CHAPTER 2 The nature of proof 2.1 THE LANGUAGE AND LOGIC OF PROOF ‘Mathematical knowledge is unlike the knowledge of other scientific disciplines. As opposed to consisting of theories based on observation and evidence that can possibly be falsified, it consists of theorems: significant mathematical statements that have been proved to be true: (think of Pythagoras’ theorem, for instance). Scientific theories are analogous to mathematical conjectures. A conjecture isa statement that mathematicians have reason to believe ‘may be true, but which has not been proved definitively. One of the most famous mathematical conjectures is the Goldbach conjecture, named after the eighteenth-century mathematician Christian Goldbach: Every even integer greater than 2 can be expressed as the sum of two prime numbers. ‘The Goldbach conjecture seems likely to be true; in fact, it has been shown to be true for every integer up to 4 x 10". However, itis, at present, unproven—there may, in fact, be a very large even integer that cannot be expressed as the sum of two prime numbers. ‘The idea of mathematical proof is extremely powerful. It enables mathematics to be a rich and robust system of knowledge that will never be falsified; further, any result that has been proved can safely be used to help establish further useful results, adding to this system of knowledge. To prove mathematical statements, it is important to use clear, unambiguous language and valid logic. The focus of this section is on the language and logic used to construct, combine, and evaluate the truth or falsehood of mathematical statements about numbers. Note that the word ‘statement’ will be used to not only refer to an assertion that is true or false (such as ‘the number 7 is prime’ or ‘all multiples of 10 are also multiples of 5’), but also for an assertion involving one or more variables that becomes true or false whenever values are substituted for the variable (such as ‘n is a multiple of 5 or ‘x’ < 20). Negating statements ‘The negation of a mathematical statement is the statement that is true precisely when the original statement is false, and vice versa. As an example, the negation of the statement x> 0 is x <0. Notice that for any number that is substituted in place of x, if the statement x> 0 is true, then the negation x < 0 will be false, and vice versa. As a general rule, the negation of a statement can be obtained by preceding the statement with the phrase ‘t is not the case that... For example, ifn represents an integer, then the negation of the statement ‘nis an even number's ‘it is not the case that » is an even number, which is equivalent to saying that n is an odd number. If P represents any statement, then the negation of P can be written as “P, ~P, ot simply ‘not P. ‘The negation of statements involving the words ‘and’ or ‘or’ can sometimes cause confusion. Consider negating the statement ‘either x= 5 or x= 7: Ifit is not the case that x is equal to 5 or 7, then it must be the case that x #5 and x7. As another example, consider the negation of the statement: x > 0 and x< 10, Ifitis not the case that x is between 0 and 10, then either x< 0 or x2 10. + The negation of ‘P and Q is ‘not P or not Q. + The negation of P or Q'is ‘not P and not Q. ‘The preceding rules about negating AND and OR statements are known as de Morgan’ laws. New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12ao Example 1 ‘Negate the following statements. (2) mis divisible by 2 or m is divisible by 3 (0) x>Oandx m is an even number. Each of the following means the same as P => Q: IFP, then Q QifP Pisa sufficient condition to conclude that Q Qis necessary if P implies that Q Example 5 Rewrite the following conditional statements using the implication symbol, =>. (a) Ifm ends ina zero, then mis even. (©) V integers n, n> 3isa sufficient condition to conclude that n is positive (6) n>3isnecessary ifm is greater than 4. Solution (a) ‘Ifp, then q’ can be written as p= q. Ifn ends in a zero = n is even. (b) ‘pisa sufficient condition to conclude q’ means the same as ‘if p then q: n>3=3n positive (©) ‘pis a necessary condition ifq’ means the same as ‘if, then p: n>4an>3 ‘The converse of a conditional statement isthe statement obtained by swapping the statements on either side of the