugalfilters and water trap techniques. The
problem toovercome is that the filters can get blocked, whichadversely affects the overall
performance. Severaltechniques are employed, including centrifugalfilters.
4. Exhaust emissioncontrol
Engine design
Many design details of an engine have a markedeffect on the production of pollutant emissions.
Withthis in mind, it will be clear that the final designof an engine is a compromise between
conflictinginterests. The major areas of interest are as discussedin the following sections.
Combustion chamberdesign
The main source of hydrocarbon emissions isunburnt fuel that is in contact with the
combustionchamber walls. For this reason the surface area ofthe walls should be kept as small as
possible andwith the least complicated shape. A theoreticalideal is a sphere but this is far from
practical. Goodswirl of the cylinder charge is important, as thisfacilitates better and more rapid
burning. Perhapsmore important is to ensure a good swirl in the areaof the spark plug. This
ensures a mixture qualitythat is easier to ignite. The spark plug is best positionedin the centre of
the combustion chamber asthis reduces the likelihood of combustion knock byreducing the
distance the flame front has to travel.
Compression ratio
The higher the compression ratio, the higher, ingeneral, the thermal efficiency of the engine
andtherefore the better the performance and fuel consumption.The two main drawbacks to higher
compressionratios are the increased emissions and theincreased tendency to knock. The problem
withemissions is due to the high temperature, which in
turn causes greater production of NOx. The increasein temperature makes the fuel and air
mixture morelikely to self-ignite, causing a higher risk of combustionknock. Countries which
have had stringentemission regulations for some time, such as theUSA and Japan, have tended to
develop lowercompression engines. However, with the changes incombustion chamber design
and the more widespreadintroduction of four valves per cylinder,
together with greater electronic control and othermethods of dealing with emissions,
compressionratios have increased over the year
Valve timing
The effect of valve timing on exhaust emissions canbe quite considerable. One of the main
factors is theamount of valve overlap. This is the time duringwhich the inlet valve has opened
but the exhaustvalve has not yet closed. The duration of this phasedetermines the amount of
exhaust gas left in thecylinder when the exhaust valve finally closes. Thishas a significant effect
on the reaction temperature(the more exhaust gas the lower the temperature),and hence has an
effect on the emissions of NOx.The main conflict is that, at higher speeds, a longerinlet open
period increases the power developed.The down-side is that this causes a greater valveoverlap
and, at idle, this can greatly increase emissionsof hydrocarbons. This has led to the
successfulintroduction of electronically controlled valve timing
Manifold designs
Gas flow within the inlet and exhaust manifolds is avery complex subject. The main cause of this
complexityis the transient changes in flow that are duenot only to changes in engine speed but
also tothe pumping action of the cylinders. This pumpingaction causes pressure fluctuations in
the manifolds.If the manifolds and both induction and exhaustsystems are designed to reflect the
pressure waveback at just the right time, great improvements involumetric efficiency can be
attained. Many vehiclesare now fitted with adjustable length inductiontracts. Longer tracts are
used at lower engine speedsand shorter tracts at higher speed.
Charge stratification
If the charge mixture can be inducted into the cylinderin such a way that a richer mixture is in
theproximity of the spark plug, then overall the cylinder charge can be much weaker. This can
bring greatadvantages in fuel consumption, but the productionof NOx can still be a problem. The
later sectionon direct mixture injection development is a goodexample of the use of this
technique. Many leanburnengines use a form of stratification to reducethe chances of misfire and
rough running.
Warm up time
significant quantity of emissions produced byan average vehicle is created during the warm-
upphase. Suitable materials and care in the design ofthe cooling system can reduce this problem.
Someengine management systems even run the ignitiontiming slightly retarded during the warm-
up phaseto heat the engine more quickly.
5.Electronic ignition system
Introduction
Electronic ignition is now fitted to almost all sparkignition vehicles. This is because the
conventionalmechanical system has some major disadvantages.
1. Mechanical problems with the contact breakers,not the least of which is the limited lifetime.
Current flow in the primary circuit is limited toabout 4 A or damage will occur to the contacts –
or at least the lifetime will be seriously reduced. Legislation requires stringent emission
limits,which means the ignition timing must stay intune for a long period of time. Weaker
mixtures require more energy from thespark to ensure successful ignition, even at veryhigh
engine speed.These problems can be overcome by using a powertransistor to carry out the
switching function and apulse generator to provide the timing signal. Verymearly forms of
electronic ignition used the existing contact breakers as the signal provider. This was astep in the
right direction but did not overcome all the mechanical limitations, such as contact bounce and
timing slip. Most systems nowadays areconstant energy, ensuring high performance ignitioneven
at high engine speed. Figure showsthe circuit of a standard electronic ignition system.

6. Constant dwell systems

The term ‘dwell’ when applied to ignition is ameasure of the time during which the ignition
coilis charging, in other words when the primary currentis flowing. The dwell in conventional
systems wassimply the time during which the contact breakers were closed. This is now often
expressed as a percentageof one charge–discharge cycle. Constant dwellelectronic ignition
systems have now been replacedalmost without exception by constant energy systemsdiscussed
in the next section.figure shows the pulse generatorassembly with a built-in amplifier. The
timing rotoris in the form of a plastic drum with a ferrite rodfor each cylinder embedded around
its edge. Thisrotor is mounted on the shaft of the distributor. Thepick-up is mounted on the base
plate and comprisesan ‘E’-shaped ferrite core with primary and secondarywindings enclosed in a
plastic case. Threewires are connected from the pick-up to the amplifiermodule.The amplifier
module contains an oscillatorused to energize the primary pick-up winding, asmoothing circuit
and the power switching stage.The mode of operation of this system is that theoscillator supplies
a 470 kHz AC signal to the pick-upprimary winding. When none of the ferrite rods are in
proximity to the pick-up the power transistorallows primary ignition to flow. As the
distributorrotates and a ferrite rod passes the pick-up, themagnetic linkage allows an output from
the pick-up secondary winding. Via the smoothing stage andthe power stage of the module, the
ignition coil willnow switch off, producing the spark.Whilst this was a very good system in its
time,constant dwell still meant that at very high engine

7.Bosch ‘L’ Jetronic

Fuel-injection valves. The electronically controlled fuel-in-jection valves inject precisely
metered fuel into the intake ports and onto the intake valves. Each engine cylinder has its own
fuel-injection valve. The valves are solenoid-operated and are opened and closed by means of
electric pulses from the elec-tronic control unit. The fuel-injection valve consists of a valve body
and the needle valve with fitted solenoid armature. The valve body contains the sole-noid
winding and the guide for the needle valve. When there is no current flowing in the solenoid
winding, the needle valve is pressed against its seat on the valveoutlet by a helical spring. When
a current is passed through the solenoid winding, the needle valve is lifted by approximately
0.1mm from its seat and the fuel can be injected through the precision annular orifice. The front
end of the needle valve has a specially ground pintle for atomizing the fuel (Figure 8).The pickup
and release times of the valve lie in the range of 1 to 1.5 ms. To achieve good fuel distribution
together with low condensation loss, it is necessary that wetting of the intake-manifold walls
beavoided. The means that a particular spray angle in conjunction with a particular distance of
the injection valve from the intake valve must therefore be maintained, specific to the engine
concerned. The fuel-injection valves are fitted with the help of special holders and are mounted
in rubber mouldings in these holders. The insulation from the heat of the engine thereby achieved
prevents the formation of fuel-vapour bubbles and guarantees good hot-starting characteristics.
The rubber mouldings also ensure that the fuel-injection valves are not subjected to excessive
vibration.
Operating-data sensing system:
Sensors detect the operating mode of the engine and signal this condition electrically to the
control unit. The sensors and ECU form the control system. The sensors are described in
conjunction with the relevant main function or compensation function. Measured variables The
measured variables characterizing the operating mode of the engine are as follows:–Main
measured variables,–
variables for compensation,–Measured variables for precision compensation. The ECU evaluates
all measured variables together so that the engine is al-ways supplied with exactly the amount of
fuel required for the instantaneous operating mode. This achieves optimum driveability. Main
measured variables. The main measured variables are the engine speed and the amount of air
drawn in by the engine. These determine the amount of air per stroke which then serves as a
direct measure for the loading condition of the engine measured variables for compensation. For
operating conditions such as cold start and warm-up and the various load conditions which
deviate from normal operation, the mixture must be adapted to the modified conditions. Starting
and warm-up conditions are detected by sensors which transmit the engine temperature to the
control unit. For compensating various load conditions, the load range (idle, part-load, full-load)
is transmitted to the control unit via the throttle-valve switch. Measured variables for precision
compensation In order to achieve optimum driving be-havior, further operating ranges and in-
fluences can be considered: the sensors mentioned above detect the data for transition response
when accelerating, for maximum engine-speed limitation and during overrun. The sensor signals
have a particular relationship to each other in these operating ranges. The control unit recognizes
these relationships and influences the control signals of the injection valves accordingly.
Calculating engine speed Information on engine speed and the start of injection is passed on to
the L-Jetronic ECU in breaker-triggered ignition systems by the contact-breaker points in the
ignition distributor, and, in breakerless ignition systems, by terminal1 of the ignition coil
(Fig.).Measuring the air flow. The amount of air drawn in by the engine is a measure of its
loading condition. The air-flow measurement system allows for all changes which may take
place in the engine during the service life of the vehicle, e.g. wear, combustion-chamber deposits
and changes to the valve settings. Since the quantity of air drawn in must first pass through the
air-flow sensor be-fore entering the engine, this means that, during acceleration, the signal leaves
the sensor before the air is actually in to cylinder

L2-Jetronic
This system is changed little except for the removalof the injector series resistors as the ECU
now limitsthe output current to the injectors.

