Interview as a Method for

Qualitative Research

Adapted From Dapzury Valenzuela ??

 Definitions
 The qualitative research interview seeks to describe the
meanings of central themes in the life world of the subjects.
The main task in interviewing is to understand the meaning of
what the interviewees say.

 Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a

participant’s experiences. The interviewer can pursue in-
depth information around the topic. (McNamara, 1999)
 Characteristics of Qualitative Research
Interviews

 Interviews are completed by the interviewer based on what the

respondent says.
 Interviews are a far more personal form of research than questionnaires.
 In the personal interview, the interviewer works directly with the
respondent.
 Unlike with mail surveys, the interviewer has the opportunity to probe or
ask follow up questions.
 Interviews are generally easier for respondent, especially if what is sought
is opinions or impressions.
 Interviews are time consuming and they are resource intensive.
 The interviewer is considered a part of the measurement instrument and
interviewer has to be well trained in how to respond to any contingency.
 Types of Interviews

General interview guide approach - the guide approach is intended to ensure

that the same general areas of information are collected from each
interviewee; this provides more focus than the conversational approach, but
still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting the information
from the interviewee.

 Informal, conversational interview - no predetermined questions are

asked, in order to remain as open and adaptable as possible to the
interviewee’s nature and priorities; during the interview the interviewer
“goes with the flow.”
 Types of Interviews (Cont.)

> Standardized, open-ended interview - the same open-ended

questions are asked to all interviewees; this approach
facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed
and compared.

> Closed, fixed-response interview - where all interviews are

asked the same questions and asked to choose answers from
among the same set of alternatives.
 Telephone Interview
 Telephone interviews enable a researcher to gather
information rapidly.
 Like personal interviews, they allow for some personal
contact between the interviewer and the respondent.

Disadvantages:

 Some people may not have telephones.

 People often dislike the intrusion of a call to their home.
 Telephone interviews need to be relatively short or people feel
imposed upon.
 Many people don’t have publicly listed telephone numbers.
 Training of the Interviewer
 Since the interviewer can control the quality of the result
his/her training becomes crucial.

 It is important to organize in detail and rehearse the

interviewing process before beginning the formal study.
 Point for Interviewer Training

 Describe the entire study - interviewers need to know more than

simply how to conduct the interview itself. They should have
background of the study and why the study is important.

 Explain the sampling logic & process - naïve interviewer may not
understand why sampling is so important. They may wonder why
you go through all the difficulties of selecting the sample so
carefully.
 Interviewer Bias

 Interviewer needs to know the many ways that they can

inadvertently bias the results.

 Understand why it is important that they not bias the study.

 By slanting the results they might jeopardize the results or

purpose of the study.
 Preparation for Interview
 Choose a setting with the least distraction.

 Explain the purpose of the interview.

 Address terms of confidentiality.

 Explain the format of the interview.

 Indicate how long the interview usually takes.

 Provide contact information of the interviewer.

 Allow interviewee to clarify any doubts about the interview.

 Prepare a method for recording data, e.g., take notes.

 Qualification Criteria for the Interviewer

 Knowledgeable – being familiar with the topic.

 Structuring – outline the procedure of the interview.

 Clear – simple, easy and short questions which are spoken distinctly and understandably.

 Gentle – being tolerant, sensitive and patient to provocative and unconventional opinions.

 Steering – to control the course of the interview to avoid digressions from the topic.

 Remembering – retaining the subject information from the interviewees.

 Interpreting – provide interpretation of what is said by the interviewee.

 Types of Topics in Questions
 Behaviors – what a person has done or is doing.

 Opinions/values – what a person thinks about the topic.

 Feelings – what a person feels rather than what a person thinks.

 Knowledge – to get facts about the topic.

 Sensory – what people have seen, touched, heard, tasted or

smelled.

 Background/demographics – standard background questions, such

as age, education, etc.
 Sequence of Questions
 Get the respondents involved in the interview as soon as possible.

 Before asking about controversial matters, first ask about some facts.

 Intersperse fact-based questions throughout the interview.

 Ask questions about the present before questions about the past or future.

 The last questions might be to allow respondents to provide any other

information they prefer to add and their impressions of the interview.
 Stages of Interview Investigation
 Thematizing – the why and what of the investigation

 Designing – plan the design of the study.

 Interviewing – conduct the interview based on a guide.

 Transcribing – prepare the interview material for analysis.

 Analyzing – decide on the purpose, the topic, the nature and methods of
analysis that are appropriate.

 Verifying – ascertain the validity of the interview findings.

 Reporting – communicate findings of the study base on

scientific criteria.
 Procedure of the Interview
 Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working.

 Ask one question at a time.

 Attempt to remain as neutral as possible.

