MAM-051

Fundamentals of
Indira Gandhi National Open University Agriculture
School of Agriculture

1
BLOCK
INDIAN AGRICULTURE 4
UNIT 1
Evolution and Development of Agriculture 5
UNIT 2
Soil and Water Conservation 22
UNIT 3
Irrigation and Drainage 44
UNIT 4
Soil Fertility Management 66
UNIT 5
Pest and Disease Management 94
PROGRAMME DESIGN COMMITTEE
Prof. R. P. Das, PVC, IGNOU Dr. Anjali Ramtake, Associate Professor,
SOMS, IGNOU
Prof. S.K. Yadav, Director, SoA, IGNOU Dr. Leena Singh, Assistant Professor,
SOMS, IGNOU
Dr. B.K. Sikka, Former Dean, College of Prof. Sunil Gupta, SOMS, IGNOU
Agribusiness Management, GBPUAT
Dr. V.C. Mathur, Former Professor and Dr. V. Vijaya kumar, Associate Professor,
Head, Div. of Agri. Econ. IARI SoA
Dr. Pramod Kumar, Principal Scientist Dr. Mita Sinhamahapatra, Associate
(Agri. Econ.) IARI Professor, SoA
Prof. M. K. Salooja, School of Dr. Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor,
Agriculture, IGNOU SoA
Dr. P. K. Jain, Associate Professor and
Programme Coordinator, SoA
Programme Coordinator: Dr. Praveen Kumar Jain
Block Preparation Team
Unit Writers Editors
Unit 1: Dr. P. K. Jain, SoA, IGNOU Dr. A.K. Agnihotri
Units 2 & 3: Dr. A.K. Mishra, IARI Dr. I.P.S. Ahalawat
Unit 4: Dr. Dinesh Kumar, IARI Dr. Praveen Kumar Jain,
Unit 5: Dr. Subhash Chander, IARI IGNOU

Course Coordinator: Dr. Praveen Kumar Jain

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February 2022
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MAM-051 FUNDAMENTALS OF AGRICULTURE
In India, agriculture is one of the most significant enterprises for ages and
will continue to be so in the future. The country with just 2.3% of the world’s
land area and about 4% water is supporting 17.5% of the world’s population.
Although agriculture made significant progress after independence, the
most spectacular achievements were made from the green revolution in the
late 1960s and early 1970s. The food grains production increased from 50.8
million tonnes in 1950-51 to 305 million tonnes in 2020-21.  This sector
accounts for 12% of India’s export earnings. Despite such achievements,
Indian agriculture still has the potential for major productivity gains in many
crops because our productivity levels are just 30 to 60% of the productivity
achievable in developed as well as other developing countries.
India has the distinction of being number one in the world in the production
of field crops like sorghum, millets, chickpea, pigeonpea, castor, sunflower,
ginger, spices, okra, jute, chillies and peppers, anise, coriander, fennel,
and many fruit and plantation crops. It ranks second in the world in the
production of two major food crops i.e. rice and wheat. Even though
remarkable progress in food grains production has been made resulting
in self-sufficiency, there still appears an ample opportunity for further
growth in total factor productivity. The enhancement in productivity could
be achieved by efficient utilization of resources in an integrated manner to
achieve maximum resource use efficiency.
The course on Fundamentals of Agriculture with altogether 14 units
in 3 blocks familiarizes you with comprehensive information on the
development of Indian agriculture from the prehistoric period to date. It also
deals with details of natural and other resources and their management and
efficient utilization for crop production. Besides, improved crop production
technology for maximizing the production of major cereals, coarse grain
crops, pulses, and oilseeds has also been covered. The course also explains
briefly the scope, prospectus, and practices of fruits, vegetables, and
flowers production. The livestock sector also plays a significant role in the
agricultural economy and exhibits a synergetic role in the production of the
agriculture sector. The course introduces with composition and production
of livestock enterprises. The course in the last provides an overview of
apiculture, sericulture, agro-forestry, and mushroom production. These
allied sectors constitute important sources of income and employment in
the rural economy. 
The course assessment as per IGNOU norms will be through assignments
and term-end examination. You must prepare the assignments based on your
understanding of the contents of this course and the application of the same
to the proposed business activity.
BLOCK 1 INDIAN AGRICULTURE
To understand the development of any system it is worthwhile to know
its beginning and how did it develop gradually as per the need of the time
and requirements considering the available natural resources. Unit 1 of this
block describes the evolution and development of agriculture from a his-
toric perspective and also before and after independence.  After completing
this unit, learners would be able to comprehend the changes in Indian agri-
culture since its inception, various programmes implemented for the devel-
opment of agricultural education, research, and extension system in India.
The soil and water make the essential natural resources for any form of
agriculture. In Unit 2, the problems, causes, and remedies are discussed
like soil erosion factors and measures to control it. Water management for
any farming system is very important. A planned soil and water conserva-
tion is needed using agronomic, mechanical, and watershed management
approaches. The various methods of irrigation, major irrigation projects,
drainage, and irrigation scheduling are discussed in Unit 3.
The fertility of the soil has to be maintained by applying balance use of
macro-micro nutrients through organic manures, inorganic fertilizers,
bio-fertilizers, recycling of agricultural waste, vermin-composting, and or-
ganic farming. A detail of soil fertility management concepts and practices
are given in Unit 4.
The crops are to be protected against pests and diseases for economic re-
turns. Unit 5 discussed the pests and diseases of major crops. The epidemics
and diagnostic system, integrated pest and disease management are elabo-
rated in the Unit. 
The material provided in this block is supplemented with various examples
and activities to make the learning process simple and interesting. We have
also provided Check Your Progress questions for the self-test at a few places
of these units which invariably lead to possible answers to the questions set
in those exercises. What perhaps you ought to do, is to go through units and
jot down important points as you read, in the space provided in the margin.
This will help you in assimilating the content. A list of reference books has
been provided at the end of each unit for further detailed reading.
UNIT 1 EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT
OF AGRICULTURE

Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History of Indian Agriculture
1.3 Agriculture in Prehistoric Era
1.4 Agricultural Development before Independence
1.5 Agricultural Development after Independence
1.5.1 Land reforms
1.5.2 Green revolution
1.5.3 Chemical fertilizers
1.5.4 Quality seeds
1.5.5 Irrigation
1.5.6 Farm implements
1.5.7 Prices
1.6 Animal Husbandry
1.7 Agricultural Research, Extension and Education System
1.7.1 Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
1.7.2 State Agricultural Universities (SAU)
1.7.3 Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK)
1.8 Let Us Sum UP
1.9 Keywords
1.10 Suggested Readings / References
1.11 Answers to Check Your Progress

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
●● discuss the changes in agriculture since the inception of civilization;
●● explain the phases of agriculture development in India;
●● state the various programmes implemented for the development of
agriculture; and
●● highlight the development of education, research and extension
systems in agriculture.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The word ‘agriculture’ is derived from the two Latin words ‘Ager’ referring
to the soil and ‘Cultura’ referring to the cultivation. Thus, agriculture is
a very broad term encompassing all aspects of crop production, livestock
farming, fisheries, poultry, forestry etc. All primary necessities of human
5
Indian Agriculture life viz., food, clothing and housing are directly related to agriculture.
Agriculture is the main profession and the most important human economic
activity worldwide. It differs from other industries being a biological
process. Agriculture channelizes the energy from incoming solar radiation
into crops and/or livestock through efficient management practices. The
physical resource base determines the level of use to which land can be
most economically put to agriculture at a particular time. The natural
variability of the physical environment makes agriculture one of the most
unpredictable human activities. Soil, climate and plants are three major
components of agriculture. In the absence of any one of these, agriculture
is not possible. Growing plants in the existing land base under prevailing
climatic conditions are called agriculture. Both soil and climate together
make the environment, which influences the completion of the plant life
cycle. Plants convert the environmental inputs like solar energy, carbon
dioxide, water and soil nutrients into economic products in terms of human
or animal food or industrial raw materials. This unit introduces you to
agriculture, particularly the evolution and development of agriculture.
Development of agriculture during various phases in India, the programmes
implemented, education, research and extension systems to support the
agriculture sectors, etc. are the major contents discussed in this unit.

1.2 HISTORY OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE

India was the pastoral country before agriculture started. Concurrently, the
development of crops and animals took place leading to the emergence of
various types of farming systems that are now seen in different parts of the
country.
The most important contribution of India towards the development of
agriculture is the cultivation of rice, which is now the staple food of South,
South-East and East Asia. Sugarcane, several legumes and tropical fruits like
mango are also natives of India. Mohan Jodaro to Harappa territory was
the centre of the agricultural revolution in the Indus valley during the period
3000-1700 BC. The scene of this revolution was in the countries between
the river Nile and the Ganges. Excavations in this area have revealed huge
granaries. Barely, wheat, sesame, peas, cotton, mustard, date palm and lentil
were the main crops during the period. Wooden plough and wheeled cart
were in use. Harappans knew ginning, spinning and weaving of cotton
into cloth. Farmers used sling-boll for scaring birds, cattle, buffalo, goats,
sheep, pigs, camel, ass, dog and cat. These have special mention in the list
of domesticated animals.
About 1800-1600 BC, Aryans migrated to India and got mixed with the
Harappans. Horses were the main domesticated animal besides cattle.
Agriculture was the most important profession during the Vedic age (1500-
1000 BC). The use of iron implements, particularly iron plough became
prevalent. Besides, barley, wheat, beans, sesame, millets and rice are
frequently referred to in Vedas. The importance of trees is mentioned during
the Buddhist period (600 BC). The importance of sowing season, climate,
cloud, soil fertility, irrigation and weed control has been emphasized several
times in Mahabharat and Ramayan during the period 1000 and 500 BC,
respectively. Irrigation from rivers, lakes and reservoirs has also been
6
mentioned. Evolution and Development of
Agriculture
During the first century of the Christian era and 300 AD, the cultivation of
rice with irrigation from the Cauvery River was the most important event
in Indian agriculture. After 300 AD, during the period of Chandragupta II,
Amarkosha was written, in which there is a mention of classification of soil
and land use, irrigation, implements and use of manures. Rice transplanting
was practised till that period besides cultivation of several field crops,
vegetables and fruits etc.
During the Kanuj Empire of Harsha (606-647 AD), fine scented rice was
grown in Magadh. Pomegranates and sweet oranges were also grown during
this period. There is mention about land manuring, crop rotation, irrigation,
tillage, implements, crop protection and meteorology in the book “Krishi
Parastra” written during 950-1100 AD. Several water reservoirs were made
during the period 1336-1646 AD and irrigation channels were constructed
‘Anantaraja Sagar’ in Vijayanagar district of A.P. (1337 AD) is one example.
Later Babar laid the foundation of the Mughal dynasty in India. Except for
gardens, flowers and provision of irrigation mainly in South India, there
was nothing special about agricultural development. The peasants became
disinterested in agriculture because of the large sum extracted from them as
peasantry (tax).

1.3 AGRICULTURE IN PREHISTORIC ERA

Since agriculture fulfils the need for food for humans and animals, it
appears to be a very primitive step of human civilization. The earliest man
(Homo erectus) emerged around one and half million years ago and spread
throughout the old world tropics and later to temperate zones. About 500
thousand years ago, he probably learnt to control and use fire. The earliest
man was distinguished from fellow animals by his intelligence and skill in
making tools and selection for self-use.
Homo sapiens, the direct ancestor of modern man lived 250 thousand years
ago. Homo sapiens, the modern man, appeared in Africa 35 thousand years
ago. He was distinguished from all other extinct species of genus Homo, by
a large brain, small teeth and chin and capacity for making and using tools.
He hunted a variety of animals and cooked their meat on fire. The weapons
for hunting were boulders and spears of wood tipped with blades of flint.
He also used stone-tipped arrows. Later, he domesticated the dog, which
greatly helped him in hunting. Apart from the meat, he gathered a variety
of seeds, leaves, fruits, roots, and other parts of plants from the forest for
food. He had no control over the food supply and was unable to cloth and
shelter adequately. During the period 8700 BC to 7700 BC, he domesticated
animals and turned a herdsman. He first domesticated sheep and later goats.
Between the period 7500 BC to 6500 BC, man gradually shifted from
hunting towards agriculture. Stone axes were used for cutting trees and
fire for burning forests. Agriculture has no single and simple origin. It was
started in different parts of the world during different periods. The evolution
of agriculture took place gradually with the changes in human civilization,
mostly based on experiences. The exact evidence is not known about the
shifting of man into agriculture from hunting and gathering of animals for
7
Indian Agriculture food. The hunting and gathering of food was a difficult job to collect the
food for each individual, while pastoral life and agriculture could support a
group. Thus, residing in groups or camps and dependency of food on plants
had started in human civilization. It is expected that pre-historic agriculture
might have developed in several steps as under:
(a) Conservation of desirable native plants: By using various parts
of plants like roots, seeds, leaves, flowers, fruits, etc. probably man
would have identified the desirable plants, which he referred to as
crop plants. Later on, he might have tried to conserve those plants
from danger.
(b) Collection and preservation of seeds: After eating the fruits, man
would have thrown the seeds elsewhere and they have seen the
germination of the same type of plants from thrown seeds. With this
experience, they might have learnt and decided to grow these plants
by using the collected and preserved seeds at the desirable place. In
this way, they would have started the collection and preservation of
seeds of useful plants.
(c) Sowing of seeds: With the increase in population, when the man
would have faced a shortage of foods, they might have started sowing
based on climatic suitability.
(d) Tilling of land: When birds or air or flow of water damaged seeds,
they might have thought to loose the hard soil surface with the help
of stone or wooden tools putting the seeds inside the soil to avoid the
damages.
(e) Shifting cultivation: After continuous growing of the same plants
for a long time, they might have observed poor growth in plants and
finally the yield. Thus, they might have left the land by using another
land for growing the plants. Initially, there was enough land for
raising the crops/plants and when they found a reduction in the yield
on the same land, then they might have shifted their farming to other
newly acquired lands by leaving the old land and living places. This
system of farming is referred to as shifting cultivation and is followed
in some tribal belts of Africa and Asia.
(f) Weed control: Farmers in ancient ages might have seen growing
several unwanted plants with the desirable plants competing with
them for growth resources. With this experience, they might have
started control of these unwanted plants (weeds) from the fields by
uprooting or cutting etc. Women mostly performed this work from
the very beginning.
(g) Fallowing of land: With the gradual increase in the population,
people have probably started living in groups together and established
villages with some economic management and then the practice of
shifting cultivation would have been avoided. On experiencing the
reduction in yield due to continuous raising of crop plants on the
same soil, they might have started fallowing of some portion of land
and tilling of old fallow land with unwanted green plants. Then they
might have experienced good yield from the fallow land.
8
(h) Use of domestic wastes as plant nourishment: By the use of Evolution and Development of
domestic wastes in agriculture as plant nourishment, people must Agriculture
have experienced the good growth of crop plants. Then they might
have started to preserve these wastes and use them in the cropped
land as manure. Meanwhile, they might have domesticated several
animals like sheep, goats, cows and buffalo etc. for their support, and
then they must have seen the tremendous effect of dung, urine and
animal wastes in improving the soil fertility. Thus, they had started
the use of ashes, domestic wastes, animal dung and urine and animal
wastes in the process of agricultural production.
(i) Following crop rotation: In due time, the cultivators must have
realized that growing cereals after legume crop give better yield,
which resulted in crop rotation practice. Later, they must have known
that legume plants fix atmospheric nitrogen through their root nodules.
(j) Green manuring: Later with this experience, legumes must have
been grown and then turning them into the soil with the help of
available equipment to improve the soil fertility.
The important events in the history of agriculture after 7500 BC can be
listed below.
Period Event
7500 BC Conservation of crops (wheat, barley)
6000 BC Domestication of cattle and pigs
4000 BC Cultivation of maize
3500 BC Cultivation of potato
3400 BC Wheel was invented
3000 BC Bronze was used to make tools
2900 BC Plough was invented and irrigation started
2700 BC Silk moth domesticated
2300 BC Cultivation of chickpea, pea, mustard and cotton
Domestication of fowl, buffalo and elephant
2200 BC Cultivation of rice in India
1200 BC Cultivation of finger millet (Ragi)
1725 BC Cultivation of sorghum
1700 BC Taming of horses
1500 BC Cultivation of sugarcane and irrigation from wells
1400 BC Use of iron
1500 AD Cultivation of sweet orange, sour orange, wild brinjal,
pomegranate
1600 AD Introduction of several crops in India from Portugal-like,
sweet potato, arrowroot, cassava, tomato, chillies, pumpkin,
papaya, pineapple, guava, custard apple, groundnut, cashew
nut, tobacco, American cotton, rubber.
Check Your Progress 1.1
Note: (a) Write your answer in the space given below.
(b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
9
Indian Agriculture 1. State true/false.
a) Agriculture is different from industries being a biological
process. T/F
b) The use of iron implements, particularly iron ploughs became
prevalent in the Vedic age. T/F
c) Krishi Parastra was written during the period 1336-1646 AD. T/F
2. Enlist any three developments that took place in pre-historic
agriculture.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………

1.4 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT BEFORE

INDEPENDENCE
Different dynasties had promulgated rules mostly related to the collection of
revenue and tax, which influenced agriculture. During the domain of Arabs,
taxes were laid on land in the form of two-fifths of produce or cash. Later
in the regime of Alauddin, the revenue was fixed at one-half of the produce,
however, the charges were calculated based on standard yields. Agriculture
suffered due to the framing of rules not being favourable to the farming
community. The produce was collected and kept under storage by the
rulers. Agriculture was encouraged by Ghiasuddin Tughlak (1321-1325).
The taxes in the form of land revenue were reduced. The land revenues
were settled upon the principle which was not more than one-tenth of the
produce. Granaries were established to store grains for long periods. During
the time of Mohammed bin Tughlak, Sultan used to possess the best fertile
land and to enhance productivity, resources were used officially. According
to Ibn Batuta (1325-1354), work on reclamation of wasteland was started
along with State farming. Wells were dug and cultivators were given loans.
The rotation of crops was also initiated. Attention was given to planting
various economical fruit trees. Firoz Shah Tughlak (1351-1388) introduced
the Jagir system by giving lands to the actual owners. The canal system for
irrigation was introduced and the Western Yamuna canal was constructed
to use the flood water in 1355. The tax was introduced on irrigation water.
The barren land became usable for agriculture.
During Akbar’s period (1555-1605), Todar Mal made reforms in the revenue
system by obtaining the correct measurement of the land; ascertaining the
quality of the produce and settlement on the equivalent in money. The
productivity based on fertility was also considered. Tax on fruit gardens
was also introduced.
Taquavi loans were allowed to cultivators for the purchase of seed and
cattle on surety for their payment. Repayment was made at first harvest
and remaining by the next. The cultivators who were cultivating the land
personally were given permanent and hereditary occupancy of the land he
tilled.
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Later the burden of taxation increased on cultivators which resulted in Evolution and Development of
revolts. As a result, the Zamindari system was abolished during 1669-1710 Agriculture
in East Punjab. Hastings in 1772 changed the revenue system according to
which lands were allotted to farmers for five years and Pattas were given
which led to permanent settlement, but the cultivators and their tenants
remained to live in distress.
The Europeans, primarily the Britishers, arrived in India in the early
seventeenth century and by the 18th century had made a profound impact
on India. India was forced, for the first time into a coordinate role within a
world system based on industrial production rather than agriculture. Many
of the dynamic craft and cottage industries that had long attracted foreigners
to India suffered extensively under competition with new modes of mass
production fostered by the British. Modern institutions, such as universities,
technologies, rail lines, roads, mass communication were developed to
serve British rather than Indian economic interest. A country, that in the 18th
century was a magnet for trade, by the 20th century, became underdeveloped
and overpopulated under alien domination.
During the British regime, attempts were made to boost agricultural
production. General improvements made in transport like a rail system,
promotion of export of some agricultural commodities, the introduction of
land tenure system also helped the agriculture in general. The Department
of Agriculture was created by the Government of India in 1871 which
was followed by the State Governments. In 1943, the All India Policy on
Agriculture was drafted. As a result of the Bengal famine in 1942, efforts
were made to increase agricultural production in the country. Several steps
were taken up to improve agriculture in the pre-independence era.
Land ownership was given to a small group of people to collect the rent
from individual farmers and pay to the Government, a system known as
‘Zamindari’. There was also the ‘Rytwari’ system in which the ruler used
to collect rent directly from farmers, who had settled on the land. Farmers
had no security of possessed land, hence they had no interest in land
development. Irrigation schemes were initiated in major river deltas for
raising additional revenue.
A separate Department of Agriculture was created at the national level
in 1871. Some of the provinces (now states) also created independent
Agriculture Departments. Facilities for agricultural education were created
at Coimbatore in 1878 and Pune in 1890. After the great famine of 1876-
77, a Famine Commission was appointed in 1880. Dr J.A. Voelekar,
Consultant Chairman of the Royal Agriculture Society submitted the report
on improvement in Indian agriculture in 1891.
In the first decade of the 20th century, the Imperial (Now Indian) Agricultural
Research Institute was set up in 1905 at Pusa (Bihar). Subsequently,
agricultural colleges were started at Coimbatore, Pune, Nagpur, and Kanpur.
Royal Commission (1926) report was accepted in 1928. Department
of Food was created in 1942 to meet the food requirement. Grow More
Food Campaign, Food Policy Committee, Famine Enquiry Committee
and Fertilizer Production Programme were initiated. In January 1946,
the Statement of Agriculture and Food Policy in India was issued with
11
Indian Agriculture 10 objectives to promote the welfare of the people and improvement of
their standard of living. Steps were taken to organize research support to
agriculture through research institutions.

1.5 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT AFTER

INDEPENDENCE
During the time of independence, India was in great distress to supply the
food grain to feed its population. Therefore, many initiatives were taken
to enhance the production and productivity of agriculture. The important
initiatives are discussed as under:
1.5.1 Land Reforms
At the time of independence, three types of land tenure systems prevailed
in the country; the Zamindari, Mahelwari and Ryotwari. They differed
in mode of payment of land revenue. Zamindari and Mahelwari have
exploited farmers as it created a class of Zamindars who did not cultivate
the land themselves but were getting the cultivation done by labour. Such
labour depended on Zamindars for dwellings, food and other needs. After
independence, the land reforms were taken to stop the exploitation of actual
tillers to remove impediments to increase agricultural production, eliminate
all types of exploitations and social injustice, provide security to the actual
tillers and assure equality of status and opportunity to all sections of the
rural population.
Attempts were made to abolish the role of intermediaries, reform the tenancy
conditions by making regulation of rent, security of tenure and ownership
rights to tenants, redistributing the land, consolidating landholdings and
introducing cooperative farming. Ceiling on agricultural holdings was
done. A statutory limit on the area of land an individual can possess was
fixed including existing holdings and future acquisition. This is based on
the local conditions of the states in economical or uneconomical lands. The
land ceiling helps provide land to landless persons who may work with
better zeal and produce more by increasing productivity. The fallow land is
brought under cultivation. Cooperative farming has also been followed for
better production.
1.5.2 Green Revolution
The need to increase agricultural production due to continuing stagnation
of production on one hand and rapidly increasing demand, on the other
hand, was realized. A team of experts sponsored by the Ford Foundation
was invited by the Government of India in the latter half of the second five-
year plan to suggest ways and means to increase agricultural production and
productivity. The team submitted its report entitled “Indian food crisis and
steps to meet” in April 1959. This report suggested increasing production
and productivity in some selected regions of the country with emphasis on
the use of modern inputs like fertilizers, credit, marketing facilities etc. The
government introduced an Intensive Development Programme in seven
selected districts of seven states in 1960 and this programme was named
IADP (Intensive Area Development Programme). The selected districts
under IADP were required to have assured irrigation, minimum hazards like
12
floods, drought and soil erosion, use of fertilizers, plant protection measures Evolution and Development of
and easy availability of agricultural credit. The programme was implemented Agriculture
in West Godavari (AP,) Shahabad (Bihar), Raipur (MP), Thanjavur (Tamil
Nadu), Ludhiana (Punjab), Aligarh (UP) and Pali (Rajasthan). The first four
were selected for rice, the next two for wheat and the last one for millets.
Eight more districts were added in 1962-63. This programme was later
extended to all states by selecting one district from each state for intensive
development. In October 1965, the programme was widened to 114 districts
out of 325, in the name of the Intensive Agricultural Area Programme.
The period of the mid-sixties was very significant from the point of view
of agriculture. New high yielding varieties of wheat were developed in
Mexico by Prof. Norman Borlaug and his associates. As a result of this, the
production of wheat per hectare rose to the high level of 5000 to 6000 kg in
Mexico in 1965. Taiwan also recorded an almost similar yield. These high
yielding varieties (HYV) required proper irrigation facilities and extensive
use of fertilizers and pesticides. Accordingly, these were introduced in the
form of a package programme. Dwarf high yielding varieties of wheat like
Kalyan Sona and Sonalika were developed using the ‘Norin’ dwarfing gene.
In 1965, on the initiation of C. Subramaniam the then Minister of Food and
Agriculture 250 tonnes of the wheat seed of important varieties Lerma Rojo
64 and Sonora 64 were imported from Mexico. The area under dwarf high
yielding varieties of wheat was increased from 4 ha in 1964 to 4 m ha in
1971. This could give 20 to 30 per cent more yield. The farming area was
continuously expanded and multiple crop cultivation was encouraged.
The term green revolution was coined in the 1960s when improved varieties
of wheat resulted in quite high yields as they were more responsive to
controlled irrigation, chemical fertilizers and better plant protection
measures. Later, new high yielding varieties of rice and maize were also
developed, which increased the yields tremendously. This was followed by
continued expansion of farming areas and a double cropping system. The
value of seed with improved genetics was realized. The green revolution
resulted in a record yield of 131 million tonnes in 1978-79. The yield per
hectare was increased by 30 per cent.
Besides advantages, the “Green Revolution” has also created some
problems. To arrange the required inputs, farmers often went into debt.
Many small landholders and landless farm workers migrated to urban areas.
Assured irrigation has created the problem of Stalinization, waterlogging
and lowering of water tables in certain areas. The pesticide residue problem
increased due to more use of pesticides. The “Green Revolution” in
agriculture has affected both agricultural biodiversity and wild biodiversity
negatively as it depended more on a few varieties in each crop.
1.5.3 Chemical Fertilizers
Chemical fertilizer is an important input in increasing agricultural production
by providing soil deficient nutrients to plants, which are necessary for growth
and has played a vital role in the green revolution. By 1980, India had more
than 100 fertilizer factories manufacturing urea, ammonium phosphate and
13
Indian Agriculture potash. The utility of chemical fertilizers was realized, due to drought in
1950 and 1951, which created a food shortage resulting in the import of
huge quantities of food grains.
Presently, there are 173 fertilizer manufacturing plants with an installed
capacity of 479.61 lakh tonnes of urea, DAP, SSP and others complex
fertilizers (as of 01.04.2018). The production of urea, DAP and other
complex fertilizers are 240.00, 38.99 and 89.98 lakh tonnes in 2018-19,
respectively. The fertilizer consumption has increased from 2 kg/ha in 1961
to 133.12 kg/ha in 2018-19, which increased the foodgrains production from
83 million tonnes to 285 million tonnes during the same period. Emphasis
is being given on bio-fertilizers like nitrogen-fixing bacteria, phosphorus
solubilising bacteria, blue-green algae, vermin-compost etc. Organic
farming is being preferred these days.
1.5.4 Quality Seeds
Pathogen free high yielding quality seed is required in any crop production
programme. Farmers used to select, save and store seeds for sowing. Seed
Review Committee in 1968 and subsequent committees reviewed the issues
related to seeds. For quality seed production National Seed Corporation
(1963) and State Farms Corporations (1969) were established. Indian Seed
Act was passed in 1966 and seed rules were framed in 1968 to control
the quality of seed. Indian Minimum Seed Standards were fixed in 1971
which were revised in 1988. The parameters of seed quality were genetic
purity, free from other crop seeds, weed seeds, inert matter, seed moisture,
seed germination and seed-borne pathogens. The seeds are classified into
Nucleus seed, Breeder seed, Foundation seed and certified seed. Nucleus
seed is the basic seed developed by the concerned breeder. The breeder
seed is produced from the nucleus seed by the breeders. From breeder seed
foundation seed is produced and from foundation seed, the certified seed
is produced. The breeder seeds are produced by agricultural universities,
agricultural institutes. The foundation and certified seeds are produced by
State Seed Corporation as well as SAUs and Institutes. Seed certification
is done by State Seed Certification Agencies. Efforts are being made to
increase the seed replacement rate.
1.5.5 Irrigation
Water is an essential component in the crop production system. The selection
of crops in a region is based on the availability of water. Collection of
rainwater and its utilization at distant places and different times through
canals is an age-old practice. The area under irrigation has increased and the
efforts are continuing to increase it further. In 1950 net irrigated area was
20.6 million hectares, which was about 27 per cent of the total irrigation
potential of the country. Large dams were constructed like Bhakra Nangal
dam (1948-63), Mayurakshi scheme on Mayurakshi River (1946-56),
Hirakund project on Mahanadi River (1948-57); Damodar Valley project
on Damodar River (1950-58); Rihand dam on Sone River (1952-62),
Tungabhadra project on Tungabhadra River (1945-54); Kakrapara project
on Tapti River (1949-55) etc. Several large dams are still under construction
on important rivers. They not only provide water for irrigation but are also
used for electricity generation.
14
Irrigation is being done through open wells and tube wells also. Small Evolution and Development of
and large watersheds are made in villages or a group of villages to collect Agriculture
rainwater and use it in Kharif and rabi season as per need. Sprinkler and
drip irrigation systems have been evolved to have better water use efficiency.
The net irrigated area is 67.30 million ha has and the gross irrigated area is
96.62 million ha 2015-16 but still, the large area is rainfed and efforts are
continued to use available water further. Projects on the joining of rivers are
being planned to have better utilization of available water.
1.5.6 Farm Implements
In the early days, farmers used to develop implements as per their needs.
They used ploughs, hoes, sickles, etc. which were modified from time to time.
Their place has been taken over by farm machines like tractors, cultivators,
seed drills, harvesters, threshers, combine harvesters etc. Machines have
been developed looking to the need of special crops like sugarcane, potato,
groundnut etc. for planting as well as harvesting. For the seed industry,
special machinery has been developed for processing, cleaning, storage,
packaging etc. Production of tractors started in 1961-62 in India and later
several manufacturing units started working. The mechanization enabled
farmers to change their cropping pattern preferring more profitable crops.
1.5.7 Prices
The cultivators were exploited by merchants as they gave the minimum
price for their produce. At harvest, the merchants used to dictate the price,
purchased at a cheaper price, retained the produce and sold at a higher
price later. Looking to the input cost on fertilizers, improved seed, farm
equipment, intercultural operations etc. agriculture became a commercial
enterprise. The Agricultural Prices Commission was established in 1965,
now renamed as Commission for Agriculture Costs and Prices (CACP)
with a function to determine support price in advance of the harvest for
all major crops. Based on the increase in the cost of inputs, the support
price is increased accordingly year-wise. The Food Corporation of India
was formed in 1965 to procure, store, transport, distribute and control the
sale of food grains. This helped the cultivators in selling their produce at a
reasonable price.
Check Your Progress 1.2
Note: (a) Write your answer in the space given below.
(b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Name any two programmes initiated for the development of Indian
agriculture after independence.
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2. What is the role of chemical fertilizers in crop production?
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15
Indian Agriculture ………………………………………………………………………
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3. How more area could be covered under irrigation?
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1.6 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Animal Husbandry is a part of the integrated agricultural system. Dairy,
poultry, fisheries, goats and sheep are closely associated with agriculture.
i. Dairy: Cattle were indispensable in the past and even today; they are
important as they are used in agricultural practices like ploughing,
sowing, interculture, threshing operations and transport through
bullock carts etc. The development of cattle was both for milk as well
as for draught capacity. Some Indian breeds of cattle are excellent.
They are classified into the milch breed, general utility breed and
draught breed.
India is the largest milk-producing country in the world. About 70
million households are engaged in dairy. The dairy depended on the
crop residues and other leftover and by-products as feed, but now
grains and other required nutrients are being provided. The livestock
efficiency has been increased by introducing new breeds and
hybridization programmes. The upkeep of livestock has experienced
vast advancement. The handling of milk is highly scientific and is
being transported to long distances. National Dairy Development
Board through the Operation Flood programme not only made India
self-sufficient in milk and milk products but started exporting to other
countries. This is named as “White Revolution”. The operation flood
programme was implemented in phases through cooperatives from
1970 when 20 million tonnes was the milk production. In 1991-92, it
increased to 55.7 and in 2019-20 to 198.6 million tonnes. The dairy
industry has developed most successfully.
ii. Poultry: Poultry includes domestic fowls which are reared for their
flesh, eggs and feathers like chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, guinea
fowls, pigeons etc. However, usually, chickens have gained greater
importance as poultry. Much advancement has been made in chickens
to home breeds with more egg-laying capacity and tender flesh.
Poultries are now hand managed as well as fully mechanized.
India is the second-largest producer of eggs and one of the largest
broiler producers in the world. The country has developed the
essential technology and capability of providing required inputs for
poultry farming.
16
iii. Fisheries: Fisheries have received great attention as a large population Evolution and Development of
depends on fishes of seashores, riverbanks, large tanks etc. Excellent Agriculture
development has taken place in the advancement of fisheries from
egg management to full development and post-harvest technology.
The fishes are of various kinds like catfish, mullets, dorab, herrings,
pomfrets, shrimps, tuna etc. The total fish production in 2019-20 is
estimated to be 14.16 million tonnes.
iv. Goats and sheep: Goats and sheep are an important component
in an agricultural enterprise. Goats reproduce fast and can live on
sparse vegetation and extreme climatic conditions. They are good
for arid and semi-arid zones. They provide meat, skin, milk and
manure. Sheep are useful for getting wool. ‘Chegu’ an inhabitant
of the temperate region like Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand is
famous for very soft, fine and warm fibre called ‘Pashmina’. Another
breed Changthangi of the Leh region also produces similar fine fibre.
The long fibres of ‘Gaddi’ and Marwadi sheep are used for making
rugs, ropes etc. In India, more than 20 well-defined breeds of goats
exist besides some regional goats. Barbari and Jamunapari from UP,
Beetal from Punjab, Surati from Gujarat, ‘Sirohi’ from Rajasthan,
Kannaiaadu from Tamil Nadu are some important breeds used for
different purposes. Efforts are being made for further advancements
and improvements.
Check Your Progress 1.3
Note: (a) Write your answer in the space given below.
(b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1. How animal husbandry is a part of the integrated agricultural system?
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2. What are the advances made in the fisheries sector?
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1.7 AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH, EXTENSION