LE1-Jetronic
No current resistors are used and the throttle switchis adjustable. The fuel pump does not have
safetycontacts in the air flow sensor. The safety circuit isincorporated in the electronic relay.
This will only allow the fuel pump to operate when an ignitionsignal is present; that is, when the
engine is runningor being cranked.
LH-Jetronic
The LH system incorporates most of the improvementsnoted above. The main difference is thata
hot-wire type of air flow meter is used. The component layout is shown in Figure.
Furtherdevelopments are continuing but, in general, mostsystems have now developed into
combined fueland ignition control systems
 UNIT IV CI ENGINE MANAGEMENT

Two mark
1. Engine operating conditions
The ideal air–fuel ratio is about 14.7 : 1. This is thetheoretical amount of air required to burn the
fuelcompletely. It is given a ‘lambda value of 1.Operating conditions of an engine to improve its
performance,drivability, consumption and emissions.
Cold starting – a richer mixture is needed tocompensate for fuel condensation and
improvesdrivability.
Load or acceleration – a richer mixture to improveperformance.
Cruise or light loads – a weaker mixture foreconomy.
Overrun – very weak mixture (if any) to improveemissions and economy.
The more accurately the air–fuel ratio is controlledto cater for external conditions, then the better
theoverall operation of the engine.

2. Exhaust emission

3. Crankcase emission
4.Injector resistors
These resistors were used on some systems whenthe injector coil resistance was very low. A
lowerinductive reactance in the circuit allows faster operationof the injectors. Most systems now
limitinjector maximum current in the ECU in much thesame way as for low resistance ignition
on coils.
5. Fuel pump
The pump ensures a constant supply of fuel to thefuel rail. The volume in the rail acts as a
swamp toprevent pressure fluctuations as the injectors operate.The pump must be able to
maintain a pressureof about 3 bar.
6. Fuel pressure regulator
This device ensures a constant differential pressureacross the injectors. It is a mechanical device
andhas a connection to the inlet manifold.
7. Cold start injector and thermotimeswitch
An extra injector was used on earlier systems as aform of choke. This worked in conjunction
with thethermo-time switch to control the amount of coldenrichment. Both engine temperature
and a heatingwinding heat it. This technique has been replaced onnewer systems, which enrich
the mixture by increasingthe number of injector pulses or the pulse length.
8. Combination relay
This takes many forms on different systems but isbasically two relays, one to control the fuel
pump and one to power the rest of the injection system.The relay is often controlled by the ECU
or will onlyoperate when ignition pulses are sensed as a safetyfeature. This will only allow the
fuel pump to operate.when the engine is being cranked or is running
9. Idle speed
Controlled by a stepper motor to prevent stallingbut still allow a very low idle speed to
improveeconomy and reduce emissions. Idle speed mayalso be changed in response to a signal
from anautomatic gearbox to prevent either the engine fromstalling or the car from trying to
creep.
10. Fast idle
The same stepper motor as above controls fast idlein response to a signal from the engine
temperaturesensor during the warm up period.
11. Choke (warm up enrichment)
A rotary choke or some other form of valve orflap operates the choke mechanism dependingon
engine and ambient temperature conditions.
12. Overrun fuel cut off
A small solenoid operated valve or similar cuts offthe fuel under particular conditions. These are
oftenthat the engine temperature is above a set level,the engine speed is above a set level and that
theaccelerator pedal is in the off position.The main control of the air–fuel ratio is a functionof the
mechanical design and is very difficult to control by electrical means. Some systems haveused
electronic control of a needle and jet but this did not prove to be very popular.
13. Advantage of fuel injection
The major advantage of any type of fuel injectionsystem is accurate control of the fuel
quantityinjected into the engine. The basic principle of fuelinjection is that if petrol is supplied to
an injector(electrically controlled valve), at a constant differentialpressure, then the amount of
fuel injected willbe directly proportional to the injector open time
16 mark
1. Common Rail Diesel Injection:
Solenoid or piezoelectric valves make possible fine electronic control over the fuel injection time
and quantity and the higher pressure that the common rail technology makes available provides
better fuel atomisation. In order to lower engine noise, the engine's electronic control unit can
inject a small amount of diesel just before the main injection event ("pilot" injection), thus
reducing its explosiveness and vibration, as well as optimising injection timing and quantity for
variations in fuel quality, cold starting and so on. Some advanced common rail fuel systems
perform as many as five injections per stroke.[7] Common rail engines require very short (< 1 s)
or no heating up time at all[citation needed] and produce lower engine noise and emissions than
older systems. Diesel engines have historically used various forms of fuel injection. Two
common types include the unit injection system and the distributor/inline pump systems (See
diesel engine and unit injector for more information). While these older systems provided
accurate fuel quantity and injection timing control, they were limited by several factors:
 They were cam driven and injection pressure was proportional to engine speed.
 This typically meant that the highest injection pressure could only be achieved at the
highest engine speed and the maximum achievable injection pressure decreased as engine
speed decreased. This relationship is true with allpumps, even those used on common rail
systems; with the unit or distributor systems, however, the injection pressure is tied to the
instantaneous pressure of a single pumping event with no accumulator and thus the
relationship is more prominent and troublesome.
 They were limited in the number and timing of injection events that could be commanded
during a single combustion event. While multiple injection events are possible with these
older systems, it is much more difficult and costly to achieve.
 For the typical distributor/inline system, the start of injection occurred at a pre-
determined pressure (often referred to as: pop pressure) and ended at a pre-determined
pressure. This characteristic resulted from "dummy" injectors in the cylinder head which
opened and closed at pressures determined by the spring preload applied to the plunger in
the injector. Once the pressure in the injector reached a pre-determined level, the plunger
would lift and injection would start.
In common rail systems, a high pressure pump stores a reservoir of fuel at high pressure — up to
and above 2,000 bars (29,000 psi). The term "common rail" refers to the fact that all of the fuel
injectors are supplied by a common fuel rail which is nothing more than a pressure accumulator
where the fuel is stored at high pressure. This accumulator supplies multiple fuel injectors with
high pressure fuel. This simplifies the purpose of the high pressure pump in that it only has to
maintain a commanded pressure at a target (either mechanically or electronically controlled).
The fuel injectors are typically ECU-controlled. When the fuel injectors are electrically
activated, a hydraulic valve (consisting of a nozzle and plunger) is mechanically or hydraulically
opened and fuel is sprayed into the cylinders at the desired pressure. Since the fuel pressure
energy is stored remotely and the injectors are electrically actuated, the injection pressure at the
start and end of injection is very near the pressure in the accumulator (rail), thus producing a
square injection rate. If the accumulator, pump and plumbing are sized properly, the injection
pressure and rate will be the same for each of the multiple injection events.

