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180 Chapter 11 Composite sustainability indices (CSI)
Asmentioned earlier, most chemicals are flammable, explosive, and toxic. Almost 70% of impacts are
from explosion related to fire (Lees, 1996); however, both fre and explosion are less influential than toxic~
ity based on the number of affected people (Belk, 2000), Toxie release to nature as a result of industrial
accidents has adverse effects on the environment and human society. As a case atthe point, the disaster in,
the Union Carbide Pesticide Plant on December 02, 1984, in Bhopal, India, was a massive warning to the
industrial world, At least 30 tons of methyl isocyanate and some other poisonous gases were discharged
into the shanty towns in the vicinity ofthe plant. And more than 600,000 people were exposed to the gas
cloud that night, The estimates ofthe death toll as a result of this accident by goverament figures refer to
an assessment of 15,000 killed over the years, and the plant is still abandoned (Taylor. 2014)
Koller et al. (2001) reviewed and classified the significant characteristics of 13 index methods and
applied the theoretical concepts of 9 proper procedures at the conceptual design of 9 distinctive pro-
cesses. They also suggested merging different techniques and using the history of previous incidents and
accidents in the process plants to assess the risk in lack of information on equipment and plant. Tixier
etal, (2002) also identified 62 safety risk analysis methods in industrial plants and identified the lack of
‘human risk analysis in classical risk analysis, Then, they concluded there was no uniqueness of methods
of accomplishment the risk analysis and, therefore, recommended combining of several methodologies.
‘Thus, Ordoue' et al. (2014b) found it crucial to integrate risk to human society and chemical toxicity into
their isk assessment model. They also justified the shortcomings pointed out by Keller and Tixierin the de-
velopment oftheir risk assessment methodology. This model (Ordouei eal, 2014) is a robust tool for ISD
in chemical processes. The ISD is a systematic tactic to minimize the risks tothe safety of a process plant,
‘human, environment, and equipment during the design and operation ofthe process (Ilendershot, 2011)
‘The proposed risk index by Ordouei etal. (2014b) is compliant with the ISD’s four policies intro-
duced by the Center for Chemical Process Safety (2009), which are as follows:
+ Intensification: Minimization ofthe hazardous compound within a process plant
+ Substitution: Substitution of hazardous materials with benign compounds.
+ Moderation: Handling and transporting of hazardous chemicals under reduced risk conditions
(eg. dilution, refrigeration, ec.)
+ Limitation: Diminishing the probability of accidents and associated damages, for example,
applying interlocking commands for process contol
Ordouei’s (2014b) index mitigates the effect of obtaining unrealistic results for certain instances. It
can be used at the primitive stage of chemical process designs, which are presented by the following
equations:
(R1Y = DEM xh xx, a3
(Ra) = SM xx HX, aia)
where
+ Ris the Risk Index defined as the number of affected people per year. The R.J represents the
‘maximum potential risks to society Del
11.2 The CSI methodology and applications 181
The superscripts P and W stand for product and waste streams, respectively
The subscripts ‘and k denote the chemical contents in product and waste streams, respectively
As such, the superscripts j and / designate the product and waste streams within a process,
respectively.
+ M, and M, are chemical inventories in product and waste streams, respectively (the maximum 1
‘month of plant production in ton).
+ frand f, ate frequency of accidents for chemical components i and k in the number of accidents
per year,
+H, and H; are hazard effects in the number of people affected per ton of chemical components i
and k
‘Thus, the total risk (RJ)? is defined as the summation of the risks associated with product and waste
streams a3 follows
(RD! = (RD +(RD” aLs)
‘When both sides of Ey. (11.5) are divided by the annual plant capacity normalized risk index will
be obtained, which is independent of the process size
(RDT (RLY (RD
Der LP LP
whore subscript s denotes the stream number of products Eq, (11.6) enables process and safety en-
zineets to compare two or more processes with diferent production capacities. The fist term of the
right-hand side of Eo, (11.6) represents the risks associated with product streams per ton, and the
second term describes the risks associated with waste streams per ton. In the cases that all circus
(Rt
LP
a6)
stances in design alternatives are identical, the term
would be eminent for the design ranking.
‘The Ordouei’s (2014) risk index has broad applications from small to large scales complex plants,
such as chemical, refinery, and petrochemical processes. This risk model is one of the three pillars of
the CSI methodology. This means that a chemical process endorsed by the CSI is inherently safe. A
detailed method and databank for f and H factors have been presented by Oriovei ct al, (20b) and
AlsShavral et al. (2007), To test the model, the chlorination of methane process has been studied, as
shown in Fig, 11.2.B. The tisk index identified that the base model is inherently safer relative to the
alternative process.
11.2.3 Energy impact index
A large portion of the expenses of each family and business goes o energy consumptions in their residential
and commercial buildings and/or manufacturing plants. Energy generation from fossil fuels (e.., coal, natural
a, and oil) in power plants in the form of heat and electricity causes GHGs emissions to the atmosphere
and, consequently, global warming or climate change. Study reveals the following (Swibig etal, 2016); Se
182 Chapter 11 Composite sustainability indices (CSI)
(a)
(8)
FIG, 11.2 Chlorination of methane,
(9 Original design without recycling. (B) Alternative design with recycling (Ordovsl etal, 20140)
+ The CO, emission to the atmosphere has reached an amount of 165 x 10° metric tons (165
Gigatons) since the industrial revolution in the 1750s. Therefore, the main constituent of climate
change is anthropogenic.
+ About 2.2 x 10° tons (Gigatons) CO; per year is sunk tothe planet's oceans, increasing the
acidity of the oceans (ie., a decrease in the ocean's PUD, which is harmful to aquatic ie
In 2011, the highest source of GHG emissions in the United States was electricity production by
33% and the second one was the industrial sector by 20% (Siriebig et al., 2016).
‘Thus, i is imperative to find technological solutions to battle climate change and also to provide
a vital tool to estimate the impacts of GHGs emissions on the environment, Several methodologies
hhave been proposed by scientists and engineers to fulfil this task, as summarized in Table 11.4. Itean
be seen from this table that the majority of the methodologies are merely applicable to premises (not
industries), and the rest methods are either inaccurate or require a score of information and, therefore,
not suitable at the process design phase.
Fortunately, a simple and quantitative energy efficiency methodology, which demands minimum
data, such as fuel characteristics, does exist (Ordouei etal. 2018). The proposed method established a 183
11.2 The CSI methodology and applications
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