AND EDUCATION SYSTEM
During the post-independence, the extension of agricultural education
in the country has witnessed a sea change both in content and quality,
because of the changed scenario of agriculture. On the recommendation
of the Education Commission (1948), Joint Indo-American teams of 1955,
1959 and 1961, and Education Commission (1964-66), State Agricultural
Universities (SAU) were established to integrate agriculture education,
17
Indian Agriculture research and extension activities in the country. At present, 63 SAUs, 4
deemed universities and three central agricultural universities besides about
40 Faculties of Agriculture in traditional universities. These institutions
include agriculture, veterinary science, agricultural engineering, forestry,
dairy technology, food technology, horticulture, fisheries, home science and
agricultural marketing. The seventh schedule of the constitution of India
allocated the responsibility of agricultural education, research and extension
functions to the Union and State Governments. The Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR), as the apex agency, is responsible for the
growth and development of agricultural education and research in India.
The ICAR coordinates research in the country through its wide network of
National and Central Research Institutes (64), National Research Centres
(15), Project Directorates (13), National Bureaux (6) All India Coordinated
Research Project (60), network projects (19) and other programmes (10).
1.7.1 Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
Imperial Council of Agricultural Research was constituted to promote,
guide and coordinate agricultural research in the country, to impart training
to researchers and to provide scholarships for students. It included animal
husbandry as well. The resolution was passed on 23 May 1929. After
independence, the Imperial word was replaced by Indian.
At present, ICAR is headed by Director General, supported by Deputy
Director Generals and Assistant Director Generals. There are National
Institutes on crops like Rice (CRRI, Cuttack), Cotton (CICR, Nagpur)
Pulses (IIPR, Kanpur), Jute (CRIJAF, Barrackpore), Sugarcane (IISR,
Lucknow), Sugarcane Breeding (SBI, Coimbatore), Tobacco (CTRI,
Rajahmundry) and Forages (IGFRI, Jhansi). National Research Centres are
for Groundnut (Junagarh), Sorghum (Hyderabad) and Soybean (Indore).
Project Directorates are for Rice (Hyderabad), Oilseeds (Hyderabad), Wheat
(Karnal), Maize (New Delhi), and Rapeseed & Mustard (Bharatpur). In
Horticultural crops, National Institutes are for Mango (Lucknow), Tuber crops
(Thiruvananthapuram), Horticultural Research (Hassarghatta), Plantation
crops (Kasargod), Potato (Shimla), Arid Horticulture (Bikaner), Temperate
Horticulture (Srinagar), Spices (Marikunnu) and Vegetables (Varanasi).
The National Research Centres are for Citrus (Nagpur), Mushroom (Solan),
Cashewnut (Puttur), Oil palm (Padaregi), Orchids (Sikkim), Grapes (Pune),
Banana (Trichy), Onion and Garlic (Pune), Medicinal and Aromatic plants
(Anand) and Seed species (Ajmer). Some other centres are NBPGR (New
Delhi), NCIPM (New Delhi), Biotechnology (New Delhi), Finger Printing
(New Delhi), Biological Control (Bangalore), Weed Science (Jabalpur),
and NBAIM (Mhow). Eighty-two All India Coordinated Research Projects
are running in the crops in different agro-climatic regions to identify the
varieties and production technology suited to specific areas. There are main
centres, sub-centres and verifying centres as per need.
1.7.2 State Agricultural Universities
There are 63 State Agricultural Universities (SAU) and three Central
Agricultural Universities (CAU). Some states have more than one
Agricultural Universities also. Agricultural universities have colleges

18
with different functions in different parts of the states. All the agricultural Evolution and Development of
universities have faculties as per need and facilities to cover different Agriculture
aspects of agriculture.
1.7.3 Krishi Vigyan Kendra
Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK) has been established to cater for the
immediate need of farmers as well as to keep them updated with new
technology developed on various crops and allied areas. There are 722
KVKs in the country. Almost all the districts in the country have at least one
KVK. Most KVKs are with agricultural universities, whereas some are with
other agencies including Non-Government Organizations.
Check Your Progress 1.4
Note: (a) Write your answer in the space given below.
(b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1. When ICAR was set up?
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2. How many agricultural universities are established in India?
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1.8 LET US SUM UP

Agriculture is a broad term comprising of crop production, horticulture,
animal husbandry, fisheries, poultry, forestry, sericulture, etc. Agriculture
channelizes the environmental inputs into economic products through
cultivation and animal raising practices. The development of agriculture has
occurred in several phases. In the pre-historic era, conservation of desirable
native plants, collection and preservation of seeds, sowing of seeds, tilling
of land, shifting cultivation, weed control, use of domestic waste as a plant
nutrient, crop rotation, green manuring, etc. are the major development
in agriculture. Cultivation of several crops was started. Domestication
of animals was done. Different dynasties in India have formulated rules
mainly related to taxes, which influenced agriculture. Britishers arrived in
India during the seventeenth century. They attempted to boost agricultural
production. Department of Agriculture was created in India in 1871. A
system of Zamindari and Ryotwari was created to collect the rent from the
farmers. During the independence, India was short of foodgrains to feed
its population and there was an immediate need to enhance the foodgrains
production in the country. For this purpose, several initiatives such as land
reforms, use of high yielding varieties of seeds and chemical fertilizers,
development of irrigation facilities were promoted. Schemes were started
19
Indian Agriculture to promote the dairy, fisheries and other allied sectors. The Operation
Flood programme played a vital role in the growth of the dairy sector. To
promote the research, education and extension in agriculture to enhance the
agriculture production various institutions in the area of crop production,
veterinary science, agricultural engineering, forestry, dairy technology, food
technology, horticulture, fisheries, home science and agricultural marketing
were established.

1.9 KEYWORDS
DAP : Di-ammonium phosphate
Homo sapiens : The direct ancestor of modern man.
IADP : The selected districts under IADP (Intensive Area Development
Programme) were required to have assured irrigation, minimum hazards like
flood, drought and soil erosion, use of fertilizers, plant protection measures
and availability of agricultural credit.
Nucleus seed : It is basic seed developed by the concerned breeder
SSP : Single super phosphate
Taquavi loan : Loan given to the cultivators for purchase of seed and cattle
on surety for their payment.

1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS/REFERENCES

1. Agriculture in Ancient India (1964). ICAR, New Delhi.
2. Annual Report (2010-11). Department of Animal Husbandry,
Dairying & Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India,
New Delhi. Retrieved on 06.11.2012 fromhttp://dahd.nic.in/dahd/
WriteReadData/Annual%20Report%20201011%20English.pdf
3. Randhawa, M.S (1982). A History of Agriculture in India, Eighth to
Eighteenth Centuries. ICAR, New Delhi, Vol. 2.
4. Randhawa, M.S. (1962). Agriculture and Animal Husbandry in India.
ICAR, New Delhi. pp. 342.
5. Randhawa, M.S. (1980). A History of Agriculture in India, Eighth to
Eighteenth Centuries. ICAR, New Delhi, Vol.1.
6. Randhawa, M.S. (1983). A History of Agriculture in India (1757-
1947). ICAR, New Delhi, Vol.3.
7. Randhawa, M.S. (1986). A History of Agriculture in India. (1947 –
1981). ICAR, New Delhi Vol. IV. pp 716.

1.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1.1
1. a). T b). T c) F
2. Conservation of desirable native plants, Collection and preservation
of seeds, Sowing of seeds, Tilling of land, Shifting cultivation,
Weed control, Fallowing of land, Use of domestic wastes as plant
nourishment, Following crop rotation, Green manuring, etc.
20
Check Your Progress 1.2 Evolution and Development of
Agriculture
1. Green revolution, land reforms, etc.
2. Fertilizers provide nutrients that are deficient in the soil and are
essential for the growth of plants.
3. By constructing the irrigation infrastructure and by adopting modern
technologies like drip and sprinkler systems of irrigation.
Check Your Progress 1.3
1. Animals are used in agricultural practices like ploughing, sowing,
interculture, threshing operations and transport through bullock carts
etc. On the other hand, animals depend on crop residues and other
leftover by-products as feed.
2. Advancement in fisheries is made from egg management to full
development and post-harvest technology.
Check Your Progress 1.4
1. 1929
2. 63 SAUs and three CAU

21
 UNIT 2 SOIL AND WATER
CONSERVATION

Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Soil Erosion
2.2.1 Types of soil erosion
2.2.2 Mechanism of soil erosion
2.2.3 Effect of soil erosion
2.2.4 Factors affecting the soil erosion by water
2.3 Water Erosion
2.4 Soil and Water Conservation Measures
2.4.1 Agronomical measures
2.4.2 Mechanical measures
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.6 Keywords
2.7 Suggested Further Readings
2.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
2.0 OBJECTIVES
On completing this unit, you shall be able to:
●● explain the meaning of soil erosion and its importance;
●● differentiate amongst various types of erosion;
●● discuss the process of initiation of soil erosion and mechanism of
erosion; and
●● describe the soil conservation mechanism.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Soil erosion results in a huge loss of nutrients in suspension or solution,
which are washed away from one place to another, thus causing depletion
or enrichment of nutrients. Besides the loss of nutrients from the topsoil,
there is also degradation through the creation of gullies and ravines, which
makes the land inappropriate for agricultural production. Costly reservoirs
constructed under the river-valley projects are being silted up at an alarming
rate owing to the denudation of forest vegetation, the cultivation of steep
slopes without adopting any conservation practices.
In dry climates, wind blowing is the main cause of soil erosion. The
government is trying out various procedures of soil conservation in India
to check the damages caused by this phenomenon. Though soil erosion
22
through natural agencies can hardly be checked, artificial means like mining, Soil and Water Conservation
deforestation, and others are being strictly brought under the umbrella of
law and being stringently implemented.

2.2 SOIL EROSION

“Detachment (breaking of soil particles from their original places) and
transportation (shifting some of the loose particles from their original
places to any other place) of soil particles is referred to as Soil Erosion.”
Soil erosion is the weathering away of land surface by the action of some
erosive agents viz.; natural (water, wind, glacial, earthquakes, and volcano
eruption) and artificial or manmade (developmental activities, agriculture,
or deforestation).
The Global Assessment of Land Degradation (GLASOD) study estimated
that around 15 percent of the Earth’s ice-free land surface is afflicted by
all forms of land degradation. Of this, accelerated soil erosion by water
is responsible for about 56 percent and wind erosion is responsible for
about 28 percent. This means that the area affected by water erosion is,
very roughly, around 11 million square km., and the area affected by wind
erosion is around 5.5 million square km. The area affected by tillage erosion
is currently unknown.
Soil Erosion in India is a major cause of concern. In India almost 130
million hectares of land, i.e., 45 percent of total geographical surface area, is
affected by serious soil erosion through gorge and gully, shifting cultivation,
cultivated wastelands, sandy areas, deserts, and waterlogging. It is estimated
that out of 305 million hectares reported area (the total geographical area is
329 million hectares), 145 million hectares require conservation measures.
Soil erosion by rain and river that takes place in hilly areas causes severe
landslides and floods while cutting trees for agricultural implements,
firewood, and timber; grazing by livestock over and above the carrying
capacity of grasslands. Excessive soil erosion with a resultant high rate
of sedimentation in the reservoirs and decreased fertility has become a
solemn environmental problem for the country with disastrous economic
consequences.
2.2.1 Types of Soil Erosion
Soil may be detached and moved by water, wind or tillage, or human
activities. These three, however, differ greatly in terms of; where and when
they occur, what happens to the area that is being eroded (on-site impacts),
how far the eroded soil is moved, and if the soil is moved away from the
place where it was eroded, what happens as a result (off-site impacts). The
soil erosion can be classified based on the erosion intensity and based on the
types of erosive agents.
A. Soil erosion based on erosion intensity
The following types of erosion based on the erosion intensity are observed
in India:
1. Natural/normal or geologic erosion: Soil is naturally removed by
the action of water or wind: such natural (or ‘geological’) soil erosion
23
Indian Agriculture has been occurring for some 450 million years since the first land
plants formed the first soil this may be called as the ‘Natural Rate of
Erosion’. Even before this, natural processes moved the loose rock,
or regolith, off the Earth’s surface. Normally the ‘Natural Rate of
Erosion’ or the background erosion removes soil at roughly the same
rate as the soil is formed and this is considered quite natural.
2. Accelerated rate of soil erosion: The removal of the surface soil from
areas denuded of their natural protective cover as a result of human
and animal interference takes place at a much faster rate than that
at which it is built up by the soil-forming process. This accelerated
detachment rapidly ravages the land and it is with this type of soil
erosion that we are so seriously concerned. It has impacts that are
both on-site (at the place where the soil is detached or in-situ) and
off-site (wherever the eroded soil ends up or ex-situ). Soil erosion
is just one form of soil degradation. Other kinds of soil degradation
include Stalinization, nutrient loss, and compaction. But ‘accelerated’
soil erosion i.e.; the loss of soil at much faster rates than its rate of
formation is a far more recent problem that needs the attention for
restoration and management.
B. Soil erosion based on erosive agents
Based on the types of erosive agents, soil erosion can be classified into the
following categories:
1. Wind erosion
2. Water erosion
3. Coastal and sea erosion
4. Fertility erosion (salt effect/waterlogging)
Now we will discuss these various types of soil erosion in detail:
1. Wind erosion: Wind erosion takes place normally in arid and semi-
arid areas devoid of vegetation, where the wind velocity is high. The
soil particles on the land surface are lifted and blown off as dust storms.
When the velocity of the dust-bearing winds is retarded, coarser soil
particles are deposited in the form of dunes and thus fertile lands are
rendered unfit for cultivation. In other places, fertile soil is blown
away by winds and the subsoil is exposed, as a result, the productive
capacity of the soil is considerably reduced.
2. Water erosion: Soil erosion caused by water can be distinguished in
various forms, viz. (i) sheet erosion, (ii) rill erosion, (iii) gully erosion,
(iv) splash or raindrop erosion, (v) ravine erosion, (vi) landslides
or slip erosion and (vii) stream-bank erosion. We will discuss in more
detail soil erosion caused by water in section 2.3.
3. Coastal and sea erosion: This category of erosion falls on those
lands which are adjoining to the sea coast. Often during high tides or
Tsunamis, a sizeable fertile area either get washed away or becomes
highly salty rendering the cultivation non-feasible till the same gets
drained and reclaimed by natural rainfall or human interventions.

24
4. Fertility erosion (salt effect/waterlogging): Due to increased Soil and Water Conservation
numbers of canals that bring water from the other areas to a new area
and consequently, increased water use especially for irrigation by
farmers; large tracts in the country have become salt-affected.
2.2.2 Mechanism of Soil Erosion
Water and wind are two primary sources of soil erosion. The mechanism of
soil erosion through water and wind is described below.
1. Water erosion: Soil erosion caused by rainfall is the result of the
application of energy from two distinct sources, namely (i) the falling
raindrops, and (ii) the surface flow. The energy of a falling raindrop is
applied slantingly or vertically from above, whereas that of a surface
flow is applied more or less horizontally along the surface of the ground.
The chief role of the falling raindrop is to detach soil particles, whereas
that of the surface flow (outside the rills and gullies) is to transport
the soil. The falling raindrop also makes a major contribution to the
movement of the soil on unprotected sloping lands during the period
of heavy-impact storms, by splashing large quantities downslope and
by imparting transporting capacity to the surface water by keeping it
turbid. More than 100 tonnes of soil per hectare can sometimes be lost
yearly in this fashion from bare and highly detachable soil on sloping
land. You will learn more about water erosion in section 2.3.
2. Wind erosion: Wind is responsible for three types of soil movement
in the process of wind erosion. They are known as: (i) saltation, (ii)
suspension, and (iii) surface creep.
(i) Saltation: The major portion of the soil carried by the wind is
moved in a series of short bounces called “saltations”. The soil
carried in saltation consists of fine particles ranging from 0.1 to
0.5 mm in diameter. Saltation is caused by the direct pressure
of wind on soil particles and their collision with other particles.
After being pushed along the ground surface by the wind, the
particles leap almost vertically in the first stages of saltation.
Some grains rise only a short distance; others leap 30 cm or
higher, depending on the velocity of the rise from the ground.
(ii) Suspension: Very fine soil particles, less than 0.1 mm in
diameter, are carried into suspension, being kicked up into the
air by the action of particles in saltation. The movement of fine
dust in suspension is completely governed by the characteristic
movement of the wind. Suspended material is carried long
distances from its original location and is thus a complete loss
to the eroded area, especially when erosive winds are from
different directions.
(iii) Surface creep: Soil particles, larger than about 0.5 mm in
diameter but smaller than 0.1 mm, are too heavy to be moved
in saltation but are pushed or spread along the surface by the
impact of particles in saltation to form a surface creep.
About 90 percent of the total soil movement in wind erosion is below the
height of 30 cm, and about 50 percent of it is within 5 cm of the ground level.
25
Indian Agriculture The control of wind erosion is mainly based on the reduction or elimination
of movement in saltation.
The process of wind erosion is the same as water erosion because both
water and wind are termed fluids. The density makes all the differences.
The mechanism of detachment, transportation, and deposition are the same
in both cases. Figure 2.1 (a) & (b) depict the various processes related to
wind erosion.

Fig. 2.1 (a): Mechanism of wind erosion.

Fig. 2.1 (b): Mechanism of wind erosion.

2.2.3 Effect of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion causes both in-situ and ex-situ effects. Let us discuss these
effects in detail:
1. On-site (in-situ) effects of soil erosion: The main on-site (in-situ)
impact of soil erosion is the reduction in soil quality which results from
the loss of the nutrient-rich upper layers of the soil, and the reduced
water-holding capacity of many eroded soils. Loss of soil quality is
a long-term problem; globally, soil erosion’s most serious impact
may well be its threat to the long-term sustainability of agricultural
productivity, which results from the ‘on-site’ damage which it causes.

Fig. 2.2: On-site impact of erosion: severe rill erosion on a hill slope
(Source: John Boardman through WWW)
26
Crops are particularly reliant on the upper horizons of the soil, which are Soil and Water Conservation
the most vulnerable to erosion by water and wind. In this sense, erosion
removes ‘the cream of the soil’. Agricultural tillage also redistributes soil,
resulting in thinner soils on topographically convex areas within a field.
The damaging on-site effects of erosion, in terms of decreased agricultural
yields, are well known in the developing countries of Africa and Asia. But
even in the developed world, there is cause for concern. Water erosion
is locally severe in Australia, New Zealand, parts of the US, Southern
Europe, and Eastern Europe (often as a result of the former large state-
controlled farms). This strategy is, however, infeasible concerning erosion
in developing countries (Fig. 2.2).
2. Off-site (ex-situ) effects of soil erosion: In addition to its in-situ
effects, the soil that is detached by accelerated water or wind erosion
may be transported considerable distances. This gives rise to ex-situ
effects too. Water erosion’s main ex-situ effect is the movement of
sediment and agricultural pollutants into watercourses. This can lead
to the silting-up of dams, disruption of the ecosystems of lakes, and
contamination of drinking water. A more minor off-site effect can
occur in situations, where eroded soil has a decreased capacity to
absorb water; increased runoff may lead to downstream flooding and
local damage to property (Fig. 2.3).

Fig. 2.3: Red discharge in China’s Yangtze River at the Three Gorges, in Hubei
province is due to the sediment-rich water.
(Source of photo: Internet www)
Another major ex-situ impact results from the agricultural chemicals that
often move with eroded sediment. These chemicals move into and pollute,
downstream watercourses and water bodies. Where inputs of agricultural
chemicals are high - as in the more affluent nations - costs of removing
such pollutants from drinking water can be considerable. Therefore the
on-site impacts of soil erosion are a present-day problem for many of the
developing nations.
2.2.4 Factors Affecting the Soil Erosion by Water
Erosion rate is very sensitive to both climate and land use, as well as to
detailed conservation practice at the farm level. The Himalayan region of
India is particularly more prone to erosion because it is subject to heavy bursts
of erosive rain, falling on steep slopes with fragile soils. This contrasts with
central India where soil erosion is less because of lower rainfall on gentle
slopes. Consequently, the area affected by erosion is less extensive than in
the Himalayan region of North Eastern (NE) or North Western (NW) parts
of the country. However, erosion is still a serious problem in NW and NE
India along with the Eastern and Western Ghats and Malabar Coastal region
and is on the increase over time. With a very slow rate of soil formation,
27
Indian Agriculture any soil loss of more than 1t/ha/year can be considered irreversible within
a time of 50-100 years. The rate and magnitude of soil erosion by water are
controlled by the following factors.
1. Rainfall intensity and rainfall erosivity factor (R): Both rainfall
and runoff factors must be considered in assessing a water erosion
problem. The impact of raindrops on the soil surface can break down
soil aggregates and disperse the aggregate material. Lighter aggregate
materials such as very fine sand, silt, clay, and organic matter can
be easily removed by the raindrop splash and runoff water; greater
raindrop energy or runoff amounts might be required to move the
larger sand and gravel particles.
2. Soil erodibility factor (K): The soil erodibility factor (K) is an
estimate of the ability of soils to resist erosion, based on the physical
characteristics of each soil. Generally, soils with faster infiltration
rates, higher levels of organic matter, and improved soil structure
have a greater resistance to erosion. Sand, sandy loamy and loam
textured soils tend to be less erodible than silt, very fine sand, and
certain clay textured soils.
3. Slope gradient and length (L-S factor): Naturally, the steeper the
slope of a field, the greater the amount of soil loss from erosion
by water. Soil erosion by water also increases as the slope length
increases due to the greater accumulation of runoff. Consolidation of
small fields into larger ones often results in longer slope lengths with
increased erosion potential, due to increased velocity of water which
permits a greater degree of scouring (carrying capacity for sediment).
4. Vegetation: Soil erosion potential is increased if the soil has no or
very little vegetative cover of plants and/or crop residues. Plant and
residue cover protects the soil from raindrop impact and splash, tends
to slow down the movement of surface runoff, and allows excess
surface water to infiltrate. The erosion-reducing effectiveness of
plant and/or residue covers depends on the type, extent, and quantity
of cover.
Check Your Progress 2.1
Note: a) Use the space below for writing your answers.
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1. How much soil on the earth is suffering from soil erosion?
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2. How much area in the world is suffering from water erosion?
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3. What is the extent of soil erosion in India? Soil and Water Conservation

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4. How much area in India is under waterlogging?
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5. What are the adverse impacts of soil erosion?
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6. List the main factors that affect soil erosion by water in India?
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2.3 WATER EROSION

Water is the agent to remove the surface material from the earth’s crust
and transport the eroded materials from the point of removal. Due to water
following types of soil erosion are observed:
1. Splash erosion: Although considerable quantities of soil may be
moved by rain splash, it is all merely redistributed back over the
surface of the soil (on steep slopes, however, there will be a modest
net down lope movement of splashed soil). Thus a more descriptive
term might be ‘rain splash redistribution’. Fig. 2.4 (a) depicts the
original size of the water particles at the initiation of falling and after
the splash has taken place when water particles strike the ground. A
picturesque depiction of the splash is given in Fig. 2.4 (b) and the
processes of detachment, transportation, and deposition have been
explained graphically in Fig. 2.4 (c).

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Indian Agriculture

Fig. 2.4 (b): Water and soil splashed

Fig. 2.4 (a): Water and soil splashed following a single raindrop impact.
following a single raindrop impact.

(Source: The WEPP 95 CD-ROM)

Fig. 2.4 (c): The graphical representations of the processes of detachment,
transportation, and deposition in water erosion.
The rain splash requires high rainfall intensities; hence, it is most effective
under convective rainstorms in the world’s equatorial regions. Rain splash
is relatively ineffective where rain falls with low intensity.
2. Sheet erosion: After the rainfall intensity becomes more than the
basic infiltration rate the water build-up starts taking place which
starts flowing like a thin sheet in the direction of the general slope.
Water is known to flow along the path of least resistance. For flowing
a small distance the sheet flow assumes the form of channel flow.
During this process, two types of erosions are possible i.e. i) sheet
erosion and ii) rill erosion. Sheet erosion removes a thin covering of
soil from large areas, often from entire fields, more or less, uniformly
during every rain which produces a run-off. Fig. 2.5 (a) depicts the
overland flow conditions leading to sheet erosion [Fig. 2.5 (b)]. This
form of soil erosion is the most prominent which is visible to our eyes,
but the quantities being eroded by such types of erosion processes are
highly unimaginable.

30
 Soil and Water Conservation

Fig. 2.5 (a): Diffuse overland flow. Note

the raindrop impacts. Fig. 2.5 (b): Initiation of the sheet erosion
(Source: http://www.freefoto.com) leading to the formation of rills and gullies
3. Rill erosion
If the sheet erosion is unchecked and allowed to continue for a while
the rainfall may also move soil indirectly, through runoff in rills
(small channels) or gullies (larger channels, too big to be removed
by tillage). In many parts of the world, rill and gully erosion is the
dominant form of water erosion. Fig. 2.6 (a & b) depict the soil loss
that has taken place due to rill erosion. If the rill erosion is not checked
properly this leads to gullies.

