SSC Part-II: Biology Revision Notes

Coordination and Control

The two main types of coordination in living organisms are nervous coordination and chemical
coordination. Here's a differentiation between these two types:

1. Nervous Coordination:
- Nature: Nervous coordination involves the transmission of electrical impulses through
specialized cells called neurons.
- Speed: Nervous coordination is characterized by rapid communication as electrical impulses
can travel at high speeds (up to 100 meters per second).
- Communication: Nervous coordination involves point-to-point communication, where
impulses travel along specific pathways or nerve fibers to reach target cells or organs.
- Specificity: Nervous coordination allows for precise and specific responses as nerve impulses
can be directed to specific target cells or organs.
- Duration: Nervous responses are typically of shorter duration and can be rapidly initiated and
terminated.
- Examples: Examples of nervous coordination include reflex actions (such as pulling your hand
away from a hot surface), voluntary movements, sensory perception, and coordination of
various body functions by the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).

2. Chemical Coordination:
- Nature: Chemical coordination involves the release and transport of chemical substances
called hormones through the bloodstream.
- Speed: Chemical coordination is relatively slower compared to nervous coordination as
hormones travel through the bloodstream, which takes time.
- Communication: Chemical coordination involves communication between various organs and
cells through the release of hormones that act on target cells or organs at a distance from their
site of production.
- Widespread effects: Hormones released in chemical coordination can have widespread
effects, as they can be transported throughout the body via the circulatory system, affecting
multiple organs and tissues.
- Duration: Chemical responses can be more prolonged and sustained compared to nervous
responses, as hormones can persist in the bloodstream for longer periods, exerting their
effects.
- Examples: Examples of chemical coordination include the regulation of metabolism, growth
and development, reproduction, stress responses, and the control of water and electrolyte
balance. Hormones produced by various glands, such as the pituitary gland, thyroid gland,
adrenal glands, and reproductive organs, play crucial roles in chemical coordination.
Both nervous and chemical coordination are essential for maintaining homeostasis and proper
functioning of living organisms. While nervous coordination provides rapid and precise
responses, chemical coordination allows for widespread and long-lasting effects throughout the
body. These two systems often work together, complementing each other to ensure the overall
coordination and functioning of the organism.