 Encourage responses.

 Be careful about the appearance when note taking.

 Provide transition between major topics.

 Don’t lose control of the interview.


 After the Interview

 Verify if the tape recorder, if used, worked throughout the

interview.

 Make any notes on your written notes.

 Write down any observations made during the interview.

 In-Depth Interview
 Focus Group
 Observation, and
 Participant Observation
Techniques
In-Depth Interview DEFINITION

In-depth interviewing – a conversation

between researcher and informant
focusing on the informant’s perception of
self, life and experience, and expressed in
her or his own words.
In-depth Interviewing

• A conversational process.
• Unstructured or semi-structured format.
• Typically conducted face-to-face.
• Relies on verbal accounts of social realities.
• Typically individual interviews but can be
groups.
In-depth Interviewing
• Predominantly used for theory building
as opposed to hypothesis testing.

• Often used in exploratory studies.

• Results may be used to design a

questionnaire.
Conducting the Interviews
• Who will you interview?
• How many respondents/informants will
be interviewed?
• How many interviews will you conduct?
• How long should you allow for the
interviews?
• Where do you conduct the interviews?
Conducting the Interviews
• How much information do you give the
informant?
• Confidentiality is an issue.
• Establish a rapport.
• Prepare in advance. Do your homework.
• Prepare an interview guide.
• Use transitions during interview to keep
on track.
Conducting the Interviews

• Be a good listener and observer.

• Funneling – broad questions
progressing to more specific issues.
• Story-telling – Asking questions so as to
elicit a story from the respondent.
• Written narratives.
Types of Questions
• Descriptive – broad, good starter
questions.
• Structural questions – explore how
respondents organize their knowledge.
• Contrasting – respondent must make a
comparison.
• Opinion/value – “What is your opinion
of….?”
Types of Questions
• Feeling questions – Emotional responses.
“How do you feel about that?”

• Sensory – Questions about sensory

perceptions (seen, heard, touched, etc.).

• Background demographic questions.

Probing
• Questions used to elicit more
information after an initial question.
Follow-up questions.

• Devil’s advocate questions.

• Hypothetical questions.
• Posing the ideal.
Forms of Probing

• Non-verbal nudging.

• Verbal nudging.

• Reflective probe or paraphrase.

Recording the Interview
• Tape-recording.

• Note taking.

• Each has advantages and

disadvantages.

• May be used in combination.

Listening Skills
• Empathic listening.

• Non-judgmental or tolerant appearance.

• Good advance preparation helps.

• Listening skills improve with practice.

?
Focus Group?
All You Need to Know About
Focus Group!
 What is a Focus Group? (continued…)

 A form of qualitative research based on interaction

between group members

 Typically organized and directed by a moderator

 A tool to generate and to answer research questions

 What is a Focus Group? (continued…)
Focus Groups are Appropriate When the Goal is to:

 Understand differences in perspectives

 Uncover influential factors
 Hear a range of ideas
 Collect information to design a quantitative study
 Shed light on pre-existing quantitative data
 Capture comments or language used by a target
audience
 Basic Uses of Focus Groups

As the primary source of data in a study

 To supplement other data collection methods

 Combined with other means of gathering data

 Linking Data Collection Methods
Focus groups and individual interviews

Focus groups and participant observation

Focus groups and surveys

Focus groups and experiments

 Strengths of Focus Groups

Expedient and efficient

Ability to ask questions directly
 Opportunity to “Share and compare”
Less structured than one-on-one interviews
Group interaction stimulates memories
Puts a “human face” on statistics
 Weaknesses of Focus Groups

Not a natural social setting

Self-report, limited to verbal interaction
Less control
Less time with each participant
The interviewer may lead answers
Group dynamics vs. individual interviews
Necessary Decisions in Focus Group Research Design

 Who
 What
 Where
 How
 Participant Selection
Based on:

 Knowledge or insight
 Shared, relevant trait
 “Homogeneous strangers”
 May need to control factors such as race
[ethnicity], age, etc.
 Selective sampling
 Telephone screening caveat
 Over recruit by at least 20%
 Strategies for Finding Participants
Use a preexisting list
Schedule around another event
Recruit at a target rich environment
Snowball sample
Use a screening/selection service
Select names from the telephone directory
Run an ad or announcement
 Size and Number of Groups
 3-5 groups composed of 6-10 participants
 Factors determining size of focus groups:
Level of interest
Level of detail required
Experience of moderator
Number of available participants
 Factors affecting number of groups:
Time allotted and size of the staff
Level of heterogeneity
Level of structure
 Questions for Planning

 What is the problem you are trying to research?

