WTW 164 Notes

Unit 1.1 page 823 - 833

Lines
 If two vectors are parallel to each other, then the following must be true:
⃑ ⃑ ⃑ ⃑
o If a=¿ x a , y a , z a >is∥¿ b=¿ x b , y b , z b >, thena=t b
¿ x a , x a , x a> ¿t < x b , y b , z b >¿
 The equation of the vector perpendicular to two vectors can be determined by
finding the cross product of the two vectors.
o If a⃗ =¿ a1 , a2 , a3 >¿ and b=¿ ⃗ b , b , b >¿ , t are two vectors which are both
1 2 3
perpendicular to a third vectorc⃗ then c⃗ is the vector:

[ ]
i j k
 c⃗ = a1 a2 a 3
b1 b2 b 3

 c⃗ =
[ ] [ ] [ ]
a 2 a3
b 2 b3
a a
i− 1 3 j+ 1 2 k
b 1 b3
a a
b1 b2
 c⃗ =¿ a2 b3−a 3 b 2 ,−(a ¿ ¿ 1 b3−a3 b1) , a1 b2−a2 b 1> ¿ ¿
 If we want to determine the vector equation of a line ( r ) , we need a point on the
line (r 0 ) and a vector that is parallel to the line ( v ). IF we have these, we can
determine the equation in the following form:
o r =r 0 +t v
 If we let r =¿ x , y , z >¿ , r 0 =¿ x0 , y 0 , z 0 >+¿ and v=¿ ta , tb ,tc> ¿,
then:
 ¿ x , y , z> ¿< x 0 , y 0 , z0 >+ ¿ta , tb, tc>¿
 Parametric expression for a vector line( r ) that goes through the point (r 0 ) and is
parallel to vector line ( v).
o x=x 0 +ta
o y= y 0+ tb
o z=z 0 +tc
 If we rearrange the above equation to put “t” as the subject of the equation, we
obtain the symmetric equations as followed:
x−x 0
o t=
a
y− y 0
o t=
b
z−z 0
o t=
c
 From the above, we can say that:
x−x 0 y− y 0 z−z 0
o = =
a b c
Planes
 To determine the equation of a plane, we can use the following formula:
o n ∙ ( r−r 0 )=0
 Where:
n is the line normal to the plane
r andr 0 are points on the plane
 If two planes are parallel, then their normal vectors are parallel (can be written as a product
of each other)
o n1 =t n2
 If two planes are perpendicular, the product of the dot product of the two vectors is 0
o ⃑ ⃑
v1 ∙ v 2=0
 To determine the angle between two planes, we use the dot product of their normal vectors
divided by the length of their normal vectors:
⃑ ⃑
o n1 ∙ n2
cos ( θ )=
¿ n1∨¿ n2∨¿¿
 To determine the distance between two planes, use the following formula
|n ∙ b| |a ( x1 −x 0 )+ b ( y 1− y 0 ) + c(z 1−z 0 )|
o
|n| |√ a2 +b 2+ c 2|
 Where:
n is the normal vector in the form ¿ a , b , c >¿
b is a line in the plane in the form ¿ x 1−x 0 , y 1− y 0 , z 1−z 0 >¿o
 If a plane is given in the form ax +by +cz =d , then the vector perpendicular to the plane is
given by ¿ a , b , c >¿
Unit 1.3 – Gaussian Elimination
 The Goal of Gaussian elimination is to transform a matrix into the form form:

[ ]
1 ⋯ na
o ⋮ ⋱ ⋮b
0 ⋯ 1c
 In this form, the diagonals much all equal 1
 The values under the diagonal must all be zero (Upper Triangular form)
 The values above the diagonal can be any real number
 The values of a, b, c are real numbers
 Row-echelon form. A matrix is in row-echelon form if it is in the form:

[ ]
1 ⋯ 0a
o ⋮ ⋱ ⋮b
0 ⋯ 1c
 The diagonals much all equal 1
 All other values must be zero.
 The values of a, b, c are real numbers
Theorem 1.2:
⃑
 Let [ A∨b ] be an augmented matrix with A in row-echelon form
 The system us inconsistent (has no solutions) if A has a row of zeros and the
⃑
corresponding b value of the row is not zero. (e.g., [0 0 0∨6 ])
 The system is consistent and has a unique solution if a ii ≠ 0 (i.e., none of the
diagonal entries values are zero)
 The system is inconsistent and has an infinite many solutions if the number of non-
zero rows in A is less than the number of columns in A