The main organs responsible for coordination and control in living organisms are:
1. Brain: The brain is the central organ of the nervous system and is responsible for controlling
and coordinating most bodily functions. It processes sensory information, initiates motor
responses, regulates emotions, and controls higher cognitive functions such as thinking,
memory, and learning.
2. Spinal Cord: The spinal cord is a long, cylindrical bundle of nerves that extends from the brain
and runs down the vertebral column. It serves as a communication pathway between the brain
and the rest of the body. The spinal cord is responsible for relaying sensory information to the
brain and coordinating motor responses.
3. Nerves: Nerves are bundles of specialized cells called neurons that transmit electrical
impulses between the brain, spinal cord, and various parts of the body. They serve as the
communication network for the nervous system, allowing for the coordination of sensory
perception, motor responses, and the transmission of information.
4. Endocrine Glands: The endocrine glands, such as the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal
glands, pancreas, and reproductive organs (ovaries and testes), are responsible for producing
and releasing hormones into the bloodstream. These hormones act as chemical messengers,
coordinating and regulating various bodily functions, including growth, metabolism,
reproduction, and responses to stress.
5. Sense Organs: The sense organs, including the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin, play a vital
role in the coordination and control of the body. They gather sensory information from the
environment and transmit it to the brain for processing and interpretation. This information
enables the body to respond to stimuli, maintain balance, detect changes in the environment,
and coordinate movements and responses.
6. Muscles: Muscles are responsible for movement and locomotion in the body. They receive
signals from the nervous system and contract or relax in response to those signals, enabling
voluntary and involuntary movements. Muscles are essential for coordination and control of
bodily functions such as walking, grasping objects, breathing, and digestion.
These organs work together to maintain homeostasis, coordinate responses to internal and
external stimuli, regulate bodily functions, and ensure proper control and coordination of the
organism as a whole.
The brain can be divided into three main regions: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
Forebrain:
1. Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is divided into two
hemispheres (left and right). It is responsible for higher cognitive functions, including
conscious thought, sensory perception, motor control, language processing, memory,
and reasoning.
2. Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus plays a vital role in maintaining homeostasis and
regulating various bodily functions, including body temperature, hunger and thirst,
sleep-wake cycles, hormone production and release, and emotions. It also controls the
pituitary gland, a key endocrine gland.
3. Pituitary Gland: produces and releases several important hormones that regulate
growth, metabolism, sexual development and function, stress responses, and the
function of other endocrine glands.
Hindbrain:
1. Cerebellum: The cerebellum is located at the back of the brain, below the cerebrum. It is
responsible for motor coordination, balance, posture, and the smooth execution of
voluntary movements. It helps regulate muscle tone and fine-tunes movements based
on sensory input.
2. Medulla Oblongata: The medulla oblongata is located at the base of the brainstem, just
above the spinal cord. It is responsible for vital functions such as regulating breathing,
heart rate, blood pressure, and basic reflexes such as coughing, sneezing, and
swallowing.
Cross-sectional views of the brain and spinal cord differ in terms of the distribution and
appearance of white and grey matter.
Brain: In the brain, the white matter is located inside and the grey matter is outside. The white
matter consists of myelinated nerve fibers that connect different regions of the brain and is
responsible for transmitting information. The grey matter, which is unmyelinated and has a
darker color, contains the cell bodies of neurons and is responsible for processing and
generating neural impulses.
Spinal cord: In the spinal cord, the opposite holds true. The white matter is located outside and
the grey matter is inside. The white matter forms a "horseshoe" shape surrounding the grey
matter, which forms the central canal and contains interneurons and motor neurons
responsible for transmitting sensory and motor signals. The white matter in the spinal cord
contains ascending and descending tracts of myelinated nerve fibers that connect the brain and
spinal cord and are responsible for transmitting sensory and motor information.
In both cases, the distribution of white and grey matter is important for their respective
functions. The distribution and appearance of white and grey matter can also help in identifying
various neurological disorders or damage to the brain or spinal cord.
Sensory neurons, motor neurons, and relay neurons (also known as interneurons) are three
types of neurons in the nervous system.
1. Sensory Neurons:
- Structure: Sensory neurons have long dendrites and a single axon. They are specialized to
receive sensory information from sensory receptors located in the peripheral nervous system
(PNS) and transmit it towards the central nervous system (CNS).
- Function: Sensory neurons carry sensory information from the external environment or
internal body conditions to the CNS. They detect stimuli such as light, sound, touch,
temperature, pain, and transmit this information as electrical impulses to the brain or spinal
cord. Their role is to provide the CNS with information about the body's surroundings and
internal state.
2. Motor Neurons:
- Structure: Motor neurons have a cell body with multiple dendrites and a long axon. They have
specialized extensions called axon terminals that form synapses with muscles, glands, or other
neurons.
- Function: Motor neurons transmit signals from the CNS to effectors, such as muscles or
glands, in order to initiate a response. They carry motor commands from the CNS to the
appropriate target, causing muscle contraction or glandular secretion. Motor neurons are
responsible for controlling voluntary movements, involuntary processes, and regulating the
body's physiological activities.
3. Relay Neurons (Interneurons):
- Structure: Relay neurons have short dendrites and axons, and they are primarily found within
the CNS. They form connections between sensory neurons, motor neurons, and other relay
neurons.
- Function: Relay neurons act as intermediaries between sensory and motor neurons,
facilitating communication and integration of information within the CNS. They receive input
from sensory neurons, process and integrate the information, and transmit it to motor neurons
or other relay neurons. Relay neurons play a crucial role in coordinating and modulating signals
between different parts of the nervous system, allowing for complex information processing,
reflexes, and higher cognitive functions.
In summary, sensory neurons are specialized to receive sensory information and transmit it
towards the CNS, motor neurons transmit signals from the CNS to effectors for motor
responses, and relay neurons facilitate communication and integration between sensory and
motor neurons within the CNS. Together, these three types of neurons work in concert to allow
for the transmission, processing, and coordination of information throughout the nervous
system.
A reflex action refers to an involuntary and automatic response of the body to a specific
stimulus. It occurs without conscious thought or decision-making, as the response is pre-
determined and built-in within the nervous system. Reflex actions are rapid, protective, and
help the body respond quickly to potential threats or maintain homeostasis.
A reflex arc, also known as a reflex pathway, is the neural pathway that mediates a reflex
action. It involves the sequence of events that occur when a sensory stimulus activates a
sensory receptor, which then triggers a series of electrical impulses that travel along specific
neural pathways to produce a rapid motor response.
The structures of human auditory and visual receptors, namely the ear and the eye, are
specialized to perform their respective functions of detecting and transducing sound and light
stimuli. Here's a brief explanation of their structures and functions:

Ear (Auditory Receptors):