implication symbol. For example, consider the conditional statement previously introduced: original: 1 isa multiple of 10 => 1 isan even number converse: m isan even number = n isa multiple of 10 Notice that the converse is not saying the same thing as the original. The original statement is claiming that ifa number is a multiple of 10, then it must be even (which is true). But the converse is claiming that if number even, then it must be a multiple of 10 (which is definitely not true) ‘The contraposiive of a conditional statement is the statement obtained by swapping the statements on either side of the implication symbol, and also negating both statements. Again, consider the conditional statement previously introduced: original: 1 isa multiple of 10 => n is an even number contrapositive: 2 is not an even number => 1 is not multiple of 10 Notice that the contrapositive s actually true, just like the original. Ina sense, itis saying the exact same thing as the original statement, Asa classe illustrative real-life example, the contrapositive ofthe statement ‘ifan animal isa poodle, then itis a dog “if an animal is not a dog, then it is not a poodle. Notice, again, how the original and the contrapositive statements are essentially saying the same thing, Now consider the negation of the statement ‘nis a multiple of 10 =» 7 is an even number Remember that that this statement is essentially saying that for every integer that is a multiple of 10, this integer must also be even New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12If this were not the case, it would mean that there must exist some integer that is a multiple of 10 but is not even. In ‘general, the negation of a conditional statement of the form P => Q that involves some variable is ‘there exists some value of the variable for which P is true, but Q is false. Using the real-life example from earlier, the negation of if an animal is a poodle, then it is a dog’ would be ‘there cexists some animal that is a poodle, but not a dog: Notice that the negation of a conditional statement is different from both the converse, and the contrapositive, Fora statement of the form P => Q that involves some variable: ‘The converse is the statement Q => P; ‘The contrapositive isthe statement not Q= not P; ‘The negation is the statement ‘there exists some value of the variable for which P is true, but Q is false. ‘The contrapositive of a conditional statement essentially says the same thing as the original statement, and thus, will be true whenever the original statement is true. Example 6 Write the converse, the contrapositive, and the negation of the following conditional statement. Ifmisa perfect square, then m is divisible by 3. Determine whether each of the original, converse, contrapositive, and negation are true or false, justifying your answer. Solution Is the original statement true or false? The original statement i false as, for example, 16 isa perfect square but itis not divisible by 3. “The converse of P=> Qis Q=9 P: Converse is ‘if mis divisible by 3 then n is a perfect square! For example, 12 is divisible by 3 but it is nota perfect square. “The contrapositive of a statement of the form P = Qis not Q => not P: Contrapositive is ‘if mis not divisible by 3 then n is not a perfect square’ Like the original statement, this statement is false. ‘The negation of a statement of the form P => Qis there exists some value ofthe variable for which Pis true, but is false: Negation is ‘there exists an integer n with the property that m isa perfect square, but is not divisible by 3: This statement must be true as the original statement was false. n = 16 has this property. Notice that in the previous worked example, a counterexample was provided to justify the claim that the statement “If isa perfect square, then m is divisible by 3’is false. This should make sense, as conditional statements such as these are making a claim about all possible values of a variable that satisfy some condition, and are therefore similar to ‘forall’ statements (which are proved false by providing a counterexample). Incidentally, this statement could be rephrased as ‘For all perfect square integers n,m is divisible by 3. Logical equivalent statements Recall that the conditional statement ‘n is a multiple