[ ]
6 4 58
e.g. 9 2 37
0 0 00
What the results of a 3x3 matrix (set of three linear equations) means:
 One unique solution:
 The planes all intersect at a singular point

 Infinitely many solutions:

 The planes intersect at a line (are intersecting at every point of the line)

 No solutions:
 The planes are parallel to each other
Unique Solution Theorem
 Let A be an n × n matrix. Then the following statements are equivalent (if one is true, all are
true)
⃑ ⃑
o The system [ A∨b ] has a unique solution for each column vector b
o A is row equivalent (can be reduced by row reduction to an upper triangular matrix
with non-zero diagonals)
o
⃑ ⃑
0 (The zero matrix) is the only solution of A∨0 ¿
Unit 1.4 – Matrix introduction
Row Matrix/Vector
 If a matrix A, only has one row:
o A=[a1 a2 … an ]

Column Matrix/Vector
 If a matrix A only has one column

[]
a1
a2
o
⋮
a3
o Then A is a column matrix or column vector

Definition

 Let A=[a¿¿ ij ]¿ and B=[bij ] be two matricies of the same size, m× n . We say that A and B
are equal if all the corresponding entries are equal. That is:
o [ a ij ]=[ b¿¿ ij]¿ if and only ifa ij=bij
for all i=1,2 , … , mand j=1,2 ,… , n
Square Matrix
 A square matrix is one that has an equal number of rows and columns. Therefore, n=m
Identity matrix
 The identity matrix is a square matrix where the entries along the diagonals is 1 and all other
entries are zero

[ ] [ ]
1 0 0 0
⃑ 0 1 0 0
o I 4= 1 0 0 ⃑
I 3= 0 1 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0 1

Zero Matrix
 The zero matrix is a square matrix where all the values are 0

[ ] [ ]
0 0 0 0
⃑ 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 ⃑
o 0 4= 0= 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 3
0 0 0
0 0 0 0

Transpose Matrix

 The transpose matrix A, denoted by AT is the matrix that is obtained by switching the rows
and columns of A

[ ]
2 3
o A= [ 2 1 4
3 8 5 ] T
A =1 8
4 5
Symmetrical Matrix

 A square matrix A of size n × m is symmetric, if a ij=a ji for all values of i , j=1,2 , … , n

[ ]
1 5 8
o A= 5 3 4
8 4 7
o The transpose of a symmetrical matrix is identical to the original matrix
 A=A T

Upper Triangular Matrix

 An upper triangular matrix is a square matrix that contains only zeros below the diagonal

[ ]
3 4 5
o 0 7 2
0 0 1
Lower Triangular Matrix
 A lower triangular matrix is a square matrix that contains only zeros above the diagonal

[ ]
1 0 0
o 8 4 0
9 3 7
Diagonal Matrix
 A diagonal matrix is a square matrix in which the entries outside of the diagonal are all zero

[ ]
7 0 0
o 0 8 0
0 0 5
Negative Matrix
 The negative of matrix A , denoted by − A , and is the matrix whose entries are all the
opposite side of A

[ ] [ ]
5 9 −4 −5 −9 4
o A= −7 3 6 − A= 7 −3 −6
−2 8 −3 2 −8 3
Matrix addition

 Given two matrices of the same size, A=[aij ] and B=[ b ij ] , the matrix A+ B is obtained by
adding the corresponding entries of A and B
o A= [ 42 −66 ] B=[−812 −37 ]
A+ B=[
16 3 ]
−6 1
o

Properties of matrix addition

 Let A, B, C be three matrices of the same size
o A+ B=B+ A (Commutative Law)
o ( A+ B ) +C= A+ ( B+C ) (Associative Law)
o ⃑ ⃑
A+ 0=0+ A= A (Additive identity)
o A+ (− A )= A−A=0 (Additive inverse)
o ( A+ B )T =A T + BT (Transpose of a sum)
Scalar Multiplication
 The scalar multiplication of a m× n matric A=[a¿¿ ij ]¿ and a real number r is defined as:
o rA=r [ aij ] =[ r aij ] , where i=1,2 … m∧ j=1,2, … n