The ear is responsible for detecting sound waves and converting them into electrical signals
that can be interpreted by the brain. It consists of three main parts:
1. Outer Ear: The outer ear includes the pinna (visible part of the ear) and the ear canal. Its
function is to collect sound waves from the environment and direct them towards the middle
ear.
2. Middle Ear: The middle ear comprises the eardrum (tympanic membrane) and three small
bones called the ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes). The eardrum vibrates when sound waves
hit it, and these vibrations are amplified and transmitted by the ossicles to the inner ear.
3. Inner Ear: The inner ear contains the cochlea, which is the primary auditory organ. The
cochlea is a spiral-shaped structure filled with fluid and lined with specialized sensory cells
called hair cells. Sound vibrations transmitted from the middle ear cause the fluid in the cochlea
to move, which, in turn, stimulates the hair cells. The hair cells convert the mechanical energy
of sound into electrical signals that are then transmitted to the brain through the auditory
nerve.

Eye (Visual Receptors):

The eye is responsible for detecting and converting light into electrical signals that can be
processed by the brain. It consists of several key structures:
1. Cornea and Lens: The cornea is the transparent front part of the eye, while the lens is a
flexible structure located behind the cornea. These structures focus incoming light onto the
retina.
2. Retina: The retina is the innermost layer of the eye that contains specialized photoreceptor
cells called rods and cones. Rods are responsible for vision in low-light conditions (black and
white), while cones are responsible for color vision and detailed vision in brighter light. When
light strikes the retina, the rods and cones detect it and convert it into electrical signals.
3. Optic Nerve: The optic nerve carries the electrical signals generated by the photoreceptor
cells in the retina to the brain. It transmits visual information from the eye to the visual cortex,
where it is processed and interpreted to form visual perceptions.
4. Iris and Pupil: The iris is the colored part of the eye surrounding the pupil, which is the
central opening. The iris controls the size of the pupil, regulating the amount of light entering
the eye.
These structures in the ear and the eye are specialized to detect and transduce specific types of
stimuli (sound waves and light) into electrical signals that can be processed by the brain.
Through their complex anatomical and physiological features, the ear and the eye enable us to
experience the sensations of hearing and vision, respectively.
The pupil reflex, also known as the pupillary light reflex, is a mechanism that regulates the size
of the pupil in response to changes in light intensity. It is an involuntary response controlled by
the autonomic nervous system.
The differentiation between pupil reflex in dim and bright light can be described as follows:
1. Pupil Reflex in Dim Light:
In dim light conditions, the pupil reflex is designed to enhance the amount of light entering
the eye, allowing for improved visibility. Here are the characteristics of the pupil reflex in dim
light:
a. Dilation of Pupil: The pupil dilates or widens in order to allow more light to enter the eye.
This occurs due to the contraction of the dilator pupillae muscle, which is controlled by the
sympathetic nervous system.
b. Reduced Constriction Response: The constriction of the pupil, controlled by the circular
pupillae muscle, is diminished in dim light. This muscle relaxes, allowing the pupil to remain
wider and enabling more light to reach the retina.
2. Pupil Reflex in Bright Light:
In bright light conditions, the pupil reflex aims to protect the delicate structures of the eye by
limiting the amount of light entering. The following characteristics are observed in the pupil
reflex in bright light:
a. Constriction of Pupil: The pupil constricts or narrows to reduce the amount of light entering
the eye. The circular pupillae muscle contracts, causing the pupil to become smaller. This
constriction is controlled by the parasympathetic nervous system.
b. Limited Dilation Response: In bright light, the dilation of the pupil is limited. The dilator
pupillae muscle relaxes, but the constriction response is dominant due to the intense light
stimulus. This restriction prevents excessive light from reaching the retina.
Overall, the pupil reflex adjusts the size of the pupil based on the ambient light conditions to
optimize visual acuity and protect the eye from potential damage.
Image formation in the human eye and image formation in the dark chamber used by Ibn al-
Haitham (also known as Alhazen) in his experiment are related in the sense that both processes
involve the formation of an image through the manipulation of light.
1. Image Formation in the Human Eye:
The human eye functions as a complex optical system that allows us to perceive the visual
world. Light enters the eye through the cornea, which refracts the light and directs it through
the pupil. The pupil controls the amount of light entering the eye by adjusting its size through
the pupil reflex. After passing through the pupil, the light reaches the lens. The lens further
refracts the light and focuses it onto the retina, which lines the back of the eye. The retina
contains specialized cells called photoreceptors (rods and cones) that convert light into
electrical signals. These electrical signals are then transmitted through the optic nerve to the
brain, where they are interpreted as visual information, forming the images we perceive.
2. Image Formation in the Dark Chamber Experiment:
Ibn al-Haitham, an Arab scientist, conducted experiments in the 11th century using a dark
chamber (also known as a camera obscura) to study the behavior of light and image formation.
In this experiment, a small hole was made on one side of a dark room, allowing a narrow beam
of light to enter.
The light beam passing through the hole formed an inverted and reversed image of the external
scene on the opposite wall or surface within the dark chamber. This phenomenon occurred due
to the rectilinear propagation of light, where light travels in straight lines. The small hole acted
as a pinhole camera, allowing only a limited amount of light to pass through. The rays of light
from different points on the external scene projected through the hole and crossed, resulting in
the formation of an inverted image. This experiment demonstrated the basic principles of
image formation, showing that light travels in straight lines and that an image can be formed by
the interaction of light rays.