2.FUEL INJECTION
Fuel injection is a system for mixing fuel with air in an internal combustion engine. It has
become the primary fuel delivery system used in automotive petrol engines, having almost
completely replaced carburetors in the late 1980s. A fuel injection system is designed and
calibrated specifically for the type(s) of fuel it will handle. Most fuel injection systems are
for gasoline or diesel applications. With the advent of electronic fuel injection (EFI), the
diesel and gasoline hardware has become similar. EFI's programmable firmware has
permitted common hardware to be used with different fuels. Carburetors were the
predominant method used to meter fuel on gasoline engines before the widespread use of fuel
injection. A variety of injection systems have existed since the earliest usage of the internal
combustion engine. The primary difference between carburetors and fuel injection is that fuel
injection atomizes the fuel by forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under high
pressure, while a carburetor relies on low pressure created by intake air rushing through it to
 add the fuel to the airstream. The fuel injector is only a nozzle and a valve: the power to
inject the fuel comes from a pump or a pressure container farther back in the fuel supply.
Benefits
Engine operation
Operational benefits to the driver of a fuel-injected car include smoother and more dependable
engine response during quick throttle transitions, easier and more dependable engine starting,
better operation at extremely high or low ambient temperatures, increased maintenance intervals,
and increased fuel efficiency. On a more basic level, fuel injection does away with the choke
which on carburetor-equipped vehicles must be operated when starting the engine from cold and
then adjusted as the engine warms up. An engine's air/fuel ratio must be precisely controlled
under all operating conditions to achieve the desired engine performance, emissions, driveability,
and fuel economy. Modern electronic fuel-injection systems meter fuel very accurately, and use
closed loop fuel-injection quantity-control based on a variety of feedback signals from an oxygen
sensor, a mass airflow (MAF) or manifold absolute pressure (MAP) sensor, a throttle position
(TPS), and at least one sensor on the crankshaft and/or camshaft(s) to monitor the engine's
rotational position. Fuel injection systems can react rapidly to changing inputs such as sudden
throttle movements, and control the amount of fuel injected to match the engine's dynamic needs
across a wide range of operating conditions such as engine load, ambient air temperature, engine
temperature, fuel octane level, and atmospheric pressure.
A multipoint fuel injection system generally delivers a more accurate and equal mass of fuel to
each cylinder than can a carburetor, thus improving the cylinder-to-cylinder distribution. Exhaust
emissions are cleaner because the more precise and accurate fuel metering reduces the
concentration of toxic combustion byproducts leaving the engine, and because exhaust cleanup
devices such as the catalytic converter can be optimized to operate more efficiently since the
exhaust is of consistent and predictable composition. Fuel injection generally increases engine
fuel efficiency. With the improved cylinder-to-cylinder fuel distribution, less fuel is needed for
the same power output. When cylinder-to-cylinder distribution is less than ideal, as is always the
case to some degree with a carburetor or throttle body fuel injection, some cylinders receive
excess fuel as a side effect of ensuring that all cylinders receive sufficient fuel. Power output is
asymmetrical with respect to air/fuel ratio; burning extra fuel in the rich cylinders does not
reduce power nearly as quickly as burning too little fuel in the lean cylinders. However, rich-
running cylinders are undesirable from the standpoint of exhaust emissions, fuel efficiency,
engine wear, and engine oil contamination. Deviations from perfect air/fuel distribution, however
subtle, affect the emissions, by not letting the combustion events be at the chemically ideal
(stoichiometric) air/fuel ratio. Grosser distribution problems eventually begin to reduce
efficiency, and the grossest distribution issues finally affect power. Increasingly poorer air/fuel
distribution affects emissions, efficiency, and power, in that order. By optimizing the
homogeneity of cylinder-to-cylinder mixture distribution, all the cylinders approach their
maximum power potential and the engine's overall power output improves
A fuel-injected engine often produces more power than an equivalent carbureted engine. Fuel
injection alone does not necessarily increase an engine's maximum potential output. Increased
airflow is needed to burn more fuel, which in turn releases more energy and produces more
power. The combustion process converts the fuel's chemical energy into heat energy, whether the
fuel is supplied by fuel injectors or a carburetor. However, airflow is often improved with fuel
injection, the components of which allow more design freedom to improve the air's path into the
engine. In contrast, a carburetor's mounting options are limited because it is larger, it must be
carefully oriented with respect to gravity, and it must be equidistant from each of the engine's
cylinders to the maximum practicable degree. These design constraints generally compromise
airflow into the engine. Furthermore, a carburetor relies on arestrictiveventuri to create a local air
pressure difference, which forces the fuel into the air stream. The flow loss caused by the
venturi, however, is small compared to other flow losses in the induction system. In a well-
designed carburetor induction system, the venturi is not a significant airflow restriction. Fuel is
saved while the car is coasting because the car's movement is helping to keep the engine rotating,
so less fuel is used for this purpose. Control units on modern cars react to this and reduce or stop
fuel flow to the engine reducing wear on the brake Functioning: The process of determining the
necessary amount of fuel, and its delivery into the engine, are known as fuel metering. Early
injection systems used mechanical methods to meter fuel (non electronic, or mechanical fuel
injection). Modern systems are nearly all electronic, and use an electronic solenoid (the injector)
to inject the fuel. An electronic engine control unit calculates the mass of fuel to inject. Modern
fuel injection schemes follow much the same setup. There is a mass airflow sensor or manifold
absolute pressure sensor at the intake, typically mounted either in the air tube feeding from the
air filter box to the throttle body, or mounted directly to the throttle body itself. The mass airflow
sensor does exactly what its name implies; it senses the mass of the air that flows past it, giving
the computer an accurate idea of how much air is entering the engine. The next component in
line is the Throttle Body. The throttle body has a throttle position sensor mounted onto it,
typically on the butterfly valve of the throttle body. The throttle position sensor (TPS) reports to
the computer the position of the throttle butterfly valve, which the ECM uses to calculate the
load upon the engine. The fuel system consists of a fuel pump (typically mounted in-tank), a fuel
pressure regulator, fuel lines (composed of either high strength plastic, metal, or reinforced
rubber), a fuel rail that the injectors connect to, and the fuel injector(s). There is a coolant
temperature sensor that reports the engine temperature to the ECM, which the engine uses to
calculate the proper fuel ratio required. In sequential fuel injection systems there is a camshaft
position sensor, which the ECM uses to determine which fuel injector to fire. The last component
is the oxygen sensor. After the vehicle has warmed up, it uses the signal from the oxygen sensor
to perform fine tuning of the fuel trim. The fuel injector acts as the fuel-dispensing nozzle. It
injects liquid fuel directly into the engine's air stream. In almost all cases this requires an external
pump. The pump and injector are only two of several components in a complete fuel injection
system. In contrast to an EFI system, a carburetor directs the induction air through a venturi,
which generates a minute difference in air pressure. The minute air pressure differences both
emulsify (premix fuel with air) the fuel, and then acts as the force to push the mixture from the
carburetor nozzle into the induction air stream. As more air enters the engine, a greater pressure
difference is generated, and more fuel is metered into the engine. A carburetor is a self-contained
fuel metering system, and is cost competitive when compared to a complete EFI system.
An EFI system requires several peripheral components in addition to the injector(s), in order to
duplicate all the functions of a carburetor. A point worth noting during times of fuel metering
repair is that early EFI systems are prone to diagnostic ambiguity. A single carburetor
replacement can accomplish what might require numerous repair attempts to identify which one
of the several EFI system components is malfunctioning. Newer EFI systems since the advent of
OBD II diagnostic systems, can be very easy to diagnose due to the increased ability to monitor
the realtime data streams from the individual sensors. This gives the diagnosing technician
realtime feedback as to the cause of the drivability concern, and can dramatically shorten the
number of diagnostic steps required to ascertain the cause of failure, something which isn't as
simple to do with a carburetor. On the other hand, EFI systems require little regular maintenance;
a carburetor typically requires seasonal and/or altitude adjustments.

Animated cut through diagram of a typical fuel injector.

 Injectors
 Fuel Pump
 Fuel Pressure Regulator
 ECM - Engine Control Module; includes a digital computer and circuitry to communicate with
sensors and control outputs.
 Wiring Harness
 Various Sensors (Some of the sensors required are listed here.)
 Crank/Cam Position: Hall effect sensor
 Airflow: MAF sensor, sometimes this is inferred with a MAP sensor
 Exhaust Gas Oxygen: Oxygen sensor, EGO sensor, UEGO sensor
Functional description
Central to an EFI system is a computer called the Engine Control Unit (ECU), which monitors
engine operating parameters via various sensors. The ECU interprets these parameters in order to
calculate the appropriate amount of fuel to be injected, among other tasks, and controls engine
operation by manipulating fuel and/or air flow as well as other variables. The optimum amount
of injected fuel depends on conditions such as engine and ambient temperatures, engine speed
and workload, and exhaust gas composition. The electronic fuel injector is normally closed, and
opens to inject pressurized fuel as long as electricity is applied to the injector's solenoid coil. The
duration of this operation, called the pulse width, is proportional to the amount of fuel desired.
The electric pulse may be applied in closely-controlled sequence with the valve events on each
individual cylinder (in a sequential fuel injection system), or in groups of less than the total
number of injectors (in a batch fire system). Since the nature of fuel injection dispenses fuel in
discrete amounts, and since the nature of the 4-stroke engine has discrete induction (air-intake)
events, the ECU calculates fuel in discrete amounts. In a sequential system, the injected fuel
mass is tailored for each individual induction event. Every induction event, of every cylinder, of
the entire engine, is a separate fuel mass calculation, and each injector receives a unique pulse
width based on that cylinder's fuel requirements. It is necessary to know the mass of air the
engine "breathes" during each induction event. This is proportional to the intake manifold's air
pressure/temperature, which is proportional to throttle position. The amount of air inducted in
each intake event is known as "air-charge", and this can be determined using several methods.
(See MAF sensor, and MAP sensor.) The three elemental ingredients for combustion are fuel, air
and ignition. However, complete combustion can only occur if the air and fuel is present in the
exact stoichiometric ratio, which allows all the carbon and hydrogen from the fuel to combine
with all the oxygen in the air, with no undesirable polluting leftovers. Oxygen sensors monitor
the amount of oxygen in the exhaust, and the ECU uses this information to adjust the air-to-fuel
ratio in real-time. To achieve stoichiometry, the air mass flow into the engine is measured and
multiplied by the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio 14.64:1 (by weight) for gasoline. The required fuel
mass that must be injected into the engine is then translated to the required pulse width for the
fuel injector. The stoichiometric ratio changes as a function of the fuel; diesel, gasoline, ethanol,
methanol, propane, methane (natural gas), or hydrogen. Deviations from stoichiometry are
required during non-standard operating conditions such as heavy load, or cold operation, in
which case, the mixture ratio can range from 10:1 to 18:1 (for gasoline). In early fuel injection
systems this was accomplished with a thermotime switch. Pulse width is inversely related to
pressure difference across the injector inlet and outlet. For example, if the fuel line pressure
increases (injector inlet), or the manifold pressure decreases (injector outlet), a smaller pulse
width will admit the same fuel. Fuel injectors are available in various sizes and spray
characteristics as well. Compensation for these and many other factors are programmed into the
ECU's software.
3.Pulse width calculations
Sample pulsewidth calculations
Note: These calculations are based on a 4-stroke-cycle, 5.0L, V-8, gasoline engine. The
variables used are real data.
Calculate injector pulsewidth from airflow
First the CPU determines the air mass flow rate from the sensors - Massair/ Minute. (The
various methods to determine airflow are beyond the scope of this topic. See MAF sensor, or
MAP sensor.)

