10.

1 Graphs: Definitions and Basic Properties 639

V1 and V2 in such a way that (1) each of the m vertices in 13. The degree of a vertex in a graph is _____.
V1 is _____ to each of the n vertices in V2 , no vertex in V1
14. The total degree of a graph is defined as _____.
is connected to _____, and no vertex in V2 is connected to
_____. 15. The handshake theorem says that the total degree of a graph
is _____.
12. A graph H is a subgraph of a graph G if, and only if,
(1) _____, (2) _____, and (3) _____. 16. In any graph the number of vertices of odd degree is _____.

Exercise Set 10.1*

In 1 and 2, graphs are represented by drawings. Define each In 5–7, show that the two drawings represent the same graph
graph formally by specifying its vertex set, its edge set, and a by labeling the vertices and edges of the right-hand drawing to
table giving the edge-endpoint function. correspond to those of the left-hand drawing.
1. e1 5.
v1 v2 v4
e2 e2
v3 v2
v1 e3 v3
e3
e1 e4
2. v3 e5
e7 e6
v4 v6 v5 v4
v1 e2 e3
e1 e4
e5 6. v1 v2
v2 e1 e2
e4 e3
In 3 and 4, draw pictures of the specified graphs.
v4 v3
3. Graph G has vertex set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 } and edge set
{e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 }, with edge-endpoint function as follows:

Edge Endpoints 7. v2 e2 v3

e1 {v1 , v2 }
e1 e3
e2 {v1 , v2 }
e8 v6 e4
e3 {v2 , v3 } v1 v4
e4 {v2 } e9
e7 e6
e5

4. Graph H has vertex set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 } and edge set

{e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 } with edge-endpoint function as follows: v7 v5

Edge Endpoints
e1 {v1 }
e2 {v2 , v3 }
e3 {v2 , v3 }
e4 {v1 , v5 }

∗
For exercises with blue numbers or letters, solutions are given in Appendix B. The symbol H indicates that only a hint or a partial
solution is given. The symbol ✶ signals that an exercise is more challenging than usual.

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 640 Chapter 10 Graphs and Trees

For each of the graphs in 8 and 9: 16. A graph has vertices of degrees 1, 1, 4, 4, and 6. How many
(i) Find all edges that are incident on v1 . edges does the graph have?
(ii) Find all vertices that are adjacent to v3 .
In each of 17–25, either draw a graph with the specified proper-
(iii) Find all edges that are adjacent to e1 .
ties or explain why no such graph exists.
(iv) Find all loops.
(v) Find all parallel edges. 17. Graph with five vertices of degrees 1, 2, 3, 3, and 5.
(vi) Find all isolated vertices. 18. Graph with four vertices of degrees 1, 2, 3, and 3.
(vii) Find the degree of v3 .
(viii) Find the total degree of the graph. 19. Graph with four vertices of degrees 1, 1, 1, and 4.
20. Graph with four vertices of degrees 1, 2, 3, and 4.
8. v1 e6
v2 21. Simple graph with four vertices of degrees 1, 2, 3, and 4.
e3
e5 v6
e1 e4 22. Simple graph with five vertices of degrees 2, 3, 3, 3, and 5.
e2
e 10 v3 23. Simple graph with five vertices of degrees 1, 1, 1, 2, and 3.
e8
v5 v4 e7 24. Simple graph with six edges and all vertices of degree 3.
e9
25. Simple graph with nine edges and all vertices of degree 3.
9. e1 e3
26. Find all subgraphs of each of the following graphs.
e2
v2 v2
v1 a. v2 b. c.
e6
e4 e1
e7
v3 v1
e5
v5 e2
v4 v0 v1 v3
v1
10. Use the graph of Example 10.1.6 to determine
27. a. In a group of 15 people, is it possible for each person to
a. whether Sports Illustrated contains printed writing;
have exactly 3 friends? Explain. (Assume that friendship
b. whether Poetry Magazine contains long words.
is a symmetric relationship: If x is a friend of y, then y
11. Find three other winning sequences of moves for the vege- is a friend of x.)
tarians and the cannibals in Example 10.1.7. b. In a group of 4 people, is it possible for each person to
have exactly 3 friends? Why?
12. Another famous puzzle used as an example in the study
of artificial intelligence seems first to have appeared in a 28. In a group of 25 people, is it possible for each to shake
collection of problems, Problems for the Quickening of the hands with exactly 3 other people? Explain.
Mind, which was compiled about A.D. 775. It involves a 29. Is there a simple graph, each of whose vertices has even
wolf, a goat, a bag of cabbage, and a ferryman. From an degree? Explain.
initial position on the left bank of a river, the ferryman is
30. Suppose that G is a graph with v vertices and e edges and
to transport the wolf, the goat, and the cabbage to the right
that the degree of each vertex is at least dmin and at most
bank. The difficulty is that the ferryman’s boat is only big
dmax . Show that
enough for him to transport one object at a time, other than
himself. Yet, for obvious reasons, the wolf cannot be left 1 1
dmin · v ≤ e ≤ dmax · v.
alone with the goat, and the goat cannot be left alone with 2 2
the cabbage. How should the ferryman proceed?
31. Prove that any sum of an odd number of odd integers is odd.
13. Solve the vegetarians-and-cannibals puzzle for the case H 32. Deduce from exercise 31 that for any positive integer n, if
where there are three vegetarians and three cannibals to be there is a sum of n odd integers that is even, then n is even.
transported from one side of a river to the other.
33. Recall that K n denotes a complete graph on n vertices.
H 14. Two jugs A and B have capacities of 3 quarts and 5 quarts, a. Draw K 6 .
respectively. Can you use the jugs to measure out exactly H b. Show that for all integers n ≥ 1, the number of edges of
1 quart of water, while obeying the following restrictions? n(n − 1)
K n is .
You may fill either jug to capacity from a water tap; you 2
may empty the contents of either jug into a drain; and you 34. Use the result of exercise 33 to show that the number of
may pour water from either jug into the other. edges of a simple graph with n vertices is less than or equal
n(n − 1)
15. A graph has vertices of degrees 0, 2, 2, 3, and 9. How many to .
2
edges does the graph have?