In summary, both the image formation in the human eye and Ibn al-Haitham's dark chamber
experiment involve the manipulation of light to form an image. While the human eye is a
complex biological system, the dark chamber experiment simplified the process by using a small
hole to create an image through the interaction of light rays.
Vitamin A plays a crucial role in maintaining proper vision, particularly in low-light conditions. It
is essential for the functioning of the retina, which is the light-sensitive tissue located at the
back of the eye. The retina contains specialized cells called photoreceptors that detect light and
send signals to the brain, allowing us to see.
One type of photoreceptor in the retina is called a rod cell. Rod cells are responsible for vision
in dim or low-light environments and are highly dependent on vitamin A. The key component of
rod cells is a light-sensitive pigment called rhodopsin, which consists of a protein called opsin
and a molecule called retinal. Retinal is derived from vitamin A.
When light enters the eye and reaches the rod cells, retinal undergoes a chemical reaction that
triggers a cascade of events, ultimately leading to the transmission of visual signals to the brain.
This process allows us to perceive and interpret visual information, especially in conditions of
low light.
A deficiency of vitamin A can have detrimental effects on the retina and overall vision.
Inadequate intake of vitamin A or impaired absorption of this vitamin can lead to a condition
called night blindness. Night blindness refers to the inability to see in dim light or darkness, as
the rod cells are unable to produce sufficient rhodopsin for proper vision. Individuals with night
blindness may experience difficulty navigating in low-light environments or may have reduced
visual acuity in such conditions.
The endocrine system consists of several major glands that secrete hormones into the
bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions. Here's a description of the location and
function of each of these glands:
1. Pituitary Gland:
Location: The pituitary gland is a small, pea-sized gland situated at the base of the brain, just
below the hypothalamus, and is connected to it by a stalk-like structure called the
infundibulum.
Function: Often referred to as the "master gland," the pituitary gland regulates the function of
many other endocrine glands. It secretes hormones that control growth, reproduction,
metabolism, and the functioning of other glands, such as the thyroid, adrenal glands, and
gonads.
2. Parathyroid Glands:
Location: There are four parathyroid glands, typically located on the back surface of the thyroid
gland in the neck.
Function: The parathyroid glands produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), which plays a crucial
role in maintaining calcium and phosphorus balance in the body. PTH regulates calcium levels in
the blood, bones, and kidneys, helping to control bone density and the balance of minerals
necessary for proper nerve and muscle function.
3. Thyroid Gland:
Location: The thyroid gland is situated in the neck, just below the Adam's apple, and wraps
around the front of the windpipe (trachea).
Function: The thyroid gland produces thyroid hormones, mainly thyroxine (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3). These hormones regulate metabolism, growth, and development. They
control the rate at which cells use energy, influence body temperature, and participate in
various physiological processes throughout the body.
4. Pancreas:
Location: The pancreas is a glandular organ located deep in the abdomen, behind the stomach.
Function: The pancreas has both endocrine and exocrine functions. The endocrine portion
consists of clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans, which secrete hormones such as insulin
and glucagon. Insulin helps regulate blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose by
cells, while glucagon raises blood sugar levels by stimulating the liver to release stored glucose.
5. Adrenal Glands:
Location: The adrenal glands are situated on top of each kidney.
Function: The adrenal glands have two parts: the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla. The
adrenal cortex secretes hormones such as cortisol, which is involved in stress response, and
aldosterone, which regulates salt and water balance. The adrenal medulla produces adrenaline
(epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine), which are involved in the body's "fight or
flight" response to stress.
6. Testes:
Location: In males, the testes are located in the scrotum, a pouch outside the body.
Function: The testes produce testosterone, the primary male sex hormone. Testosterone is
responsible for the development and maintenance of male reproductive tissues, secondary
sexual characteristics, and sperm production.
7. Ovaries:
Location: In females, the ovaries are located on either side of the uterus in the lower abdomen.