 A=
[ 126 −180 ]
 6 A=
[ 3672 −108
0 1
] 2 A=[ 36 −90 ]
Properties of Scalar multiplication
 Let A , B be two matrices of the same size and let r , s be real numbers.
o r ( A + B )=rA +rB (Distributive law)
o ( r + s ) A=rA+ sA (Distributive law)
o (rs ¿ A=r ( sA ) =s (rA ) (Associative law)
o 1 A= A (Multiplicative identity)
o ⃑
0 A=0 (Multiplicative zero)
o ( cA )T =c ( A )T (Transpose of a scalar multiplication)

Matrix multiplication
 If A is an m× n matrix and B is an n × k matrix, then the product, C= AB is a m× k matrix
where entry c ij of C is the dot product of the i th row of A and the j th column of B given by.
o c ij =a i1 b1 j + ai 2 b 2 j +…+ a¿ bnj

[ ]
2 −1
 A= [
3 −1 3
−1 5 2 ]
(2 ×3) B= 5 5 (3 × 2)
4 −1

 AB=
[
( 3 )( 2 ) + (−1 ) ( 5 ) + ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 3 ) (−1 )+ (−1 )( 5 ) + ( 3 )(−1 )
(−1 )( 2 ) + ( 5 ) ( 5 ) + ( 2 ) ( 4 ) (−1 ) (−1 )+ ( 5 )( 5 )+ (2 )(−1 ) ]
 AB=
31 24[
13 −11
]
(2 ×2)

Properties of matrix multiplication

 ( AB ) C= A ( BC ) (Associative Law)
 A ( B +C ) =AB+ AC (Distributive law)
 ( A+ B ) C=AC+ BC (Distributive law)
 ( AB )T =( BT ) ( A T ) (Transpose of a product)
 IA= A= AI (Multiplicative identity)
⃑ ⃑
 0 A=0 (Zero element)
 AB≠ BA (Not communitive)
 The square ( An ¿ of a matrix is only possible for a square matrix (n × n)

Things to note
 In general, AB≠ BA
⃑ ⃑ ⃑
 if AB+ 0 , we cannot conclude that either A=0 or B=0
 if AB=BC we cannot conclude that B=C
Unit 1.5 – Inverse of a square matrix
Inverse of a matrix

 An n × n matrix A , is invertible (or nonsingular) when there exists an n × n matrix A−1 such
that
o A−1 A=A A−1=I n
 If such a matrix exists, it is unique. The matrix A−1 is then called the inverse of A .
 If such a matrix does not exist, we say that it is non-invertible or singular.
General Rules
 Only a square matrix can have an inverse
 It is not true that the inverse of a matrix consists of the inverse of the entries
Finding the inverse of a matrix
1. Argument A with the identity matrix I :[ A∨I ]
2. Transform A into reduced echelon form while simultaneously applying the same elementary
operations to I
3. If [ A|I ] reduces to [I ∨B] , then A−1=B . If not, then A is not invertible.

Properties of matrix inverses

 Let A and B be n × n matrices, each of which has an inverse. Then:
−1
o A−1 has an inverse and ( A−1 ) = A
o AB has an inverse and ( AB )−1=B−1 A−1
o
−1
If k is a nonzero scalar, then kA has an inverse, and ( kA ) = ( 1k ) A −1

−1 T
A has an inverse and ( AT ) =( A−1 )
T
o
−1 n
o For any n ϵ Ν : ( A n ) =( A−1 )
o ¿
Proof for point 2, AB has an inverse and ( AB )−1=B−1 A−1

 Since we know that ( AB )( AB )−1=I 2=I ,then if we prove that: ( AB ) ( B−1 A−1 ) =I ,we will
prove the statement.
o ¿ ( AB ) ( B−1 A −1 )
¿ A(BB ) A
−1 −1
o (Associative Law)
o ¿ ( A A ) ( B B )(Associative Law)
−1 −1

o but , ( AA −1) =I ∧( B B−1 ) I

o ¿> ( A A−1 ) ( BB )−1= ( I ) ( I ) =I 2=I

In general:
⃑
 If A is invertible, then A ⃑x=b has a unique solution
o ⃑x= A−1 b⃑