of 10 => m is an even number is true, however, its converse ‘nis an even number = n is a multiple of 10° is not. Sometimes, however, a conditional statement and its converse are both true. As an example, notice that if x= 5, then 2x= 10, and conversely, if 2x= 10, then x= 5. This means that for the two statements, x=5 and 2x = 10, whenever one is of these is true, the other must be. Such statements are said to be logically equivalent. Chapter2. The naure of poo a‘Two statements are logically equivalent if whenever one is true, the other must be true. ‘There are a variety of ways to represent the fact that x= 5 and 2x-= 10 are logically equivalent: x= 5 is necessary and sufficient for 2x=10 ifand only if 2x=10 5 = 2x=10and 2x 0 x=5 Finally, the symbol is often used to denote logical equivalence. Thus, we could write x= 5 «9 2x= 10 (or equivalently, 2x = 10 €3 x=). Each of the following can be used to express the fact that P and Q are logically equivalent: is necessary and sufficient for Q Pifand only ifQ P= QandQ=>P PeQ Example 7 Rewrite the following statement using the logical equivalence symbol, For n to be divisible by 5, itis both necessary and sufficient that n end in either 0 or 5. Solution ‘Pisa necessary and sufficient condition for Q’ means that P and Q are logically equivalent: by5 e>nendsin0or5. EXERCISE 2.1 THE LANGUAGE AND LOGIC OF PROOF 1. Determine the negation of each of the following statements. (a) pand q are both even. () x>Sorx<- (0) xis divisible by either 7 or 8 (@ x=00r is divisible 2 Translate the following statements into everyday language. Also, determine whether the statement is true or false, justifying your answer where appropriate. (a) ¥ integers n, the number 2n +3 is odd. (b) Ja real number x such that 4 (c) VW real numbers x, x7 > 0. (@) 3xeRsuch thatx?=-1, * (&) ¥ ne integers, the number n(n + 1) is divisible by 3. () V real numbers x and y,x-y>0. (g) V real numbers x, 3 a real number y such that x + y=0. (h) areal number x such that V real numbers y,x 8. Rewrite the following statements using the symbols W and 3. Also, determine whether the statement is true or false, justifying your answer where appropriate. (a) ‘The square of any integer is greater than the integer. {b) ‘There is a real number which, when multiplied by 5 gives an answer of 0 {c) ‘The sum of any two consecutive integers is odd. (d)_ ‘There is areal number equal to its square. {e) ‘The sum of the squares of any two real numbers is less than the product of the numbers. (f) There is a special real number with the property that whenever another real number is divided by this, special number, this other real number is obtained as a result (g) Every integer is divisible by at least one integer. ae New Serio Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 124 Determine the negation of each of the following statements. Also state whether the original statement or the negation is true, justifying your answer where appropriate. (a) W real numbers x, x” > 0. (b) Ba real number x such that x* (©) ¥ positive integers n, 10n>n. (d)_V real numbers x, xis either positive or negative. (e) San integer n such that n#0and x? <1, (f)_V integers m, either (-1)"= 1 or (-1)"==1. 5 Rewrite the following statements using the implication symbol =>. (@) Ifx>3,thenx’>9. (b) If mis divisible by 9, then m is divisible by 3. (c) n>S implies that n > 4. (@) 7pis positive if p> 3. (e) gis evenif 2g isa perfect square (8) misa multiple of 6 isa sufficient condition to conclude that m is divisible by 3. (Q) Itisnecessary that x > 2 ifx<—2. (h) mis even and greater than 2 is a sufficient condition to conclude that n is not prime, 6 Write the converse, the contrapositive, and the negation of each of the following conditional statements. Determine whether each of the original, converse, contrapositive, and negation are true or fase, justifying your answer where appropriate. (a) If nis divisible by 20, then m i divisible by 5. (b) If nis divisible by 3, then nis divisible by 3. (©) Ifx>7, then 10x>70. (d) Ifxy=0, then either x= 0 or y=0. (0) fms divisible by 5, then the final digit of mis 5. () Ifx=4and y=4, then xy=16. (Q) If nis divisible by 24, then mis even and mis divisible by 3. 