Function: The ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone, the primary female sex hormones.
These hormones are essential for the development and maintenance of female reproductive
tissues, regulation of the menstrual cycle, and the secondary sexual characteristics in women.
Each of these glands plays a vital role in maintaining hormonal balance and regulating various
physiological processes in the body.
Hypersecretion refers to the excessive production or release of a hormone, while hyposecretion
refers to insufficient production or release of a hormone. Here's a differentiation of the
problems associated with hyper or hyposecretion of the hormones you mentioned:
1. Somatotropin (Growth Hormone):
- Hypersecretion: Excessive production of growth hormone, known as acromegaly in adults and
gigantism in children. Symptoms include abnormal growth of the hands, feet, and face,
enlargement of organs, joint pain, and metabolic disturbances.
- Hyposecretion: Insufficient growth hormone production, known as growth hormone
deficiency. In children, it leads to growth retardation, while in adults, it can cause fatigue, loss
of muscle mass, and decreased bone density.
2. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH):
- Hypersecretion: Excessive release of TSH can lead to hyperthyroidism, a condition
characterized by an overactive thyroid gland. Symptoms include weight loss, increased heart
rate, anxiety, tremors, and intolerance to heat.
- Hyposecretion: Insufficient TSH production results in hypothyroidism, where the thyroid gland
is underactive. Symptoms include fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, depression, and dry
skin.
3. Vasopressin (Antidiuretic Hormone, ADH):
- Hypersecretion: Excessive ADH secretion can cause a condition called syndrome of
inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH), leading to water retention, low sodium levels, and
concentrated urine. Symptoms include nausea, headache, confusion, and seizures.
- Hyposecretion: Insufficient ADH production causes diabetes insipidus, resulting in excessive
thirst and urination. It can lead to dehydration and electrolyte imbalances.
4. Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3):
- Hypersecretion: Overproduction of thyroid hormones leads to hyperthyroidism. Symptoms
include weight loss, rapid heartbeat, irritability, anxiety, and increased sensitivity to heat.
- Hyposecretion: Insufficient thyroid hormone production causes hypothyroidism. Symptoms
include fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, depression, and slowed heart rate.
5. Calcitonin:
- Hypersecretion or hyposecretion of calcitonin is relatively rare, and specific associated
problems are not well-defined. Calcitonin plays a role in regulating calcium levels, and abnormal
levels may affect bone health.
6. Adrenaline (Epinephrine):
- Hypersecretion: Excessive release of adrenaline is typically associated with an adrenal gland
tumor called pheochromocytoma. Symptoms include high blood pressure, rapid heartbeat,
palpitations, anxiety, and sweating.
- Hyposecretion: Insufficient adrenaline production is rare and usually not associated with
specific clinical problems.
7. Insulin:
- Hypersecretion: Excessive insulin production can occur in certain pancreatic tumors, leading to
hypoglycemia (low blood sugar). Symptoms include sweating, trembling, confusion, and
fainting.
- Hyposecretion: Insufficient insulin production or impaired insulin function results in diabetes
mellitus. It leads to high blood sugar levels, causing symptoms such as increased thirst, frequent
urination, fatigue, and weight loss.
8. Glucagon:
- Hypersecretion: Excessive release of glucagon is rare and not associated with specific
problems.
- Hyposecretion: Insufficient glucagon production may contribute to hypoglycemia and
impaired glucose regulation.
9. Testosterone:
- Hypersecretion: Excessive production of testosterone, called hyperandrogenism, can occur in
conditions like polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) in females or androgen-secreting tumors in
both sexes. Symptoms include acne, hirsutism (excessive hair growth), menstrual irregularities,
and virilization in females.
- Hyposecretion: Insufficient testosterone production can result in various symptoms such as
decreased libido, fatigue, muscle loss, and mood changes.
10. Estrogen and Progesterone:
- Hypersecretion: Excessive secretion of estrogen and progesterone is rare and not associated
with specific problems.
- Hyposecretion: Insufficient estrogen and progesterone production can cause menstrual
irregularities, infertility, mood changes, hot flashes, and other symptoms related to hormonal
imbalance.
It's important to note that the symptoms and conditions mentioned are general and can vary
depending on the underlying cause and individual circumstances. Hormonal imbalances should
be diagnosed and treated by healthcare professionals.