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 10.1 Graphs: Definitions and Basic Properties 641

35. Is there a simple graph with twice as many edges as ver- Definition: If G is a simple graph, the complement of G,
tices? Explain. (You may find it helpful to use the result of denoted G  , is obtained as follows: The vertex set of G $ is
exercise 34.) identical to the vertex set of G. However, two distinct ver-
tices v and w of G $ are connected by an edge if, and only if,
36. Recall that K m,n denotes a complete bipartite graph on
v and w are not connected by an edge in G. For example, if
(m, n) vertices.
G is the graph
a. Draw K 4,2
v2
b. Draw K 1,3
c. Draw K 3,4
d. How many vertices of K m,n have degree m? degree n? v1 v3
e. What is the total degree of K m,n ?
f. Find a formula in terms of m and n for the number of v4
edges of K m,n . Explain. $
then G is
v2
37. A bipartite graph G is a simple graph whose vertex set can
be partitioned into two disjoint nonempty subsets V1 and V2
such that vertices in V1 may be connected to vertices in V2 , v1 v3
but no vertices in V1 are connected to other vertices in V1
and no vertices in V2 are connected to other vertices in V2 . v4
For example, the graph G illustrated in (i) can be redrawn as
shown in (ii). From the drawing in (ii), you can see that G is 39. Find the complement of each of the following graphs.
bipartite with mutually disjoint vertex sets V1 = {v1 , v3 , v5 }
a. v2 b. v 1 v2
and V2 = {v2 , v4 , v6 }.