7 Rewrite the following statements using the logical equivalence symbol, €. (@)_niseven if and only ifn’ is even. (b) x+y=0ifand only ifx=—y. (©) nbeing even and divisible by 3 is necessary and sufficient for n to be divisible by 6. 8 For each of the following statements, provide three examples that are consistent with the statement, and then a single counter example to prove that the statement is actually false. (a) Ifa positive integer is divisible by 7, then itis not divisible by 3. (b) Vxe Rx 2x, (©) Ifpisa prime number, then 2p~ 1 is prime. (d) Ifa positive integer is divisible by both 10 and 6, then it is aso divisible by 60 (@) Suppose that x and y are real numbers. If x23, then x —2y>5. (Suppose that x and y are positive real numbers. Then xy > x+y. 9 Which statement is true? A Vxe R3ye Rsuch that xy=6. B 3x Rsuch that V ye R,xy=6, © 3xe Rsuchthat ye Rxty=6. D Vxe R3ye Rsuchthatx+y=6. 10 The negation of the statement Wx R,S ye Rsuch that x+y=6, is: A VxeR3ye Rsuchthatxty#6, B Axe ReuchthatVye Rxtys6. © VreRVyeRxtye6, D xe Rye Reuch that x+y +6. 11. Write the negation of the following statement, where x represents a real number: x >and x< 10 x2 0 and S10, Also, determine whether the original or the negation is true. 12. Consider the following conjecture: Start with any positive integer. Ifthe integer is even, halve it. If the integer is odd, triple it and add one. Repeat this process. Eventually, the integer 1 will be obtained. ‘This is known as the ‘3x +1" conjecture. It is yet to be proved but has been shown to be true for all integers up to roughly 10". Verify this conjecture for the following positive integers: al 8 er Chapter 2 The nature of proof 5 (a) 6 ob @7praaiestodanccd Aside from examples and counterexamples (which can be used to prove the truth of a ‘there exists’ statement or the falsehood ofa ‘for al’ statement), a mathematical proof typically consists of a sequence of statements with each statement following directly from either definitions, previous steps, or other established results. In this section, several common strategies of constructing proofs are illustrated. ‘As many of the statements proved are concerned with even and odd numbers, and divisibility more generally, it is necessary to be familiar with the following definitions: ‘An integer 1 is said to be even if n = 2k for some integer k. (For example: 10 is even since 10 can be written as 2 ‘multiplied by some integer, namely 5.) Similarly, an integer m is said to be odd ifn = 2k-+ 1 for some integer k. (For example; 11 is odd since 11 can be written as one more than 2 multiplied by some integer, namely, 5.) Finally, an integer 1 is said to be divisible by the integer m if n = mk for some integer k. (For example: the number 15 is divisible by 5 since 15 can be expressed as 5 multiplied by some integer, namely 3.) Direct proof ‘The most straightforward way to prove a statement is to use a direct proof. A direct proof typically starts by introducing any relevant variables, clearly states any assumptions, and then establishes the desired result via a logical sequence of valid statements. Note that ifthe statement to be proved has the form ‘if P, then Q, then you assume that Pis true, and then proceed to show that Q must be true. Example 8 Use direct proof to prove that ifa number is odd, then its square is also odd. Solution Let p be an odd integer: Hence p = 2k-+ 1 for some integer k = 22K +2k) +1 As 2k* + 2kis an integer then 2(2K? + 2k) is even and 2(2k° + 2k) + 1 is odd. Hence p* is odd. Proof by contraposition Recall that the contrapositive of the statement P => Qis— Q=>— P. As the contrapositive is logically equivalent to the original statement, the original statement, P => Q, can be proved indirectly by proving — Q=>— P; that is, by assuming that Qis false, and then proceeding to show that P must be false. Example 9 Use a contrapositive proof to prove that ifn +3 is odd, then nis even. Solution ‘The contrapositive statement i is even. Let n be an odd integer. aa New Serior Mathematics Extension 2 fr Year 12 ‘nis not even, then 5n +3 is not odd. In other words, if is odd, then 5n-+3Hence n= 2k-+ 1 for some integer k, 5n+3 (Sk + 4) Since 5k + 4 is an integer then 2(5k + 4) must be an even integer. Hence Sn 3 is even, Proof by contradiction Another form of indirect proof, but one that is not restricted