Minutes / Revolution is the reciprocal of engine speed (RPM). The term Revolutions / Stroke =
1 / 2, whether it's a four stroke or a two-stroke engine
Injector pulsewidth typically ranges from 4 ms/engine-cycle at idle, to 35 msper engine-cycle at
wide-open throttle. The pulsewidth accuracy is approximately 0.01 ms.
4.injection techniques
Single-point injection
Single-point injection, called Throttle-body injection (TBI) by General Motors and Central Fuel
Injection (CFI) by Ford, was introduced in the 1940s in large aircraft engines (then called the
pressure carburetor) and in the 1980s in the automotive world. The SPI system injects fuel at the
throttle body (the same location where a carburetor introduced fuel). The induction mixture
passes through the intake runners like a carburetor system, and is thus labelled a "wet manifold
system". Fuel pressure is usually specified to be in the area of 10-15 psi. The justification for
single-point injection was low cost. Many of the carburetor's supporting components could be
reused such as the air cleaner, intake manifold, and fuel line routing. This postponed the redesign
and tooling costs of these components. Most of these components were later redesigned for the
next phase of fuel injection's evolution, which is individual port injection, commonly known as
MPFI or "multi-point fuel injection". TBI was used extensively on American-made passenger
cars and light trucks in the 1980-1995 timeframe and some transition-engined European cars
throughout the early and mid-1990s. Mazda called their system EGI, and even introduced an
electronically controlled version called the EGI-S.
Continuous injection
In a continuous injection system, fuel flows at all times from the fuel injectors, but at a variable
rate. This is in contrast to most fuel injection systems, which provide fuel during short pulses of
varying duration, with a constant rate of flow during each pulse. Continuous injection systems
can be multi-point or single-point, but not direct. The most common automotive continuous
injection system is Bosch's K-Jetronic (K for kontinuierlich, German for "continuous" — a.k.a.
CIS — Continuous Injection System), introduced in 1974. Gasoline is pumped from the fuel tank
to a large control valve called a fuel distributor, which separates the single fuel supply pipe from
the tank into smaller pipes, one for each injector. The fuel distributor is mounted atop a control
vane through which all intake air must pass, and the system works by varying fuel volume
supplied to the injectors based on the angle of the air vane, which in turn is determined by the
volume flowrate of air past the vane, and by the control pressure. The control pressure is
regulated with a mechanical device called the control pressure regulator (CPR) or the warm-up
regulator (WUR). Depending on the model, the CPR may be used to compensate for altitude, full
load, and/or a cold engine. On cars equipped with an oxygen sensor, the fuel mixture is adjusted
by a device called the frequency valve. The injectors are simple spring-loaded check valves with
nozzles; once fuel system pressure becomes high enough to overcome the counterspring, the
injectors begin spraying. K-Jetronic was used for many years between 1974 and the mid 1990s
by BMW, Lamborghini, Ferrari, Mercedes-Benz, Volkswagen, Ford, Porsche, Audi, Saab,
DeLorean, and Volvo. There was also a variant of the system called KE-Jetronic with electronic
instead of mechanical control of the control pressure. Some Toyotas and other Japanese cars
from the 1970s to the early 1990s used an application of Bosch's multipoint L-Jetronic system
manufactured under license by DENSO. Chrysler used a similar continuous fuel injection system
on the 1981-1983 Imperial. In piston aircraft engines, continuous-flow fuel injection is the most
common type. In contrast to automotive fuel injection systems, aircraft continuous flow fuel
injection is all mechanical, requiring no electricity to operate. Two common types exist: the
Bendix RSA system, and the TCM system. The Bendix system is a direct descendant of the
pressure carburetor. However, instead of having a discharge valve in the barrel, it uses a flow
divider mounted on top of the engine, which controls the discharge rate and evenly distributes
the fuel to stainless steel injection lines which go to the intake ports of each cylinder. The TCM
system is even more simple. It has no venturi, no pressure chambers, no diaphragms, and no
discharge valve. The control unit is fed by a constant-pressure fuel pump. The control unit
simply uses a butterfly valve for the air which is linked by a mechanical linkage to a rotary valve
for the fuel. Inside the control unit is another restriction which is used to control the fuel mixture.
The pressure drop across the restrictions in the control unit controls the amount of fuel flowing,
so that fuel flow is directly proportional to the pressure at the flow divider. In fact, most aircraft
using the TCM fuel injection system feature a fuel flow gauge which is actually a pressure gauge
that has been calibrated in gallons per hour or pounds per hour of fuel.
Central port injection (CPI)
General Motors implemented a system called "central port injection" (CPI) or "central port fuel
injection" (CPFI). It uses tubes with poppet valves from a central injector to spray fuel at each
intake port rather than the central throttle-body[citation needed]. Pressure specifications typically
mirror that of a TBI system. The two variants were CPFI from 1992 to 1995, and CSFI from
1996 and on[citation needed]. CPFI is a batch-fire system, in which fuel is injected to all ports
simultaneously. The 1996 and later CSFI system sprays fuel sequentially.
Multi-point fuel injection
Multi-point fuel injection injects fuel into the intake ports just upstream of each cylinder's intake
valve, rather than at a central point within an intake manifold. MPFI (or just MPI) systems can
be sequential, in which injection is timed to coincide with each cylinder's intake stroke; batched,
in which fuel is injected to the cylinders in groups, without precise synchronization to any
particular cylinder's intake stroke; or simultaneous, in which fuel is injected at the same time to
all the cylinders. The intake is only slightly wet, and typical fuel pressure runs between 40-60
psi. Many modern EFI systems utilize sequential MPFI; however, in newer gasoline engines,
direct injection systems are beginning to replace sequential ones.
Direct injection
Direct fuel injection costs more than indirect injection systems: the injectors are exposed to more
heat and pressure, so more costly materials and higher-precision electronic management systems
are required. However, the entire intake is dry, making this a very clean system. In a common
rail system, the fuel from the fuel tank is supplied to the common header (called the
accumulator). This fuel is then sent through tubing to the injectors which inject it into the
combustion chamber. The header has a high pressure relief valve to maintain the pressure in the
header and return the excess fuel to the fuel tank. The fuel is sprayed with the help of a nozzle
which is opened and closed with a needle valve, operated with a solenoid. When the solenoid is
not activated, the spring forces the needle valve into the nozzle passage and prevents the
injection of fuel into the cylinder. The solenoid lifts the needle valve from the valve seat, and
fuel under pressure is sent in the engine cylinder. Third-generation common rail diesels use
piezoelectric injectors for increased precision, with fuel pressures up to 1,800 bar/26,000 psi.
5.Engine control modes
Acceleration Enrichment
During periods of heavy engine load such as during hard acceleration, fuel control is adjusted to
provide an enriched air/fuel ratio to maximize engine torque and neglect fuel economy and
emissions. This condition of enrichment is permitted within the regulations of the EPA as it is
only a temporary condition. It is well recognized that hard acceleration is occasionally required
for maneuvering in certain situations and is, in fact, related at times to safety. The computer
detects this condition by reading the throttle angle sensor voltage. High throttle angle
corresponds to heavy engine load and is an indication that heavy acceleration is called for by the
driver. In some vehicles as witch is provided to detect wide open throttle. The fuel system
controller responds by increasing the pulse duration of the fuel injector signal for the duration of
the heavy load. This enrichment enables the engine to operate with a torque greater than that
allowed when emissions and fuel economy are controlled. Enrichment of the air/fuel ratio to
about 12 : 1 is sometimes used.
Deceleration Leaning
During periods of light engine load and high RPM such as during coasting or hard deceleration,
the engine operates with a very lean air/fuel ratio to reduce excess emissions of HC and CO.
Deceleration is indicated by a sudden decrease in throttle angle or by closure of a switch when
the throttle is closed (depending on the particular vehicle configuration). When these conditions
are detected by the control computer, it computes a decrease in the pulse duration of the fuel
injector signal. The fuel may even be turned off completely for very heavy deceleration.
Idle Speed Control
Idle speed control is used by some manufacturers to prevent engine stall during idle. The goal is
to allow the engine to idle at as low an RPM as possible, yet keep the engine from running rough
and stalling when powerconsuming accessories, such as air conditioning compressors and
alternators, turn on. The control mode selection logic switches to idle speed control when the
throttle angle reaches its zero (completely closed) position and engine RPM falls below a
minimum value, and when the vehicle is stationary. Idle speed is controlled by using an
electronically controlled throttle bypass valve that allows air to flow around the throttle plate
and produces the same effect as if the throttle had been slightly opened. There are various
schemes for operating a valve to introduce bypass air for idle control. One relatively common
method for controlling the idle speed bypass air uses a special type of motor called a stepper
motor. A stepper motor moves in fixed angular increments when activated by pulses on its two
sets of windings (i.e., open or close). Such a motor can be operated in either direction by
supplying pulses in the proper phase to the windings. This is advantageous for idle speed control
since the controller can very precisely position the idle bypass valve by sending the proper
number of pulses of the correct phasing. The engine control computer can know precisely the
position of the valve in a number of ways. In one way the computer can send sufficient pulses
to completely close the valve when the ignition is first switched on. Then it can send open pulses
(phased to open the valve) to a specified (known) position. A block diagram of a simplified idle
speed control system is shown in Figure . Idle speed is detected by the RPM sensor, and the
speed is adjusted to maintain a constant idle RPM. The computer receives digital on/off status
inputs from several power-consuming devices attached to the engine, such as the air conditioner
clutch switch, park-neutral switch, and the battery charge indicator. These inputs indicate the
load that is applied to the engine during idle. When the engine is not idling, the idle speed control
valve may bcompletely closed so that the throttle plate has total control of intake air.During
periods of deceleration leaning, the idle speed valve may be opened to provide extra air to
increase the air/fuel ratio in order to reduce HC emissions.