Fig. 2.6 (a): Initiation of finer rills after

the sheet erosion has been completed on Fig. 2.6 (b): A denuded small hillock
a relatively flat land on the border of the subjected to rill erosion
ridges. (Source: http://www.art.com)

4. Gully erosion: When rill erosion is neglected, the tiny grooves

develop into wider and deeper channels, which may assume a huge
size. This is called ‘gully’ erosion. The gullies tend to deepen and
widen with the intensity of rainfall every heavy rainfall. They cut up
large fields into small fragments and, in course of time, make them
unfit for cultivation (Fig. 2.7).

Fig. 2.7: A deep gully formation due to water erosion

31
Indian Agriculture It is estimated that about 2.3 m ha (5.75 m acres) of land in India is
affected by severe gully erosion. These gullies are an indication of very bad
management of the land resources. Apart from the fact that the gullied land
has been destroyed, the gullies are a menace to the adjoining tablelands.
Control of gullies and their reclamation for various land uses:  
The practices described below are arranged in the order in which they should
be adopted; the cost of their execution increases progressively.
(i) Closure to grazing and other biotic interference: A study of the
natural flora of the eroded areas has shown that only poor types of
annual and unpalatable grasses are growing in place of the desirable
climax associations which should normally exist in the prevailing
soil-climatic environment. Under the upper Damodar catchment
conditions, it has been observed that closure to grazing reduced the
soil loss from 3.3 tonnes/ha (under overgrazing conditions) to only
0.6 tonnes/ha.
(ii) Contour and peripheral bunding: After the closure of the ravine
lands, the immediate problem to be tackled is to stop the devastating
rate of soil erosion and the growth of gullies, and the conversion of the
cultivated tablelands into wastelands for this purpose, it is essential
to retain as much precipitation as possible on the land in the semi-
arid and sub-humid areas and safely dispose of the excess run-off in
humid areas. In the semi-arid and sub-humid areas of India, contour
and peripheral bunds of various cross-sections have been found ideal
for this purpose.
(iii) Gully plugging: The eroding and deepening of gully beds can be
prevented with gully plugs. Gully plugs protect the gully beds by
reducing the speed of run-off water, redistributing it, increasing its
percolation, encouraging silting, and improving the soil-moisture
regime for establishing a plant cover. Gully plugs of various materials,
e.g. brushwood live hedges, earth, sandbags, brick masonry, and
boulders have been tried in India. Earth is the cheapest and most
readily available material. Boulder gully plugs are equally effective
if the material is available.
Reclamation of gullies for cultivation:
The belief that all the gullied land can be reclaimed for cultivation by making
level benches in gully beds is not feasible. This may be possible if no limit
is fixed on expenditure. It has been observed that small and medium gullies
can be conveniently, safely, and economically reclaimed for cultivation,
whereas deep and narrow gullies should be retired to a permanent vegetative
cover of grasses and trees.
a. Reclamation of small gullies: Small gullies are reclaimed by clearing,
minor leveling with bulldozers, and constructing diversion-cum-
check bunds of 1.5 sq m cross-section spaced at horizontal intervals
of 30-45 m. Grassed ramps are provided for the disposal of excess
run-off at the ends of bunds near the gully sides.
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b. Reclamation of medium gullies: A small gully gets transformed Soil and Water Conservation
into a medium gully along the length of the main drainage system.
A medium gully is reclaimed by clearing and leveling the bed and
constructing a series of composite earth and brick masonry check
dams at vertical intervals of 1.2 m (which gives a horizontal interval
of 120 m on 1% slope of the gully bed) and terracing the side slopes.
The uneven side slopes of the medium gullies having 8 to 15% slopes
are bench-terraced into level terraces at 0.9 to 1.2 m vertical intervals.
Bench terraces are constructed when the gully sides are having a
uniform slope for a length of at least 120 m to justify the cost of
terracing. The terrace faces, grassed outlets, and earthen checked
dams are stabilized by sodding or growing them with suitable grasses.
Dicanthium annulatum and Cenchrus ciliaris have been found suitable
for this purpose, especially in Gujarat.
c. Reclamation of deep and narrow gullies: As mentioned earlier, the
best land use of ravine lands is to retire them to permanent vegetation
comprising grasses and trees. This type of land use is a must for
deep and narrow gullies. The natural tree species of the ravine lands
of Gujarat comprise Acacia nilotica, A. senegal, A. leucophloea,
Azadirachta indica, Albizia lebbeck, Feronia elephantum, Prosopis
spicigera, etc.
5. Stream bank erosion: Torrents are defined as hill streams
characterized by wide-spreading beds on emergence from the hills
with ill-defined banks, flashy flows, and swift currents. Usually, they
are dry watercourses, except during the rainy season when with every
downpour in their catchment, they get very much swollen with flood
and subside almost to their normal tiny size immediately after the storm
is over. These sudden and violent flows are responsible for moving
immense quantities of detritus, comprising boulders, shingles, sand,
and silt, depending upon the geology of the terrain. The rivers change
their courses due to this type of widely prevalent form of erosion. The
stream bank erosion has been depicted in Fig. 2.8.

River meandering on
the banks

Fig. 2.8: Stream bank erosion

6. Landslides and landslip erosion: A landslide is defined as an outward
and downward movement of the slope-forming material, composed
of natural rocks, soil, artificial fills, etc. The fundamental causes of
landslides are the topography of the region and geological structure,
33
Indian Agriculture the kinds of rocks, and their physical characteristics. The immediate
cause of a slide may be an earthquake, or a heavy rainfall, which
unduly saturates the ground or a part of a road. However, these are
accidents rather than fundamental causes.

2.4 SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION

MEASURES
Conservation refers to retaining extensive vegetation on the soil. Vegetation
is the protective cover against the forces of wind and water, which protects
the soil from being washed or blown away and preserves the physical and
hydrographic balance of nature. Forests, for instance, provide the most
effective protection against erosion on hill slopes.
Broadly speaking, the practical methods of soil and water conservation
fall into two important classes, viz. Agronomic measures and mechanical
measures (engineering procedures). Agronomic measures include contour
farming, off-season tillage, deep tillage, mulching, and providing vegetative
barriers on the contour. These measures mainly prevent soil erosion but
will also help in improving soil moisture availability in the watershed. The
engineering measures adopted differ with location, the slope of the land,
soil type, amount, and intensity of rainfall. Depending on these parameters,
the methods commonly used are contour trenching, contour stone walls,
construction of temporary and permanent check dams, and gully plugging
structures. Additionally, percolation ponds, silt detention tanks, and irrigation
tanks are constructed to harvest water and recharge it to the groundwater for
use in agriculture (irrigation). Farm ponds can also be constructed for every
4-5 ha in the watershed to provide protective/ supplemental irrigation.
2.4.1 Agronomical Measures
Agronomic practices for soil and water conservation help to intercept
raindrops and reduce the splash effect, help to obtain a better intake of
water rate by the soil by improving the content of organic matter and soil
structure, help to retard and reduce the overland run-off through the use
of contour cultivation, mulches, dense-growing crops, strip-cropping, and
mixed cropping. These measures are discussed in detail as under:
1. Contour farming: During intense rainstorms, the soil cannot absorb
all the rain as it falls. The excess water flows down the slope under
the influence of gravity. If farming is done up and down the slope, the
flow of water is accelerated, because each furrow serves as a rill. The
major part of the rain is drained away without infiltrating into the soil.
The top fertile soil, along with plant nutrients and seeds, is washed off
resulting in scanty and uneven growth of the crop.
2. Mulching: Surface mulches are used to prevent soil from blowing and
being washed away, to reduce evaporation, to increase infiltration,
to keep down weeds, to improve soil structure, and eventually to
increase crop yields. Interculture kills weeds and produces five to
seven cm thick soil mulch which helps to reduce evaporation from
the topsoil. It also breaks the surface crust which forms after each
downpour. Studies on mulching carried out in India under rainfed
34
 agriculture have concentrated on the measurement of crop responses Soil and Water Conservation
rather than on the manner in which crop responses are influenced.
3. Growing of crops which provide the maximum cover, reduce
run-off and soil loss: Cultivation of legumes, in general, furnishes
a better cover and hence better protection to cultivated land against
erosion than ordinary cultivated crops. The crops and the cropping
systems will naturally vary from region to region, depending on the
soil and climatic conditions.
4. Strip cropping: Strip cropping is essentially another form of
rotation. Its importance in controlling the run-off erosion and thereby
maintaining the fertility of the soil is now universally recognized.
Strip cropping, in effect, employs several good farming practices,
including crop rotation, contour cultivation, proper tillage, stubble
mulching, cover cropping, etc. Strip Cropping is of the following
different forms:
(i) Contour strip Cropping
(ii) Field strip Cropping
(iii) Wind strip Cropping
(iv) Permanent or temporary buffer strip Cropping
(i) Contour strip Cropping: Contour strip Cropping is the growing of
soil-exposing and erosion-permitting crops in strips of suitable
widths across the slopes on contour, alternating with a strip of
soil-protecting and erosion-resisting crops. Contour strip-cropping
shortens the length of the slope, checks the movement of run-off
water, helps to desilt it, and increases the absorption of rainwater
by the soil. Further, the dense foliage of the erosion-resistant crops
prevents the rain from beating the soil surface directly. It is advisable
to rotate the strip planting by sowing a non-resistant crop, following
an erosion-resistant crop, and vice versa.
(ii) Field strip Cropping: It is the planting of farm crops in more or less
parallel strips across fairly uniform slopes, but not on exact contours.
(iii) Wind strip Cropping: It consists of planting tall-growing crops such
as jowar, bajra and maize, and low-growing crops in alternately
arranged straight and long, but relatively narrow, parallel strips laid
out right across the direction of the prevailing wind, regardless of the
contour.
(iv) Permanent or temporary buffer strip Cropping: In the case of
permanent or temporary buffer strip cropping, the strips are established
to take care of critical, i.e. steep or highly eroded, slopes in fields
under contour strip-cropping. These strips do not form part of the
rotation practiced in normal strip-cropping, and they are generally
planted with perennial legumes, grasses, or shrubs on a permanent or
temporary basis.
5. Mixed cropping: The main reason for the lack of interest in strip-
cropping in India is the small size of the holdings of the farmers.
Instead, the Indian farmers have been interested in mixed farming
35
Indian Agriculture which is very extensively adopted by him. Some of the important
objectives of mixed cropping are a better and continuous cover of the
land, good protection against the beating action of the rain, almost
complete protection against soil erosion, and the assurance of one or
more crops to the farmer. The roots of various species in a mixed crop
feed at different depths in the soil.
2.4.2 Mechanical Measures
Mechanical measures (also called engineering measures) play a very vital role
in controlling erosion on agricultural land. They are adopted to supplement
the agronomical practices when the latter alone are not adequately effective.
The main objectives of the mechanical measures for controlling erosion
are: (i) to increase the time of concentration by intercepting the run-off and
thereby providing an opportunity for the infiltration of water, and (ii) to
divide a long slope into several short ones so as to reduce the velocity of
the run-off and thus prevent erosion. The various mechanical structures for
controlling soil and water conservation are discussed as under:
1. Stormwater diversion channel: This is the drain or direction, which
diverts the stormwater. It is the first line of defense and vital to the
protection system for all lower structures.
2. Channel Terrace: To avoid soil dislodge and scouring action, some
form of earthwork at right angles to the steepest slope is used to
interrupt the surface run-off. These works are known as terraces or
ridges or bunds. In the cross-section, the features common to all are
an excavated channel, hence the name channel terrace (Fig. 2.9).

Fig. 2.9: Design details of a sloppy inward bench terrace on a slope with the
provision of protective barriers.
3. Artificial watercourse: For discouraging the water from channels, the
frequent natural watercourse is not available. So it must be artificially
made. They will normally run straight the steepest slope and have a
bank on each side to contain the water.
4. Bench terrace: Bench terracing is converting a steep slope into a
series of steps. They may be constructed on the contour, to minimize
run-off. When regular cultivation is not required, as far tree crops,
smaller terraces are effective (Fig. 2.10).

36
 Soil and Water Conservation

Fig. 2.10: A hill slope converted into level bench terraces

5. Irrigation terrace: When a flat bench terrace has a raised lip at the
outer edge to retain irrigation water, this type of terrace is known as
an irrigation terrace (Fig. 2.11).

Fig. 2.11: Wet terrace rice cultivation in high rainfall hill zone of Sikkim Himalayas
6. Orchard terrace: For too sloppy areas and where the soil is too
shallow then the land may be developed for tree crops by the use of
intermittent terraces, called orchard terraces (Fig. 2.12).

Fig. 2.12: Half-moon terraces created on the steep slopes for establishments of
orchards
7. Contour bund: This practice consists in making a comparatively
narrow-based embankment at intervals across the slope of the land
on a level that is along the contour. It is an important measure
that conserves soil and water in arid and semi-arid areas with high
infiltration and permeability and is commonly adopted on agricultural
land up to a slope of about 6 percent.
It is a rudimentary type of channel terrace. Somewhere, it is taken as
an erosion-controlling bank, which has grasses or shrubs, planted on
them (Fig. 2.13).

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Indian Agriculture

Fig. 2.13: Contour line is the imaginary line of equal elevation on the ground.
8. Contour trenches: Contour trenches are the excavated or dug-out
channels along the contour lines so that they can harvest the excess
runoff along with the soil being washed away. This technology is
being implemented in a big way in Mizoram (Fig. 2.14).

Fig. 2.14: Installation of a drainage trench for the safe disposal of excess rainwater
9. Pasture furrow: It is a small shallow drain whose function is to spread
out surface water and allow it to concentrate in the minor watercourse.
Primary purpose is to conserve water by increasing infiltration and
the technique is frequently used on grassland, hence the name pasture
furrows.
10. Tied ridging: It consists of covering the whole surface with closely
spaced ridges in two directions at a right angle so the ground is formed
into a series of rectangular depressions.
11. Contour cultivation or grass strips: On gentle slopes, it may be
sufficient to slow down surface runoff by carrying out all tillage
operations on the contour.
12. Ridge and furrow: This combines an element of erosion control with
surface drainage. This is useful for gentle slopes and large areas. The
ground is tilted into wide parallel ridges of the order of 10m wide
with intervening furrows about 1/2m deep.
13. Check dams: The structure constructed to control the velocity of
running water along the gullies is called check dams. They reduce
the steep gradient of the gully into a series of steps with low rises and
long flat treads, reducing the velocity of running water. This makes
water deposit and increases the percolation of water on soil. Check
dams may be a temporary structure constructed with locally available
materials or a permanent structure constructed with stone masonry
(Fig. 2.15).

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 Soil and Water Conservation

Fig. 2.15: A check-dam constructed in a gully for controlling the soil erosion
14. Percolation Pond: The percolation pond is a multipurpose
conservation structure depending on its location and size. It stores
water for livestock and recharges the groundwater. It is constructed
by excavating a depression, forming a small reservoir, or constructing
an embankment in a natural ravine or gully to form an impounded
type of reservoir.
15. Irrigation tank: The main function of this storage structure is
irrigating crops. It is constructed below the above-mentioned
structures in a watershed. In Tamil Nadu, each tank irrigates from
10 to 5000 hectares. In south India, there are about 2000000 tanks,
irrigating about 3.5 million hectares.

Fig. 2.16: A polyethylene lined water harvesting tank for conservation and
utilization of excess rainwater
16. Grassed waterways: A grassed waterway is associated with channel
terraces for the safe disposal of concentrated run-off, thereby protecting
the land against rills and gullies. A waterway is constructed according
to a proper design and a vegetative cover is established to protect the
channel section against erosion because of the concentrated flow (Fig.
2.17). Some other in situ moisture conservation measures (Fig. 2.18
to Fig. 2.20) can be practiced in the watershed to increase production.
For crops, the measures adopted are forming ridges and furrows,
broad bed and furrows, basins, tie ridging (random tie ridges), and
water spreading. For tree crops micro catchment, saucer basin, semi-
circular bund, crescent-shaped bunds, V ditch technology, catch pits
and deep pitting can be practiced. In addition to the above measures
and structures, small storage structures with a water storage capacity
for an area of about 0.4 to 0.5 ha can be constructed in large numbers
one for every 10 to 20 ha catchment or watershed at the foothills slopes
and hilly areas. These storage facilities would attenuate the floods
during storms. These measures will also ensure soil moisture for good
39
Indian Agriculture growth of trees grown downstream recharging the groundwater in the
region and making available more water for drinking and irrigation.

Fig. 2.17: Depiction of an experimental plot with polythene and straw mulching on
ridges and furrows with maize as a test crop

Fig. 2.18: Topo-sequential cultivation of different crops on a slope land

Fig. 2.19: Establishing the vegetative barriers in grassed water ways for prevention
of soil loss from higher elevations

Fig. 2.20: A pictorial depiction of topo-sequential cultivation of different crops on a

slope on bench terraces
Check Your Progress 2.2
Note: a) Use the space below for writing your answers.
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
40
1. What do you understand about conservation measures? Soil and Water Conservation

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2. How many types of conservation measures have been adopted to
prevent soil erosion?
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3. What are the objectives of mechanical conservation measures?
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4. What is a check dam?
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2.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you have learned about the process of soil erosion, various
soil erosion agents, types of soil erosion, and the mechanism of erosion.
There are several other ways of enhancing the process of soil erosion such
as developmental activities for catering to the need of the rapidly growing
population of our country. I see in my near vicinity that a park was being
leveled by a laser machine was run over by a tractor resulting in the
displacement of a huge amount of soil soon after the heavy rainfall took
place in a pulverized sports ground. The engineers and workers must be
trained to analyze and tackle such problems by being careful. Students must
now be able to develop their independent thinking about many more ways
in which soil erosion may occur. A brief idea for conservation measures has
been given but one has to be vigilant at every time that unnecessary loss of
soil must be prevented at all costs because our basic survival depends on
this precious resource and its preservation is the moral responsibility of one
and all.

2.6 KEYWORDS
Best Management
Practice (BMP): Planning, design, and construction practices that minimize
the production and transport of sediments.
Design storm : The storm duration and intensity for which a BMP or other
structure is designed.

41
Indian Agriculture Embankment : A man-made deposit of soil, rock, or other material, often
used to form an impoundment.
Erosion: The wearing away of soil by water, wind, and gravity.
Erosion and sediment
control plan: A plan specifying the minimum level of erosion and sediment
control to be installed on a site during each phase of development activity.
Evapotranspiration: The combined loss of water from an area by
evaporation from the soil surface and by transpiration of plants.
Gabion: A wire mesh cage, usually rectangular, filled with rock and used
to protect channel banks and other sloping areas from erosion.
Geographic information
system (GIS): A computerized system for storing, analyzing, retrieving,
and displaying geo-referenced (mapped) information
Gully erosion : Erosion resulting in a relatively deep incision of the soil
surface, caused by concentrated overland runoff.
Mass wasting : Movement of earth materials caused by gravity alone,
without a transporting medium such as wind or water. Mass wasting
includes imperceptible processes such as soil creep and rapid processes
such as debris slides and rockfall.
Rill erosion: Small eroding channels produced by surface runoff.
Runoff: That portion of precipitation that flows over the land surface, in
open channels, or stormwater conveyance systems.
Sedimentation: The deposition of eroded material (sediments).
Sediment delivery ratio: The fraction of the soil eroded from an upland
source that reaches a stream channel, waterbody, or watershed outlet.
Splash erosion (or rain
splash erosion): The dispersal of soil particles resulting from direct raindrop
impact on the soil surface.
Suspended sediment : Sediment suspended in runoff water, in a
stream, or in any other water body.
Turbidity: A measure of the ability of a water sample to transmit light.
High turbidity (poor light transmission) is normally caused by the presence
of suspended matter such as clay, silt, fine organic matter, and microscopic
organisms.
USLE: The Universal Soil Loss Equation. An equation was developed in
the United States in the 1970s to express estimated soil loss per unit area
as a function of rainfall, soil type, slope length, slope steepness, land cover,
and land management characteristics.
Watershed : The area of land draining to a common outlet.
Water table : The surface of the water under the ground that is at atmospheric
pressure. The water table is approximately that depth in the ground at which
saturated soil is first encountered. The water table generally rises and falls
seasonally.
42
 Soil and Water Conservation
2.7 SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS
1. Hudson, Norman. (1995). Soil Conservation. Iowa State University
Press, Ames, IA.
2. Humberto Blanco-Canqui and Rattan Lal. 2008. Principles of Soil
Conservation and Management, Springer, New York.
3. Lal R, Blum WEH, Valentine C and Stewart BA. 1998. Methods for
Assessment of Soil Degradation, CRC Press. P.558.
4. Lal, R. 1994. Soil Erosion: Research Methods. Ankeny, IA: Soil and
Water Conservation Society; Delray Beach, FL: St. Lucie Press, p.
340.
5. Morgan, R. P. C., 2005. Soil Erosion and Conservation, Blackwell
Publishing Ltd., p. 304.
6. Terrence J. Toy, George R. Foster, Kenneth G. Renard. 2002. Soil
Erosion: Processes, Prediction, Measurement, and Control. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. p. 338.
7. Zachar, D. 1982: Soil erosion. Developments in Soil Science. Elsevier
Scientific. Amsterdam. p. 547.
2.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 2.1
1. Around 15 percent of the Earth’s ice-free land surface is afflicted by
all forms of land degradation.
2. Around 11 million square km.
3. In India, almost 130 million hectares of land, i.e., 45 percent of total
geographical surface area, is affected by serious soil erosion.
4. 17.9 million hectares
5. Loss of nutrients from the topsoil makes the land inappropriate for
cultivation.
6. Rainfall intensity and Rainfall erosivity factor, soil erodibility factor,
slope gradient, and length factor, and vegetation
Check Your Progress 2.2
1. Conservation refers to retaining extensive vegetation on the soil.
Vegetation is the protective cover against the forces of wind and
water, which protects the soil from being washed or blown away and
preserves the physical and hydrographic balance of nature.
2. Two types: Agronomic and mechanical
3. The main objectives of the mechanical measures for controlling
erosion are: (i) to increase the time of concentration by intercepting
the run-off and thereby providing an opportunity for the infiltration of
water, and (ii) to divide a long slope into several short ones to reduce
the velocity of the run-off and thus prevent erosion.
4. The structure constructed to control the velocity of running water
along the gullies is called a check dam.

43
 UNIT 3 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Irrigation
3.3 Major Irrigation Projects in India
3.4 Irrigation Methods
3.5 Irrigation Scheduling
3.5.1 Irrigation scheduling criteria
3.5.2 Advantages of irrigation scheduling
3.5.3 Irrigation scheduling methods
3.6 Command Area Development and Water Management
3.7 Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM)
3.7.1 Objectives of PIM
3.7.2 Provisions in PIM Acts
3.7.3 Constraints in implementation of PIM
3.8 Drainage
3.9 Let Us Sum Up
3.10 Keywords
3.11 Suggested Further Readings
3.12 Answers to Check Your Progress
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you shall be able to:
●● explain the importance of irrigation in Indian agriculture;
●● describe the development of irrigation facilities in India;
●● discuss the irrigation scheduling and irrigation methods; and
●● define the drainage and comprehend the drainage requirements and
methods.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Irrigation is crucial for agricultural production due to its complementarily
with other yield-enhancing inputs such as high-yielding variety seeds,
fertilizers, and chemicals. India is generously endowed with water resources
by the nature. But paradoxically, water scarcity and inefficiency in its use
co-exist in India’s water resource management system. Irrigation retains its
crucial role in productivity-led future agricultural production, alleviating
poverty and reducing inequality in income distribution in rural areas. In

44
the past, agricultural development in general and irrigation development, Irrigation and Drainage
in particular, has evolved around productivity and food security concerns.

3.2 IRRIGATION
The history of irrigation development in India can be traced back to
prehistoric times. Vedas and ancient Indian scriptures made references to
wells, canals, tanks, and dams which were beneficial to the community
and their efficient operation and maintenance was the responsibility of the
state. Civilization flourished on the banks of the rivers and harnessed the
water for the sustenance of life. According to the ancient Indian writers,
the digging of a tank or well was amongst the greatest of the meritorious
acts of a man.  Irrigation has played a major role in the production process
in a monsoon climate and an agrarian economy like India. There are pieces
of evidence of the practice of irrigation since the establishment of settled
agriculture during the Indus Valley Civilization (2500 BC).
These irrigation technologies were in the form of small and minor works,
which could be operated by small households to irrigate small patches
of land and did not require cooperative effort. Nearly all these irrigation
technologies still exist in India with little technological change and continue
to be used by independent households for smallholdings. In southern India,
perennial irrigation may have begun with the construction of the Grand
Anicut by the Kings Raj Raja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola as early as
the second century to provide irrigation from the Cauvery River. In northern
India also there are many small canals in the upper valleys of rivers which
are very old.
Definition of Irrigation

“Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the cropped fields (to plants)

to ensure their survival and proper growth”. Irrigation is provided if there is
not enough moisture in absence of rain for producing usable commodities
for humanity at large hence; the supplemental application of water to crops
may be referred to as irrigation. There may be other definitions of irrigation
in literature, but the ultimate objective of providing water to the fields,
which do not have adequate moisture for supporting the proper plant growth
and survival of crops is to produce and fulfill the needs of human beings and
their livestock that in turn provide various other commodities.

3.3 MAJOR IRRIGATION PROJECTS IN INDIA

Several irrigation projects have been developed on various rivers to enhance
the irrigated areas as well as to produce hydropower in India. A list of

45
Indian Agriculture irrigation projects developed in India along with the area served by them is
given below:
1. Nagarjunasagar (Andhra Pradesh): on the Krishna river near
Nandikona village (about 44 km from Hyderabad.)
2. Tungabhadra (Joint project of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka): on
the Tungabhadra river.
3. Gandak (joint project of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh): Nepal also derives
irrigation and power benefits from this project.
4. Kosi (Bihar): A multipurpose project, which serves Bihar and Nepal.
5. Sone high-level canal (Bihar): An extension on the Sone barrage
project.
6. Kakrapara (Gujarat): on the Tapti River near Kakrapara, in Surat
district.
7. Ukal (Gujarat): A multipurpose project, across the Tapti River near
Ukai village.
8. Mahi (Gujarat): A two-phase project, one across the Mahi River near
Wanakbori village and the other across the Mahi River near Kadana.
9. Sabarmati (Gujarat): A storage dam across the Sabarmati River near
Dhari village in Mehsana district and Wasna barrage near Ahmedabad.
10. Panam (Gujarat): A masonry dam across Panam River near Keldezar
village in Panchmahal district.
11. Karjan (Gujarat): A masonry dam across Karjan River near Jiotgarh
village in Nandoo Taluka of Bharuch district.
12. Bhadra (Karnataka): A multipurpose project across the river Bhadra.
13. Upper Krishna (Karnataka): A project consisting of a Narayanpur
dam across the Krishna River and a dam at Almatti.
14. Ghataprabha (Karnataka): A project across Ghataprabha in Belgaum
and Bijapur districts.
15. Malaprabha (Karnataka): A dam across the Malaprabha in Belgaum
district.
16. Tawa (Madhya Pradesh): A project on the Tawa River, a tributary of
the Narmada in Hoshangabad district.
17. Chambal (joint project of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan): The
project comprises the Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Sagar dam, and
Jawahar Sagar dam.
18. Mahanadi Reservoir Project (Madhya Pradesh): It has three phases:
i. Ravishankar Sagar project and feeder canal system for the
supply of water to Bhilai steel plant and Sandur dam across
Sandur village,
ii. extension of Mahanadi feeder canal
iii. Pairi dam.
19. Hasdeo Bango Project (Madhya Pradesh): It is the third phase of the
46
 Hasdeo Bango Project complex and envisages the construction of a Irrigation and Drainage
masonry dam across the Hasdeo River. The first and second phases
have been substantially completed.
20. Bargi Project (Madhya Pradesh): It is a multipurpose project
consisting of a masonry dam across the Bargi River in the Jabalpur
district and a left bank canal.
21. Bhima (Maharashtra): Comprises two dams, one on the Pawana River
near Phange in Pune district and the other across the Krishna River
near Ujjaini in Sholapur district.
22. Jayakwadi (Maharashtra): A masonry spillway across the river
Godavari.
23. Kukadi Project (Maharashtra): Five independent storage dams, i.e.,
Yodgaon, Manikdohi, Dimba, Wadaj, and Pimpalgaon jog. The canal
system comprises (1) Kukadi left bank canal, (2) Dhimba left bank
canal, (3) Dhimba right bank canal (4)Meena feeder, and (5) Meena
branch.
24. Krishna Project (Maharashtra): Dhom dam near Dhom village on
Krishna and Kanhar Village of Varna River in Satna district.
25. Upper Penganga (Maharashtra): Two reservoirs on Penganga River
at Isapur in Yavatmal district and the other on Rayadhu River at Sapli
in Parbhani district.
26. Hirakud (Odisha): World’s longest dam is located on the Mahanadi
River.
27. Mahandi Delta Scheme (Odisha): The irrigation scheme will utilize
releases from the Hirakud reservoir.
28. Bhakra Nangal (Joint project of Haryana, Punjab, and Rajasthan):
India’s biggest multipurpose river valley project comprises a straight
gravity dam across the Sutlej at Bhakra, the Nangal dam, the Nangal
hydel channel, two powerhouses at Bhakra dam, and two power
station at Ganguwal and Kotla.
29. Beas (Joint venture of Haryana, Punjab, and Rajasthan): It consists of
the Beas-Sutlej link and Beas dam at Pong.
30. Thein Dam (Punjab): The project envisages the construction of a
dam across river Ravi and a power plant on its left bank.
31. Rajasthan Canal (Rajasthan): The project will use water released
from the Pong dam and will provide irrigation facilities to the
northwestern region of Rajasthan, i.e. a part of the Thar Desert. It
consists of the Rajasthan feeder canal (with the first 167 km in Punjab
and Haryana and the remaining 37 km in Rajasthan) and 445 km
Rajasthan main canal entirely in Rajasthan.
32. Paramblkulam Allyar (Joint venture of Tamil Nadu and Kerala):
The project envisages the integrated harnessing of eight rivers, six in
the Annamalai hills and two in the plains.
33. Sarda Sahayak (Uttar Pradesh): The project envisages the construction
of a barrage across the river Ghagra, a link channel, a barrage across
47
Indian Agriculture river Sarda, and a feeder channel involving constructions of two
major aqueducts over Gomti and Sai.
34. Ramganga (Uttar Pradesh): A dam across Ramganga, a tributary of
the Ganga River located in Garhwal district. The project has, besides
reducing the intensity of floods in central and western Uttar Pradesh,
provided water for the Delhi water supply scheme.
35. Left Bank Ghagra Canal (Uttar Pradesh): A link channel taking off
from the left bank of Ghagra river of Girja barrage and joining with
Sarju River. Also a barrage across Sarju.
36. Tehri Dam (Uttar Pradesh): Earth and rock-fill dam on Bhagirathi
River in Tehri district.
37. Madhya Ganga Canal (Uttar Pradesh): A barrage across Ganga in
Bijnor district.
38. Farakka (West Bengal): The project was taken up for the preservation
and maintenance of Kolkata port and for improving the navigability
of the Hooghly. It comprises a barrage across the Ganga at Farakka, a
barrage at Jangipur across the Bhagirathi, and a feeder channel taking
off from the Ganga at Farakka and tailing at the Bhagirathi below the
Jangipur barrage.
39. Mayurakshi (West Bengal): Irrigation and hydroelectric project
comprise the Canada dam.
40. Kangsabati (West Bengal): The project envisages the construction of
dams on the Kangsabati and Kumari rivers.
41. Damodar Valley Project (West Bengal and Bihar): A multipurpose
project for the unified development of irrigation, flood control, and
power generation in West Bengal and Bihar. It comprises multipurpose
dams at Konar, Tilaiya, Maithon, and Panchet, hydel power stations
at Tilaiya, Konar, Maithon, and Panchet barrage at Durgapur; and
thermal powerhouses at Bokaro, Chandrapura, and Durgapur. The
project is administered by the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC).