to proving conditional statements, is ‘proof by contradiction: The basic idea of such a proof is to assume that the statement needing to be proved is false, and then show that this assumption leads to an absurd and impossible result; this then must mean that the initial assumption that the result was false cannot be true, meaning that it must be true! ‘Two proofs by contradiction are illustrated in the following example. The first is a famous proof that v2 is irrational. “The second is @ proof of the same statement from the previous worked example, only using contradiction instead of Let y2= : for integers p and q, with p and q having no common factors other than 1. (pand q are relatively prime.) Square both sides: 2= 2 q Rearrange: p’ = 2q’ and hence p’ is divisible by2 If p’ is divisible by 2 then p is divisible by 2. ‘Therefore, you can write p= 2m for some integer m. Substitute in p’ amt = qi Hence q' is divisible by 2, so q is divisible by 2. Since p and q are divisible by 2, this gives a contradiction to the original assumption that p and q had no common factors other than 1. Hence the original assumption that V2 is rational is false Hence v2 is irrational. 2qhsAm? = 2g? contraposition Example 10 Use a proof by contradiction to prove each of the following statements. (@) V2 is irrational (©) If5n+3 is odd, then n is even. Solution (@) Assume, for a contradiction, that V/2 is rational. (b) Assume, for a contradiction that 5n +3 is odd and n is odd. Since n is odd: n= 2k + 1 for some integer k. Since 5k +4 is an integer then 2(5k + 4) is even. ‘Hence 5n +3 is even and it can't be both odd and Hence the assumption for n must be wrong, 1 cannot be odd so it must be even. Chapter 2 The nature of proofNote that the proof in part (a) of the previous example used the fact that ifthe square of an integer is divisible by 2, then the original integer must also be divisible by 2. This fact is true not just for the number 2 but for any integers with no perfect square factors other than 1. You may use this fact when modifying the previous proof to prove the irrationality of other surds in the subsequent exercise. ‘You may have noticed that the contradiction proof in part (b) looks very similar to the contraposition proof from Example 9, The actual logic used is almost identical—the difference is that there is no actual contradiction obtained in the contrapositive proof since it was never assumed that 5n + 3 was odd. Note also that a contradiction proof does not aim for a particular contradiction—any contradiction is sufficient. Ina situation such as this, when a contradiction proof is very similar to a contrapositive proof, the contrapositive one is considered more efficient and elegant. Proving logical equivalences ‘The simplest method to prove a statement of the form P <> Qis to separately prove both P => Qand Q=> P, as demonstrated in the following example. Example 11 Let 1 be a positive integer. Prove that n +9 is odd if and only ifn ~8 is even. Solution (Assume that n +9 is odd. (i) Conversely, assume that n~8 is even. ‘Thus n-+9= 2k +1 for some integer k 2k for some integer k. n-8=n4+9-17 8417 2k+1-17 2k+17 2k-16 (k+8) +1 =2(k-8) Hence n +9 is odd since as (2(k-+ 8) + 1) Hence i ~8 is even as 2(k~ 8) is even. isodd. ‘The final example presented is a more complex proof of a well-known divisibility result, Example 12 Prove that a three-digit number is divisible by 3 ifand only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3. Solution () Leta, band che the digits, in order, ofa three-digit number, N. ‘The number is: N= 100a+ 10b +e If Nis divisible by 3, then 100a + 10b-+ c= 3k for some integer k. Rearrange to create factors of 3: 9a+9b+a+b+, athe atbte Hence the sum of the digits is divisible by 3 (i) Conversely, assume that the sum of the digits is divisible by 3: a+b +c=3k for some integer k. N=100a+10b+e 9a+9b+a+b+e 994+ 9b + 3k (330+ 3+ k) Hence Nis divisible by 3. aa New Serio Mathematis Extension 2x Yor 121 Usea direct proof to prove each of the following statements. (@)_ The sum of any two odd integers is even. (©) ‘The sum of an odd integer and an even integer is always odd. (©) The product of two odd integers is odd (@) The sum of two consecutive odd numbers is divisible by 4. (©) Thesum of the squares of