Engine Crank (Start)

The following list is a summary of the engine operations in the engine crank (starting) mode.
Here, the primary control concern is reliable engine start.
1. Engine RPM at cranking speed.
2. Engine coolant at low temperature.
3. Air/fuel ratio low.
4. Spark retarded.
5. EGR off.
6. Secondary air to exhaust manifold.
7. Fuel economy not closely controlled.
8. Emissions not closely controlled.
Engine Warm-Up
While the engine is warming up, the engine temperature is rising to its normal operating value.
Here, the primary control concern is rapid and smooth engine warm-up. A summary of the
engine operations during this period follows:
1. Engine RPM above cranking speed at command of driver.
2. Engine coolant temperature rises to minimum threshold.
3. Air/fuel ratio low.
4. Spark timing set by controller.
5. EGR off.
6. Secondary air to exhaust manifold.
7. Fuel economy not closely controlled.
8. Emissions not closely controlled.
Open-Loop Control
The following list summarizes the engine operations when the engine is being controlled with an
open-loop system. This is before the EGO sensor has reached the correct temperature for closed-
loop operation. Fuel economy and
emissions are closely controlled.
1. Engine RPM at command of driver.
2. Engine temperature above warm-up threshold.
3. Air/fuel ratio controlled by an open-loop system to 14.7.
4. EGO sensor temperature less than minimum threshold.
5. Spark timing set by controller.
6. EGR controlled.
7. Secondary air to catalytic converter.
8. Fuel economy controlled.
9. Emissions controlled.
Closed-Loop Control
For the closest control of emissions and fuel economy under various driving conditions, the
electronic engine control system is in a closed loop. Fuel economy and emissions are controlled
very tightly. The following is a summary of the engine operations during this period:
1. Engine RPM at command of driver.
2. Engine temperature in normal range (above warm-up threshold).
3. Average air/fuel ratio controlled to 14.7, ±0.05.
4. EGO sensor’s temperature above minimum threshold detected by a sensor output voltage
indicating a rich mixture of air and fuel for a minimum amount of time.
5. System returns to open loop if EGO sensor cools below minimum threshold or fails to indicate
rich mixture for given length of time.
6. EGR controlled.
7. Secondary air to catalytic converter.
8. Fuel economy tightly controlled.
9. Emissions tightly controlled.
Hard Acceleration
When the engine must be accelerated quickly or if the engine is under heavy load, it is in a
special mode. Now, the engine controller is primarily concerned with providing maximum
performance. Here is a summary of the operations under these conditions:
1. Driver asking for sharp increase in RPM or in engine power, demanding maximum torque.
2. Engine temperature in normal range.
3. Air/fuel ratio rich mixture.
4. EGO not in loop.
5. EGR off.
6. Secondary air to intake.
7. Relatively poor fuel economy.
8. Relatively poor emissions control.
Deceleration and Idle
Slowing down, stopping, and idling are combined in another special mode. The engine controller
is primarily concerned with reducing excess emissions during deceleration, and keeping idle fuel
consumption at a minimum. This engine operation is summarized in the following list.
1. RPM decreasing rapidly due to driver command or else held constant at idle.
2. Engine temperature in normal range.
3. Air/fuel ratio lean mixture.
4. Special mode in deceleration to reduce emissions.
5. Special mode in idle to keep RPM constant at idle as load varies due to air conditioner,
automatic transmission engagement, etc.
6. EGR on.
7. Secondary air to intake.
8. Good fuel economy during deceleration.
9. Poor fuel economy during idle, but fuel consumption kept to minimum possible
 UNIT V VEHICLE MANAAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Two marks
1. Main reason for develop the computer vision system
 Safety: The important advantage of vision-based systems is their potential to understand
the current traffic situation, a prerequisite for driver warning or interventions in complex
situations, in particular to avoid false alarms.

 Convenience: Vision-based driver assistance systems allow an unprecedented increase in

driving convenience. Speed limit signs can be recognized by the computer and taken into
account in an adaptive cruise control (ACC) system.

 Efficiency: computer vision can be used to automate traffic on special roads or to

improve the efficiency of goods transport by coupling trucks by means of an electronic
tow-bar system. Another important aspect is that in the future drivers can do other jobs
like administrative work, if the truck or the car is in autonomous mode.
2. COLLISION WARNING SYSTEMS
This system can be looked at in two ways. First, as an aid to reversing, which gives the driver
some indication as to how much space is behind the car. Second, collision avoidance radar
[RAdio Detection And Ranging] can be used as a vision enhancement system. The principle of
radar as a reversing aid is illustrated in the figure given below. This technique is, in effect, a
range-finding system. The output can be audio or visual, the latter being perhaps most
appropriate, as the driver is likely to be looking backwards. The audible signal repetition
frequency of which increases as the car comes nearer to the obstruction, and becomes almost
continuous as impact is imminent. Collision avoidance radar, when used as a vision enhancement
system, is somewhat different.
3.Child Lock
Child safety locks are built into the rear doors of most cars to prevent rear seat passengers from
opening the doors both during transit and while the vehicle is stationary. Although called a child
lock it is equally effective for adult passengers. The lock is typically engaged via a small switch
on the edge of the door that is only accessible when the door is open. Some cars implement the
locking mechanism as a rotary device which must be turned with the vehicle key, this design
prevents "sticky fingered" passengers from disabling the lock as they enter the vehicle. In both
designs the lock is completely inaccessible, especially to the passenger, when the door is closed.
When the child lock is engaged, the interior handle is rendered useless, usually by disconnecting
the handle from the latch mechanism, or by locking the handle in place. In this state the
passenger cannot open the door from the inside and is effectively "locked in", the passenger can
only be released by someone lifting the outside handle. Some vehicles implement window-
locking mechanisms as well.
4.VISION ENHANCEMENT
Limited visibility, whether due to darkness, obstructed views, or inclement weather, has always
been one of the biggest challenges for drivers and automakers. Vision enhancement systems
(VES) for night driving commonly are either night vision goggles (NVG) or in-vehicle displays.
In-vehicle Vision Enhancement Systems will improve visibility for night driving, inadequate
lighting, fog, drifting snow, or other inclement weather driving conditions. Nighttime driving has
always presented unique challenges for motorists. While headlights have evolved over the past
century to increase their brightness and range, the basic halogen bulb has some limitations,
prompting alternative solutions from manufacturers. Mercedes-Benz, for instance, has developed
an "Intelligent Light System," which alters the light output and pattern depending on driving
conditions. The system boosts light output as vehicle speed increases. It can also adjust the left-
to-right lighting balance to compensate for weather conditions, and even allows certain elements
to swivel, keeping a uniform pattern and visibility range
5.AIRBAGS
An air bag slows the passenger's speed to zero with little or no damage. The constraints that it
has to work within are huge. The air bag has the space between the passenger and the steering
wheel or dash board and a fraction of a second to work with. Even that tiny amount of space and
time is valuable, however, if the system can slow the passenger evenly rather than forcing an
abrupt halt to his or her motion.
6. THE PYROTECHNIC INFLATER
The pyrotechnic inflater and the igniter can be considered together. The inflater in the case of the
driver is located in the centre of the steering wheel. It contains a number of fuel tablets in a
combustion chamber. The igniter consists of charged capacitors, which produce the ignition
spark. The fuel tablets burn very rapidly and produce a given quantity of nitrogen gas at a given
pressure.
7.SEAT BELT
Four categories of seat belt inadequacy and the typical injuries which have been identified:
 Head and face contact with the steering wheel is almost certain to occur in collisions of
about 50 km/h in which the head will arc forward and downwards with a horizontal
translation of some 60 cm to 70 cm; injuries are usually AIS 1 to 3. The suggested
solution is an airbag, but this has been found to cause problems for out of position
drivers.