 What is the purpose of the study?
 What kinds of information are you looking for?
 Are there areas of interest that are of particular
importance?
 Who will be interested in the results?
 How will you use the information?
 The Questioning Route
• A set of open-ended questions to guide
discussion
• Maximum 12 questions
• Follows the introductions
• Includes four types of questions
• Have an easy beginning
• Sequence naturally, move from general to specific
• Manage time effectively
 Components of a Questioning Route
(Continued…)

Opening Question: getting to know you

Transition Questions: specifics of the topic
Key Questions: 2-5 questions that ask for very
specific information about the topic
Ending Question(s): closure and time for final
thoughts
 Good Focus Group Questions Should

Include good directions

Sound conversational
Be easy to say
Be short and clear
Be open-ended
Use words the participants use
 Types of Questions

• Listing questions
• Rating questions
• Choosing among alternatives
• Drawing a picture
• Imagination questions
• Bringing something to the group
 Before the Focus Group

 Be alert
 Practice the introduction and questioning route
 Be comfortable with the questions
 Practice making small talk
 Gauge time per question
 Know which are key questions
 Balance memorization and reading
 Pre-Session Strategy
• Set up before participants arrive
• Create a friendly atmosphere
• Greet participants at the door
• Seat participants strategically based on
personality types
• Keep the conversation light and general
• Provide refreshments
 Improving Turnout

Provide incentives
Be sure there is no conflict with major events
Make personal contacts with potential
participants
Remove barriers such as child care,
transportation, etc.
Send a personalized follow-up letter
Make a reminder phone call
 The Role of the Moderator
• Ask questions
• Listen
• Keep the conversation on track
• Make sure everyone shares
• Take notes
• Remain unbiased
• Know your audience and dress accordingly
 The Role of the Moderator
• Believe what participants are saying is
important
• Have sufficient background in the area of
interest
• The moderator should be homogeneous with
the rest of the group
• Utilize the assistant moderator
 Introductions
• Introduce yourself and the assistant moderator
• Go over the ground rules:
-Speak one at the time
-Be courteous
-Ask questions
-Have fun!
• Emphasize full participation
• Make introductions honest but general
 Managing Questioning Time

For a 2 hour focus group:

15 minutes: introduction and late arrivals
15 minutes: questions and summary
90 minutes: actual questioning time

Consider:
-Complexity of questions
-Category of questions
-Level of participant expertise
-Size of the focus group
-Level of discussion
 Questioning Tips
• Use phrases like “think back to a time when…”
• Avoid “why”; use phrases like “what prompted
this”
• Try not to give examples
• Ask positive questions before negative
• Give respondents a chance to comment on
both positive and negative
• Try not to rephrase questions
Tips for Moderating a Focus Group
• Make it clear you are there to learn
• Exclude anyone who arrives late
• Try having people write down their thoughts
on the topic
• Be prepared to improvise and use probes and
pauses as necessary
• Track what participants are saying throughout
• Be prepared for repetition
 More Moderator Tips
Tips for showing that you care:

-Lean forward as you listen

-Take notes
-Interact informally before and after

• Follow-up by telephone to thank participants

 The Pause

• The pause is 5-10 seconds of silence after

conversation on a given question has stopped

• The pause should be coupled with eye contact

 Tips for Answering Questions
• Ask a group member to answer
• Use the pause
• Postpone the answer
• Answer the question directly if it will not bias
the responses or if it is unavoidable
• Answer lingering questions by the end
• Be prepared to answer - anticipate
Dealing with Different Types of Participants

Four main types of participants:

– Self Appointed Experts

– Dominant Talkers
– Shy Participants
– Ramblers
 Preparing for the Unexpected
• If nobody shows up
• If few participants attend
• If people bring children
• If people bring adult guests
• If uninvited people show up
• If probes and pauses are not working
• If participants do not want to leave
 Analysis and Reporting
• Take data that is similar between groups and
discuss themes
• Learn ways of coding data
• Review the responses of at least one or two of
the groups for patterns
• Qualitative vs. quantitative
• What is interesting vs. what is important
 A Few Final Tips
• Pilot, pilot, pilot!
• Leave time to energize.
• Videotape or audio tape?
• Monitor your body language.
 References

• Krueger Richard A.,Casey Mary Anne. (2000) Focus

Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research. (3rd
ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

• Merton Robert K., Fiske, M., Kendall, P. L. (1990) The

Focused Interview: A Manual of Problems and
Procedures. (2nd ed.) New York: Free Press

• Morgan David L. (1997). Focus Groups as Qualitative

Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Adapted from: Dreeszen and Associate and Penn Sate
Anything Wrong with this Focus Group?
?
 Generally, there are three types of
observational research:

 Covert observational research –

 Overt observational research –

 Researcher Participation -
 Participant Observation Method/Technique: An Overview

 Participant Observation
 History
 Fieldwork Roles
 Validity
 Entering the Field
 Skills of a Participant Observer
 Stages of Participant Observation
 Questions
 Participant Observation

 Qualitative method with roots in traditional

ethnographic research, whose objective is to help
researchers learn the perspectives held by study
populations

Source: Qualitative Research Methods; A Data Collector’s Field

Guide, Module 2, Family Health International
 Characteristics of Participant Observation

 The foundation of cultural anthropology.