Unique Solution Theorem

 Let A be an n × n matrix. Then the following statements are equivalent (if one is true, all are
true)
 ⃑ ⃑
o The system [ A∨b ] has a unique solution for each column vector b
o A is row equivalent (can be reduced by row reduction to an upper triangular matrix
with non-zero diagonals)
o
⃑ ⃑
0 (The zero matrix) is the only solution of A∨0 ¿
o If A is invertible

Matrix Equation – Cancellation property

 If C is invertible, then:
 If AC=BC , then A=B
o Proof:
 AC=BC
 Multiply by C−1from the right on both sides.
 ( AC ) C−1 =( BC ) C−1
 A ( C C−1 )=B(C C −1 ) (Associative Law)
 A ( I )=B ( I )
 ¿> A=B
 If CA =CB, then A=B
o Proof:
 AC=BC
 Multiply C−1 from the left on both sides
 C−1 ( CA )=C−1 ( CB )
 ( C−1 C ) A=(C¿ ¿−1C)B ¿ (Associative Law)
 (I ) A=(I ) B
 A=B
Special Inverse - 2 ×2 matrices

 Let A= [ ac bd ]
o If ad−bc ≠ 0, then A =
−1 1
[ d −b
ad−bc −c a ]
o If ad−bc=0, then A−1 does not exist.

Orthogonal matrices
 A square matrix A is orthogonal if:
o A−1=A T or A AT =I

Diagonal matrix
1
 If A=[ aij ]is a diagonal matrix and A is invertible, then A−1has diagonal entries and zero
aii
everywhere else.

[ ]
2 0 0
o If A= 0 3 0 then:
0 0 1
 [ ]
1
0 0
2
o A−1= 1
0 0
3
0 0 1
Unit 1.6 – Determinants
Determinant of a 2 ×2 matrix

 Let A= [ ac bd ]
 det ( A )=| A|=ad−bc
o E.g. Let A= [
2 5
7 12 ]
o det ( A )=( 2 ) ( 12 )−( 5 ) ( 7 )
o det ( A )=−11

Minor

 If A=[ aij ] is a square matrix, then the Minor M ij of the entry a ij is the determinant of the
matrix obtained after deleting the row i and column j from the matrix A

[ ]
a11 a12 a13
o Let A= a 21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33

o M 21=
|
a 12 a13
a 32 a33 |
=a12 a 33−a13 a32

o M 21=a12 a33−a 13 a 32
Cofactor
i+ j
 The cofactor C ij is defined as C ij =(−1 ) M ij

[ ]
a11 a12 a13
o Let A= a 21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33

o C 13=(−1 )
1+3
M 13= (−1 )
4
|
a12 a 13
a32 a 33 |
=( 1)(a 12 a33−a13 a32)

o C 13=a12 a33−a 13 a32

Determinant of a square matrix

 Let A=[ aij ] be an n × n matrix. Then:

 det ( A )=a 11 C11 +a12 C12 +…+a ij Cij

[ ]
1 2 3
o E.g. Let A= −1 0 4
5 1 2
o det ( A )=a 11 C11 +a12 C12 +a13 C13

o det ( A )=1 (−1 )

2 0
1 2 | |
4
+2 (−1 )
3 −1
5 2
4
|
+ 3 (−1 )
4 −1 0
5 1| | |
o det ( A )=( 1 ) ( 0−4 )+ (−2 )(−2−20 ) + ( 3 ) (−1−0 )
o det ( A )=−4+ 44−3
o det ( A )=37

Special case: Triangular Matrix

 If matrix A is a n × n, upper or lower triangular matrix, then:
 o det ( A )=(a¿¿ 11) ( a22) … .( ann )¿

Elementary operation to a matrix before finding the determinant.