 Rear loading from unrestrained occupants can cause injuries to correctly restrained front
seat occupants although this problem has greatly diminished as a result of legislation that
requires rear occupants to wear seat belts.
 Misuse of the seat belt is frequent with those who are overweight who tend to place the
seat belt over the abdomen instead of low across the pelvis; the consequence is often
severe abdominal injuries at relatively low impact speeds.
 The most frequent injuries caused by the seat belt are fractures to the ribs and sternum,
particularly for the elderly.
8.ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM
With conventional brake systems one of the road wheels will always tend to lock sooner than the
other, due to the continuously varying tyre to road grip conditions for all the road wheels. Under
braking conditions, if one or more of the vehicle wheels locks (begins to skid), there are a
number of consequences.
 Braking distance increases.

 Steering control is lost.

 Abnormal tyre wear.

The obvious result is that an accident is far more likely to occur. The maximum deceleration of a
vehicle is achieved when maximum energy conversion is taking place in the brake system. A
good driver can pump the brakes on and off to prevent locking but electronic control can achieve
even better results.
9.ANTI THEFT SYSTEM
Anti-theft systems are designed to raise the difficulty of theft to an infeasible (but not necessarily
impossible) level. The kind of system implemented often depends on the acceptable threshold for
theft. Under normal circumstances, theft is prevented simply through the application and social
acceptance of property law. Ownership is often indicated by means of visual marking (license
plates, name tags). When clear owner identification is not possible and when there is a lack of
social observance, people may be inclined to take possession of items to their own benefit at the
expense of the original owner. Motive and opportunity are two enabling factors for theft. Given
that motives for theft are varied and complex and are generally speaking not within the control of
the victim, most methods of theft prevention rely on reducing opportunities for theft. Three main
types of intruder alarm are used in modern passenger cars are:
 Switch operated on all entry points.

 Battery voltage sensed.

 Volumetric sensing.
Three main ways to disable the vehicle, in case of intrusion are:
 Ignition circuit cut off.

 Starter circuit cut off.

 Engine ECU code lock.

10. Stolen Car Tracking Devices

Tracking devices can be built-in to an unknown part of the vehicle‘s chassis. This can be
activated in the event of the car being stolen, allowing the police to trace the vehicle. The
Tracker‘unit is a radio transponder. When the vehicle is reported stolen the police are informed
and the Tracker‘unit is activated. The unit then broadcasts a unique reply code, which can be
detected and decoded by police tracking computers, which are fitted in police cars, helicopters
and fixed land sites. The police then track the vehicle, take appropriate action.
11.Passive anti-theft system (PATS)
This system is a vehicle immobilizer developed by Ford. It is activated directly through the
ignition switch by means of an electronic code stored in a special key. Each key has a
transponder that stores the code, which does not require a battery. The key code is read by the
receiver (which is part of the ignition switch) when the key is turned from position 0 to 1 or 2
(usually marked as I or II). If the code matches the one stored in the module, then it allows the
engine to start. These systems operate independently of the alarm.
12. ONBOARD DIAGNOSTIC SYSTEM [OBD]
For the first time, OBD systems regulations were approved by the California Air Resources
Board (CARB) in 1985. These regulations require that the Engine Control Module monitor
critical emission related components for proper operation and illuminate a Malfunction Indicator
Lamp (MIL) on the instrument panel when a malfunction is detected. Digital electronics allow
both sensors and actuators to be monitored. This is done by allocating values to all operating
states of the sensors and actuators. If a deviation from these figures is detected, this is stored in
the memory and can be output in the workshop to assist with fault-finding.

16 mark
1. COLLISION WARNING SYSTEMS
This system can be looked at in two ways. First, as an aid to reversing, this gives the driver some
indication as to how much space is behind the car. Second, collision avoidance radar [RAdio
Detection and Ranging] can be used as a vision enhancement system. The principle of radar as a
reversing aid is illustrated in the figure given below. This technique is, in effect, a range-finding
system. The output can be audio or visual, the latter being perhaps most appropriate, as the driver
is likely to be looking backwards. The audible signal repetition frequency of which increases as
the car comes nearer to the obstruction, and becomes almost continuous as impact is imminent.
Collision avoidance radar, when used as a vision enhancement system, is somewhat different.

For an anti-collision warning application, the radar antenna should be mounted on the front of
the car and should project a relatively narrow beam forward. Ideally, the antenna for such a
system should be in as flat a package as possible, and should project a beam that has a width of
about 2° to 3° horizontally and about 4° to 5° vertically. Large objects such as signs can reflect
the radar beam, particularly on curves, and trigger a false alarm. If the beam is scanned
horizontally for a few degrees, say 2.5° either side of centre, false alarms from roadside objects
can be reduced. The figure below shows the system as a vision enhancement system. For the
collision warning system, better results can be obtained if the radar transmitter is operated in a
pulsed mode rather than in a continuous wave mode. In this mode, the transmitter is switched on
for a very short time and then it is switched off. During the off time, the receiver is set to receive
a reflected signal. If a reflecting object is in the path of the transmitted microwave pulse, a
corresponding pulse will be reflected to the receiver. The round trip time, t, from transmitter to
object and back to receiver is proportional to the range, R, to the object, as illustrated in the
above figure and expressed in the following equation:

c=speed of light
The reflection from an object will have a pulse shape that is very nearly identical to that of the
transmitted pulse. As noted, the radar system can detect this object reflection and find R to
determine the distance from the vehicle to the object. In addition, the relative speed of closure
between the car and the object can be calculated by adding the vehicle speed, V, from the ground
reflected pulses and the speed of the object, S, which can be determined from the change in
range of block diagram of an experimental collision warning system is shown in the figure given
below. In this system, the range, R, to the object and the closing speed, V + S, are measured.

The computer can perform a number of calculations on these data, for example the computer can
calculate the time to collision, T. Whenever this time is less than a preset value, a visual and
audible warning is generated. The system could also be programmed to release the throttle and
apply the brakes, if automatic control were desired.