 It involves getting close to people and making them

feel comfortable enough with your presence so that
you can observe and record information about their
lives.

 Produces ethnography.
 Characteristics of Participant Observation con’t

 A humanistic method and scientific one.

 Usually involves fieldwork.

 A strategic method, like, experiments, surveys, or

archival research.

 Involves going out and staying out, learning a new

language, and experiencing the lives of the people
you are studying as much as you can.
 Characteristics of Participant Observation con’t

 Involves immersing yourself in a culture and

learning to remove yourself every day from that
immersion so you can intellectualize what you’ve
seen and heard, put it into perspective, and write
about it convincingly.

 When done right, participant oberservation turns

fieldworkers into instruments of data collection and
data analysis.
 History

 Bronislaw Malinowski
 Did not invent participant observation, but is widely credited
with developing it as a serious method of social research.
 Studied people of the Trobriand Islands, in the Indian Ocean,
before World War I.
 Methods – spend lots of time studying culture, learn the
language, hang out, stay aware of what’s really going on.
 Fieldwork Roles

 Fieldwork can involve three different roles:

 Complete Participant

 Participant Observer
 Observing participants
 Participant observers

 Complete Observer
 Little if any interaction
 How long does Fieldwork Take?

 Anthropological field research traditionally takes a

year or more.
 Some studies are done in a matter of weeks or a few
months.
 The amount of time you spend in the field can make
a big difference in what you learn
 Anthropologists who stay in the field at least a year are more
likely to report on sensitive issues like witchcraft, sexuality,
political feuds, etc.
 Rapid Assessment

 Rapid assessment
 Going in and getting on with the job of collecting data without
spending months developing rapport
 Will usually be prepared with a set of questions to ask

 Participatory mapping
 Draw maps of villages to locate key places on the map
 Validity

 Five reasons for insisting on participant observation

in the conduct of scientific research about cultural
groups:
1. Participant observation opens things up and makes it
possible to collect all kinds of data.
2. Participant observation reduces the problem of reactivity –
of people changing their behavior when they know they are
being studied.
*Presence builds trust, trust lowers reactivity = Means Higher
Validity of Data
 Validity con’t

3. Participant observation helps you ask sensible

questions, in the native language.
4. Participant observation gives you an intuitive
understanding of what’s going on in a culture and
allows you to speak with confidence about the
meaning of data.
5. Many research problems simply cannot be
addressed adequately by anything except
participant observation.
 Entering the Field

 Five rules to follow when making an entry:

1. There is no need to select a site that is difficult to
enter when equally good sites are available that are
easy to enter.
2. Go into the field with plenty of written
documentation about yourself and your project.
 Entering the Field con’t

3. Don’t try to wing it, unless you absolutely have to.

4. Think through in advance what you will say when
ordinary people (not just gatekeepers) ask you:
What are you doing here? Who sent you?
5. Spend time getting to know the physical and social
layout of your field site.
 Skills of a Participant Observer

 Learn the language

 How to learn the language
 Learn a few words and say them brilliantly

 Capture pronunciation, intonation, the use of your hands, and

other nonverbal cues
 Build explicit awareness
 The little details in life
 Skills of a Participant Observer con’t

 Build memory
 Don’t talk to anyone before you get your thoughts down on
paper
 When you sit down to write, try to remember things in
historical sequence, as they occurred throughout the day
 Draw a map of the physical space where you spent time
observing and talking to people that day
 Skills of Participant Observer con’t

 Maintain Naiveté
 Develop your skills at being a novice – someone who genuinely
wants to learn a new culture
 Build writing skills
 Good writing skills will carry you through participant
observation fieldwork, writing a dissertation, and publications
 Skills of Participant Observer con’t

 Hanging out, gaining rapport

 Hanging out builds trust, or rapport and trust results in
ordinary conversation and ordinary behavior in your presence
 Objectivity
 Stages of Participant Observation

 Initial Contact
 Culture shock
 Discovering the obvious
 The break
 Focusing
 Exhaustion, the second break, and frantic activity
 Leaving the Field
 Questions

 Describe the three different roles of fieldwork.

 List and describe the five rules to remember when
entering the field.

 Notes compiled from, Research Methods in

Anthropology: Qualitative and Quantitative
Approaches, by H. Russell Bernard (2006)
Thank You!