3.4 IRRIGATION METHODS

Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil to enable crops to
have favorable growth particularly in areas where the amount of rainfall
is not adequate and it is not uniformly distributed. The three basic types
of irrigation methods generally used are surface irrigation, sprinkler
irrigation, and micro or drip irrigation depending on the type of crop, soil,
and topographic and climatic conditions. An irrigation method should suit
the local conditions. All methods have their advantages and disadvantages.
The basic purpose of irrigation is to apply irrigation water uniformly so that
each plant gets the desired quantity of water, neither too much nor too little.
The suitability of the various irrigation methods, i.e. surface, sprinkler, or
drip irrigation depends mainly on the following factors:

48
●● soil type, Irrigation and Drainage

●● crop,
●● topography,
●● climatic conditions,
●● source of water and its quality,
●● power availability, and
●● cost and benefits.
Surface irrigation

In surface irrigation systems, water moves over and across the land by
simple gravity flow to wet it and to infiltrate it into the soil. Historically, this
has been the most common method of irrigating agricultural land due to its
simplicity and less cost involved. On loam or clay soils, all three irrigation
methods can be used, but surface irrigation is more commonly found. Clay
soils with low infiltration rates are ideally suited to surface irrigation. All
soil types, except coarse sand with an infiltration rate of more than 30 mm/
hour, can be used for surface irrigation. If the infiltration rate is higher than
30 mm/hour, sprinkler or drip irrigation should be used.
Surface irrigation includes the following types:
a) Continuous flood or paddy irrigation, in which small basins are
flooded during essentially the growing season.
b) Basin irrigation confines water to a given area by ponding over the
area but remains ponded in orchards. A separate basin is formed for
each tree and water is supplied through a supply ditch.
c) As shown in Fig.3.1, border-strip irrigation applies water to one end of
a rectangular strip of sloping land so that water advances downslope
and either runs off the end or ponds behind a dike. The border strip
method wherein the farm is divided into a series of strips 5 to 10 m
wide are commonly used for all close-growing crops including cereal
crops like wheat.
d) As shown in Fig.3.2, Furrow irrigation uses furrows made between
crops planted in rows to control and guide water for either steep land
or very level land. This method of irrigation is very commonly used
for row crops like maize, jowar, sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, and
groundnut.
Where, water levels from the irrigation source permit, the levels are
controlled by dikes, usually plugged by soil. This is often seen in terraced
rice fields (rice paddies), where the method is used to flood or control the
level of water in each distinct field. In some cases, the water is pumped, or
lifted by human or animal power to the level of the land.

49
Indian Agriculture

Border
Strip
Cross-ridge

Side ridges

Uniform slope

Level
Siphon tube

Water front Border Strip

advance

Infiltration Wetting front Soil

Fig. 3.1: Border irrigation

Plan
t

Wat
er

Infiltration
Infiltration

Fig. 3.2: Furrow irrigation

Advantages
●● Simple, cheap, and easy to operate;
●● Suited to most of the close-growing (border) and row crops (furrow);
and
50
●● Adopted for most of the soils. Irrigation and Drainage

Limitations
●● Irrigation efficiency (ratio of water gainfully used by the crop and
water applied from the source) is very low (30-40%) as a result of
which scarce and precious water resource is wasted;
●● A considerable area used by the water channels;
●● Periodic maintenance required; and
●● Leaching of fertilizer and nutrients.
Sprinkler irrigation
Sandy soils have a low water storage capacity and a high infiltration rate.
They, therefore, need frequent but small irrigation applications, in particular
when the sandy soil is also shallow. Under these circumstances, sprinkler
irrigation is more suitable than surface irrigation as shown in Fig. 3.3. The
sprinklers operate at a considerably higher pressure of 2-3 kg/cm2 (1 kg/cm2
= 10 m head of water). The sprinklers apply water in the form of rainwater,
which helps in creating a better micro-climate and also protects plants from
frost.
The system is suited under the following soil, crop, and topographic and
climatic conditions”
●● Sandy soils with a high infiltration rate
●● Undulating topography
●● Close growing crops
●● Moderate wind speed

Sprinkler head

Riser
pipe End plug

Lateral pipes

Tea
Main line coupling Diesel engine
Pressure gauge
Mounted on
Gate value trolley

Bend
Centrifugal pump
Suction pipe

Debris
Water source screen

Fig. 3.3: Sprinkler irrigation system

Sprinkler irrigation systems are divided based on whether the structure
moves in the field during the irrigation event. There are four basic categories: 51
Indian Agriculture a) Permanent, solid-set sprinklers are fixed on risers from buried lines or
lines suspended above a crop or over trees
b) Hand-move sprinklers are fixed sprinklers that are dissembled, moved,
and reassembled between irrigations
c) Continuous-move sprinkler systems move continuously during
irrigation and
d) Center-pivot irrigation systems supply water at a central point and a
lateral line rotates around this center and covers very areas at a time.
Advantages
●● Uniform water application as per the requirement in the field;
●● Improves microclimate;
●● High irrigation efficiency (70-80%); and
●● High fertilizer efficiency.
Limitations
●● High initial investment and operating costs;
●● Needs high energy; and
●● High wind velocity affects the uniformity of water application.
Drip irrigation
In drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, water is delivered at or
near the root zone of plants, drop by drop under low pressure. As you can
see in Fig. 3.4, the system comprises plastic components such as pipes and
drippers in addition to filter and fertilizer applicator. This method can be
the most water-efficient method of irrigation if managed properly since
evaporation and runoff are minimized. In this method, fertilizer is applied
with drip irrigation known as fertigation. If a drip system is operated for too
long of a duration or if the delivery rate is too high, it may result in deep
percolation. As water is applied in the vicinity of the plants, only a part
of the area is wetted. As a result of this, there is a considerable saving of
water. The fertilizer application is also highly efficient due to its use with
irrigation water. Due to optimum use of water and nutrients, not only crop
productivity is high, but its quality is also superior as compared with surface
irrigated crops. The drip method is suited under the following conditions:
●● Widely spaced crops such as orchard crops;
●● Undulating lands with high infiltration rates;
●● Widely spaced crops; and
●● Saline irrigation water

52
 Irrigation and Drainage

Fig. 3.4: Layout of drip irrigation

(Source: Jain Irrigation Systems Ltd.)

Advantages
●● Considerable saving of water as only part of area wetted;
●● Less amount of fertilizer used;
●● Relatively saline water usable;
●● High irrigation efficiency (>90%)
●● High fertilizer efficiency;
●● High yields and better quality of produce; and
●● Less weed infestation.
Limitations
●● High initial investment.

3.5 IRRIGATION SCHEDULING

Irrigation scheduling is the decision of when and how much water to apply
to a field. The objective of irrigation scheduling is to maximize irrigation
efficiencies by applying the exact amount of water needed to replenish the
soil moisture to the desired level. It saves water and energy. The irrigation
scheduling procedures consist of monitoring indicators that determine the
need for irrigation. The amount of water applied is determined by using a
criterion to determine irrigation needs and a strategy to prescribe how much
water to apply in any situation.
3.5.1 Irrigation Scheduling Criteria
Irrigation criteria are the indicators used to determine the need for
irrigation. The most common irrigation criteria are soil moisture content
and soil moisture tension. Less common types are irrigation scheduling to
maximize yield and irrigation scheduling to maximize net return. The final
decision depends on the irrigation criterion, strategy, and goal. Irrigators
need to define a goal and establish an irrigation criterion and strategy. To
illustrate irrigation scheduling, consider a farmer whose goal is to maximize
yield. Soil moisture content is the irrigation criterion. Different levels of
53
Indian Agriculture soil moisture trigger irrigation. For example, when soil water content drops
below 70 percent of the total available soil moisture, irrigation should start.
Soil moisture content to trigger irrigation depends on the irrigator’s goal
and strategy. The importance of irrigation scheduling is that it enables
the irrigator to apply the exact amount of water to achieve the goal. This
increases irrigation efficiency. A critical element is accurate measurement
of the volume of water applied or the depth of application. A farmer cannot
manage water to the maximum efficiency without knowing how much was
applied. Also, uniform water distribution across the field is important to
derive the maximum benefits from irrigation scheduling and management.
Accurate water application prevents over-or under irrigation. Over irrigation
wastes water, energy, and labor; leaches expensive nutrients below the root
zone, out of reach of plants; and reduces soil aeration, and thus crop yields.
Under irrigation stresses the plant and causes yield reduction.
3.5.2 Advantages of Irrigation Scheduling
Irrigation scheduling offers several advantages:
1. It enables the farmer to schedule water rotation among the various
fields to minimize crop water stress and maximize yields.
2. It reduces the farmer’s cost of water and labor through less irrigation,
thereby making the maximum use of soil moisture storage.
3. It lowers fertilizer costs by holding surface runoff and deep percolation
(leaching) to a minimum.
4. It increases net returns by increasing crop yields and crop quality.
5. It minimizes water-logging problems by reducing the drainage
requirements.
6. It assists in controlling root zone salinity problems through controlled
leaching.
7. It results in additional returns by using the “saved” water to irrigate
non-cash crops that otherwise would not be irrigated during water-
short periods.
3.5.3 Irrigation Scheduling Methods
All irrigation scheduling methods consist of an irrigation criterion that
triggers irrigation and an irrigation strategy that determines how much water
to apply. Irrigation scheduling methods differ by the irrigation criterion or
by the method used to estimate or measure this criterion. A common and
widely used irrigation criterion is soil moisture status. Table 3.1 compares
different methods of irrigation scheduling by monitoring soil moisture
content or tension. The methods described in the table measure or estimate
the irrigation criterion.

54
 Table 3.1: Methods of irrigation scheduling Irrigation and Drainage

Method Measured Equipment Irrigation Advantages Disadvantag-

parameter needed criterion es

Hand feel Soil mois- Hand probe Soil Easy to use; Low accura-
and appear- ture content moisture simple; can cies; fieldwork
ance of soil by feel content improve ac- involved tak-
curacy with ing samples
experience
Gravimetric Soil mois- Auger, caps, Soil High accu- Labor inten-
soil moisture ture content oven moisture racy sive including
sample by taking content fieldwork;
samples time gap
between
sampling and
results
Tensiome- Soil mois- Tensiometers Soil Good Labor to read;
ters ture tension including moisture accuracy; in- needs mainte-
vacuum tension stantaneous nance; breaks
gauge reading of at tensions
soil moisture above 0.7 atm
tension
Electrical Electric Resistance Soil Instan- Affected by
resistance resistance blocks AC moisture taneous soil salinity;
blocks of soil bridge (me- tension reading; not sensitive at
moisture ter) works over a low tensions;
larger range needs some
of tensions; maintenance
can be used and field
for remote reading
reading
Water bud- Climatic Weather sta- Estima- No field Needs
get approach parameters: tion or avail- tion of work calibration
tempera- able weather moisture required; and periodic
ture, radia- information content flexible; can adjustments,
tion, wind, forecast irri- since it is only
humidity, gation needs an estimate;
and expect- in the future; calculations
ed rainfall, with same cumbersome
depending equipment without a com-
on the mod- can schedule puter
el used to many fields
predict ET.
Modified Reference Atmometer Esti- Easy to Needs calibra-
atmometer ET gauge mate of use, direct tion; it is only
moisture reading of an estimation
content reference ET

Check Your Progress 3.1

Note: a) Use the space below for writing your answers.
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Define irrigation.
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55
Indian Agriculture 2. List different methods of irrigation water application.
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3. Which is the most used irrigation method?
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4. List the factors governing the choice of irrigation methods.
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5. Under what condition is the sprinkler method of irrigation adopted?
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6. What do you understand by irrigation scheduling? List any two
advantages of irrigation scheduling.
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3.6 COMMAND AREA DEVELOPMENT AND

WATER MANAGEMENT
The Centrally sponsored Command Area Development (CAD) Programme
was launched in 1974-75 with the main objectives of improving the utilization
of created irrigation potential and optimizing agriculture production and
productivity from irrigated agriculture through a multi-disciplinary team
under an Area Development Authority.
Initially, 60 major and medium irrigation projects were taken up under the
CAD Programme, covering a Culturable Command Area (CCA) of about
15.00 million hectares. From 1974-75 till now 314 projects with a CCA
of 28.95 million ha have been included under the programme. After the
inclusion of new projects, deletion of completed projects, and clubbing
of some projects, there are now 136 projects under implementation. The
programme was restructured and renamed as Command Area Development
56
& Water Management (CADWM) Programme w.e.f. 1-4-2004. The Irrigation and Drainage
following components are covered under the CADWM Programme:
(i) Soil & Topographic Survey, planning and designing of On-Farm
Development (OFD) works;
(ii) Correction of system deficiencies above the outlet up to distributaries
of 4.25 cumec (150 cusec capacity);
(iii) Construction of field channels, with a minimum of 10% beneficiary
contribution of total cost in cash or labor;
(iv) Full package OFD works including construction of field channels,
realignment of field boundaries, land leveling and shaping also with
a minimum of 10% beneficiary contribution of total cost in cash or
labor;
(v) Warabandi (with hardware assistance covered under item (ii) and
software assistance covered under item (ix);
(vi) Construction of field drains, intermediate and link drains for letting
out surplus water;
(vii) Reclamation of waterlogged areas of irrigated commands using
conventional techniques and including bio-drainage, wherever
applicable, with a minimum of 10% beneficiary contribution of total
cost in cash or labor;
(viii) Renovation and desilting of existing irrigation tanks including
the irrigation system and control structures within the designated
irrigation commands (a minimum of 10% contribution by beneficiary
farmers of total cost in cash or labor is necessary for this activity. This
money is to be deposited in the accounts of WUAs as a maintenance
fund, the interest on which will be used for maintenance of tanks and
the system by tank WUA).
(ix) State-sponsored software components such as training of farmers
and field functionaries & officials, adaptive trials & demonstrations,
action research for Participatory Irrigation Management, seminars/
conferences/ workshops, monitoring & evaluation of the programme,
etc. through Water and Land Management Institutes (WALMI) and
other states/central institutions.
(x) Institutional support to Water Users’ Associations;
(xi) Establishment cost - 20% of OFD works on items (iii) or (iv), ( vi),
and (vii) and;
(xii) R&D activities, including training of senior-level officers, conferences,
workshops, seminars, etc. arranged directly by the Ministry.
The scheme is now being implemented as a state sector scheme during the
XI Five Year Plan (2008-09 to 2011-12). The evaluation made in the past
has revealed that the CAD Programme made a positive impact on various
important indicators, like increase in the irrigated area, productivity, and
production, irrigation efficiency, etc. Despite efforts for efficient irrigation
water management, the problem of waterlogging has surfaced in many
irrigated commands.

57
Indian Agriculture
3.7 PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION
MANAGEMENT (PIM)
The National Water Policy 1987 advocated the involvement of farmers in
the management of irrigation. The irrigation potential increased nearly four
times since the beginning of the planned era but brought in several problems
of management of irrigation in its wake. These included the unreliable and
inequitable supply of water, especially at the tail-end, improper organization
and monitoring (O&M) of the systems, poor recovery of water rates,
indiscipline in the distribution of water, and the problem of waterlogging
due to seepage from canal network on the one hand and over-irrigation
on the other. To address these problems it has been recognized that the
participation of beneficiaries would help greatly for the optimum upkeep of
the irrigation system and utilization of irrigation water. Keeping this aspect
in view, PIM was the thrust area under the programme during the Ninth
Five Year Plan period.
Despite efforts by the Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR), the pace of
PIM has been slow as several states are yet to enact legislation on PIM.
Because of the problems associated with the O&M of the deteriorated
irrigation systems, PIM is considered to be a necessity. The ministry,
therefore, circulated a model act on PIM in the year 1998 with the view
to facilitate action by the state governments. Subsequently, conferences
on PIM were also organized by the ministry. The ministry has also been
organizing National level training programmes on PIM in various parts of
the country for CAD functionaries. In addition, a grant is also provided to
states for organizing state and project-level training programmes for farmers
and field functionaries.
3.7.1 Objectives of PIM
The main objectives of PIM are:
(i) To create a sense of ownership of water resources and the irrigation
system among the users, to promote economy in water use and
preservation of the system.
(ii) To improve service deliveries through better operation and
maintenance
(iii) To achieve optimum utilization of available resources through
sophisticated deliveries, precisely as per crop needs
(iv) To achieve equity in water distribution
(v) To increase production per unit of water, where water is scarce and to
increase production per unit of land where water is adequate
(vi) To make the best use of natural precipitation and groundwater in
conjunction with flow irrigation for increasing irrigation and cropping
intensity
(vii) To facilitate the users to have a choice of crops, cropping sequence,
the timing of water supply, period of supply and also the frequency of
58
 supply, depending on soils, climate and other infrastructure facilities Irrigation and Drainage
available in the commands such as roads, markets cold storages, etc.,
to maximize the incomes and returns
(viii) To encourage collective and community responsibility on the farmers
to collect water charges and payment to irrigation agency
(ix) To create a healthy atmosphere between the Irrigation Agency
personnel and the users.
3.7.2 Provisions in PIM Acts
Recognizing the need for a sound legal framework for PIM in the country,
the ministry brought out a model act to be adopted by the state legislatures
for enacting new irrigation acts/amending the existing irrigation acts for
facilitating PIM. The legal framework provides for the creation of farmers
organizations at different levels of the irrigation system as under:
(i) Water Users’ Association (WUA): will have a delineated command
area on a hydraulic basis, which shall be administratively viable.
Generally, a WUA would cover a group of outlets or a minor.
(ii) Distributary committee: will comprise 5 or more WUAs. All the
presidents of WUAs will comprise the general body of the distributary
committee.
(iii) Project committee: will be an apex committee of an irrigation system
and presidents of the Distributary committees in the project area shall
constitute the general body of this committee.
The Associations at different levels are expected to be actively involved in (i)
maintenance of irrigation system in their area of operation; (ii) distribution
of irrigation water to the beneficiary farmers as per the warabandi schedule;
(iii) assisting the irrigation department in the preparation of water demand
and collection of water charges; (iv) resolve disputes among the members
and WUA and (v) monitoring flow of water in the irrigation system, etc.
3.7.3 Constraints in Implementation of PIM
There are several constraints in making the PIM sustainable in the long run.
Some of these are:
(i) Lack of legal backup and policy changes: In many states, there
is no or very little legal backup and lack of policy decision at the
government level to take up PIM, which is a big impediment in the
implementation of PIM.
(ii) System deficiency: In older projects, there are many problems like
deterioration of old control and measuring structures, leakages, and
seepage at various places, erosion of banks and beds, siltation, and
weed infestation. These are serious problems, hindering farmers
to take over the system management on technical and financial
considerations.
(iii) Uncertainty of water availability: This is another important aspect,
as farmers will understandably be reluctant to take on the responsibility
for managing the system unless deliveries of water are made reliable,
flexible, practical, and responsive to need. The engineers on their
59
Indian Agriculture part may not be confident about ensuring the supply of the requisite
quantity of water to the WUAs, as would be obligatory in terms of the
MOU signed between the irrigation agency and WUA.
Further, the farmers who have their holdings at the head of the canal tend
to appropriate more water than required, whereas the farmers at
the tail end often fail to get their apportioned share of water. Head-
enders, therefore, have a vested interest in continuing the existing
arrangements. The tail-enders may not be keen to form WUAs as
water supply in such areas remains inadequate and erratic and they
remain apprehensive that the situation will not be materially altered
if an association is formed. These differences in perceptions and
conflicts of interests inhibit the coming together of the head end and
tail-end farmers.
(iv) Fear of financial viability: Maintenance and operation of the system
demand huge finances. Farmers have got the apprehension that in
absence of surety of finance, it would be difficult for them to fulfill
the requirement of funds for operation and maintenance. They feel
that when the government is not able to handle the system with huge
money available to them, how farmers would be able to do justice?
(v) Lack of technical knowledge: Apart from the financial uncertainty,
lack of technical input is one of the inhibiting factors to take over the
system.
(vi) Lack of leadership: On account of the limited exposure of the farmers
to the rest of the world and PIM in particular, potent leadership is
lacking, rather on account of limited knowledge. At times so-called
local leaders give the negative or unclear version before other farmers
which further creates misunderstanding among the farmers bringing
them sometimes into a fix.
(vii) Lack of publicity and training: Seeing is believing; and knowledge
brings confidence in people. This aspect is lacking and there is a
constraint to the adoption of PIM.
(viii) Demographic diversity: Due to variation in economic, ethnic,
education levels, etc. diversity of farmers, PIM is taking much time
in this country. To handle this aspect deep study, analysis and solution
need to be found out.
(ix) Mega irrigation projects: The world scenario indicates that there
are smaller projects in the countries of the world, where irrigation
project transfer has taken care of PIM. In India, huge projects are
having a very large distribution system and culturable command
area sometimes more than 20 lakh hectares. Larger the project, the
complex would be its maintenance, operation, and management
aspects and so the formation and functioning of farmers associations
for different necessary activities.
(x) WUAs v/s Panchayats: In many of the areas, where WUAs have
been formed, there is a clash of interest among Panchayats and WUAs
on who is to own the system, particularly when watershed schemes
are being handed over to the Panchayats.
60
 Irrigation and Drainage
3.8 DRAINAGE
Drainage is the removal and disposal of excess water from the field. Excess
water in the root zone restricts soil aeration, affects soil temperatures,
hinders tillage operations, etc which should be removed by adopting proper
drainage method. When the water table comes near the surface and affects
the crop growth such a condition is called waterlogging. It affects the root
development of the crops and can bring up harmful substances to the root
zone. Drainage problems are widespread in irrigated areas. Drainage is
necessary not only for the removal of excess water but also for removing
the salts from the root zone.
Reasons for waterlogging
Both natural and man-made (artificial) conditions may cause waterlogging.
Important natural causes for waterlogging may be:
(i) The poor natural drainage of the subsoil due to the existence of
hardpan or rock near the soil surface;
(ii) submergence under floods; and
(iii) deep percolation from rainfall.
The important artificial causes of waterlogging are:
i) High intensity of irrigation irrespective of the soil and subsoil;
ii) Heavy seepage from unlined canals, and farm watercourses;
iii) Enclosing irrigated fields with embankments and choking up natural
drainage; and
iv) Non-maintenance of natural drainages or blocking of natural drainage
channels by roads and railways.
Benefits of drainage
The important benefits of drainage in the agriculture field are given below:
1. Provides a better environment for plant growth
2. Improves the soil structure and infiltration characteristics of soil
3. Provides optimum condition for tillage for a longer range of time
4. Maintain desirable soil temperature
5. Promotes increased leaching of salts and prevents their accumulation
in soil
6. Larger crop growing season
7. Weed problem is minimized
8. Reduced diseases which thrive on wetland
9. Opportunity for desirable soil micro-organisms to develop through
aeration and higher soil temperatures.
Methods of Drainage
Drainage problems may be caused by one or a combination of several factors
mentioned above. Control of the sources of excess water and provision for
removal of the excess is required to solve the drainage problem. Based on
61
Indian Agriculture the severity and causes of the drainage problem, we may need to apply
one or a combination of measures to solve the problems. Period and the
amount of water standing, number of days for which soil is workable for
agricultural operations, the salinity of topsoil, depth of water table, etc
should be considered in deploying the drainage method.
The surface method and subsurface method are two broad types of drainage
methods.
1. Surface drainage methods: Surface drainage is the safe removal
of excess water through land shaping and improved or constructed
channels from the land surface. Surface drainage in agricultural lands
is needed to remove the excess rainfall as well as collect and dispose
of excess surface runoff. This problem mainly arises in soils with low
infiltration rates and heavy soils. In deep heavy soils, wherein vertical
movement of water is restricted and also the inadequate hydraulic
conductivity of the substrata, subsurface drainage systems may not be
feasible. Surface drainage is the only possible method in such an area.
The systems are also known as shallow drainage systems.
Surface drainage systems: In surface drainage water moves due to
land elevation to provide a hydraulic gradient and the system can
be considered in three functional parts, viz. (1) collection system,
(2) conveyance or disposal system, and (3) outlet. Water from the
individual fields is collected through the collection system and moves
through the disposal system to the outlet.
There are four types of drainage systems used in flat areas (less than
2 percent slope). These are (1) Random drain system (2) Parallel filed
drain system, (3) Parallel open ditch system, and (4) Bedding system.
2. Sub-surface drainage methods: A subsurface drainage system is
required for water table control and for maintaining a favorable salt
balance in the crop root zone to create a favorable environment for
crop production. In sub-surface drainage, water moves under the
influence of gravity to suitable outlets. This can be accomplished by
tile drains including perforated pipes, mole drains, drainage wells,
deep open drains, and a combination of tile and open drains. Deep
open drains serve the purpose of removal of excess surface water
and lowering the groundwater table. However, their main functions
are the removal of excess surface water and to serve as an outlet for
underground pipe drains, called tile drains. Sub-surface drainage
may be obtained mainly by a sub-surface drainage system called tile
drainage and vertical subsurface drainage comprising a system of
drainage wells.
Check Your Progress 3.2
Note: a) Use the space below for writing your answers.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. When Command Area Development (CAD) Programme was
launched? Give its objectives.
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 ……………………………………………………………………… Irrigation and Drainage
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2. What do you understand by Participatory Irrigation Management?
………………………………………………………………………
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3. What do you understand by drainage problem?
………………………………………………………………………
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3.9 LET US SUM UP

Water is the most essential and crucial input for production. If the appropriate
quantities are not available at right time; nothing can be produced. Due to the
uneven distribution of rainfall and monsoon climatic conditions, the country
needed to develop its irrigation potential and spread the canal networks far
and wide. Consequently, there has been a continuous increase in the irrigation
potential through the canal and water distribution system created under
major & medium irrigation projects and minor irrigation schemes utilizing
surface water. Water being a state subject, planning and implementation of
water resources projects are undertaken by respective state governments.
Several schemes have been planned for implementation by the respective
state governments. The government of India provides central grants to the
state government under Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme for early
completion of the schemes. Ministry of Water Resources has also prepared
National Perspective Plan for optimal utilization of the water resources
particularly through the diversion of surplus flood water to water-deficient
areas. National Perspective Plan envisages various links to divert surplus
flood water to water-deficient areas. Ministry of Water Resources has also
launched schemes for repair, renovation, and restoration for water bodies
under which assistance is provided to States.

3.10 KEYWORDS
Canal : A water-carrying channel or conduit.
Created potential : Provisions for making water available for successful
growing of the crop.
Drainage : Removal of water from the root zone.
Irrigation: Artificial water application for crop production.
Ultimate potential: Area that can be supplied with water for producing
crops.
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Indian Agriculture Water balance: A sum total of all the water inflows ad outflows.
Water demand: Requirement of water during the crop growing season.
Water logging: Saturation of the crop root zones due to water stagnation
that hampers production and productivity.

3.11 SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

●● Michael, A.M. (2008). Irrigation-Theory and Practices. Vikash
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 801.
●● Michael, A.M. and Ojha, T.P. (2006). Principles of Agricultural
Engineering, Vol.II. Jain Brothers, New Delhi, pp. 888.
●● Punmia, B.C. and Pandey, B.B.L. (1995). Irrigation and Water Power
Engineering. Laxmi Publication Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 985.
●● Raghunath, H.M. (1990). Hydrology-Principles Analysis and Design.
Willy Eastern Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 482.
●● Reddy, P.J. (1990). A Text Book of Hydrology. Laxmi Publication
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 985.
●● Sharma, R.K. (1993). A Text Book of Hydrology and Water Resources.
Dhanpat Rai & Sons Publisher, New Delhi.
●● Singh, V.P., and Yadav, R.N. (Eds.) (2003). Watershed Hydrology.
Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 447.
●● http://mowr.gov.in/writereaddata/mainlinkFile/File413.pdf retrieved
on 20.11.2012

3.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 3.1
1) Irrigation is provided if there is not enough moisture in absence of
rain for producing usable commodities for humanity at large; hence
the supplemental application of water to crops may be referred to as
irrigation.
2) Continuous flood, basin irrigation, border-strip irrigation, furrow
irrigation, sprinkler irrigation methods, drip irrigation methods, etc.
3) Border-strip irrigation
4) Soil type, crop, topography, climatic conditions, source of water and
its quality, power availability, cost, benefits, etc.
5) Sandy soils have a low water storage capacity and a high infiltration
rate. They, therefore, need frequent but small irrigation applications,
in particular when the sandy soil is also shallow.
6) Irrigation scheduling is the decision of when and how much water
to apply to a field. It enables the farmer to schedule water rotation
among the various fields to minimize crop water stress and maximize
yields. It reduces the farmer’s cost of water and labor through less
irrigation, thereby making the maximum use of soil moisture storage.