(i) v2 (ii) v1 v3
v1 v2
v1 v3 v4 v3
v3 v4 v4
v6 v4
v5 v6 40. a. Find the complement of the graph K 4 , the complete
v5 graph on four vertices. (See Example 10.1.9.)
b. Find the complement of the graph K 3,2, the complete
Find which of the following graphs are bipartite. Redraw bipartite graph on (3, 2) vertices. (See Example 10.1.10.)
the bipartite graphs so that their bipartite nature is evident.
41. Suppose that in a group of five people A, B, C, D, and
a. v 1 v2 b. v 1 v2 E the following pairs of people are acquainted with each
other:
A and C, A and D, B and C, C and D, C and E.
a. Draw a graph to represent this situation.
v4 v3 v3 b. Draw a graph that illustrates who among these five peo-
v2 v3 ple are not acquainted. That is, draw an edge between
c. d. v2
two people if, and only if, they are not acquainted.
v1 v3 v4
v1 H 42. Let G be a simple graph with n vertices. What is the rela-
v5 tion between the number of edges of G and the number of
v4 v6
v6 edges of the complement G $ ?
v5 43. Show that at a party with at least two people, there are
v2
at least two mutual acquaintances or at least two mutual
e. v v2 f.
1 strangers.
v3 44. a. In a simple graph, must every vertex have degree that is
v1 v3
less than the number of vertices in the graph? Why?
v5 v4 b. Can there be a simple graph that has four vertices each
v5 v4 of different degrees?
H ✶ c. Can there be a simple graph that has n vertices all of
different degrees?
38. Suppose r and s are any positive integers. Does there exist
a graph G with the property that G has vertices of degrees H ✶ 45. In a group of two or more people, must there always be at
r and s and of no other degrees? Explain. least two people who are acquainted with the same number
of people within the group? Why?

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 642 Chapter 10 Graphs and Trees

46. Imagine that the diagram shown below is a map with coun- a schedule that will allow all faculty members to attend
tries labeled a–g. Is it possible to color the map with only the meetings of all committees on which they serve. To do
three colors so that no two adjacent countries have the same this, represent each committee as the vertex of a graph, and
color? To answer this question, draw and analyze a graph in draw an edge between two vertices if the two committees
which each country is represented by a vertex and two ver- have a common member. Find a way to color the vertices
tices are connected by an edge if, and only if, the countries using only three colors so that no two committees have the
share a common border. same color, and explain how to use the result to schedule
the meetings.
a b c 48. A department wants to schedule final exams so that no stu-
dent has more than one exam on any given day. The vertices
e f
d of the graph below show the courses that are being taken by
g more than one student, with an edge connecting two ver-
tices if there is a student in both courses. Find a way to
H 47. In this exercise a graph is used to help solve a scheduling color the vertices of the graph with only four colors so that
problem. Twelve faculty members in a mathematics depart- no two adjacent vertices have the same color and explain
ment serve on the following committees: how to use the result to schedule the final exams.
Undergraduate Education: Tenner, Peterson, Kashina, Cohen
MCS101 MCS102
Graduate Education: Gatto, Yang, Cohen, Catoiu
Colloquium: Sahin, McMurry, Ash
MCS100 MCS110
Library: Cortzen, Tenner, Sahin
Hiring: Gatto, McMurry, Yang, Peterson
Personnel: Yang, Wang, Cortzen
MCS135
The committees must all meet during the first week of MCS130
MCS120
classes, but there are only three time slots available. Find

Answers for Test Yourself

1. a finite, nonempty set of vertices; a finite set of edges; one or two vertices called its endpoints 2. an edge with a single endpoint
3. they have the same set of endpoints 4. they are connected by an edge 5. each of its endpoints 6. adjacent 7. isolated 8.
an ordered pair of vertices called its endpoints 9. a graph with no loops or parallel edges 10. simple graph with n vertices whose
set of edges contains exactly one edge for each pair of vertices 11. connected by an edge; any other vertex in V1 ; any other vertex
in V2 12. every vertex in H is also a vertex in G; every edge in H is also an edge in G; every edge in H has the same endpoints as
it has in G 13. the number of edges that are incident on the vertex, with an edge that is a loop counted twice 14. the sum of the
degrees of all the vertices of the graph 15. equal to twice the number of edges of the graph 16. an even number

10.2 Trails, Paths, and Circuits

One can begin to reason only when a clear picture has been formed in the imagination.
— W. W. Sawyer, Mathematician’s Delight, 1943

The subject of graph theory began in the year 1736 when the great mathematician Leon-
hard Euler published a paper giving the solution to the following puzzle:
The town of Königsberg in Prussia (now Kaliningrad in Russia) was built at a point
where two branches of the Pregel River came together. It consisted of an island and
some land along the river banks. These were connected by seven bridges as shown in
Figure 10.2.1.
The question is this: Is it possible for a person to take a walk around town, starting
and ending at the same location and crossing each of the seven bridges exactly once?∗

∗
In his original paper, Euler did not require the walk to start and end at the same point. The analysis
of the problem is simplified, however, by adding this condition. Later in the section, we discuss
walks that start and end at different points.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.