 If you swap two rows (or columns), the sign of the determinant changes.
 If a single row or column gets multiplied by a scalar, r , the determinant is also multiplied by r
 Adding a multiple of one row to another has no change on the determinant
Matrices with zero determinants
 If an entire row (or column) consists of zero
 If two rows (or columns) are equal
 If one row (or column) is a multiple of another
Properties of determinants
Theorem 3.2
 Let A and B be n × n matrices, and k ∈ E . Then:
n
 det ( kA )=k det ( A )
 det ( AB )=det ( A ) det ( B )
Theorem 3.3
 Let A be a n × n matrix. Then:
 det ( A )=det ( AT )
Theorem 3.4
 Let A be an n × n¿ . Then:
o A is invertible if and only if det ⁡( A) ≠ 0 (Linear algebra notes page 50)

Theorem 3.5
 Let A be an n × n matrix that is invertible. Then
1
o det ( A−1 ) =
det ( A )
Theorem 3.6 – Cramer’s rule
⃑
 Let A ⃑x=b be a system of n linear equations with n unknows. We denote A j, the matrix
⃑
obtained by replacing the enters in the j th column of A by the entries in matrix b . If
det ⁡( A)≠ 0, then the system has a unique solution
det ( A 1) det ( A 2 ) det ( A n )
o x 1= , x2= ,… , x n= .
det ( A ) det ( A ) det ( A )
Unique Solution Theorem
 Let A be a n × n matrix. Then the following statements are equivalent (if one is true, all are
true)
⃑ ⃑
o The system [ A∨b ] has a unique solution for each column vector b
o A is row equivalent (can be reduced by row reduction to an upper triangular matrix
with non-zero diagonals)
o ⃑ ⃑
0 (The zero matrix) is the only solution of A∨0 ¿
o If A is invertible (Theorem 3.4)
o The determinant of A is non-zero (Theorem 3.4)
Geometric applications – Aera of a parallelogram

 Two vectors ⃑x and ⃑ 2 2

y in R define a parallelogram in R (2D).
 Let A be a 2 ×2 matrix with column vectors ⃑x and ⃑
y . The area of the parallelogram is given
by the absolute value of the determinant of A

o
⃑
A=¿ y ¿=
x1
x2 [ ] y1
y2
o |det ⁡( A)|=|x 1 y 2−x 2 y 2|unit s2
Geometric applications: Volume of a parallelepiped

 Three vectors ⃑x , ⃑ ⃑ 3 3
y and z in R define a parallelepiped in R (3D).
 Let A be a 3 ×3 matrix with column vectors ⃑x , ⃑ ⃑
y and z . The column of the parallelepiped is
given by the absolute value of the determinant of A
 ⃑⃑⃑
A=[ x y z ]
 ⃑ ⃑ ⃑
det ( A )=volume of the parallelepiped by x , y∧ z
Unit 2 – Integrals
Standard Integrals
Integral of a constant function
 ∫ c . dx=cx +C
Integral of a power function
1
∫[ f (x )]
n n+1

'
. f ( x ) . dx=
n+1
[ f ( x ) ] +C

Integral of the natural exponential function

 ∫ e f ( x) . f ' ( x ) . dx=e f ( x)+ C
Integral of any exponential function
1
 ∫ af ( x ) . f ' ( x ) . dx= ln ( a ) .a f ( x ) +C
Integral of the trigonometric function
 ∫ sin ( f ( x ) ) . f ( x ) . dx=−cos ( f ( x ) ) +C
'

 ∫ cosec ( f ( x )) . f ( x ) . dx=ln|cosec ( f ( x ) )−cot ( f ( x ))|+C

'

 ∫ cos ( f ( x ) ) . f ( x ) . dx=sin ( f ( x ) ) +C
'

 ∫ sec ( f ( x ) ) . f ' ( x ) . dx=ln |sec ( f ( x ) ) +tan ( f ( x ) )|+C

 ∫ tan ( f ( x ) ) . f ' ( x ) . dx=ln|sec ( f ( x ) )|+C
 ∫ cot ( f ( x )) . f ( x ) . dx=ln|sin ( f ( x ) )|+C
'

 ∫ sec ( f ( x ) ) . f ( x ) . dx=tan ( f ( x ) ) +C
2 '

 ∫ cose c ( f ( x ) ) . f ( x ) .dx =−cot ( f ( x ) ) +C

2 '

 ∫ sec ( f ( x ) ) . tan ( f ( x ) ) . f ( x ) . dx=sec ( f ( x ) ) +C

'