64
Check Your Progress 3.2 Irrigation and Drainage

1) The Command Area Development (CAD) Programme was launched

in 1974-75 with the main objectives of improving the utilization of
created irrigation potential and optimizing agriculture production and
productivity from irrigated agriculture through a multi-disciplinary
team under an Area Development Authority.
2) To address various problems in the canal network area, it has been
recognized that the participation of beneficiaries would help greatly
for the optimum upkeep of the irrigation system and utilization of
irrigation water.
3) Excess water in the root zone restricts soil aeration, affects soil
temperature, hinders tillage operations, etc., which should be removed
by adopting the proper drainage method.

65
 UNIT 4 SOIL FERTILITY MANAGEMENT

Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Soil Fertility
4.3 Soil Fertility Status of Indian Soils
4.4 Essential Plant Nutrients: Macro and Micro Nutrients
4.4.1 Classification of essential plant nutrients

4.4.2 Role of essential plant nutrients

4.4.3 Deficiency/ toxicity symptoms of essential plant nutrients

4.4.4 Nutrient mobility and its effect on deficiency symptoms

4.4.5 Range of nutrient supply from deficiency to toxicity

4.5 Evaluation/ Assessment of Soil Fertility

4.5.1 Visual plant diagnosis

4.5.2 Plant analysis

4.5.3 Field experiment: Control test plot & complex experiments

4.5.4 Soil testing

4.6 Maintenance of Soil Fertility

4.6.1 Balanced plant nutrition/ fertilization

4.6.2 Integrated Plant Nutrient Management

4.7 Let Us Sum Up

4.8 Keywords
4.9 Suggested Further Readings / References
4.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
●● explain the meaning, groups, and components of soil fertility;
●● identify the status and causes for the decline in soil fertility of Indian
soils;
●● describe the essential plant nutrients, their movement in the soil, and
uptake by plants;
●● explain the soil fertility assessment and maintenance under the Indian
situation; and
●● identify various nutrient sources available in India under integrated
nutrient management.
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 Soil Fertility Management
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The decline in soil fertility is a major concern to the farmers, especially
under intensive cropping systems. Proper soil fertility builds a solid
foundation for optimum yields. A sound soil fertility management is not an
on-again-off-again practice, but rather a long-term investment. Therefore,
soil fertility should be managed to get sustained crop production.
Soil fertility is a component of overall soil productivity that deals with its
available nutrient status, and its ability to provide nutrients out of its reserves
and through external applications for crop production. The declining soil
fertility is a threat to sustainable crop production. It is quite pertinent to
understand the reasons that reduce soil fertility. It is important to note that
soil productivity is the crop yielding ability of soil from a unit area. Soil
fertility is vital to productive soil but, fertile soil is not always a productive
one. Poor drainage, weeds, insects, diseases, drought, and other factors
can limit productivity even when fertility is adequate. Fertile soils are not
always highly productive, but productive soils are always fertile.
4.2 SOIL FERTILITY
Soil fertility is the overall ability of a soil to support vigorous crop growth by
ensuring adequate plant nutrients and suitable conditions for water uptake,
and by providing favorable conditions for root growth and development.
“In other words” a fertile soil is one that contains an adequate supply of all
the nutrients required for the successful production of plant life. Fertile soil
is essential for optimum productivity, profitability, and, yes, even protection
of groundwater quality and soil from erosion.
A. Soil fertility groups: Soil fertility is divided into 3 groups, i.e. physical,
chemical, and biological soil fertility, which are interrelated with
each other. Better management of physical and chemical soil fertility
improves soil biological fertility, which in turn can be further enhanced
by good agronomic/ cultural practices. Hence, soil fertility is a key to
sustainable agriculture (Figure 4.1).
Sustainable Agriculture

Improved soil fertility

and productivity

Chemical Agronomic practices

(Living) Plant roots

Biological Bacteria
Soil Fertility Rhizosphere
Fungi, actinomycetes

Other organisms

Physical

Fig. 4.1: Relationship of soil fertility to sustainable agriculture

1. Biological soil fertility: The capacity of organisms living in the soil
to contribute to the nutritional requirements of plants and foraging
animals for productivity, reproduction, and quality while maintaining
67
Indian Agriculture biological processes that contribute positively to the physical and
chemical state of the soil.
2. Chemical soil fertility: The capacity of soil to provide a suitable
chemical and nutritional environment for the plants and foraging
animals for productivity, reproduction, and quality in a way that
supports beneficial soil physical and biological processes, including
those involved in nutrient cycling.
3. Physical soil fertility: The capacity of soil to provide physical
conditions that support plant productivity, reproduction, and quality
without leading to loss of soil structure or erosion and supporting soil
biological and chemical processes.
B. Components of soil fertility:
Soil fertility has the following important components:
1. Soil depth: It determines the volume of soil accessible to the root
system. Most arable crops prefer about one meter without any
obstructing layer.
2. Soil structure: It is based on the size distribution and aggregation of
soil particles. This determines the distribution of pore sizes which is
decisive for the supply of air and water to the roots.

Fig. 4.2: Different kinds of soil structure

3. Soil texture: It designates the proportion of different particle size
fractions in the soil. Of special importance to soil fertility is the
percentage of soil particles of less than 2 mm in diameter, which
constitutes fine soil. Soil texture influences to a large extent several
components of soil fertility such as the amount of nutrient reserves
and their proportion to the available nutrient fraction. It also influences
several properties such as aeration, pore space distribution, Water
holding capacity (WHC), and drainage characteristics.
4. Content of nutrients: with different degrees of availability.
5. Storage capacity: for soluble nutrients from the soil and fertilizers.
6. Soil pH/ reaction: an indicator and regulator of chemical processes
and availability of nutrients.
7. Content of detrimental or toxic substances: either naturally
occurring (e.g. salts in saline soils, aluminum in extremely acid soils)
or man-made (e.g. from pollution).
8. Quantity and activity of soil organisms: as agents of transformation
processes.

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9. Soil organic matter (SOM): It promotes the physical, chemical, and Soil Fertility Management
biological properties of soil.
4.3 SOIL FERTILITY STATUS OF INDIAN SOILS
India is largely a tropical country; hence, the organic carbon (C) content of
the soils is low. Most of the nitrogen in the soil is present in organic forms.
The faster decomposition of organic matter leads to a release of nitrogen,
which is removed by the plants or lost to the environment. Therefore,
the deficiency of N is universal in India. Most of the Indian soils are low
to medium in available phosphorus. Due to intensive cropping and no
replenishment, K deficiency has also become widespread in the country.
Among the micronutrients, the deficiency of zinc is the most acute, followed
by boron. There is a need to correct the deficiency of all these nutrients.
A. Causes for decline in soil fertility:
The causes of reduced soil fertility are given below.
1. Loss of topsoil by erosion: The topsoil is rich in nutrients and
organic matter. Loss of the fertile topsoil components through erosion
by water and wind results in decreased fertility.
2. Nutrient mining: Removal of more nutrients by crops than added
through manures or fertilizers is called nutrient mining or depletion.
Nutrient mining gets accelerated by imbalanced fertilization.
3. Physical degradation of soil: Physical degradation of soil (poor
structure, compaction, crusting, and waterlogging) reduces its fertility.
Degraded soil harms root growth.
4. Decrease in organic matter content and soil bioactivity: The
decreased levels of organic matter cause a strong reduction in soil
fertility as it plays several roles in soil. Decreased organic matter
levels also result in poor physical, chemical, and biological properties.
5. Loss of nutrients through various routes: Ammonia volatilization
from urea and some ammonium-containing fertilizers results in losses
of nitrogen from the soil.
6. Soil acidification, salinization, and alkalinization: Acidification,
salinization, or alkalinization causes a reduction in soil fertility, and
eventually leads to problems of nutrient deficiencies, toxicities, and
imbalances.
7. Inefficient soil management: Poor or inefficient soil management
results in decreased soil fertility. Improper crop rotations followed
may decrease soil fertility tremendously. Excessive soil tillage leads
to erosion of the soil, which leads to reduced soil fertility.
8. Soil pollution: Soil pollution caused by indiscriminate use of
agrochemicals and heavy metals reduces the fertility of the soil by
affecting the soil’s biological properties.
Check Your Progress 4.1
Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
69
Indian Agriculture 1. What do you mean by soil fertility?
………………………………………………………………………
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2. What are the three important groups of soil fertility?
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3. What is soil productivity?
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4. Give three important causes for a decline in soil fertility.
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4.4 ESSENTIAL PLANT NUTRIENTS: MACRO

AND MICRONUTRIENTS
Plants need water, air, light, suitable temperature, and seventeen nutrients
to grow. Plants contain practically all natural elements but need only 17 for
good growth. Essential plant nutrients absorbed by plants are necessary for
the completion of their normal life cycle. These include C, H, O, N, P, K,
Ca, Mg, S, Cu, Fe, Zn, Mn, B, Cl, Ni, and Mo. Plants get carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen from air and water. The other fourteen nutrients come from
the soil. Nutrients are divided into two groups (macro and micro-nutrients)
according to the amounts needed by plants. Some other mineral nutrient
elements, e.g. Na, Si, Co, have a beneficial effect on some plants but are not
essential.
A total of only 17 elements are essential for the growth and full development
of higher green plants according to the criteria laid down by Arnon and
Stout (1939). These criteria are:
●● A deficiency of an essential nutrient makes it impossible for the plant
to complete the vegetative or reproductive stage of its life cycle.
●● Such deficiency is specific to the element in question and can be
prevented or corrected only by supplying this element.
●● The element is involved directly in the nutrition of the plant quite
70
 apart from its possible effects in correcting some unfavorable Soil Fertility Management
microbiological or chemical conditions of the soil or other culture
medium.
4.4.1 Classification of Essential Plant Nutrients
Out of the 17 essential elements, carbon (C) and oxygen (O) are obtained
from the gas CO2, and hydrogen (H) is obtained from water (H2O). These
three elements are required in large quantities for the production of plant
constituents such as cellulose or starch. Hence, many times referred to as
framework elements.
The other 14 elements are called mineral nutrients because they are taken up
in mineral (inorganic) forms. They are traditionally divided into two groups,
macronutrients, and micronutrients, according to the relative amounts
required. Regardless of the amount required, physiologically, all of them are
equally important. The 14 mineral elements are taken up by plants in specific
chemical forms regardless of their source. Oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen
make up 95 percent of plant biomass, and the remaining 5 percent is made
up of all other elements. The difference in plant concentration between
macronutrients and micronutrients is enormous. The relative contents of
N and molybdenum (Mo) in plants are in the ratio of 10,000:1. Plants need
about 40 times more magnesium (Mg) than Fe. These examples indicate the
significant difference between macronutrients and micronutrients.
Macronutrients are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium
(Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulphur (S). The one or two letter symbol in
parentheses is the universal chemical symbol for that nutrient. N, P, and
K are often referred to as primary nutrients and are the most common
elements found in commercial fertilizers. Ca, Mg, and S are referred to as
secondary nutrients and are also found in fertilizers and soil amendments.
Micronutrients include iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), boron (B),
copper (Cu), chloride (Cl), molybdenum (Mo), and nickel (Ni).
Cobalt (Co), sodium (Na), vanadium (V), and silicon (Si) are sometimes
designated as beneficial plant nutrients. They are not required by all plants
but appear to benefit certain groups of plants or plants growing under
specific conditions. Cobalt is required for nitrogen fixation in legumes.
Sodium and vanadium benefit some plants although they can complete their
life cycle without them. Silicon is found in plant cell walls and appears
to produce tougher cells. This increases the resistance of these plants to
piercing and sucking insects and decreases the spread of fungal diseases.
The classification of 17 essential nutrients is given in the following figure.

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Indian Agriculture
Essential Plant Nutrients (17)

Frame work elements (Taken Mineral elements (Taken mainly from soil
from air and water: 3) in ionic forms: 14)

• Carbon
• Hydrogen Macronutrients (6) Micronutrients (8)
• Oxygen

• Zinc
Primary Secondary • Copper
nutrients (3) nutrients (3) • Manganese
• Iron
• Nitrogen • Calcium • Boron
• Phosphorus • Magnesium • Molybdenum
• Potassium • Sulphur • Chlorine
• Nickel

Fig. 4.2: Essential plant nutrients.

Some microelements can be toxic for plants at levels only somewhat higher
than normal. In the majority of the cases, this happens when the pH is low
to very low. Aluminum and manganese toxicity are the most frequent ones,
in direct relation with acid soils.
4.4.2 Role of Essential Plant Nutrients
Essential plant nutrients play a variety of roles/functions in plants. The
important roles of different plant nutrients are described below:
1. Nitrogen (N): N is a part of the chlorophyll (the green pigment in
leaves) and is an essential constituent of all proteins. It is responsible
for the dark green colour of stem and leaves, vigorous growth,
branching/ tillering, leaf production, size enlargement, and yield
formation.
2. Phosphorus (P): It is essential for growth, cell division, root
lengthening, seed and fruit development, and early ripening. It is a
part of several compounds including oils and amino acids. The P
compounds adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) acts as energy carriers within the plants.
3. Potassium (K): K is involved in the working of more than 60 enzymes,
in photosynthesis and the movement of its products (photosynthates)
to storage organs (seeds, tubers, roots, and fruits), water economy,
and providing resistance against several pests, diseases, and stresses
(frost and drought).
4. Calcium (Ca): It is a part of the architecture of cell walls and
membranes. It is involved in cell division, growth, root lengthening,
and activation or inhibition of enzymes.
5. Magnesium (Mg): Mg occupies the center-spot in the chlorophyll
molecule and, thus, is vital for photosynthesis. It is associated with
the activation of enzymes, energy transfer, maintenance of electrical
balance, production of proteins, metabolism of carbohydrates, etc.
Mg is mobile within the plants.
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6. Sulphur (S): It is a part of amino acids cysteine, cystine, and Soil Fertility Management
methionine. Hence, it is essential for protein production. S is involved
in the formation of chlorophyll and the activation of enzymes.
7. Boron (B): Key roles of B relate to (i) membrane integrity and cell-
wall development, which affect permeability, cell division, and
extension; and (ii) pollen tube growth, which affects seed/fruit set
and, hence, yield.
8. Chlorine (Cl): It is thought to be involved in the production of
oxygen during photosynthesis, in raising cell osmotic pressure, and
in maintaining tissue hydration.
9. Copper (Cu): Cu is involved in chlorophyll formation and is a part of
several enzymes such as cytochrome oxidase. It participates in lignin
formation, protein, and carbohydrate metabolism, and is possibly
required for symbiotic N fixation.
10. Iron (Fe): It plays a role in the synthesis of chlorophyll, carbohydrate
production, cell respiration, chemical reduction of nitrate and
sulphate, and N assimilation.
11. Manganese (Mn): It is known to activate several enzymes and
functions as an auto-catalyst. It is essential for splitting the water
molecule during photosynthesis. Mn is also important in N metabolism
and CO2 assimilation.
12. Molybdenum (Mo): Mo is involved in several enzyme systems,
particularly nitrate reductase, which is needed for the reduction of
nitrate, and nitrogenase, which is involved in BNF.
13. Zinc (Zn): It is required directly or indirectly by several enzymes
systems, auxins, and in protein synthesis, seed production, and rate
of maturity. Zn is believed to promote RNA synthesis, which in turn
is needed for protein production.
14. Nickel (Ni): Ni is a part of the enzyme urease, which breaks down
urea in the soil. It also plays a role in imparting disease resistance and
is considered essential for seed development.
4.4.3 Deficiency/Toxicity Symptoms of Essential Plant Nutrients
Plants show different shades of greenness, but a medium to dark green
colour is usually considered a sign of good health and better growth.
Chlorosis or yellowing of leaf colour can be a sign of a marginal deficiency
and is often related to retarded growth. Chlorosis may be caused by a lower
content of chlorophyll. A severe deficiency may result in the death of the
tissue (necrosis). Necrotic leaves cannot be recovered by the addition of
the missing nutrient, but the plant may survive by forming new leaves.
Deficiency symptoms can serve as a guide for diagnosing limiting nutrients
and the need for taking corrective measures. The deficiency/ toxicity
symptoms of essential nutrients on plants are given below:
1. Nitrogen: N is mobile in the phloem and therefore it can be re-
translocated from older to younger leaves under N deficiency. N
deficiency in plants results in a marked reduction in growth rate. In
cereal crops, tillering is poor, and the leaf area is small. As N is a
73
Indian Agriculture constituent of chlorophyll, its deficiency appears as yellowing or
chlorosis of the leaves. The effects of N toxicity are less evident than
those of its deficiency. They include prolonged growing (vegetative)
period and delayed crop maturity. High NH4+ in a solution can be
toxic to plant growth, particularly where the solution is alkaline.
2. Phosphorus: P is readily mobile within the plant both in the xylem and
phloem tissues. Plant growth is markedly restricted under P deficiency,
which retards growth, tillering (cereals) and root development and
delays ripening. The deficiency symptoms usually start on older
leaves. A bluish-green to reddish colour develops, which can lead to
bronze tints and red colour. Extremely high levels of P can result in
toxicity symptoms. These generally manifest as a watery edge on the
leaf tissue, which subsequently becomes necrotic.
3. Potassium: The general symptom of K deficiency is chlorosis along
the leaf margins followed by scorching and browning of tips of older
leaves. The affected area moves inwards as the severity of deficiency
increases. K-deficiency symptoms occur on the older tissues because
of the mobility of K. Affected plants have slow and stunted growth,
weak stalks, susceptibility to lodging, greater incidence of pests and
diseases, low yield, shriveled grains, and in general, poor crop quality.
4. Calcium: Ca is immobile in the phloem, and hence its deficiency
is seen first on growing tips and the youngest leaves. Ca-deficient
leaves become small, distorted, cup-shaped, crinkled, and dark green.
They cease growing, become disorganized, twisted, and, under severe
deficiency, die.
5. Magnesium: As Mg is readily translocated from older to younger
plant parts, its deficiency symptoms first appear in the older parts
of the plant. A typical symptom of Mg deficiency is the interveinal
chlorosis of older leaves in which the veins remain green but the
area between them turns yellow. Leaves are small and break easily
(brittle).
6. Sulphur: Unlike N deficiency, S-deficiency symptoms in most
cases appear first on the younger leaves, and are present even after
N application. Plants deficient in S are small and spindly with short
and slender stalks. Their growth is retarded, and maturity in cereals
is delayed. S toxicity can occur under highly reduced conditions,
possibly as a result of sulphide (H2S) injury.
7. Boron: B deficiency usually appears on the growing points of roots,
shoots, and youngest leaves. Young leaves are deformed and arranged
in the form of a rosette. There may be cracking and cork formation in
the stalks, stem, and fruits; thickening of stem and leaves; shortened
internodes, withering or dying of growing points, and reduced bud,
flower, and seed production. B-toxicity symptoms are yellowing of
the leaf tip followed by gradual necrosis of the tip and leaf margins,
which spreads towards the midrib (central vein). Leaves become
scorched and may drop early.
8. Chlorine: Deficiency of Cl leads to chlorosis in younger leaves
74
 and overall wilting as a consequence of the possible effect on Soil Fertility Management
transpiration. Cl-toxicity symptoms are: burning of the leaf tips or
margins; bronzing; premature yellowing; leaf fall; and poor burning
quality of tobacco.
9. Copper: Cu-deficiency symptoms are first visible in the form of
narrow, twisted leaves and pale white shoot tips. At maturity, panicles/
ears are poorly filled and even empty where the deficiency is severe.
In fruit trees, dieback of the terminal growth can occur. Cu-toxicity
symptoms are more variable with species and less established than its
deficiency symptoms.
10. Iron: Fe deficiency begins to appear on younger leaves first.
Otherwise, its deficiency symptoms are somewhat similar to those
of Mn, as both Fe and Mn lead to failure in chlorophyll production.
Yellowing of the interveinal areas of leaves (commonly referred to
as iron chlorosis) occurs. Fe toxicity of rice is known as bronzing.
In this disorder, the leaves are first covered by tiny brown spots that
develop into a uniform brown colour.
11. Manganese: Mn-deficiency symptoms resemble those of Fe and Mg
deficiency where interveinal chlorosis occurs in the leaves. However,
Mn-deficiency symptoms are first visible on the younger leaves
whereas, in Mg deficiency, the older leaves are affected first. Mn-
toxicity symptoms lead to the development of brown spots, mainly
on older leaves and uneven green colour.
12. Molybdenum: Mo deficiency in legumes can resemble N deficiency
because of its role in N fixation. Mo deficiency can cause marginal
scorching and rolling or cupping of leaves and yellowing and stunting
in plants. Yellow spot disease in citrus and whiptail in cauliflower is
commonly associated with Mo deficiency. Fodders containing more
than 5 μg/g Mo in the dry matter are suspected to contain toxic levels
of Mo for grazing animals (associated with the disease molybdenosis).
13. Zinc: The mobility of Zn is low. The rate of Zn mobility to younger
tissue is particularly depressed in Zn-deficient plants. Common
symptoms of Zn deficiency are: stunted plant growth; poor tillering
(cereals); development of light green, yellowish, bleached spots;
chlorotic bands on either side of the midrib in monocots (particularly
maize); brown rusty spots on leaves in some crops, which in acute
Zn deficiency as in rice may cover the lower leaves. Zn toxicity can
result in a reduction in root growth and leaf expansion followed by
chlorosis.
14. Nickel: Ni is a part of the enzyme urease, which breaks down urea
in the soil. It also plays a role in imparting disease resistance and is
considered essential for seed development. Information on various
aspects of Ni as a micronutrient is gradually becoming available.
Beneficial elements:
1. Silicon: In lowland or wetland rice that is low in Si, vegetative growth
and grain production is reduced severely and deficiency symptoms
such as necrosis of the mature leaves and wilting can occur. Similarly,
75
Indian Agriculture sugarcane suffers growth reduction under conditions of low Si
availability.
2. Cobalt: It is essential for N-fixing microorganisms, irrespective of
whether they are free-living or symbiotic. Co deficiency inhibits the
formation of leghaemoglobin and, hence, N2 fixation.
4.4.4 Nutrient Mobility and its Effect on Deficiency Symptoms
Nutrients must come in contact with the root surface. All the mineral
nutrients, in general, are absorbed in ionic forms (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1: Forms of essential elements absorbed by plants
Cation(3+) Cation(2+) Cation(1+) Neutral(0) Anion(1-) Anion(2-)
Macronutrients:
Ca2+ K+ NO3- HPO42-
Mg2+ NH4+ H2PO4- SO42-
Micronutrients:
Fe3+ Fe2+ ,Mn2+, B(OH)3 Cl- MoO42-
Zn2+ ,Cu2+
Ni2+
While nutrients are transported easily from roots to shoots, their
redistribution from the original place of deposition is more difficult for the
so-called immobile nutrients. In the event of nutrient deficiency, a partial
re-activation is required to supply newly formed leaves from the reserves
of older ones. The relative mobility of a nutrient within the plant helps
understand the reasons for the differential appearance of nutrient deficiency
symptoms. For example:
Deficiencies indicated by symptoms appearing first on older leaves:
●● chlorosis starting from leaf tips later leaves turn yellowish-brown: N;
●● reddish discoloration on green leaves or stalks: P;
●● leaves with brown necrotic margins, the wilted appearance of plant:
K;
●● stripe chlorosis, mainly between veins, while veins remain green: Mg;
●● spot necrosis: greyish-brown stripe-form spots in oats (grey-speck
disease): Mn;
●● dark-brown spots in oats and barley, whitish spots in rye and wheat:
Mn.
●● Deficiencies indicated by symptoms appearing first on younger leaves:
●● completely yellowish-green leaves with yellowish veins: S;
●● yellow or pale yellow to white leaves with green veins: Fe;
●● the youngest leaf with white, withered, and twisted tips (oats and
barley). Cu;
●● yellowish leaves with brownish spots (part of acidity syndrome): Ca.
4.4.5 Range of Nutrient Supply from Deficiency to Toxicity
The nutrient status of a plant can range from acute deficiency to acute
toxicity. A broad division of nutrient status into three groups namely
76
deficient, optimal, and excess may be useful for general purposes. For Soil Fertility Management
a more accurate assessment of the nutritional status of plants, a detailed
categorization is required in which six different ranges can be distinguished
(see Figure 4.3):
●● Acute deficiency: It is associated with definitely visible symptoms
and poor growth. The addition of deficient nutrients usually results in
increased growth and yields.
●● Marginal or latent deficiency (hidden hunger): It is a small range
with or without visible deficiency symptoms. However, growth and
yield are reduced. An optimal nutrient supply prevents hidden hunger.
●● Optimal supply: Here all nutrients are at the most desired level. In
this range, healthy green plants, good growth, and high yields with
good quality can be expected. The optimal supply is reached above
the critical concentration, which is generally associated with 90
percent of the maximum yield.
●● Luxury supply: Although there is no definite borderline between
optimal and luxury supply, it is useful to identify this range of
unnecessarily high nutrient supply. Even if there may not be any
negative effects on plant growth or yield, nutrient input is wasted
and product quality, as well as disease resistance, may be reduced
especially in the case of excess N.
●● Marginal or light (hidden) toxicity: Here the nutrient concentration
is moving towards toxicity. Above the critical toxic concentration,
crop growth and yield start to decrease because of the harmful effects
of a nutrient surplus, or of toxic substances on biochemical processes
and imbalances.
●● Acute toxicity: This is the other extreme of excessive supply or poor
nutrient management. Plants are damaged by toxic levels resulting in
toxicity symptoms, poor or no growth, poor yield, low quality, and
damage to soil and plant health.

Figure 4.3: Plant growth and yield dependence on nutrient supply

77
Indian Agriculture
4.5 EVALUATION/ASSESSMENT OF SOIL
FERTILITY
The evaluation or assessment of soil fertility is perhaps the most basic
decision-making tool for balanced and efficient nutrient management. It
consists of estimating the available nutrient status of soil for crop production.
A correct assessment of the available nutrient status before planting a crop
helps in taking appropriate measures for ensuring adequate nutrient supply
for a good crop over and above the amounts that the soil can furnish. The
techniques used include soil testing and plant analysis, the latter including
related tools such as total analysis of the selected plant part, tissue testing,
crop logging, and the diagnosis and recommendation integrated system
(DRIS). The important ones are described below.
4.5.1 Visual Plant Diagnosis
A healthy dark-green color of the leaf is a common indicator of good nutrient
supply and plant health. The degree of “greenness” can be specified in
exact terms for each crop using Munsell’s Plant Colour Chart or other such
charts. Any change to light green or a yellowish color generally suggests
a nutrient deficiency where other factors are not responsible such as cold
weather, plant diseases, and damage caused by sprayings, air pollution, etc.
A deviation from the normal green color is easily detected. However, it is by
no means always caused by N deficiency, as usually assumed. For example,
it is a common but questionable practice to always relate light-green late
foliar discoloring with N deficiency, but it can often be caused by other
deficiencies. Even where the color is more or less “satisfactory”, there may
be a latent deficiency (“hidden hunger”) that is often difficult to establish
from visual observation but can still cause yield reduction. Deficiency
symptoms are only reliable where a single nutrient and no other factors are
limiting.
4.5.2 Plant Analysis
The nutrient concentration of growing plants provides reliable information
on their nutritional status in most cases, except in the case of Fe. It reflects
the current state of nutrient supply and permits conclusions as to whether
a supplementary nutrient application is required. Interpretation of plant
analysis data is usually based on the total concentrations of nutrients in the
dry matter of leaves or other suitable plant parts, which are compared with
standard values of “critical nutrient concentrations” (“critical values”) and
grouped into supply classes. The critical level is the level of concentration
of a nutrient in the plant that is likely to result in 90 percent of the maximum
yields (Table 4.2). Standard tables of plant analysis interpretation are based
on requirement levels for very high yields (maximum yield) or on those
for the more practical and realistic medium to high yields corresponding to
critical values of 90 percent.