2. VISION ENHANCEMENT
Limited visibility, whether due to darkness, obstructed views, or inclement weather, has always
been one of the biggest challenges for drivers and automakers. Vision enhancement systems
(VES) for night driving commonly are either night vision goggles (NVG) or in-vehicle displays.
In-vehicle Vision Enhancement Systems will improve visibility for night driving, inadequate
lighting, fog, drifting snow, or other inclement weather driving conditions.Night time driving
has always presented unique challenges for motorists. While headlights have evolved over the
past century to increase their brightness and range, the basic halogen bulb has some limitations,
prompting alternative solutions from manufacturers. Mercedes-Benz, for instance, has
developed an "Intelligent Light System," which alters the light output and pattern depending on
driving conditions. The system boosts light output as vehicle speed increases. It can also adjust
the left-to-right lighting balance to compensate for weather conditions, and even allows certain
elements to swivel, keeping a uniform pattern and visibility range. The enhanced vision system
is comprised of a variety of forward-looking sensors link infrared sensors, cameras, radar, and
night vision equipment. That equipment records what's in front of the vehicle and relays that
information to laser-generating equipment inside the vehicle. The unit analyzes the data and
projects highlight lines that better define or identify those objects deemed worthy of extra driver
attention. It can better define lane lines, identify obstacles in the road, road signs, point out
animals at the roadside, or even highlight a destination building based on GPS route
information. There are also cameras inside the vehicle to monitor the driver's position, helping
to align the highlights over the corresponding objects in the real world. By using external
cameras and other sensors positioned around the vehicle, it is possible to see what is behind the
car, in the blind spots or out in the front. Back-up cams have become fairly commonplace,
allowing motorists to spot obstacles or people directly behind their vehicle that might otherwise
be hard to see behind blind spots or below the rear windows. Side-view cameras are a feature
available on some upscale vehicles. They are usually mounted on the side view mirrors and
allow easier parking, but can also be used for advanced systems that help spot vehicles in the
blind spots. These side sensors have also been used for lane departure warning systems that can
monitor lane lines and alert a driver when he or she inadvertently crosses those lines.Another
use for external cameras and sensors is forward vision enhancement. Front prism cameras are
used to detect cross-traffic at blind intersections. A system used by Rolls-Royce relays the view
to the left and right of the vehicle on an in-car display screen. Other systems that use forward
facing sensors include adaptive cruise control, collision avoidance braking systems, and even
night vision.One of the latest and most futuristic innovations in enhanced driver vision, unveiled
by General Motors, is a new heads-up-display (HUD) that they are developing for production in
a few years. The system uses data gathered from an array of vehicle sensors and cameras to
project laser-generated images directly onto the windshield, just like in a proper spaceship.
3. AIRBAGS
An air bag slows the passenger's speed to zero with little or no damage. The constraints that it
has to work within are huge. The air bag has the space between the passenger and the steering
wheel or dash board and a fraction of a second to work with. Even that tiny amount of space and
time is valuable, however, if the system can slow the passenger evenly rather than forcing an
abrupt halt to his or her motion.Operation of the system
The sequence of events in the case of a frontal impact at about 35 km/h, as shown in figure below is
asfollows.
1. The driver is in the normal seating position prior to impact. About 15 ms after the impact, the
vehicle is strongly decelerated and the threshold for triggering the airbag is reached. The igniter
ignites the fuel tablets in the inflater.
2. After about 30 ms the airbag unfolds and the driver will have m crumple zones collapse. The
seat-belt will have locked or been tensioned depending on the system.
3. At 40 ms after impact the airbag will be the airbag.
4. About 120 ms after impact the driver will be moved back into the seat and the airbag will have
almost deflated through the side vents, allowing driver visibility.
There are three parts to an air bag that help to accomplish this feature.
1. The bag itself is made of a thin, nylon fabric with a coating on the inside. Prior to inflation it is
folded under suitable padding, into the steering wheel or dashboard or, more recently, the seat or
door. The driver‘s air litre sand has the passenger airbag volume about160 litres
2. Device that tells the bag to inflate. Inflation happens when there is a collision force equal to
running into a brick wall at 10 to 15 miles per hour (16 to 24 km per hour). A mechanical switch is
flipped when there is a mass shift that closes an electrical contact, telling the sensors that a crash
has occurred. The sensors receive information from an accelerometer built into a microchip.
 2. The air bag's inflation system (igniter and inflater) reacts sodium azide (NaN3) with
potassium nitrate (KNO3) to produce nitrogen gas. Hot blasts of the nitrogen inflate the air
bag.
3. A warning light is used as part of the system monitoring circuit. This gives an indication of a
potential malfunction and is an important part of the circuit. Some manufacturers use two
bulbs for added reliability.
The main components of a basic airbag system are as follows.
 Driver and passenger airbags.
 Warning light.
 Passenger seat switches.
 Pyrotechnic inflater.
 Igniter.
 Crash sensor(s).
 Electronic control unit.
The pyrotechnic inflater and the igniter can be considered together. The inflater in the case of the driver
is located in the centre of the steering wheel. It contains a number of fuel tablets in a combustion
chamber. The igniter consists of charged capacitors, which produce the ignition spark. The fuel tablets
burn very rapidly and produce a given quantity of nitrogen gas at a given pressure. The air bag system
ignites the solid propellant, which burns extremely rapidly to create a large volume of gas to inflate the
bag. The bag then literally bursts from its storage site at up to 200 mph (322 kph) -- faster than the
blink of an eye! This gas is forced into the airbag through a filter and the bag inflates breaking through
the padding in the wheel centre. A second later, the gas quickly dissipates through tiny holes in the bag,
thus deflating the bag so you can move. After deployment, a small amount of sodium hydroxide will be
present in the airbag and vehicle interior. Personal protection equipment must be used when removing
the old system and cleaning the vehicle interior.Even though the whole process happens in only one-
twenty-fifth of a second, the additional time is enough to help prevent serious injury. The powdery
substance released from the air bag, by the way, is regular cornstarch or talcum powder, which is used
by the air bag manufacturers to keep the bags pliable and lubricated while they're in storage. If a failure
is detected in any part of the circuit then the ECU operates a warning light. The crash sensor can take a
number of forms; these can be described as mechanical or electronic. The mechanical system, as shown
in the figure, works by a spring holding a roller in a set position until an impact above a predetermined
limit, provides enough force to overcome the spring and the roller moves, triggering a micro switch.

The switch is normally open with a resistor in parallel to allow the system to be monitored. Two
switches similar to this may be used to ensure the bag is deployed only in the case of sufficient
frontal impact. Note that the airbag is not deployed in the event of a roll over. The other main
type of crash sensor can be described as an accelerometer. This will sense deceleration, which is
negative acceleration. Airbags working on the same techniques to those described previously are
being used to protect against side impacts. In some cases bags are stowed in the door pillars or
the edge of the roof.
4. SEAT BELT
Four categories of seat belt inadequacy and the typical injuries which have been identified:
 Head and face contact with the steering wheel is almost certain to occur in collisions of
about 50 km/h in which the head will arc forward and downwards with a horizontal
translation of some 60 cm to 70 cm; injuries are usually AIS 1 to 3. The suggested
solution is an airbag, but this has been found to cause problems for out of position
drivers.
 Rear loading from unrestrained occupants can cause injuries to correctly
restrained front seat occupants although this problem has greatly diminished as
a result of legislation that requires rear occupants to wear seat belt Misuse of
 the seat belt is frequent with those who are overweight who tend to place the
seat belt over the abdomen instead of low across the pelvis; the consequence is
often severe abdominal injuries at relatively low impact speeds.
 The most frequent injuries caused by the seat belt are fractures to the ribs and
sternum, particularly for the elderly.
Seat belt wearers, for the most part, are well protected against all but the most severe
of impacts, but there is a limit to the effectiveness of the belt and this limit may be
reached typically in four ways:
 Intrusion, caused by collapse or penetration
 Extension of the seat belt allowing the occupant to strike some part of the
car;typically the steering wheel.
 Transmission of localized loads to the wearer through the webbing; most likely for
passengers
 High deceleration in severe impacts may be sufficient to exceed injury thresholds,
particularly for the chest.
Extend and Retract
In a typical seatbelt system, the belt webbing is connected to a retractor mechanism.
The central element in the retractor is a spool, which is attached to one end of the
webbing. Inside the retractor, a spring applies a rotation force, or torque, to the spool.
This works to rotate the spool so it winds up any loose webbing. When webbing is
pulled out, the spool rotates counter-clockwise, which turns the attached spring in the
same direction. Effectively, the rotating spool works to untwist the spring. The spring
wants to return to its original shape, so it resists this twisting motion. If you release the
webbing, the spring will tighten up, rotating the spool clockwise until there is no
slacker in the belt.The retractor has a locking mechanism that stops the spool from
rotating when the car is involved in a collision. There are two sorts of locking systems
in common use today:
 systems triggered by the car's movement
 systems triggered by the belt's movement
The first sort of system locks the spool when the car rapidly decelerates (when it hits
something, for example). The diagram below shows the simplest version of this design
The central operating element in this mechanism is a weighted pendulum. When the car comes to
a sudden stop, the inertia causes the pendulum to swing forward. The pawl on the other end of
the pendulum catches hold of a toothed ratchet gear attached to the spool. With the pawl gripping
one of its teeth, the gear can't rotate counter-clockwise, and neither can the connected spool.
When the webbing loosens again after the crash, the gear rotates clockwise and the pawl
disengages.The second kind of system locks the spool when something jerks the belt webbing.
The activating force in most designs is the speed of the spool rotation. The diagram shows a
common configuration. The central operating element in this design is a centrifugal clutch -- a
weighted pivoting lever mounted to the rotating spool. When the spool spins slowly, the lever
doesn't pivot at all. A spring keeps it in position. But when something yanks the webbing,
spinning the spool more quickly, centrifugal force drives the weighted end of the lever outward.
The extended lever pushes a cam piece mounted to the retractor housing. The cam is connected
to a pivoting pawl by a sliding pin. As the cam shifts to the left, the pin moves along a groove in
the pawl. This pulls the pawl into the spinning ratchet gear attached to the spool. The pawl locks
into the gear's teeth, preventing counter-clockwise rotation.In some newer seatbelt systems, a
Pre-tensioner also works to tighten the belt webbing.
5.ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM
With conventional brake systems one of the road wheels will always tend to lock sooner than the
other, due to the continuously varying tyre to road grip conditions for all the road wheels. Under
braking conditions, if one or more of the vehicle wheels locks (begins to skid), there are a
number of consequences.
 Braking distance increases.
 Steering control is lost.
 Abnormal tyre wear.
The obvious result is that an accident is far more likely to occur. The maximum deceleration of a
vehicle is achieved when maximum energy conversion is taking place in the brake system. A
good driver can pump the brakes on and off to prevent locking but electronic control can achieve
even better
Requirements of ABS:
In the event of the ABS system failing the conventional brakes must still operate to their full
potential. In addition, a warning must be given to the driver. This is normally in the form of a
simple warning light. Good steering and road holding must continue when the ABS system is
operating. Even over a short distance the system must react such as to make use of the best grip
on the road. The response must be appropriate whether the driver applies the brakes gently or
slams them on hard. It should perform effectively under all operating conditions. The system must
operate under all speed conditions down to walking pace. The system must be able to recognize
aquaplaning and react accordingly.
Components of an ABS System
An ABS system is represented by the closed loop system block diagram shown in figure given
below. The most important of the inputs are from the wheel speed sensors, and the main output is
some form of brake system pressure control. The task of the control unit is to compare signals
from each wheel sensor to measure the acceleration or deceleration of an individual wheel. From
these data and pre-programmed look-up tables, brake pressure to one or more of the wheels can
be regulated. Brake pressure can be reduced, held constant or allowed to increase. The maximum
pressure is de pressure on the brake pedal.