 ∫ cosec ( f ( x )) cot ( f ( x ) ) . f ( x ) . dx=−cosec ( f ( x ) )+ C

'

ln ( x2 +1 )
 ∫ arctan ( x )=xarctan ( x ) − 2
+C

Even powered trigonometric functions

Use the following identities to solve:
1
sin 2 ( x )= ( 1−cos (2 x) )
2
2 1
cos ( x )= ( 1+cos ( 2 x ) )
2
tan ( x )=sec 2 ( x )−1
2

1 1 1
 ∫ cos 2 ( x ) . dx=∫ 2 ( 1+cos ( 2 x ) ) . dx= 2 x + 4 sin ( 2 x ) +C
1 1 1
 ∫ sin 2 (x) . dx=∫ 2 ( 1−cos ( 2 x ) ) . dx= 2 x− 4 sin ( 2 x )+ C
 ∫ tan2 ( x ) . dx=∫(sec2 (x)¿−1) .dx =tan ⁡(x)−x +C ¿
Odd powered trigonometric function
Use the following identities to solve:
2 2
cos ( x ) +sin ( x ) =1

 ∫ cos 3 (x) . dx=∫ cos 2 ( x ) .cos ( x ) . dx=∫ ( 1−sin2 ( x ) ) cos ( x )=¿ ¿

(∫ cos ( x ) . dx−∫ sin 2 ( x ) cos ( x ) . dx )=sin ( x ) − 13 sin3 ( x ) +C
Integrals of the inverse of trigonometric functions
 ∫
√ a −|f2
(
f ' (x )
x |
)
(
2 a )
f (x)
. dx=arcsin
+C

. dx=arccos ( )
'
−f ( x ) f (x)
 ∫ +C
√ a −|f ( x )|
2 2 a


 ∫
f '(x)
a2 +|f ( x )|
1
. dx= arctan
a 2
f (x)
a
+C ( )
'
f (x)
 ∫ f ( x ) . dx=ln|f ( x)|+ C
Integral of hyperbolic functions
 ∫ sinh ( f ( x )) . f ( x ) . dx=cosh ( f ( x ) ) +C
'

 ∫ cosh ( f ( x ) ) . f ( x ) . dx=sinh ( f ( x ) ) +C
'

 ∫ sech ( f ( x ) ) . f ( x ) . dx=tanh ( f ( x ) ) +C
2 '

Integration by parts - Product rule for integration

 ∫ f ( x ) . g ' ( x ) .dx =f ( x ) . g ( x ) −∫ f ' ( x ) . g( x )
Integration of even function
 If a function is even, then f ( x)=f (−x ) , therefore, if:
a
o ∫ f ( x)
−a
a a 0
o Then, ∫ f ( x)=2∫ f ( x ) =2 ∫ f ( x)
−a 0 −a

Integration of odd function

 If a function is odd, then f ( x )=−f ( x ). Therefore: if,
a
o ∫ f ( x)
−a
a 0
o Then, ∫ f ( x ) =−∫ f (x )
0 −a
a
o Therefore, ∫ f ( x)=0
−a
Trigonometric substitution
Type 1
o If √ a2−x 2 occurs in an integral, try substitution:
π π
 x=asin ( θ ) ,− ≤ θ ≤
2 2
o Example:
 ∫ √9−x 2 . dx let x=3 sin ( θ ) . Then dx=3 cos ( θ ) .dθ . So,
∫ √9−x 2 . dx=∫√ 9−9 sin2 ( θ ) .3 cos (θ ) . dθ
∫ √9 ¿ ¿ ¿
∫ √9 ¿ ¿ ¿
∫ 3 cos (θ ) .3 cos ( θ ) . dθ
9 ∫ cos ( θ ) . dθ
2

1
9∫ ¿ ¿
2
9 9
¿ ¿
2 2
but,

x=3 sin ( θ ) Therefore θ=arcsin()

x
3
x
,sin ( θ )= ∧cos (θ )=
3 ( √9−x 2
3 )
( 3x )+( 3x )( √ 9−x
3 )
2
9 9
therefore, ¿ arcsin
2 2

Type 2
o If √ a2 + x 2occurs in an integral, try substitution:
π π
 x=atan ( θ ) ,− <θ<
2 2
Type 3
o If √ x 2−a2 occurs in an integral, try substitution:
π 3π
 x=asec ( θ ) , 0 ≤θ < ∨π ≤θ<
2 2
Unit 2.7 – Area between two curves
For a graph such as the following:

 To find the area of a graph in terms of x, do the following

o Find the points of intersections between the two graphs ¿andc ¿
o Then take the integral of the graph on top and minus it from the integral of the
graph on the bottom
 Therefore, the area from 0 – C will ne
 ¿

 If the function is about the y axis:

o Find the points in terms of y
o Then take the top integral and minus it from the bottom integral
 Therefore, the area between the line y=4 , y=3 , y=ln ( x ) , x=0 is:
3 4
e e

 ∫ ( 4−3 ) . dx+∫ ( 4−ln ( x ) ) . dx OR

3
0 e
4

 ∫ e y . dy
3
Unit 2.8 – Volume of a solid of revolution
Rotate about the x−axis :

 Use the following formula to determine the volume of the solid

b
V =π ∫ y .dx
2
o
a
 Where y=f ( x )
b b
Therefore, V =π ∫ y .dx =π ∫ (f (x )) . dx
2 2

a a

Rotate about the y−axis

 Use the following formula to determine the volume of the solid

b
V =π ∫ x . dy
2
o
a

 Where y=f ( x ) ,then determine x in terms of y ¿i.e., determine f −1 ( x ) ¿

b b
Therefore, V =π ∫ x . dy=π ∫ ( f
2 −1 2
 (x )) . dy
a a
Unit 2.9 – Arc Length
The length of arc can between two points (a∧b ) can be determined by the following formulas:

√
b
 L=∫ 1+
a
( )
dy 2
dx
dx OR

∫√
b
1+( ) dy
2
dx
 L=
a dy

Arc length as a function


√
ds= 1+( ) dy 2
dx
. dx

√
ds= 1+( ) . dy
2
dx

dy
Unit 2.10 – Area of a surface of revolution
Rotated about the y−axis

√
b
SA=∫ 2 πy 1+
a
( )
dx 2
dy
dy

√
b

( )
2
dy
SA=∫ 2 πy 1+ dx
a dx

Rotated about the x−axis

√
b
SA=∫ 2 πx 1+
a
( )
dy 2
dx
dx

√
b

( )
2
dx
SA=∫ 2 πx 1+ dy
a dy
Unit 3
Unit 3.1
Unit 3.2
Unit 3.3
Unit 4
Unit 4.1 – Parametric and Polar equations
Parametric curves
 Find the tangent in terms of x and y . To do this, derive both x and y in terms of t. Then put
the derivatise over each other in the form below
' dy ' dx
o g (t )= f ( t )=
dt dt
dy
dt
o dy f ' ( t ) dx dy
= = =
dx g ' ( t ) dt dx
 Horizontal tangent:
dy dx
o A horizontal tangent will exist where =0 AND ≠0
dt dt
 Vertical tangent:
dx
o A vertical tangent will exist where =0
dt
 Second derivative
o The second derivative is the derivative of the first derivative with respect to t over
dx
.
dt

 2
d dy
dt dx [ ]
d y dx
=
2
d x dt
 Area under the curve
o Let x=f (t )∧ y=g ( t ) . Then find f ' ( t ) . Change a andb to be in terms of t . Use the
following formula:
β
 A=∫ g ( t ) . f ' ( t ) . dt – where f ( β )=f ( a ) and f ( α )=f (b)
α
 Arclength
o Let x=f (t )∧ y=g ( t ) . Change a andb to be in terms of t . Use the following formula:

√(
β

) ( )
2 2
dx dy
L=∫
 + . dt where f ( β )=f ( a )∧f ( α )=f ¿ ¿)
α dt dt
 Surface area rotated about the x−axis
o Let x=f (t )∧ y=g ( t ) . Change a andb to be in terms of t . Use the following formula:

√(
β

)( )
2 2
dx dy
 S=2 π ∫ g (t) + . dt where f ( β )=f ( a )∧f ( α ) =f ¿ ¿)
α dt dt
 Surface area rotated about the y−axis
o Let x=f (t )∧ y=g ( t ) . Change a andb to be in terms of t . Use the following formula:

√(
β
 S=2 π ∫ f (t )
α dt ) ( )
dx 2 dy 2
+
dt
. dt where f ( β )=f ( a )∧f ( α )=f ¿ ¿)
Polar coordinates
 Polar coordinates
o A point in polar space is represented by a distance and an angle. This angle is
measured clockwise from the x−axis . The standard formula for a polar coordinate
is: (r , θ)
 Convert from polar to cartesian:
o x=rcos ( θ ) y=rsin ( θ ) 2 2
x + y =r
2

 Polar equations:
o General formula: r =f (θ)
 Tangent to polar curves
dy
dy dθ d
o r =f ( θ ) x=f (θ ) cos ( θ )=f (θ)sin (θ ) = = ¿¿
dx dx dθ
dθ
 Horizontal tangent:
dy dx
o Where: =0 and ≠ 0
dθ dθ
 Vertical tangent:
o Where:
dx
=0
dθ
Conic Sections

 Parabola
o A parabola is a set of points that are equidistant from a fixed point F (focus) and a
fixed line (Directrix)

o General formula:
 x 2=4 py
 Where (0 , p) is the focus (in term
y=−p is the directrix
2
 y =4 px
 Where ( p , 0) is the focus (in term
x=− p is the directrix
 Ellipse
o An ellipse is a set of points such that the sum of the distance to two fixed points F 1
and F 2 (foci) is a constant

o General formula:
2 2
x y
 2
+ 2 =1
a b
 Where the Foci is: ( ± c ,0 ) , where c=a2−b 2
Vertices at (± a , 0)
 Hyperbola
o A hyperbola is a set of points such that the difference between the distance from
two fixed points F 1 and F 2 (foci) is a constant.

o General formula:
2 2
x y
 2
− 2 =1
a b
 Where the Foci is: ( ± c ,0 ) , where c=a2−b 2
Vertices at (± a , 0)
b
Asymptotes: y=± x
a
Unit 4.2 - Vector functions and Space Curves
Vector valued function

 A function that for every t value in the domain ( t ϵ R ¿ , there exists a vector r denoted by:
^ g ( t ) ^j+h ( t ) k^
o r ( t )=¿ f ( t ) , g ( t ) , h ( t )> ¿ r ( t )=f ( t ) i+
 Limit of a vector function:
o Provided the limit exists for each component of a function, then
 lim r (t )=¿ lim f ( t ) , lim g (t ) , lim h ( t )> ¿
t →a t→a t →a t→a
 Continuity
o A vector r is continuous at a lim r (t )=r ( a ) if and only if all component functions are
t →a
continuous at a .
 Derivative of a vector function
o r ' ( t )=¿ f ' ( t ) , g ' ( t ) , h ' ( t ) >¿
 Tangent line
' (t )
r
o T ( t )=
|r ' ( t )|
Unit 5
Partial derivative
 Let f be a function of two variables z=f ( x , y ).
o The partial derivative of f with respect to x is given as the following:
∂f ∂z
 f x ( x , y )= = =Dx f
∂x ∂x
 To derive the function, you let x vary and fix y . This makes y
become a constant and you derive normally towards x.
o The partial derivative of f with respect to y is given as the following
∂f ∂ z
 f y ( x , y )= = =D y f
∂y ∂ y
 To derive the function, you let y vary and fix x . This makes x
become a constant and you derive normally towards y.
 Higher order partial derivative
o 1st order:
 f x ∨f y
nd
o 2 order:
 f xx ∨f xy∨f yy∨f yx
 In the above, you derive what is closest to f first and move
outwards.

Tangent Plane
 Equation of the tangent plane to the surface z=f (x , y ) at the point P(x 0 , y 0 , z 0) is:
o z−z 0=f x ( x 0 , y 0 )( x −x0 ) + f y ( x 0 , y 0 ) ( y − y 0 )
Unit 6
Approximation of Functions by Polynomials
 Taylor polynomials
o If f is n -times differentiable at c , then the polynomial below is the nth degree Taylor
polynomial of f at c .
'' ' '' n
f (c ) 2 f (c ) 3 f (c )
 '
T n=f ( c ) + f ( x−c )+ ( x−c ) + ( x−c ) + …+ ( x−c )n
2! 3! n!
 Maclaurin polynomial
o If the above is true and c=0. Then:
'' 2 ''' 3 n n
' f ( 0) x f ( 0) x f (0 ) x
 M n ( x )=f ( 0 ) + f ( 0 ) x + + +…+
2! 3! n!