78
 Table 4.2: Critical nutrient concentrations for 90 percent yield for Soil Fertility Management
interpretation of plant analysis data
Element Wheat & Oilseed Sugarcane Alfalfa Grass* Citrus
rice rape (Lucerne)
(%)
N 3.00 3.50 1.50 3.50 3.00 2.50
P 0.25 0.30 0.20 0.25 0.40 0.15
K 2.50 2.50 1.50 2.00 2.50 1.00
Mg 0.15 0.20 0.12 0.25 0.20 0.20
S 0.15 0.50 0.15 0.30 0.20 0.15
(µg/g)
Mn 30.0 30.0 20.0 30.00 60.00 25.00
Zn 20.0 20.0 15.0 15.00 50.00 20.00
Cu 5.00 5.00 3.00 5.00 8.00 5.00
B 6.00 25.00 1.50 25.00 6.00 25.00
Mo 0.30 0.30 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.20
Note: Growth stage and plant parts used: wheat/rice: 1 - 2 nodes, whole
shoots; oilseed rape: pre-flowering, youngest mature leaf; sugarcane: 5-7
months, third leaf blade from top; alfalfa (Lucerne): pre-flowering, whole
shoots; grass: pre-flowering, whole shoots; citrus: 5-7 months old leaves
from mid of non-fruiting branch.*Not critical but optimal concentrations for
cows producing 15 liters of milk per day. (FAO, 2006)
4.5.3 Field Experiment: Control Test Plot & Complex Experiments
This is a proven and effective method for assessing nutrient needs. It is also
essential for the calibration of soil test and plants analysis results with crop
response. Fertilizer experiments provide direct information on the amounts
of nutrients required for a crop in a specific environment at a given yield
level. These are used mainly by researchers for generating background
data needed for making practical recommendations for farmers. Field
experiments can be simple test plots or complex replicated trials.
4.5.4 Soil Testing
Soil testing can be defined as an acceptably accurate and rapid soil chemical
analysis for assessing available nutrient status for making fertilizer
recommendations. Soil testing as a diagnostic tool is useful only when
the interpretation of test results is based on correlation with crop response
and economic considerations to arrive at practically usable fertilizer
recommendations for a given soil–crop situation.
After soil analysis, the concentrations of available nutrients measured must
be interpreted into ranges of nutrient supply and then into the nutrient
amounts required to reach a certain yield level. In general, the lower the
soil fertility status (soil test value) is, the greater is the need for external
nutrient application. For macronutrients, the data are generally classified
into categories of supply, e.g.: very low, low, medium, high, and very
high. Table 4.3 provides information on the general soil test limits used for
classifying soils into different fertility classes.

79
Indian Agriculture Table 4.3: General soil test limits used for classifying soils into
different fertility classes
Nutrient Method/Extractant General fertility class*
Low Medium High
N (% Organic carbon <0.5 0.5-0.75 >0.75
Organic
carbon)
N (kg/ha) Alkaline permanganate <280 280-560 >560
P2O5 (kg/ha) Sodium bicarbonate <23 23-56 >56
K2O (kg/ha) Ammonium acetate <130 130-335 >335
S (kg/ha) Heat soluble, CaCl2 <20 20-40 >40
Zn (µg/g) DTPA <0.6 0.6-1.2 >1.2
Mn (µg/g) DTPA <3.0
Cu (µg/g) DTPA/ Ammonium <0.2
acetate
Fe (µg/g) DTPA <2.5-4.5
*
Very general limits based on several published Indian sources (FAO, 2006).
Check Your Progress 4.2
Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Give the names of macro and micronutrients.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………
2. What are the roles of iron in plant growth?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………
3. What do you mean by beneficial nutrients?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
4. What do you mean by soil testing?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………

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 Soil Fertility Management
4.6 MAINTENANCE OF SOIL FERTILITY
Soil fertility management is of utmost importance for optimizing crop
nutrition to achieve sustainable crop production. It is the foundation on
which all input-based high-production systems can be built. Soil fertility
can be managed effectively with the adoption of balanced plant nutrition or
fertilization and integrated nutrient management practices.
4.6.1 Balanced Plant Nutrition/Fertilization
A crop requires an adequate supply of all essential mineral nutrients for
optimum growth. If more than one is in short supply, growth is determined
by the nutrient, which is in the lowest supply. If several nutrients are in short
supply, we need to apply all of them to get optimum production. It is well
documented that unbalanced availability of nutrients not only produces low
and poor quality yield but can also lead to mining of soil nutrients reserves
which are in short supply and to losses of nutrients supplied in excess. The
long-term fertilizer experiments (LTFEs) conducted in India has shown
that soil productivity can be maintained by the balanced nutrition of crop.
The grain yields of some LTFEs in India clearly show that response to N
declined sharply in the absence of P and K fertilizers. Crop yields increased
considerably with an application of P along with N and improved further by
the inclusion of K.
Unbalanced plant nutrition has also resulted in micronutrient deficiencies in
many parts of the country. Zinc deficiency is the most commonly occurring
micronutrient deficiency problem limiting crop growth and production. In
India, the application of Zn has resulted in spectacular yield increases in
rice-wheat growing areas. Balanced plant nutrition increases crop yields,
nutrients, water use efficiencies, and of course, farmers’ profit. Thus,
crops should be well supplied with all the 14 essential mineral nutrients in
balanced amounts to get the maximum benefit from crop production.
4.6.2 Integrated Plant Nutrient Management (IPNM)
Integrated plant nutrient management (IPNM) maintains and possibly
enhances soil fertility through a balanced use of chemical fertilizers
combined with organic and biological sources to improve the efficiency
of plant nutrients, increase crop productivity and minimize the losses
of nutrients to the environment. The possible conventional and non-
conventional sources of plant nutrients for integrated supply in the Indian
agriculture context are discussed below:
1. Organic manures/ sources: The use of organic manures not only
provides plant nutrients but also improves soil’s physical, chemical,
and biological properties. The important organic manures in the
Indian context are farmyard manure (FYM), different kinds of
composts, vermicomposts and green manures, etc. Long-term
fertilizer experiments in India have demonstrated that, in addition to
fertilizers, the use of organic manure is essential for sustaining crop
productivity.
i) Farmyard manure: Farmyard manure refers to the decomposed
mixture of dung and urine of farm animals along with the litter
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Indian Agriculture (bedding material) and left-over material from roughages or fodder
fed to the cattle. On average, well-rotten FYM contains 0.5 percent
N, 0.2 percent P2O5, and 0.5 percent K2O under Indian conditions
(Butterworth et al., 2003). Nearly 50 percent of the cattle dung
produced in India today is utilized as cooking fuel and is thus a loss
to agriculture.
FYM is an excellent soil amendment, which adds to the balance of
nutrients while contributing valuable organic material to the soil.
Dung and urine of livestock and their bedding materials are the major
constituents of FYM. The urine of many animals is generally richer in
nitrogen and potassium as compared to their dung. The urine of most
animals is deficient in phosphorus. Bedding materials also add a good
amount of nutrients, mainly NPK, to the FYM. As such, compared
to the potential supply of major nutrients from FYM, only 8 percent
of nitrogen, 26 percent of phosphorus, and 16 percent of potash are
added every year to Indian soils (Yawalkar et al.,1996).
ii) Compost: Composting is a microbiological process, which converts
organic residues into non-odoriferous blackish-brown stabilized
humic substances with a narrow C/N ratio. These are prepared
through microbial action on wastes such as crop residues, weeds
bagasse, sawdust, kitchen, and human habitation wastes. These
materials under optimum temperature, moisture, aeration undergo
intensive biodegradation into an amorphous brownish-black colloidal
substance. This stabilized humified material is a valuable source of
plant nutrients.
Depending on the nature of substrate undergoing decomposition,
composts are broadly classified into two groups namely the rural and
urban composts. In India, the two recommended methods for compost
preparation are the “Indore method” (aerobic) and the “Bangalore
method” (Initially aerobic but later anaerobic). In the Indore method,
a pit is dug near the cattle shed on a site free from waterlogging. After
use, the wet beds consisting of shredded crop residues along with
animal excreta are removed and spread in a layer in the pit. Then
cattle dung is spread over this layer which is sprinkled with water
to maintain optimum moisture. The process is repeated until layers
of residues reach 30 cm above ground level. Residues are turned
every fortnight and good quality compost is ready in 16 weeks. In the
Bangalore method, greater conservation of nutrients is attempted.
iii) Vermicompost: Vermicompost is organic manure produced by
earthworms. It is a mixture of worm castings (faecal excretions),
organic material including hummus, live earthworms, their cocoons,
and other organisms. Vermicomposting is a cost-effective and efficient
technique for recycling agricultural residues, industrial wastes, and
animal wastes from cattle, piggery, and poultry. Earthworms consume
practically all kinds of organic matter. One kg of worms can consume
1 kg of residue every day. Earthworms feed on any organic waste, and
after using 5-10% of the feedstock for their growth, excrete the rest of
the ingested matter coated with intestinal and cutaneous mucus with a
higher C: N ratio than that of the original matter. The nitrogen of the
organic matter is either turned into earthworm biomass or excreted
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 as ammonium. The average composition of vermicompost and other Soil Fertility Management
composts is given in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Average nutrient content of vermicompost and other
composts
Nutrient content (% of dry matter)
Compost
N P2O5 K2O
Vermicompost 1.6 2.2 0.67
Rural compost 1.22 1.08 1.47
Urban compost 1.24 1.92 1.47
Paddy straw compost 0.9 2.05 0.9
Maize stalk compost 1.09 1.3 1.01
Cotton wastes compost 1.62 1.04 1.26
Water hyacinth 2.0 1.0 2.3
Poultry manure 2.87 2.9 2.35
Castor 5.8 1.8 1.0
(Marwaha and Jat, 2004)
iv) Green manures (GM): Green manuring with N fixing leguminous
crops improves soil fertility and enhances the availability of other
nutrients. The sandwiching of green manuring crops in different cropping
systems is considered not only an excellent source of nitrogen, but
the intervention improves the physical condition of the soil and the
availability of other nutrients. Major green manure crops are: dhaincha
(Sesbania aculeatea, Sesbania rostrata), sunhemp/sanai (Crotalaria
juncea), lobia (Vigna unguiculata) and guar (Cyamopsis tetragonolaba)
etc. The main problem in the adoption and spread of green manure crops is
that they compete with cash crops for space, time, water, and other scarce
inputs. The nitrogen contribution from some of the green manure crops is
given in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Potential N contributions of N- fixing legumes in Indian soils.
Average N(%)
yield of on
Sowing N added
Name Botanical name green green
season (kg/ha)
matter weight
(t/ha) basis)
Sunnhemp Crotalaria juncea Kharif 15.2 0.43 84.0
Dhaincha Sesbania aculeata Kharif 14.4 0.42 77.1
Mungbean Vigna radiata Kharif 5.7 0.53 38.6
Cowpea Vigna ungiculata Kharif 10.8 0.49 56.3
Guar C y a m o p s i s Kharif 14.4 0.34 62.3
tetragonoloba
Senji Melilotus alba Rabi 20.6 0.51 134.4
Khesari Lathyrus sativus Rabi 8.8 0.54 61.4
Berseem Trifolium alexan- Rabi 11.1 0.43 60.7
drinum
(Yawalkar et al., 1996)

83
Indian Agriculture Crop residues
A huge quantity of crop residues such as wheat straw, cotton sticks, sugarcane
trash/tops, and rice straw/ husk, etc. are available. But due to some economic
compulsions such as the need for animal fodder and fuel, the crop residues
are partially recycled in the soil or burnt to clear fields for sowing of the next
crop otherwise these may contribute to improving organic matter in the soil
and thus keep it productive. Research data have shown that incorporation of
rice and/or wheat straw may or may not increase the crop yield, but it does
improve soil fertility and quality. There are reports that there is some initial
immobilization of nutrients with the incorporation of rice/wheat residue,
but it can be easily overcome by adding 20-25 kg/ha additional fertilizer
N at the beginning or by mixing rice/wheat residue with a legume residue.
Thus in the long run crop residue helps in giving sustained production and
improves soil fertility and productivity.
2. Chemical fertilizers: The term fertilizer is derived from the Latin
word fertilis, which means fruit-bearing. Fertilizer can be defined as a
mined, refined, or manufactured product containing one or more essential
plant nutrients in available or potentially available forms. Many prefixes
such as synthetic, mineral, inorganic, artificial, or chemical are often used
to describe fertilizers and these are used interchangeably. Different kinds of
chemical fertilizers are available to supply nutrients to the rice crop.
Nitrogenous fertilizers
World fertilizer N production is based on the synthetic fixation of atmospheric
N in the form of NH3. The NH3 produced is further used for the production
of inorganic fertilizers, containing either NH4+, NO3-, a combination
of both, or the amide form (-NH2). In addition to these single (straight)
N fertilizers, multi-nutrient (compound) fertilizers containing N together
with other primary nutrients, such as phosphorous (P) and/or potassium (K)
are widely used. A list of nitrogenous fertilizers along with their nutrient
content is given in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6: Common nitrogenous fertilizers and their nutrient content

Percentage
N fertilizer material
N P2O5 K2O Ca Mg S
Ammonium nitrate 34 0 0 0 0 0
NH4NO3

Ammonium nitrate 30 0 0 0 0 5
sulphate
NH4NO3 + (NH4)2SO4

Ammonium sulphate 21 0 0 0 0 24
(NH4)2SO4

Calcium nitrate 15 0 0 21 0 0
Ca(NO3)2.4H2O

84
 Soil Fertility Management
Crotonylidene diurea 32 0 0 0 0 0
(CDU)
Isobutylidene diurea 31 0 0 0 0 0
(IBDU)
Urea 46 0 0 0 0 0
CO (NH2)2
Urea (sulphur coated) 36-38 0 0 0 0 13-16
CO(NH2)2 + S
Ureaform 38 0 0 0 0 0
(urea + formaldehyde)
Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) of nitrogenous fertilizers, especially in
rice under lowland conditions, is low, i.e. 30-50%. Nitrification inhibitors
can be used to reduce N losses. Nitrification inhibitors retard the
nitrification process in soil and thereby reduce the N losses by leaching
and denitrification. Many chemicals have been reported to have nitrification
inhibiting properties. The chemicals most widely tested are: N-Serve
(2-chloro 6(trichloromethyl) pyridine), AM (2-amino-4-chloro-6 methyl
pyrimidine), DCD (dicyandiamide), and ST (sulphathiazole). Increased rice
yields and increased NUE in India have been reported for N-Serve, AM, ST,
DCD, and neem oil-coated urea (500-1000 ppm).
Phosphatic fertilizers
These fertilizers contain phosphorus in phosphate form. In trade, the P
content is given as phosphoric anhydride or in terms of P2O5. P-fertilizers
can be divided into 3 groups:
Water-soluble P fertilizers: A small sample of fertilizer is extracted with
distilled water for a prescribed period (AOAC, 1960) and the slurry is then
filtered. The amount of P in the filtrate is determined and expressed as a %
by the weight of the fertilizer. The above fraction is called water-soluble P.
Examples- monocalcium phosphate [Ca(H2PO4)2-single superphosphate],
mono ammonium phosphate [NH4H2PO4], diammonium phosphate
[(NH4)2HPO4] and potassium phosphate [K H2PO4], etc.
Citrate-soluble P fertilizers: The fertilizer residue left after extracting
water-soluble P with a neutral (pH 7.0) solution of 1N ammonium citrate for
a prescribed time (AOAC, 1960), and slurry is then filtered. The P content
in the filtrate is then determined and expressed as % by the weight of the
fertilizer. The above fraction is called citrate-soluble P. Examples- dicalcium
phosphate [CaHPO4], basic-slag (a by-product of the steel industry, useful
for acidic soils) and calcium metaphosphate [Ca(PO3)2], etc.
Citrate-insoluble P fertilizers: The P content in the residue left after
extracting citrate-soluble P. It is unavailable to plants. Examples-rock
phosphate, bone meal, etc. The sum of the water-soluble and citrate-soluble
P represents an estimate of the fraction available to plants and is termed as
available P. The sum of water-soluble, citrate-soluble, and citrate-insoluble
P represent the total P in fertilizer. Citrate-insoluble P is unavailable to
plants. A list of phosphatic fertilizers along with their nutrient content is
given in Table 4.7.
85
Indian Agriculture Table 4.7: Sources of phosphatic fertilizers

Name Formula Content Comments

Single Ca(H PO ) .H O + 7–9% P, Soluble, neutral

2 4 2
superphosphate CaSO .2H 2O 13–20% Ca, (16–21% P O )
4 2 2 5
12% S

Triple Ca(H PO ) .H O 18–22% P, Soluble, neutral

2 4 2 2
superphosphate 9–14% Ca, (41–50% P O )
2 5
1.4% S

Monoammonium NH H PO 22% P, 11% Soluble,

4 2 4
phosphate N acidifying (51%
(MAP) PO)
2 5

Diammonium (NH ) HPO 20–23% Soluble,

4 2 4
phosphate (DAP) P,18–21% N acidifying
(46–53% P O )
2 5

Partly acidulated Ca (PO ) 10–11% P >1/3 water-

3 4 2
rock phosphate soluble (23–26%
PO)
2 5

Potassic fertilizers
There are mainly two potassium fertilizers namely, muriate of potash (MOP)
(KCl) containing 60% K2O and sulphate of potash (SOP) (K2SO4) containing
48% K2O. Due to high costs, mostly MOP is used in India. For plants that
are tolerant to chloride and whose quality is not impaired by high Cl, the
cheaper potassium chloride (MOP) is preferred. For plants that are sensitive
to high Cl for quality or other reasons, potassium sulphate or potassium
nitrate is a better choice. Of the agricultural crops, potatoes and tobacco and
many horticultural crops belong to the chloride-sensitive group. However,
the Cl component is suitable for “salt-liking” plants, such as sugarbeets
and palms, and it brings extra beneficial effects. A list of potassic fertilizers
along with their nutrient content is given in Table 4.8.
Table 4.8: Sources of potassic (K) fertilizers.
Name Formula Content Comments
Potassium chloride KCl 50% K Muriate of potash
(60% K2O)
(Muriate of pot-
ash)
Potassium nitrate KNO3 37% K, 13% In compounds (44%
N K2O)
Potassium sulfate K2SO4 40–43% K, In compounds (50%
18% S K2O)
Compound fertil- N+P+K Variable Common in rice
izers

86
Secondary nutrients fertilizers Soil Fertility Management

S, Mg, and Ca-containing fertilizers fall in the category. Substitution of

high-analysis fertilizers such as urea and DAP for ammonium sulphate and
single superphosphate has been the main cause of widespread S deficiency
in Indian soils.
There are 2 kinds of sources of S. The first kind is the popular fertilizers
containing S as the nutrient other than that for which fertilizer is applied.
For example, single superphosphate (SSP) is marketed as phosphate
fertilizer but contains 12% S. The other kind of sources of S are those
materials that are marketed and used only as a source of S. These are
referred to as S-fertilizers and include elemental S, gypsum, iron pyrites
and phosphogypsum (a byproduct of phosphoric acid industry). Most S
is applied to the soil at sowing. A list of sulphur fertilizers along with their
nutrient content is given in Table 4.9.
Table 4.9: Sulphur containing fertilizers

Name Formula Content Comments

Ammonium (NH4)2SO4 24% S Quick-acting
sulphate
Single Ca(H2PO4)2 . 12% S, 7–9 % P, Soluble,
superphosphate H2O + CaSO4 . 13–20% Ca quick-acting
2H2O
Potassium sulphate K2SO4 18% S Quick-acting
Magnesium MgSO4 .7 H20 13% S, 10% Mg Very quick-
sulphate (Epsom acting
salt)
Kieserite MgSO4 . H20 23% S, 17% Mg Quick-acting
Langbeinite K2SO4 .MgSO4 18% K, 11% Quick-acting
Mg, 22% S
Gypsum CaSO4 × 2 H2O 17% S Slow-acting
Elemental S S 97% S Slow-acting
S-coated urea CO(NH2)2 + S 6–30% S, Slow-acting
30–40% N
Magnesium-containing fertilizers are either quick-acting soluble salts
(mainly sulphates) or in slow-acting form (magnesium carbonate) (Table
4.10).
Table 4.10: Magnesium containing fertilizers

Name Formula Content Comments

Kieserite MgSO4 . H20 17% Mg, 23% Soluble, quick-acting
S
Langbeinite K2SO4. MgSO4 18% K, 11% Quick-acting
Mg, 22%S

87
Indian Agriculture
Magnesium MgCl2 9% Mg Soluble, quick-acting
chloride
Magnesium MgO 42% Mg Slow-acting, for
oxide foliar application
Magnesite MgCO3 25-28% Mg Slow-acting
Dolomite MgCO3. 13% Mg, 21% Slow-acting, content
CaCO3 Ca of Ca and Mg
varying
Calcium is only applied other than for liming in cases of definite deficiency.
Quick-acting sources are: calcium chloride, solid or in solution; and the
slow-acting source is gypsum. Soil application, though simple, is often
disappointing because of restricted translocation within the plant; in such
cases a foliar spray is preferable. A list of calcium fertilizers along with their
nutrient content is given in Table 4.11.
Table 4.11: Calcium congaing fertilizer sources

Name Formula Content Comments

Calcium chloride CaCl2.6H2O 18% Ca Soluble, quick-acting,
does not raise pH
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O 23% Ca, Slightly soluble, slow-
18% S acting, for saline and
alkaline soils
Dolomite MgCO3. 13% Mg, Slow acting, content of
CaCO3 21% Ca Ca and Mg varying
Lime CaCO3 40% Ca Slow-acting, for acid
soils
Micronutrients fertilizers
Apart from the widely recognized areas of natural deficiencies of
micronutrients, attention should be given to the possibility that they may
become critical “minimum factors” as other critical factors are amended and
yield levels rise. They may be applied either as single-nutrient fertilizers or
as supplements in macronutrient fertilizers. The quickest and commonest
method of correcting deficiencies is by foliar application.
Deficiencies of 3 micronutrients have been reported in rice-growing areas
of India. First of all zinc deficiency in rice fields was noticed in Tarai soils.
Later, a deficiency of Fe was noticed on the sandy soils of Punjab. Of late,
boron (B) deficiency in rice has been reported on highly calcareous soils
of Bihar. Zinc sulphate and zinc oxide are the important zinc fertilizers
available in India. Application of 25 kg zinc sulphate (heptahydrate)/ hectare
is generally recommended in India (for rice). Dipping rice roots in 2-4% ZnO
suspension has also been found to be very effective. If zinc is not applied
in the soil at transplanting/ sowing and zinc deficiency symptoms appear,
foliar spray of 0.5-1.0% zinc sulphate with 0.25% lime is recommended.

88
Fe chlorosis in rice is better controlled by foliar spray of 0.5% Fe-sulphate. Soil Fertility Management
Soil application of B should be made when deficiency of B has been
established. Indiscriminate use may result in the toxicity of plants. When the
foliar application is must, a 0.2% borax solution (with lime twice the weight
of borax) is recommended to avoid injury to foliage). A list of micronutrient
fertilizers along with their nutrient content is given in Table 4.12.
Table 4.12: Micronutrient containing fertilizers included in the
Fertilizer Control Order (FCO) in India.
Nutrient Fertilizer Chemical formula Minimum
nutrient
content

Zinc Zinc sulphate heptahydrate ZnSO4.7H2O 21

Zinc sulphate monohydrate ZnSO4.H2O 33

Chelated zinc Zn-EDTA 12

Iron Ferrous sulphate FeSO4.7H2O 19
Chelated iron Fe-EDTA 12
Manganese Manganese sulphate MnSO4.H2O 30.5
Copper Copper sulphate CuSO4.5H2O 24
Boron Borax (Sodium tetraborate) Na2B4O7.10H2O 10.5

Boric Acid H3BO3 17

Molybdenum Ammonium molybdate (NH4)6Mo7O24.4H2O 52

Biofertilizers: Biofertilizers (BF) (microbial inoculants) are the products

containing living cells of different types of microorganisms (bacteria,
fungi, actinomycetes, etc.) which can fix atmospheric nitrogen and
mobilize and solubilize phosphorus in the soil from unavailable form
to plant usable form. They have great potential as a supplementary,
renewable and environmental-friendly source of plant nutrients and
are an important component of the Integrated Plant Nutrient System
(IPNS). In recent times the phenomenal increase in production and use
of biofertilizers in India is the result of the special attention given by
the government and interest by entrepreneurs to set up biofertilizer
production facilities. Farmers have also realized the benefits of the use
of biofertilizers.
The use of Rhizobium culture in legumes is most promising among different
kinds of biofertilizers. Biofertilizers have to be applied properly to the
seed or soil to produce the desired benefit. However, the performance
of biofertilizers is highly unpredictable due to their biological nature
and susceptibility to biotic and abiotic stresses. Hence, there is a need to
develop more effective, competitive, and stress-tolerant strains to increase
89
Indian Agriculture nutrient supply from biofertilizers. The use of phosphate solubilizing
bacteria (PSB) and Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (AM) to supply phosphorus
and micronutrients have tremendous potential in India. Examples of some
biofertilizers currently in use worldwide are shown in Table 4.13.
Table 4.13: Organisms, mode of action, crops, and producers of
biofertilizers currently in use for agriculture
Type Mode of action Crop
Rhizobium spp. N2 fixation Legumes
Cyanobacteria N2 fixation Rice
Azospirillum spp. N2 fixation Cereals
Mycorrhizae Nutrient acquisition Conifers
Penicillium bilaii P solubilization Cereals, legumes
Check Your Progress 4.3
Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Write down the three aims of balanced fertilizer use.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
2. What are the main objectives of integrated plant nutrient management?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
3. Name two methods recommended for making composts in India.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
4. Give at least three examples of water-soluble P fertilizers.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

4.7 LET US SUM UP

Soil fertility is the capacity of soil to supply essential minerals to the
plants in appropriate and adequate amounts. Adequate soil fertility is the
90
foundation on which all input-based high-production systems can be built. Soil Fertility Management
The decline in soil fertility is a major cause of stagnating or even decreasing
crop yields. The important causes for reduced soil fertility are soil erosion,
loss of organic matter resulting in reduced biological activity, nutrient
depletion as a result of soil erosion and mining of nutrients, etc. Under poor
management, soil fertility can be seriously depleted and soils may become
useless for agriculture.
A correct assessment of the available nutrient status before planting a
crop is necessary for taking appropriate measures to ensure adequate
nutrient supply for a good crop over and above the amounts that the soil
can furnish. Balanced fertilization and integrated plant nutrition system
(IPNS) or integrated nutrient management (INM) enables the adaptation of
the plant nutrition and soil fertility management in farming systems to site
characteristics, taking advantage of the combined and harmonious use of
organic, mineral, and biofertilizer nutrient resources to serve the concurrent
needs of food production and economic, environmental and social viability.
4.8 KEYWORDS
Available nutrient: Form(s) of a plant nutrient in the soil or fertilizer that
is immediately or potentially available for being taken up by growing plants
during their growth span.
Complete fertilizer: A chemical compound or a blend of compounds
containing significant quantities of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium.
It may contain other plant nutrients.
Compound fertilizer : A fertilizer formulated with two or more plant
nutrients.
Fertilizer grade: The guaranteed minimum analysis in percent of the major
plant nutrient elements contained in a fertilizer material or a mixed fertilizer.
The analysis is usually designated as N-P2O5 -K2O, but it may be N-P-K
where permitted or required as specified by state law.
Mixed fertilizer: Two or more fertilizer materials blended or granulated
together into individual mixes. The term includes dry mix powders as well
as a granulated, clear liquid, suspension, and slurry mixtures.
Top-dressed fertilizer: The surface application of fertilizer to the soil after
the crop has been established.
Soil fertility: The ability of soil to supply the nutrients essential to plant
growth.
Soil productivity: The capacity of the soil, in its normal environment, to
produce a specified plant or sequence of plants under a specified system of
management.
Soil reaction (pH): The degree of acidity or alkalinity of a soil, usually
expressed as a pH value.

91
Indian Agriculture
4.9 SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS /
REFERENCES
1. Arnon, D.I. and Stout, P.R. (1939) The Essentiality of Certain
Elements in Minute Quantity for Plants with Special Reference to
Copper. Plant Physiology, 14, 371-375. http://dx.doi.org/10.1104/
pp.14.2.371
2. Brown, P.H., Ross M. Welch, and Earle E. Cary. 1987 Nickel: A
Micronutrient Essential for Higher Plants. Plant Physiol. 1987
Nov; 85(3): 801–803. doi: 10.1104/pp.85.3.801
3. Butterworth, J., Adolph, B. and Suresh Reddy, B. 2003. How
Farmers Manage Soil Fertility. A Guide to Support Innovation and
Livelihoods. Hyderabad: Andhra Pradesh Rural Livelihoods Project/
Chatham: Natural Resources Institute.
4. Epestein, E & Bloom, A. 2005. Mineral Nutrition of Plants: Principles
and Perspectives. Second edition. Sinauer Associates.
5. FAO. 2006. Plant nutrition for food security: A guide for integrated
nutrient management. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Rome, Italy. 348p.
6. Glass, ADM. 1989. Plant Nutrition: An Introduction to Current
Concepts. Jones and Bartlett: Boston.
7. Marschner, H. 1997. Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants. Second
edition. Academic Press Ltd.
8. Marwaha, B.C. and Jat, S.L. 2004. Statistics and scope of organic
farming in India. Fertilizer News 49(11):41-48.
9. Prasad, R. and Power, J.F. 1997. Soil Fertility Management for
Sustainable Agriculture, CRC-Lewis, Bota Raton, Fl., USA, p. 356.
10. Tisdale, S.L., Nelson, W.L., Beaton, J.D. and Havlin, J.L. 1999. Soil
Fertility and Fertilizers. Macmillan Pub. Co., New York.
11. Yawalkar, K.S., Agarwal, J.P. and Bokde, S. 1996. Manures and
Fertilizers. 8th Edition, Agri-Horticultural Publishing House, Nagpur,
India. p. 331.

4.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 4.1
1. Soil fertility is the overall ability of a soil to support vigorous crop
growth by ensuring adequate plant nutrients and suitable conditions
for water uptake, and by providing favorable conditions for root
growth and development.
2. The three groups of soil fertility are biological, physical, and chemical
soil fertility.
3. Soil productivity is the crop yielding ability of soil from a unit area.
4. Three important causes for a decline in soil fertility are loss of topsoil
by erosion, nutrient mining, and physical degradation of soil.
92
Check Your Progress 4.2 Soil Fertility Management

1. Macronutrients: N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S; micronutrients: Cu, Fe, Zn, Mn,

B, Cl, Ni, Mo.
2. Iron (Fe) plays a role in the synthesis of chlorophyll, carbohydrate
production, cell respiration, chemical reduction of nitrate and
sulphate, and N assimilation.
3. Beneficial nutrients are not required by all plants but appear to benefit
certain groups of plants or plants growing under specific conditions.
Cobalt (Co), sodium (Na), vanadium (V), and silicon (Si) are
sometimes designated as beneficial plant nutrients.
4. Soil testing can be defined as an acceptably accurate and rapid soil
chemical analysis for assessing available nutrient status for making
fertilizer recommendations.
Check Your Progress 4.3
1. Three aims of balanced fertilizer use are; increasing yield and quality
of the produce, increasing the income of the farmer and correcting the
inherent soil nutrient deficiencies.
2. The main objectives of integrated plant nutrient management (IPNM)
are to maintain and possibly enhance soil fertility through a balanced
use of chemical fertilizers combined with organic and biological
sources.
3. In India, the two recommended methods are the “Indore method”
(aerobic) and the “Bangalore method” (Initially aerobic but later
anaerobic) for making composts.
4. Examples of water-soluble P fertilizers are single superphosphate,
monoammonium phosphate, diammonium phosphate, potassium
phosphate, etc.