Driven and non-driven wheels on the vehicle must be treated in different ways as they behave
differently when braking. A logical combination of wheel deceleration/ acceleration and slip is used
as the controlled variable. The actual strategy used for ABS control varies with the operating
conditions. Though there are a few variations between manufacturers involving a number of
different components, there are three main components.
1. Wheel speed sensors.
Most of these devices are simple inductance sensors and work in conjunction with a toothed
wheel. Some systems use Hall effect’ sensors. These information either electronically or, less
commonly, mechanically to the anti-lock control system.
2. Electronic control unit.
The function of the ECU is to take in information from the wheel sensors and calculate the best
course of action for the hydraulic modulator. If a fault is detected, the ABS disconnects itself and
operates a warning light. The ECU also has suitable input signal processing stages and output or
driver stages for actuator control.

 Current supply.
 Exterior and interior interfaces.
 Transmission of data.
 Communication between the two microprocessors.
 Operation of valves and relays.
 Operation of fault memory control.
 Reading and writing functions of the internal memory.
iii. Hydraulic modulator
The hydraulic modulator as shown in figure given below has three operating positions.
 Pressure build-up –brake line open to the master cylinder.
 Pressure reducing –brake line open to the accumulator.
 Pressure holding –brake line closed.
The valves are controlled by electrical solenoids, which have a low inductance so they react very
quickly. The motor only runs when ABS is activated. It receives the commands from the
electronic control unit and translates them, independently of driver action, into valve-based
sequences that modulate either hydraulic or pneumatic pressure in the individual brake lines. The
modulator therefore requires its own source of supply pressure, which in electro-hydraulic
versions usually takes the form of an electrically driven pump capable of generating high
pressure in the region of 14 to 17.5MN/m2. An ABS in which hydraulic servo brakes and their
modulator share a common hydraulic power supply is known-mechanicalasantian-lock Integra
braking system, the hydraulic pump is mechanically driven from the same source that drives the
flywheel wheel speed sensors. In the case of electro-pneumatic modulators for anti-lock air
brakes on heavy vehicles, the continuous supply of compressed air made available by the
compression and storage facilities of the braking system proper eliminates the need for an
independent source of supply

6. Security Alarm
A separate switch or IR transmitter can be used to set an alarm system. Often, they are set
automatically when the doors are locked.
The requirements of this particular alarm system are:
 It must activate when a door is opened.
 The ignition to be disabled.
  The existing horn is used as the warning.
 Once triggered, the horn must continue even when the door is closed. It must reset after
15 seconds

Simple alarm circuit

 When a door is opened, the switches make an earth connection. This will be used to
trigger the relay, which in turn will operate the horn. The delay must be built in using a
capacitor, which will keep the relay energized even after the door closes, for a further 15
seconds. An external key switch is to be used to arm and disarm whilst isolating the
ignition supply. A capacitor will discharge to about 66% of its full value in CR seconds.
(If the supply voltage is 12V, the capacitor discharges to 8V in CR seconds.)

This system can be operated by remote control or using the key in a door lock. When first
activated, the system checks that the doors and tailgate are closed by monitoring the appropriate
switches. If all is in order, the anti-theft system is then activated after a 20-second delay. The
function indicator LED flashes rapidly during this time and then slowly once the system is fully
active. The alarm can be triggered in a number of ways:
o Opening a door, the tailgate or the bonnet/hood.
o Removal of the radio connector loop.
o Switching on the ignition.
o Movement inside the vehicle.
If the alarm is triggered the horn operates for 30 seconds and the hazard lights for 5 minutes.
This stops if the remote key or door key is used to unlock the vehicle. Most security alarm
systems can be considered as two pieces, with a separate control unit and siren; most will have
the control unit in the passenger compartment and the siren under the bonnet. Most systems now
come with two infrared-type batteries and have remote an LED that shows when the signal is
being sent. They operate with one vehicle only. Intrusion sensors such as car movement and
volumetric sensing can be adjusted for sensitivity. Figure shows a block diagram of a complex
alarm system.The system can be considered as a series of inputs and outputs.

Inputs
o Ignition supply.
o Engine crank signal.
o Volumetric sensor.
o Bonnet switch.
o Trembler switch.
 o IR/RF remote
o Doors switches
o Control switch.
Outputs
o Volumetric transmitter.
o System LED.
o Horn or siren.
o Hazard lights.
o Ignition immobilizer.
o Loop circuit.
Electric windows, sun-roof and door locks.
7. ONBOARD DIAGNOSTIC SYSTEM [OBD]

For the first time, OBD systems regulations were approved by the California Air Resources
Board (CARB) in 1985. These regulations require that the Engine Control Module monitor
critical emission related components for proper operation and illuminate a Malfunction Indicator
Lamp (MIL) on the instrument panel when a malfunction is detected. Digital electronics allow
both sensors and actuators to be monitored. This is done by allocating values to all operating
states of the sensors and actuators. If a deviation from these figures is detected, this is stored in
the memory and can be output in the workshop to assist with fault-finding. Fundamentally, a
contemporary microprocessor based on-board diagnostics or OBD system is intended to self
diagnose and report when the performance of components have degraded. This is to the extent
that the tailpipe emissions have exceeded legislatedlevels or are likely to be exceeded in the long
term. When an issue occurs the OBD system illuminates a warning lamp known as the
malfunction indicator lamp (MIL) or Malfunction Indicator (MI) on the instrument cluster.On-
board diagnostic monitoring applies to systems which are most likely to cause an increase in
harmful exhaust emission, namely: All main engine sensors
 Fuel system
 Ignition system
  Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) system
The diagnostic functions are performed by the microprocessor under the control of stored
programs, and are performed only when the microprocessor is not fully committed to performing
normal control calculations. During the normal operation of the car, there are intermittent periods
during which various electrical and electronic components are tested. Whenever a fault is
detected, the data are stored in memory using a specific fault code. At the same time, the
controller generates or activates a warning signal, indicating that service is required. The major
limitation of OBD is that they cannot detect intermittent failures reliably. For the system to
detect and isolate a failure, the failure must be non-reversible. In most on-board diagnostics, the
electronic control module stores trouble codes that are automatically cleared by the
microprocessor after a set number of engine cycles have occurred without a fault reappearing.
The technician connects a scan tool that can communicate using an industry standard
communications protocol. The OBD code memory is checked and data is presented in a way that
also conforms to a standard. The mechanic notes the fault codes that are displayed and, using a
reference manual, identifies the failed components. Whenever a defect occurs.as indicated by a
fault code, the mechanic must follow a specific procedure to isolate the particular problem.
These procedures are outlined for the mechanic as a sequence of steps to be followed. Once the
mechanic has read all of the fault codes, he or she proceeds with the diagnosis and repair using
the shop manual.Without the aid of the onboard diagnostic capability of the electronic control
system, such diagnosis would take much more time and might, in certain cases, be nearly
impossible (e.g., for intermittent faults When the fault occurs the system stores a diagnostic
trouble code (DTC) that can be used to trace and identify the fault. The system will also store
important information that pertains to the operating conditions of the vehicle when the fault was
set. A service technician is able to connect a diagnostic scan tool or a code reader that will
communicate with the microprocessor and retrieve this information. This allows the technician to
diagnose and rectify the fault, make a repair/replacement, reset the OBD system and restore the
vehicle emissions control system to a serviceable status. The benefits of having an OBD system
are that it:
encourages vehicle and engine manufacturers to have a responsible attitude to reducing harmful
emissions from their engines via the development of reliable and durable emission control
systems; aids diagnosis and repair of complex electronic engine and vehicle control systems;
reduces global emissions by providing early warning ,provides ‗whole life‘ emission
control of it. In the mid-1980s the US environmental protection agency (EPA) introduced a
policy which made the use of on-board diagnostics (OBD) compulsory for vehicles in the United
States. This was followed by similar requirements introduced by the California Air Resources
Board (CARB). OBD2 (also OBDII) was developed, by SAE, to address the shortcomings of
OBD1 and make the system more user friendly for service and repair technicians. EOBD is the
European equivalent of the American OBD2 standard, which applies to petrol cars sold in
Europe from 2001 (and diesel cars three years later). OBD2 works to ensure that the vehicles
remain as clean as possible over their entire life. The OBD 2 system is intended to standardize
the many varying, methods used by different manufacturers.
The main features of OBD2 are:
 Malfunction of emission relevant components to be detected when emission threshold
value are exceeded. Storage of failures and boundary conditions
 Diagnostic light (MIL –Malfunction Indicator Light) to be activated in case of failures.
 Read out of failures with generic scan tool.