93
 UNIT 5 PEST AND DISEASE
MANAGEMENT
Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Causes of Insect Pests and Diseases in Crops
5.3 Pest Epidemics
5.4 Pest Diagnostics
5.4.1 Disease diagnosis
5.4.2 Insect damage diagnosis
5.5 Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
5.5.1 Principles of IPM
5.5.2 Approaches of IPM
5.6 Pesticide Residues and Consequences
5.6.1 Adverse effects of pesticide residues
5.6.2 Safety precautions against residues
5.7 Let Us Sum Up
5.8 Keywords
5.9 Suggested Further Reading/References
5.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
5.11 Terminal Questions

5.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
●● explain causes of pest incidence in crops;
●● discuss pest epidemics and their causes;
●● describe diagnostic symptoms of pests in crops;
●● explain principles and approaches of integrated pest management;
and
●● discuss pest residues and their consequences.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
By studying principles and practices of crop production, you must have got
an idea about how we can enhance our crop productivity and production.
However, crop yield potential is threatened by biotic constraints such as
insect pests and diseases. Until and unless these bottlenecks are not tackled
effectively, it is very difficult to harvest a high crop yield. In this unit, you
will learn about causes that increase pest intensity on crops. You will also be
acquainted with the concept of pest diagnostics and principles and practices
94
of integrated pest management. Finally, the harmful effects of pesticide Pest and Disease Management
residues and safety measures against residues will be discussed.

5.2 CAUSES OF INSECT PESTS AND DISEASES

IN CROPS
Since man started agriculture by clearing forests, he has been disturbing
the balance of nature by reducing environmental resistance through
ecologically unsound methods of cultivation. Even any slight decrease in
any of the processes of ‘environment resistance’ results in a population
explosion of an insect species and the consequent epidemics. Nature too
sometimes plays role in causing pest epidemics. Favorable conditions,
which reduce the natural mortality and bring down the rapid development
of the insect coupled with the conditions unfavorable to the natural enemies
of that insect, often result in the rapid increase of its population leading
to a sudden pest outbreak. Man’s interference in ecosystems thus causes
intensification of insects and diseases on crops and the main causes of this
are discussed below.
i) Monoculture: Due to ease in agronomic operations and other economic
considerations, farmers resort to monoculture. Continuous cultivation
of a crop species on extensive tracts provides unhindered availability
of food for pests and as result, these attain higher populations than
they would in a mixed crop environment.
ii) Staggered planting: Certain pests attack crops during a particular
crop growth stage e.g. rice gundhi bug damages crop during the milky
stage. Staggered planting of rice in an area ensures food availability
to the pest for a prolonged duration thereby increasing the extent of
crop losses.
iii) Multiple cropping: Growing the same crop on a piece of land
continuously for more than one season during a year ensures
uninterrupted food supply to pest species, thus accentuating pest
problems e.g. multiple cropping of rice practiced in south India.
Likewise, retooning of sugarcane and brinjal also aggravates pest
problems. Growing two crops in continuity that share the same pest
fauna also increases pest losses e.g. in the rice-wheat cropping system,
losses due to pink borer and nematode have increased.
iv) Improved cultivars: The majority of improved crop cultivars are
bred for better yield and quality without addressing the pest resistance
issue. These respond very well to fertilizers and irrigation showing
excellent vegetative growth. These are preferred by pests and diseases
that reproduce profusely on them inflicting heavy crop losses.

95
Indian Agriculture v) Monogenic resistant cultivars: Monogenic resistant cultivars may
lead to the development of pest biotypes. It has happened in the case
of rice where several biotypes of gall midge and brown planthopper
(BPH) have evolved in response to wide-scale cultivation of monogenic
resistant cultivars against these pests.
vi) Excessive use of fertilizers and irrigation: Instead of applying
fertilizers in a balanced manner, excessive use of nitrogenous
fertilizers has resorted to that stimulates pest reproduction. Likewise,
excessive use of irrigation also aggravates pests in crops. Heavy doses
of nitrogenous fertilizers accompanied by continuous flooding of rice
fields create favorable conditions for rice BPH.
vii) Indiscriminate use of pesticides: Indiscriminate use of broad-
spectrum pesticides leads to the death of natural enemies of pests and
their continuous use evolves pests that are resistant to pesticides. In
such a situation, when neither pesticide is effective nor natural enemies
are there, pests wreak havoc. Likewise, excessive use of pesticides
also results in the outbreak of secondary pests.
viii) Import & export of agricultural commodities: Due to quarantine
negligence, foreign pests sometimes enter new territories where
their natural enemies are not present. Due to reduced environment
resistance, they proliferate and realize very high densities.
ix) Introduction of crops in new areas: If a crop is introduced into a
new area where crops sharing pest fauna with the introduced crop are
grown, it would increase pest problems.
x) Climate change: Climate change is also responsible for causing
shifts in pest fauna of crops in different regions. A northward shift
in favorable zones of crops, as well as pests, is being observed with
climate change. Pests might thus gain entry into new areas and in
the event of reduced environmental resistance might realize higher
populations.
Check Your Progress 5.1
Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1) How are populations of organisms maintained in balance in nature?
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2) Enlist causes of pest intensification on crops?
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 ……………………………………………………………………… Pest and Disease Management
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5.3 PEST EPIDEMICS

Insects and pathogens are integral components of forest ecosystems and
normally are present at a relatively low density, causing little damage and
having a negligible impact on crop growth and vigor. Pest populations
are frequently regulated below their potential levels of abundance by
natural enemies, host resistance, or other biological interactions. However,
sporadically, in time or space, some species may attain rapidly very high
populations, which may persist for a variable length of time before subsiding.
Such large populations are called epidemics and may have adverse effects
on the growth, yield, and quality of crops.
Factors responsible for pest epidemics
i) Human manipulation of the environment: Large-scale cultivation of
resistant crop cultivars against some pest species may result in a large
population of some other pest species due to reduced competition.
Introduction of Bt cotton resistant to bollworms experienced very
high populations of cotton mealybug, Phenacoccus solenopsis.
Lack of competition from bollworms and high fertilizers especially
nitrogenous fertilizers stimulated population build-up of sucking
pests. The unnatural conditions in the man-made environment induce
unusually high and destructive pest populations.
ii) Foreign pests: Despite quarantine regulations, many foreign insects
species get accidentally introduced into new habitats. With their lower
environmental resistance due to the absence of their natural enemies in
new habitats, their populations may attain unusually high magnitude.
Some of the foreign pests, which caused havoc in India during the
last 1-2 decades include sugarcane woolly aphid, Ceratovacuna
lanigera; coconut eriophyid mite, Aceria guerreronis; coffee berry
borer, Hypothenemus paspalivorus; sapota seed borer, Trymalitis
margirias; spiraling whitefly, Aleurodicus disperses; serpentine leaf
miner, Liriomyza trifolii. Introduced species became serious problems
when they found an abundant food supply, a favorable climate, and
few or no effective natural enemies.
iii) Introduction of the crop into the unsuitable environment: Many
ornamental plants are chosen for their beauty and planted without
proper consideration of their suitability for a particular site. Drought,
nutrient, or temperature stress may affect such plants and make them
more susceptible to pest attack. Proper watering and fertilizing of
plants allow them to compensate for pest damage while stressed plants
may be seriously injured by the same amount of pest damage.
iv) Weather: Weather plays an important role in pest outbreaks by
initiating the early activity of pests, promoting growth rates, and
reducing mortality rates. Favorable weather in form of early onset of
summer rains with suitable temperatures may initiate early breeding of
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Indian Agriculture pest population which may facilitate completion of extra generations
during the season and as a result enormous population levels may be
witnessed. Increased population levels may be 50-100 times higher
than normal owing to the prolific fecundity of pest species. It has
been observed that the early onset of rains in May further followed
by regular monsoon rains led to a BPH outbreak on rice, leading to
severe yield losses. The Pest situation may further be aggravated by
heavy use of nitrogenous fertilizers, continuous flooding of rice fields,
and indiscriminate use of broad-spectrum pesticides.
v) Pesticides: Broad-spectrum pesticides kill pests and their natural
enemies as well. Pesticides prove effective until pests develop
resistance against them. Once a resistance problem arises pesticide
does not kill pests hence pest population explodes. This is known
as pest resurgence. Pesticides targeted against major pests may also
kill natural enemies of secondary pest but not secondary pest itself
particularly when it belongs to different groups e.g. pesticide used
against an insect pest may not kill a mite pest. In such a situation,
secondary pest attains an enormous population due to the absence of
major pests as well as due to the absence of their natural enemies.
Check Your Progress 5.2
Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Define pest epidemics.
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2) Enumerate two factors responsible for causing pest epidemics.
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5.4 PEST DIAGNOSTICS

Rapid and accurate diagnosis of pests and diseases is necessary before we
can adopt proper control measures. It is the first step towards the study of any
pest and its management. Diagnosis is largely done based on characteristic
symptoms expressed by the affected plant. Identification of causal organisms
is also essential to diagnosis. Diagnosis of plant diseases is more complex
as their symptoms are more varied than those of insect pests. Insect pests
are visible to naked eyes and symptoms can be broadly assigned to the type
of pests in the field itself and then species can be further identified.
5.4.1 Disease Diagnosis
Diagnosis of plant disease is a practical science and experience is the most
important factor in the identification of a disease in the field. In preliminary
disease identification, illustrated guides and charts are of paramount
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significance. Identification of those diseases is easier in which pathogen Pest and Disease Management
produces specific growth such as in downy mildew, powdery mildew, rusts,
smuts, and many sclerotial diseases. However, in several other diseases,
symptoms do not prove as helpful in identification as they overlap among
many diseases e.g. chlorosis or yellowing of leaves can be caused by a
nutritional disorder, fungus, virus, or bacteria.
In case of the identification of overlapping symptoms, the first step is
to determine whether the pathogen is infectious or non-infectious. Field
observations on the pattern of development of disease in plant population
and spread of symptoms on other plants help in distinguishing the two. If the
disease spreads among the plants then it is infectious. An infectious disease
may be caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses, and nematodes. To determine
their presence, an infected plant can be observed for the presence of bacterial
ooze, fungal structures, or nematode cysts or females and then confirmed by
laboratory studies. If fungus is not a biotroph, it can be cultured on artificial
media and then tested for Koch’s postulates. Bacteria can also be detected
similarly. Apart from ooze often seen on the host surface in the case of
bacteria, examination of cut pieces of the infected part in water under the
microscope would reveal streaming of bacterial cell masses.
A. Koch’s postulates comprise the following steps:
i) The pathogen must be invariably found in infected plants or must be
associated with it in some form.
ii) The pathogen should be separated from the host and grown in artificial
culture.
iii) The pathogen from the artificial culture should be able to reproduce
the disease when inoculated on a healthy plant of the same kind from
which it was isolated. Symptoms produced should be identical with
those seen on the plant from which the isolation was made.
iv) The artificially produced disease should yield the same pathogen on
re-isolation.
Nematodes, if present, can be seen on the host or macerated tissues examined
under the microscope. Nematodes can not be grown on artificial media.
However, by separating the eggs and larvae from the host and multiplying
them on a susceptible host under sterile conditions, sufficient larvae can be
obtained for proving Koch’s postulates.
Viruses can not be seen or grown in culture. They generally produce
symptoms similar to those of nutritional deficiencies. However, the latter
condition is non-infectious and does not spread from plant to plant while
viruses are infectious and spread among plants.
If in artificial culture no pathogen is obtained and in tissue examination,
including the vessels, no fungal structures of a biotroph or structures of
nematodes are seen but the disease is infectious, it can be expected that
the disease is caused by a virus or mycoplasma like organism (MLO).
The differentiation between viruses and MLO can be made by electron
microscopy and by spraying streptocycline antibiotics, which mask the
symptoms of MLO diseases but not that of virus diseases.

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Indian Agriculture B. Plant disease symptoms
i) Rust: Rusts infecting thousands of economically important plants are
caused by more than 4,000 species of fungi. These diseases produce
rusty symptoms. The rusts appear as small pustules of spores that
may be dusty or compact and red, brown, yellow, or black. Yellow,
brown, and black rusts are important diseases of wheat (Fig. 5.1).
During their life cycle, rust fungi parasitize either one species of plant
(autoecious or monoecious rust) or two distinct species (heteroecious
rust).

Fig. 5.1: Wheat affected by yellow rust

ii) Mildew: In these diseases, the pathogen is seen as white, grey,
brownish, or purplish growth on the host surface (Fig. 5.2). In powdery
mildew, an enormous number of spores are formed on the superficial
growth of fungus on the surface of leaves, buds, young shoots, fruits,
and even flowers, producing a dusty or powdery appearance. This
is caused by many specialized races of fungal species in the genera
Erysiphe, Microsphaera, Phyllactinia, Podosphaera, Sphaerotheca,
and Uncinula.
In downy mildew, superficial growth of the fungus is tangled cottony and
downy growth, and grey, bluish, or violet downy patches of mildew
form mostly on the undersides of leaves in damp weather. Pale-
green to yellow or brown areas usually develops on the upper leaf
surface opposite the downy growth. A disease of plants, especially
in cool humid regions is caused by several fungi including species of
Basidiophora, Phytophthora, Pseudoperonospora, and Sclerospora.

Fig. 5.2: Powdery mildew on grapes

Courtesy: www.britannica.com
iii) Smut: Smut disease infecting wheat, maize, rice, sorghum, onion,
and grasses is caused by many species of fungi (Fig. 5.3). The term
‘smut’ means a sooty or charcoal-like powder. It is characterized by
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 spores that accumulate in soot-like masses called sori, in seeds, leaves, Pest and Disease Management
stems, flower parts, and bulbs. The sori usually break up into a black
powder that is readily dispersed by the wind. In some smuts, a mass
of spores may be compact and held under the epidermis appearing as
black streaks on the host surface.

Fig. 5.3: False smut disease in rice

iv) White blisters: In crucifers and many other plants, numerous
white, blister-like pustules are found on leaves. They broke open
the epidermis and expose white powdery masses of spores. Often,
such symptoms have been called white rust but since there is nothing
common between them and true rusts, they are more appropriately
termed as white blisters.
v) Blotch: This symptom consists of a superficial growth giving the fruit
a blotched appearance as in the sooty blotch of apple fruit.
vi) Sclerotia: A sclerotium is a compact, often hard, a mass of dormant
fungus. In some diseases, as in ergot of cereals, the sclerotium
assumes a characteristic horn-like shape but in others, the shape may
be different. An ear of rye infected with ergot exudes yellowish mucus
for some time followed by loss of starch as the ear ceases growth. The
ovaries are then permeated by the mycelium, which in autumn forms
the spur-like purple-black sclerotium.
vii) Exudations: In some fungal diseases, the invasion of the pathogen
causes exudation of a gum-like material on the stem and collar. This
is known as gummosis. In most bacterial diseases e.g. bacterial leaf
blight and bacterial leaf streak of rice, fire blight of pear and apple,
bacterial cankers of stone fruits, masses of bacterial cells come out as
ooze on the infected host surface where they may be seen as drop or
smear. On drying, they form a crust.
viii) Colour changes: Changes of colour from the normal or discolouration
is one of the most common symptoms of plant diseases. Chlorosis
is yellowing due to the influence of low temperature, lack of iron,
excess of lime or alkali in the soil, and infection of viruses, fungi, and
bacteria. On the other hand, etiolation is the disappearance of green
pigment due to lack of light.
Mosaic is caused by various strains of viruses. Symptoms are variable but
commonly include irregular leaf mottling (light and dark green or
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Indian Agriculture yellow patches or streaks). Leaves are commonly stunted, curled,
or puckered while veins may be lighter than normal or banded with
dark green or yellow. Plants are often dwarfed, with fruit and flowers
fewer than usual, deformed, and stunted. Flowers may be blotched or
streaked.
ix) Atrophy or hypotrophy or dwarfing: In many diseases, there is
inhibition of growth that results in stunting or dwarfing. The whole
plant may be dwarfed or only certain organs may be affected. Stunting
may be caused by viral, bacterial, fungal, or nematode infections and
by non-infectious (abiotic) means including excess or lack of water,
imbalance of soil nutrients, excess light, chemical or mechanical
injuries, insect or mite feeding, and too deep planting.
x) Overgrowth and hypertrophy: Many pathogens induce hormonal
imbalances in plants through their biochemical activity. This results
in excessive growth of host tissues and causes an abnormal increase
in the size of the affected organ. It is brought about by one or both of
the processes known as hyperplasia and hypertrophy. Hyperplasia is
the abnormal increase in the size of plant organs due to an increase
in the number of cells while hypertrophy refers to the increased size
of the organ due to an increase in the size of cells. The overgrowth
and its effect are seen in the form of galls, curl, pockets, hairy roots,
witches broom, intumescence, etc. Bakane disease of rice caused by
fungus results in lanky plants as a result of elongation of tillers and
reduced tillering.
xi) Spots: The cells are killed in limited areas and dead tissues usually
become brownish (Fig. 5.4). The most common diseases in this group
are the leaf spots e.g. brown leaf spot of paddy. Leaf spots are caused
by species of bacteria or by many fungus species.

Fig. 5.4: Black spot

Courtesy: www.britannica.com
xii) Dieback:  This disease is characterized by the progressive death of
twigs, branches, or shoots, from the tip backward. Dieback is caused
by many fungi and a few bacteria that produce cankers, anthracnose,
wilts, and stem or root rots. Nematodes, stem or root boring insects,
mechanical damage, paving over roots, winter injury from cold and
a deficiency or excess of moisture or an essential element may cause
dieback.
xiii) Blight: Symptoms of blight include sudden and severe yellowing,
browning, spotting, withering, or dying of leaves, flowers, fruit,
stems, or the entire plant e.g. late blight disease of potato and tomato
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 (Fig. 5.5). Blight is caused by bacterial or fungal infections. Pest and Disease Management

Fig. 5.5: Late blight

Courtesy: www.brittanica.com
xiv) Streaks or stripes: These are elongated but relatively narrow lesions
containing dead cells. These are initially yellowish before the death
of affected cells.
xv) Damping-off:  In this disease, the tender stem of seedlings is attacked
near the soil line. The affected portion becomes constricted due to
necrosis and seedling collapses. This is caused by seed- and soil-
borne fungi.
xvi) Rot:  Rot is characterized by plant decomposition and putrefaction.
These are named after the plant part infected e.g. root rot, stem rot,
bulb rot, fruit rot, etc. They are caused by any species of soil-borne
bacteria and fungi. Fungal rots are usually dry to spongy or powdery,
while bacterial rots are commonly moist, soft to mushy, and foul-
smelling.
xvii) Burn or scorch: This is a symptom of plant disease in which tissue
is burnt because of unfavorable conditions or infection by bacteria or
fungi. Commonly there is a dead area along or between the veins and
margins of leaves.
xviii) Wilt: Wilt is characterized by drooping of leaves and stems due to
water loss (Fig. 5.6). Wilt diseases are caused by a variety of fungi,
bacteria, and viruses and are easily confused with root and crown
rots, stem cankers, insect injuries, etc.

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Fig. 5.6: Wilt disease in chillies
Indian Agriculture xix) Anthracnose: Symptoms of anthracnose include varied coloured
spots on leaves, stems, flowers, or fruits. The spots often enlarge,
leading to wilting, withering, and dying of tissues.
xx) Canker:  A canker is a dead area in the bark or cortex of the stem
and sometimes on leaves also. Canker symptoms include sunken,
swollen, flattened, or cracked dead areas on the stem, twig, limb, or
trunk. Cankers may enlarge and girdle a twig or branch, killing the
foliage beyond it.
Disease symptoms from Sr. No. xi-xx are referred to as necrosis lesions
because they result in the death of cells, tissues, and organs due to parasitic
activity.
5.4.2 Insect Damage Diagnosis
Damage symptoms of insect pests depend upon the types of their mouthparts
and plant part affected. Accordingly, there is damage in the form of tissue
boring, defoliation, leaf folding, leaf-mining, sap-sucking, etc.
A. Tissue boring
This includes stem boring, root feeding, and fruit boring.
i) Stem boring: Stem borer larvae bore into plant stems and cause their
death. Rice stem borer causes the death of central shoot called ‘dead
heart’ in young plants and death of panicle known as ‘white ear’ in
maturing plants (Fig. 5.7). Likewise, maize stem borer and sugarcane
early shoot borer also cause dead heart symptoms. The damaged
shoot can easily be pulled out occasionally with larva still inside it.

Fig. 5.7: Stem borer damage in rice

ii) Root boring: Some insects like root borers, termites, white grubs,
root weevils feed on plant roots thereby killing the plants. Affected
plants can easily be pulled out. The difference between stem borer
and root borer damage is that in the case of the former, the roots of
the plant are not damaged, and the only above-ground portion of the
stem is damaged.
iii) Fruit boring: Fruit borers’ larvae damage fruits e.g. in tomato,
ladyfinger, brinjal, pomegranate (Fig. 5.8). Likewise, fruit fly maggots
cause damage in mango, cucurbits, ber, which results in the rotting
of the fruit.
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 Pest and Disease Management

Fig. 5.8: Brinjal damaged by fruit borer

B. Defoliation
Defoliators such as grasshoppers, beetles, and caterpillars damage plant
leave causing defoliation (Fig. 5.9). The extent of defoliation varies from
small holes to complete defoliation and sometimes only midribs are left. In
the case of grasshoppers and armyworms, damage resembles as if grazed
by cattle.

Fig. 5.9: Cabbage defoliated by cabbage butterfly

C. Leaf mining
Insect larvae make mines in the leaf tissue by eating away the green tissue
e.g. citrus leaf miner, pea leaf miner. White zigzag pathways can easily be
spotted on the upper leaf surface or both sides (Fig. 5.10).

Fig. 5.10: Leaf miner damage in soybean

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soybean Indian Agriculture D. Leaf folding/rolling
Insect larvae fold leaves and then feed on green tissue inside the fold. When
the fold opens, the affected leaf looks white as in case rice leaf folder damage
in rice (Fig. 5.11). Leaf rolling is also observed in the case of cotton.

Fig. 5.11: Leaf folder damage in rice

E. Sap sucking
Sucking pests like aphids, jassids, planthoppers, whiteflies, bugs, thrips,
coccids, scales, mites suck sap from xylem and phloem bundles of plants
with their piercing and sucking mouthparts. As a result of sucking from
leaves, stems, flowers, fruits plants lose vigour and turn pale and dry up. In
the case of brown planthopper of rice, hopper burn symptoms are observed
which are initially small circular patches of dried plants but enlarge with an
increase in damage magnitude (Fig. 5.12). In case of leafhopper damage in
ladyfinger, upward cupping of leaves occurs, and eventually, they may fall.
Likewise, thrips damage results in flower drops in many crops.

Fig. 5.12: Rice crop damaged due to plant hopper sucking

Check Your Progress 3
Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Why is pest diagnosis done?
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2) Which crop is affected by rust diseases?
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3) Expand MLO.
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4) Differentiate between hyperplasia and hypertrophy.
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5.5 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)

The sole reliance on pesticides to control insect pests has created several
problems such as the development of resistant pests, pest outbreaks, mortality
of useful organisms, adverse effect on human health, and environmental
degradation. Adverse effects of pesticides prompted scientists to explore
safer and environment-friendly methods of pest control and consequently
integrated pest management came into vogue.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) refers to the use of available pest control
methods in a unified manner to reduce pest population below economic
levels and ensure favorable, ecological, and economic consequences. Pest
management signifies an ecological approach to tackle pest problems
because here the emphasis is on containing pests in such a way that other
biotic components of the system such as natural enemies, human beings,
and wildlife are not harmed and the environment is not degraded. Pest
management works on the premise that all pest population levels are
not injurious to crops and crops can tolerate some amount of pest injury.
Moreover, some pest population is also required for the survival of natural
enemies of the pests. This has given rise to the concept of economic injury
level (EIL), which helps to avoid the unwarranted application of control
measures. The EIL refers to the minimum pest population or damage that
causes economic damage. On the other, economic damage signifies the
damage level at which expenditure on pest control is equal to the value of
crop saved from pest damage. The EIL-based pest control measures ensure
a favorable cost-benefit ratio to farmers. Pest management also underlines
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Indian Agriculture that pest control tactics should be socially acceptable and within the reach
of farmers. It is a holistic approach to pest problems in which we aim to
protect our commodities against all the pests and ensure the production of
healthy crops.
5.5.1 Principles of IPM
a. Understanding of pests: The biology of pests should be thoroughly
studied to detect weak points in the life cycle for the maximum benefit
from control measures. We should know whether it is univoltine i.e.
having a single generation in a year or multivoltine. In the case of
univoltine species, the action during the weak link of the life cycle
can reduce their populations significantly, for example in the case of
rice grasshopper and mango mealybug, the eggs are laid on the bunds
of paddy fields and under the mango tree in the soil, respectively.
The destruction of egg pods by raking field bunds and mango tree
basins greatly reduces the pest populations. In the case of fruit borers
and stem borers, the destruction of newly hatched larvae is the most
appropriate method to control them; otherwise, once these enter the
tissue it becomes very difficult to control them. Likewise, population
reduction can also be done by attracting and killing the moths. Proper
identification of the pest is necessary, for knowing its natural enemies
so that these can be conserved and if necessary can be produced from
other places for mass multiplication and released against pest.
b. Understanding the agro-ecosystem: Ecosystems are self-sufficient
habitats where living organisms and nonliving environments interact
to exchange energy and matter in a continuing cycle. Ecosystems are
entities, such as forests, ponds, and fields, and in general, they are
self-regulating. Agro-ecosystems contain a lesser diversity of animal
and plant species than do natural ecosystems such as forests and
prairies. Usually, there are few major species and numerous minor
species and, in a pest outbreak, usually, only one pest species at a time
is present in large numbers. A typical agricultural unit may contain
only 1-4 major crop species and 6-10 minor pest species.
The agro-ecosystem is intensively manipulated by man through
ploughing, mowing, and treatments with pesticides which harms
the natural enemies. Natural enemy diversity is thus relatively low
in agro-ecosystem. Therefore, agroecosystems are more susceptible
to pest damage and catastrophic outbreaks. This happens due to a
lack of diversity in plant and insect species and due to the sudden
alternations imposed by weather and man. Often an insect can attack,
establish and survive only during a short period but staggered planting
may make food available for pests for a longer period and increase
pest problems.
c. Planning of agro-ecosystem: Planting crops should be done in
such a way as to minimize or prevent pest problems. Agronomic
practices can be modified suitably for this purpose. Deep ploughing
in summer exposes soil pests such as cutworms, white grubs, mole
crickets, armyworms, etc. to predators and extremes of weather,
thereby reducing their population in the ensuing crop season.
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 Similarly, planting time can be preponed or postponed, for example, Pest and Disease Management
early planting of rapeseed-mustard in September in place of October
reduces aphid infestation on these crops. Rice crop planted in August
faces less incidence of Gundhi bug than crops planted in June or July.
Sometimes change in planting dates may have a contrasting effect on
different pests. In such a situation, the planting date should be chosen
based on the relative importance of the pests.
If pest incidence appears in the nursery on crop seedlings then it should
be controlled in the nursery itself as it is easier to control it on small
scale with minimum contamination of the environment. Likewise,
seedling dipping in pesticide solution at the time of transplanting
or seed treatment before sowing also proves very effective in
checking pest problems and reducing the environmental pollution.
Rice seedlings dipping in chlorpyriphos before transplanting prove
very effective against stem borer, gall midge, and plant hopper. Seed
treatments in pulses, mustard, sorghum, cotton also prevent pest
problems.
d. Cost /benefit: It is the ratio between the cost of control measures and
the value of the crop saved from pest attack due to the application of
control measures. For a profitable situation, this ratio should be less
than one. Lesser the ratio more is the profit to the farmer due to the
control of pests. When its value is greater than one, then the farmer
suffers indirect loss. In this situation, the cost of control measures
is more than the value of crops protected from pest attack. Such
a situation does not warrant the adoption of any control measures
against the pest. To ensure that farmer does not face such loss
incurring situation, the control measures should only be applied when
the population reaches the economic threshold level. The economic
level is worked out based on the cost of control measures, the market
value of the crop, and the damage potential of the pest in the crop.
e. Benefit/risk: Benefit/risk analysis provides a means for assessing
the relevant economic benefits versus the risk pest control poses to
the environment. The risk may include harmful effects on beneficial
organisms, wildlife, and humans; soil, water, and air degradation,
and development of resistant pests, and the presence of pesticide
residues in food. The consideration and assessment of benefit/risk are
fundamental to pest management.
f. Tolerance of pest damage: To promote pest management and reduce
our dependence on pesticides for pest control we must learn to live
with insects. The pests cause economic loss only when they have
reached some population level on the crop. Therefore, complete
freedom from pests is not necessary for obtaining higher yields
because crop plants are capable of compensating for some damage
due to pests. However, this is not applicable for insect vectors of plant
diseases, where complete eradication is desirable. In some cases, the
removal of excess foliage due to pest damage even caused an increase
in yield over the healthy crops. There should not thus be any reason
for panic on witnessing a few insects in the field. Moreover, some
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Indian Agriculture pest population is always needed for the survival of natural enemies
of pests, which play a very important role in pest suppression in
the field. Therefore, minimum population or damage which can be
tolerated without any adverse effect on crop yield and quality should
be determined to avoid unwarranted application of control measures.
The determination of economic threshold level (ETL) and economic
injury level (EIL) is a step in this direction. These imply a tolerant
approach to pest problems and need-based application of pesticides.
g. Leaving a pest residue: We have discussed that complete freedom
from pests is not necessary for higher yield as plants can always
compensate for some pest injury. Pest management philosophy thus
advocates suppression of pest population to non-economic level and
not the elimination of pests from the field. With this approach, fewer
insecticidal treatments are required as compared to the elimination of
pests. The presence of some pests in the field will ensure the survival
of natural enemies of the pests, which would reduce dependence on
pesticides and curtail environmental contamination.
h. Timing treatments: Pest management emphasizes the need-
based application of pesticides. The calendar-based application or
prophylactic treatments are generally discouraged. The need for the
application of pesticides can be determined through regular monitoring
to find out whether the population has reached the economic threshold
level or not. The need-based application may reduce pesticide
requirements by at least 50%. The pesticide application should
coincide with exposure to the most vulnerable stage of the pest for
best results. For example in the case of stem borers such as rice stem
borer or maize stem borer and fruit borers, regular monitoring for
eggs laying is very important. The application should coincide with
egg hatching so that larvae come in contact with pesticides and die.
Otherwise, once the larvae enter the stems or fruits, the application
of pesticides will not be effective. In the case of fruit flies, an attempt
should be made to control adults of these pests because only this
stage is exposed whereas eggs and maggots are hidden in the fruits
and pupae are in the soil.
Proper or precise placement of insecticides also helps in controlling
pests more effectively and at the same time avoids contamination
of the environment. For example, the rice planthoppers are mainly
confined to the stems of rice plants. The pesticide application does
not prove effective if the spray is directed at foliage, hence should be
directed at stems.
i) Public understanding and acceptance: Farmers are the users of
IPM programmes therefore these should be developed through their
active participation. The farmers’ experiences with pest problems
and the techniques used by them to combat pests should be given due
consideration. The indigenous technical know-how (ITK) adopted by
farmers has a sound scientific basis and hence the IPM programmes
should be developed through a judicious blend of indigenous and
modern technologies. Such programmes will be popular among farmers
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 as they will consider them as their programmes. Besides, these will also Pest and Disease Management
prove economical.
Extension workers should teach farmers that community cooperation
is essential for the effective management of pests. The management
of pests such as armyworms, locusts, and white grub beetles requires
coordinated effort on the part of the entire community. Similarly,
planting crop around the same time in an area also reduces the incidence
of several pests. They should also have the will to share their plant
protection equipment.
5.5.2 Approaches of IPM
In IPM different methods of pest control such as resistant varieties, cultural
methods, physical methods, natural enemies, and pesticides are integrated
to suppress pest population without jeopardizing other components of
the environment. Any pest management programme should be preferably
based upon the use of resistant cultivars and natural enemies and other
control methods should be blended with them for tackling pest menace. The
utility of different pest management components has been described in the
following discussion (Fig. 5.13).

Insect Disease
DB-Cultural
Methods

Mechanical Physical Methods

Methods

ETL
IPM
Bio-control Chemical
Methods Methods

Multipest-modules

Nematode Weeds
Dissemination

Fig. 5.13: IPM components

a. Resistant cultivars: Preference should be given to the cultivation of
resistant cultivars because their use greatly reduces the need for other
methods of pest control (Fig. 5.14). The resistant cultivars enhance
the efficiency of some natural enemies against the pests, for example,
there is more predation of spiders against planthoppers on moderately
resistant varieties than susceptible varieties. Likewise, on moderately
resistant cultivars, the need for pesticide application is greatly reduced.
Similarly, these are also compatible with cultural methods of pest
control. However, the continuous use of resistant varieties has given
rise to the problem of biotype development in some insects.

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Indian Agriculture

Fig. 5.14: Resistant and susceptible germplasm

Biotypes of brown planthopper and gall midge have developed due
to the cultivation of monogenic resistant varieties of rice. Resistant
cultivars of various crops against insect pests are presented in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Resistant cultivars/sources of resistance against insect
pests in different crops
Crop Pest Cultivars
Rice Stem borer Deepti, Rama, Ratna, Sasyasree, TKM-6,
Vikas, IR 20, IR 26

Gall midge Karna, Lalat, Sarasa, Ahaya, Ruchi, Kshira,

Dhanyalaxmi, Pothan, Mahaveer, Divya,
IR36, Kakatiya, Kunti, Phalguna, Shakti,
Surekha
Brown planthopper Bhadra, Chandana, CO 42, Jyoti, Kanaka,
Pratibha, Vajram, Chaitanya, Nagarjuna,
Sonasali, Manasarovar, Krishnaveni,
Kakatiya, Aruna, Makom, Remya, HKR
120
Green leafhopper IR 20, Vani, Vikramarya

Leaf folder Adt-34, Dular, Giza-171, Basmati Dwarf,

Pattambi-29, IR-28, IR-50, Tainan-3, Pusa-
1120-7-3
Multiple resistance

Gall midge, BPH, Suraksha, Shaktiman

WBPH
Gall midge, BPH, GLH Daya, Lalat

Gall midge, BPH, Kshira

WBPH, GLH

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 Pest and Disease Management
Wheat Shoot fly UPD 8, UP 85042, HD 2307, PDW 215,
PDW 206, PBW 225, Raj 3214, HUW 206,
WH 841, WH 283, HI 8381
C 306, A-9-30-1, DT 18, HDR 132, HPW
Brown wheat mite 42, WH 589, Hyb 65, ISW 38, UP 2377,
UP 2378, UP 2379
Barley Aphids DL117, DL200
Maize Stem borer Deccan hybrid, Ganga-5, Kundan, Chanda
Stem borer and shoot Composite-217
fly
Sorghum Shoot fly SPV 1015, SPV 1413, SPV 1450, SPV
1467, SPH 1174, SPH 1077, SPH 1166,
Selection 3, P 311, M 35-1, Swati, CSV
14R
Stem borer SPV 1155, SPV 1359, SPV 1466, SPH
1162, SPH 1078, SPH 1079, SPH 1165
Midge ICSV 197, ICSV 88032

Aphids SPV 1450, SPV 1359, SPV 1155, SPV

1380, SPV 1413, SPV 1452, SPV 1453,
SPV 1462, SPV 1465, Selection 3,
SPH 1162, SPH 1174, SPH 1020, SPH
1026, SPH 1079
Multiple resistance SPH 1161, SPV 1413, SPV 1450

Chickpea Gram pod borer PDE-2, ICC 738, ICC 506, ICCV 7, ICC
6663, PDE-5, N 37, GL 1002
Cowpea Aphids TVu 57, TVu 408, TVu 410, TVu 1937,
TVu 3273, P2, R-1476, R-1473
Lentil Pod borers (blue DPL 7, DPL 16, DPL 26, DPL 34, PL 81-
butterfly, gram pod 1, PL 88-54, PL 406, L 19-12, L 4136, L
borer) 4150, LL 56, LH 88-8, DHL 90-13
Pigeonpea Gram pod borer ICPL (Abhaya), ICPL 87088, ICPL 84060,
ICPL-1, ICPL-2, ICPL 87-1, ICP 10466-
E3, IPCL-6, JAT-10, UPAS-120, ICP-903E,
Pod fly ICP-1903E
ICPL 82064-E15-E, PDA-881E, PDA-
882E,PDA-883E, ICP 7946, PDA-89-2E,
ICP 8102-5-6, ICP 7946, MA2, PDE-89-23
Soybean Stem fly, grey weevil PK 1069, PK 1107, MM-39-2(DS-93-39-2)
& YMV (whitefly) PK 1180, PK 1189, PK 1092, PK 1060, DS
YMV transmitted by 1016, Pusa 9702, DSK-18, SL-443, SL-444
whitefly
Groundnut Tabacco caterpillar NCA-17840, NFG-79, EC-21898
Sugarcane Top borer CoJ 65, Co 859, C0 1158, Co 7224
Internode borer Co 975, Co 62175, Co 6806, CoC 77-1

Scale insect CoC 671, Co 62174, CoC 6907, CoS 611,

White grub Co 1132, Co 6304, CoS 510

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Indian Agriculture
Cotton Jassid Bikaneri Nerma

Whitefly Surekha, PS-141, Kanchan

Boll worms (Earias & A-1318, Bes-9-7, FBRN-3-7

Helicoverpa)

Okra Leaf hopper AE-30, Punjab-7, IIHR-4, AC-3375,

Reshmi, Sangli-2, Okra Red, Selecton 6,
Selection 8
Shoot and fruit borer AE-79, AE-22, AE-71, Narnaul special,
Perkins Long Green

Tomato Fruit borer Parker, Bonus, VFN-8, Rick x Solan Gola

(Lal, 1985)

Brinjal Shoot and fruit borer Sm 202, Sm 17-4, Pant Samrat, Pusa
Purple Cluster
Leafhopper
BI-7, 435-20
Cabbage Aphid Red Rock Mammoth, Red Drum Head,
Glory, Early Queen, Express Mail, Rainy
Princess, All Season, Red Pickling
Cauliflower Head borer ES-97, ES-96, Kartiki, KW-5, KW-8,
KW-10, Kuwari, Kathmandu Local, Early
Patna, EMS-30, PSK-16
Chilli Aphid, jassid, mosaic, Pusa Jawala
leaf curl

b. Cultural methods: Routine agronomic practices can be utilized

for minimizing pest infestation by slight modification in timing or
method of their application. These function as a preventive method.
The field operations right from field preparation to harvesting or post-
harvesting can reduce the population of one pest species or other.
i) Clean cultivation: Destruction of crop residues help to prevent
carryover of pest to next season crop, for example, destruction of
cucurbit vines and stubbles of rapeseed mustard after crop season kills
population of pumpkin beetle and painted bug respectively. Similarly,
disposal of stubbles in rice, maize, sorghum reduces carryover of
stem borers.
ii) Tillage: Deep ploughing of fields exposes the soil-inhabiting stages
of pests such as armyworms, cutworms, borers, white grubs, termites,
mole cricket to vagaries of nature and thus helps to reduce pest
infestation in crops (Fig. 5.15). The raking of bunds of rice fields
destroys egg pods of grasshopper. Similarly raking the soil at the base
of the mango tree destroys the eggs of the mango mealybug.

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 Pest and Disease Management

Fig. 5.15: Tillage and irrigation

iii) Sowing time: The change in sowing/planting time is aimed at
disturbing synchrony between host and pest populations. In rice,
early planting (June-July) results in low populations of gall midge,
leaf folder, and armyworm, while late planting (August) reduces
the incidence of grasshopper, Gundhi bug, and BPH. Early sowing
of cucurbits escapes the attack of the pumpkin beetle. However,
a change in planting time should be adopted based on the relative
importance of different pests in the area. As far as possible, crops
should be planted around the same time in a locality as staggered
planting increases pest incidence. If there is an incidence of pests in
the nursery then it should be preferably tackled in the nursery itself as
it is easier to contain a pest problem at a small scale.
iv) Intercropping: Intercropping helps in reducing the incidence of
certain pests by making microclimate less favorable for them. It also
hinders the free movement of pests among the plants of the same
species. Intercropping of cabbage with tomato reduces infestation
of the diamondback moth. Intercropping of chickpea with wheat
decreases the incidence of pod borer while intercropping of mustard
with wheat causes a decline in aphid population on rapeseed-mustard.
v) Crop-rotation: Crops sharing the same pests should not be grown in
a rotation. It has been found that with rice-wheat rotation, the pests
of rice and wheat are showing more incidences. Similarly, multiple
cropping of rice results in outbreaks of pests.
vi) Trap crops: Trap crops protect by preventing the pests from reaching
the main crop. The trap crop must be more attractive to the pests
and less economical than the main crop. Mustard as a trap crop with
cabbage reduces the incidence of diamondback moth, leaf webber,
webworm, and aphids. Marigold planted with tomato as a trap crop is
highly effective against fruit borer.
vii) Nutrient and water management: Fertilizers should be applied in
a balanced manner. Excess use of nitrogen intensifies the incidence
of several pests such as planthoppers and leaf folders in rice. Most
of the times farmers only apply nitrogen and not phosphorus and
potash. Potash induces resistance in plants against pests. Likewise,
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Indian Agriculture excess use of water should also be avoided. In rice, it has been found
that continuous flooding of fields is as good as alternate wetting
and drying. Drying of the field at some intervals helps reduce the
incidence of planthoppers in rice.
viii) Harvesting: Crops should be harvested at the optimum time. These
should be harvested in such a manner that pests inside the stubbles
get destroyed. The harvesting of rice at ground level destroys larvae
of stem borer, thereby reducing pest survival for the next season.
ix) Mechanical and physical methods: The removal of infected plant
parts and conspicuous pest stages manually or mechanically can
reduce pest incidence to a certain extent. Dead hearts, whiteheads,
silver shoots, aphid-infested shoots, bored brinjal, and bhindi
fruits should be picked and destroyed. Similarly, egg masses, hairy
caterpillars, and beetles can also be collected and killed by dipping in
kerosene. Light traps can be used for attracting and killing moths of
stem borers, leaf folders and case worms, etc. (Fig. 5.16). Although
mechanical methods are labour intensive these prove very effective
if practiced at the initiation of pest incidence. Likewise, pheromone
traps carrying female moths’ smell can also be used to attract and
destroy male moths (Fig. 5.17).

Fig. 5.16: Light trap Fig. 5.17: Pheromone trap

c. Biological control: There is a rich diversity of natural enemies viz.
predators, parasitoids, and pathogens in fields, and these help to reduce
pest incidence if not harmed by broad-spectrum pesticides. The egg
parasitoids Trichogramma are very effective against stem borers,
fruit borers, and bollworms. Likewise, there are several effective
larval and pupal parasites. Predators such as coccinellids, syrphids,
spiders, dragonflies, ground beetles, and rove beetles also devour pest
populations in the field (Fig. 5.18). The vertebrate predators like fish,
ducks, and frogs also consumers pests in rice ecosystems. Likewise,
bacteria (Bt), fungi, and viruses (NPV) also kill pests. Artificial
releases of natural enemies are also carried out to combat these pests
(Table 5.2).
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 Pest and Disease Management

Fig. 5.18: Spider- predator of pests

Table 5.2: Biological suppression of crop pests with released
predators, parasitoids / sprayed pathogens
Pest Natural enemy Release/application
Rice yellow stem Trichogramma Inundative release @50,000-
borer & leaf folder japonicum & T. 100, 000/ha/week for 5
chilonis weeks
Sugarcane pyrilla Epiricania Periodic release @8000-
melanoleuca 10,000 cocoons or 800,000-
1000,000 eggs/ha
Maize stem borer T. chilonis Inundative releases @
100,000/ha/3 days - 5 times
(Singh, 2002)
Tobacco caterpillar Telenomus remus 3 fortnightly releases @
(egg parasitoid) 40,000/ha
Cotton bollworms T. chilonis (Bio @ 1,50,000/ha/7-10 days
C1, Bio C6) during egg laying period

Chrysopa carnea @ 2 larvae/plant during peak

egg hatching
Apple San Jose Encarsia @ 2000/infested tree
scale perniciosi or
Aphytis sp.
@20/infested tree
Chilocorus
infernalis
Apple wooly aphid Aphelinus mali -
Codling moth T. embrophagum @2000/tree during active
egg laying period

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Indian Agriculture
Mealybugs & scale Cryptolaemus @10-50 beetles/plant
insects montrouzieri
Cottony cushion Rodolia cardinalis -
scale
Anar butterfly T. chilonis Inundative release @50,000/
Deudorix isocrates ha/week
Coconut back Goniozus Relaesed at fort nightly
headed caterpillar nephantidis interval during peak
Opisina arenosella availability of pest
Subabul psyllid Coccinellid, Inoculative release
Heteropsulla Curinus coeruleus
cubana
Tomato fruit borer T. chilonis/ Inundative release @50000/
Helicoverpa T. pretiosum ha/week
armigera
Spider mites Amblyseius spp. -
Tomato fruit borer Ha NPV @250 larval equivalents
(nuclear (LE)/ha
polyhedrosis virus)
Tobacco caterpillar Sl NPV @250 LE/ha
Spodoptera litura
Sugarcane shoot Granulosis virus -
borer (GV)
Chilo infuscatellus
Cotton bollworms Beauveria -
Coffee berry borer bassiana
Sugarcane pyrilla Metarhizium -
Rhiniceros beetle anisopliae
Tomato fruit borer Nomuraea rileyi -
Tobacco caterpillar
Castor semilooper
Lepidopteran Bacillus -
(moths and thuringiensis var.
butterflies) pests Kurstaki

Farmers must differentiate between pests and useful insects and should
conserve the useful ones. Efforts should be made to enhance natural
enemies by providing artificial foods and shelters. The application of broad-
spectrum pesticides poses the greatest hazard to the natural enemies of
pests. The preference should be given to selective pesticides such as neem,
Bt, NPV, diflubenzuron, propargite, cartap, etc. which do not harm non-
target organisms.
In the absence of selective pesticides, even non-selective pesticides can be
applied to achieve the same purpose through suitable formulations. The

118
granular formulations of pesticides pose less danger to natural enemies of Pest and Disease Management
pests.
d. Chemical control: Pesticides have a definite role to play in pest
management. However, their application should be need-based and
in a judicious manner. The pesticide consumption can be greatly
reduced, and these can be made safer for the environment by
adopting improved techniques and proper timing of application e.g.
planthoppers are controlled more effectively if a spray is directed
at the base of rice plants. Regular monitoring of pests should be
carried out and pesticides should only be applied if the population
has reached the economic threshold level. The ETL-based pesticide
use causes a substantial reduction in pesticide requirement. If pest
infestation begins in the nursery then it should be nipped there itself,
because it is easier to manage pests at a small scale and this will also
not pollute the environment. The perusal of various control methods
reveals their effectiveness in general against pests. Depending upon
the pest problem, the relevant and mutually compatible methods can
be selected and integrated to achieve pest suppression. Following is an
example of the integration of different control methods for managing
rice pests.
Integrated management of rice insect pests
●● Cultivation of resistant cultivars like Vajram, Chaitanya, Nagarjuna,
Pratibha,
●● Manasarovar and other high-yielding varieties/ cultures like Badava
Mahsuri and IET 7251.
●● Deep ploughing and raking of bunds to kill soil-dwelling pest stages
and grasshopper egg pods
●● Altering planting time, preponing, or postponing depending upon
pests in the area
●● Clipping of seedling tips at the time of transplanting to destroy stem
borer and hispa eggs
●● Dipping seedlings in chlorpyriphos for protection against stem borer
and planthoppers
●● Formation of alleyways in the field for proper air circulation
●● Synchronous planting for avoiding food availability to pests for a
longer period
●● Balanced use of fertilizers with emphasis on recommended N dose
●● Field sanitation- removal of excess nurseries and weeds from the field
●● Water management- draining of water from field at certain intervals
●● Conservation of natural enemies through the need-based and selective
use of pesticides.
In this way, pest management packages can be formulated against key
pests of other crops also. The adoption of IPM packages will help to reduce
dependence on pesticides and pests can be managed in an eco-friendly and
sustainable manner.
119
Indian Agriculture Contrary to the belief, the pesticide is not a bad word in pest management.
Pesticides have to play a definite role in pest suppression. However, their
use has to be judicious and need-based. The need for pesticides should be
determined through regular monitoring and economic threshold level.
Check Your Progress 5.4
Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Define EIL.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
2) Mention the ways by which resistant cultivars prove useful in pest
management.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
3) Enumerate important cultural methods of pest control.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………

5.6 PESTICIDE RESIDUES AND

CONSEQUENCES
The amount of pesticide, its derivatives, and adjuvants found in or on a
treated substrate such as plant, animal, soil after various intervals of time is
called “residue”. The amount of pesticide initially deposited on the treated
surface may be termed as “deposit”. The residue is expressed as parts per
million (ppm) or billion (ppb) or even trillion (ppt) or even at lower levels.
Some portion of the deposited pesticide applied on plant surface slowly
gets weathered and whatsoever amount penetrates the system is termed as
“effective residue”. Residue found in the substrate at the time of harvest is
called “harvest time residue”.
After application, degradation of pesticides takes place due to physical factors
like light, temperature, moisture, rainfall, wind velocity, and biological
factors such as animals, plants, and microorganisms. Degradation refers to
any change in the molecular structure of the pesticide or its products. Terms
such as decomposition and break down are analogues to degradation.
The disappearance of residues refers to the apparent loss of the parent
pesticide. Initially, the rate of disappearance is fast and is known as
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dissipation. This may also be called as the first phase of disappearance. Later Pest and Disease Management
the rate of disappearance slows down and there is a slow decrease in the
amount of residue. This is known as persistence. The rate of disappearance
of residues of pesticides can be expressed in terms of half-life, which is
defined as the time required for half of the amount of initial deposit of
pesticide to disappear.
5.6.1 Adverse Effect of Pesticide Residues
Pesticides are poisons and can cause carcinogenic, mutagenic, and
teratogenic effects in animals. Some of the pesticides like the majority of
chlorinated hydrocarbons undergo biomagnification as they move from
lower trophic levels to higher trophic levels along the food chain e.g. DDT,
aldrin, endrin, etc. are lipophilic and after entering the living system these
keep depositing in fatty tissues without being excreted. This way these
chemicals reach a million times higher concentrations in organisms like
big fish, birds, and human beings, which are at the higher end of the food
chain than their concentration in water. When these concentrations reach
lethal levels these may prove fatal. Keeping in view the adverse effects
of pesticides on humans, animals, and the environment as a whole, these
should be used judiciously and commodities treated with them should only
be consumed or used when residue levels are at non-harmful levels. To
safeguard the health of humans and animals, safety measures like acceptable
daily intake (ADI), waiting periods, maximum residual limits (MRL), etc.
are fixed and implemented.
5.6.2 Safety Precautions against Residues
Following are the important safety precautions against pesticides residue:
a. Waiting period: The waiting period is the time that must elapse
between pesticide application and crop harvest. MRLs are defined as
the maximum concentration of pesticide residue likely to occur in or
on food and feeding stuff after the use of pesticides according to Good
Agricultural Practice (GAP). The GAP refers to the application of
pesticides in line with the product label recommendations and keeping
with local environmental and other conditions. These are expressed as
milligrams (mg) of residue per kilogram of food/animal feeding stuff.
MRL levels are set by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, a United
Nations agency managed and funded jointly by the World Health
Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO).
b. Maximum residue limit: Where there is an approved use of the
compound on a particular crop or for pesticide residues on imported
produce (import tolerance), the MRL is generally set at a value
determined from field trials. In field trials, the crop is treated with the
pesticide, and samples of the crop are analyzed to determine residue
levels. MRLs can typically be less than a milligram (mg) of pesticide
residue in a kilogram of food (1mg/kg or less) up to 5 mg/kg.
However, where there is neither approved use nor an ‘import tolerance’, a
residue level is set at the ‘Limit of Determination (LOD)’. This is an
effective ‘zero’ level of residues reflecting the lowest level at which
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Indian Agriculture reliable quantitative analysis can be performed. A LOD MRL can also
be set where an approved use is not expected to result in residues and
this has been demonstrated from the field trial data. The LOD MRLs
are usually between 0.01 and 0.05 mg/kg.
MRLs are intended primarily as a check that the pesticide is being used
correctly and to assist international trade in treated produce. MRLs are
primarily trading standards but they also help ensure that residue levels do
not pose unacceptable risks for consumers.
The MRL is not a health-based exposure limit and exposure to residues
over an MRL does not necessarily imply a health risk. This is because the
use of a pesticide would not be allowed if the proposed MRL resulted in
long-term and short-term exposure of pesticide residues in the human diet
above safety limits such as the Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI)) and Acute
Reference Dose (ARfD).
Acceptable daily intake (ADI)
The ADI is the amount of a pesticide in food or drinking water that can be
ingested (orally) daily over a lifetime without an appreciable health risk.
ADIs are expressed in milligrams of the substance per kilogram of body
weight per day (mg/kg body weight/day). An ADI value is based on current
research, with long-term studies on animals and observations on humans.
The studies are performed with several doses including high doses. First,
a No Observable Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) is determined based on
these studies. The NOAEL refers to the amount of a pesticide that shows no
toxic effects. In the case of several studies on different effects, the lowest
NOAEL is usually taken. The NOAEL is then scaled down by a safety factor,
conventionally 100, to account for the differences between test animals and
humans and possible differences in sensitivity among humans.
Acute reference dose (ARfD)
The ARfD is defined as an amount of a pesticide in food or drinking water
that can be ingested in 24 hours or less without appreciable health risks to
the consumer based on all known facts at the time of the evaluation. This is
expressed on a bodyweight basis. The ADI and ARfD are calculated before
any pesticide approval is given. The MRL is not linked to the ADI or ARfD,
and could result in dietary intakes considerably below these safety levels.
Check Your Progress 5.5
Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1) What is pesticide residue?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
2) What sort of effects can pesticide residues inflict on organisms?
………………………………………………………………………

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 ……………………………………………………………………… Pest and Disease Management
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
3) Define the waiting period.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
4) Differentiate between ADI and ARfD.
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………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………

5.7 LET US SUM UP

After studying this unit, you have learned that:
●● Since man started agriculture, he has been disturbing the balance of
nature by reducing environmental resistance through ecologically
unsound methods of cultivation. Even any slight decrease in any
of the processes of ‘environment resistance’ results in a population
explosion of an insect species and the consequent epidemics. Man’s
interference in ecosystems thus causes the intensification of insects
and diseases on crops.
●● Rapid and accurate diagnosis of insect pests and diseases is necessary
before we can adopt proper control measures. It is the first step towards
the study of any pest and its management. Diagnosis is largely done
based on characteristic symptoms expressed by the affected plant.
●● Sole reliance on pesticides created several problems such as the
development of resistant pests, pest outbreaks, mortality of useful
organisms, adverse effect on human health, and environmental
degradation. As a result, integrated pest management came into vogue.
●● Integrated pest management (IPM) refers to the use of available pest
control methods in a unified manner to reduce pest population below
economic levels and ensure favorable economic, ecological, and
economic consequences.
●● In IPM different methods of pest control such as resistant varieties,
cultural methods, physical methods, natural enemies, and pesticides
are integrated to suppress pest population without jeopardizing other
components of the environment. Any pest management programme
should be preferably based upon the use of resistant cultivars and
natural enemies and other control methods should be blended with
them for tackling pest menace.
●● Pesticides are poisons and can cause carcinogenic, mutagenic, and
123
Indian Agriculture teratogenic effects in organisms. Therefore to safeguard human and
animal health, safety measures like acceptable daily intake (ADI),
waiting periods, maximum residual limits (MRLs), etc are fixed and
implemented.

5.8 KEYWORDS
Diagnosis: It is the identification of the nature and cause of anything.
Pest resurgence: When a resistance problem arises neither pesticides
kill pests nor their natural enemies are present, and hence pest
population explodes. This is known as pest resurgence.
Pest : A plant or animal detrimental to humans or human concerns
(as agriculture or livestock production)

5.9 SUGGESTED READINGS / REFERENCES

1. Anonymous (1983). Agricultural Entomology. All India Scientific
Writers Society, New Delhi, pp 436.
2. Atwal, A.S. (1986). Agricultural Pests of India and South East Asia.
Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, pp 529.
3. Chander, S. (2000). Insect Pests of Rice and Their Management. pp.
173-190. In A Text Book of Rice Agronomy (ed. Rajendra Prasad).
Sunil Kumar Jain, New Delhi. pp 238.       
4. Dhaliwal, G.S. and Arora, G. (2006). Integrated Pest Management,
Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
5. Gautam, R.D. (2008). Biological Pest Suppression. Westville, New
Delhi, pp 288.
6. Metcalf, R.L. and Luckman, W.H. (Eds.) (1982). Introduction to
Insect Pest Management. John Wiley & Sons, USA.
7. Singh, H. (1984). Household and Kitchen-garden Pests. Kalyani
Publishres, New Delhi, pp 420.

5.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 5.1
1) Due to interaction between organism’s biotic potential and
environmental resistance.
2) Monoculture, multiple cropping, monogenic resistant cultivars, etc.
Check Your Progress 5.2
1. When the pest population suddenly attains a very high population,
this is called a pest epidemic.
2. Human manipulation of the environment, foreign pests, etc.
Check Your Progress 5.3
1. To adopt proper control method
2. Wheat
3. Mycoplasma like organisms
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4. Hyperplasia is the abnormal increase in the size of a plant organ due Pest and Disease Management
to an increase in the number of cells while hypertrophy refers to the
increased size of the organ due to an increase in the size of cells.
Check Your Progress 5.4
1. The EIL refers to the minimum pest population or damage that causes
economic damage.
2. Enhanced efficiency of some natural enemies
3. Clean cultivation, tillage, sowing time, intercropping, crop rotation,
etc.
Check Your Progress 5.5
1. The amount of pesticide, its derivatives, and adjuvants found in or on
a treated substrate such as plant, animal, soil after various intervals of
time is called “residue”.
2. Carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic effects.
3. The waiting period is the time that must elapse between pesticide
application and crop harvest.
4. The ADI is the amount of a pesticide in food or drinking water that
can be ingested (orally) daily over a lifetime without an appreciable
health risk. The ARfD is defined as an amount of pesticide in food
or drinking water that can be ingested in 24 hours or less without
appreciable health risks to the consumer based on all known facts at
the time of the evaluation.

5.11 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Explain the main causes of pest intensification on crops.
2. Describe major factors responsible for pest epidemics.
3. Write short note on Koch’s postulates.
4. Discuss principles of pest management.
5. Explain pest management approaches.
6. Write a short note on the maximum residue limit (MRL).

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