five consecutive integers is divisible by 5. () The product of two rational numbers is rational (@) ‘The sum of two rational numbers is rational. (h) If nis odd, then n° is odd, (@ _Ifnis divisible by 7, then n’ is divisible by 7. @ fm+nand n+ pare even, where m, n, pare integers, then m + p is even. 2 Usea contrapositive proof to prove each of the following statements. (@) Let n be an integer. If 3n + 2 is even, then mis even (©) Ifaand b are integers and ab is even, then at least one of a and bis even. (ce) Let n be an integer. If n° + 5 is odd, then is even. irrational, then Vx is irrational (6) fis irrational, then 4 is irrational 3 Use a proof by contradiction to prove each of the following statements. (@) V3 is irrational. (©) V5 is irrational (©) The sum of a rational and an irrational number is irrational (@) The product of a rational and an irrational number is irrational. (€) There are no integers a and b such that 18a +6b= 1 4 Prove each of the following logical equivalences. (@) Let n be a positive integer. n +9 is even if and only ifn +6 is odd. (0) Let n bea positive integer. n ~ 3 is odd if and only if +2 is even. (€)_ Let nbe a positive integer. n is even if and only if 13n + 4 is even. (@) Let nbe a positive integer. n is odd if and only if 7n + 6 is odd. {e) Let n be a positive integer. » is even if and only if” is even. 5 Consider the following statement: “IF two integers have an even product, then at least one of the two integers must be even’ ‘To prove this statement by contraposition, it would be necessary to: suppose that at least one of the two integers is even, and then show that the product must be even. suppose that atleast one of the integers is odd, and then show that the product must be odd. suppose that both integers ate odd, and then show that the product must be odd. suppose that the two integers have an even product and that both integers are odd, and then show that a contradiction arises. 6 Prove that the number 1~5y2 is irrational. coop 7 Leta, b, c be positive real numbers such that ab = c. Prove that as Ve or bs Ve. 8 Prove that if a” 2a+7 is even, then ais odd. 9 Prove that a four-digit number is divisible by 9 if and only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9. Chapter2 ‘The naire oc a10 (a) Prove that for all real numbers a and b, a” + b* 2 2ab. (©) Using the result from part (a) or otherwise, prove that forall positive real numbers a and b, that 1 (arn(te flea a+b (C) Using the result from part (a) or otherwise, prove that forall positive real numbers a and b, that “5° = ab. 11. Prove that every odd integer can be expressed as the difference between two perfect squares. 12 Prove that if a, b are integers, then a” — 4b ~3 #0. 43 Let k be a positive integer. Prove that if 2**? + 3* is divisible by 5, then 2'*? + 3°**? is also divisible by 5. 14 Itis known that Viv is irrational whenever n is a positive integer that is not a perfect square. Use this result to help prove that V6 + /10 is irrational. 15. Use a proof by contradiction to show that there is no rational solution to the equation x° + x+1=0. Asa hint, start by supposing, for a contradiction that r= ‘ is a rational solution to the equation, where p,q are integers with no common factor other than 1 and with q #0. Then consider what would happen if both p and q were ‘oda, or if one of them was even and the other odd. INEQ ‘The relation a > bis equivalent to the statement that a ~b is positive, i.e. a b > 0. Similarly, you can interpret a or that a ~ b is negative. The following properties are stated for inequalities with a> relations similar properties exist for <. Properties of inequalities 1 Ia>bthena+x> b+. forall x You can add or subtract the same amount to both sides of an inequality. 2 Ifa>bthen ax > bx for x>0. You can multiply (or divide) both sides ofan inequality by a positive number. 3 Ifa>b then ax b>othentb>Othena®>b Inequalities in which both sides are positive can be squared. 6 Ia>bandb>cthena>c. Inequalities of the same type can be linked together. 7 Ia>b>Oand c>d>0 then ac> bd. Inequalities of the same type involving positive numbers can be multiplied together. Proof a>bande>0 — -. ac>be c>dandb>0 +. be> bd cac>be>bd — 2. ac>bd 8 a>bandc>dthenate>b+d. Inequalities of the same type can be added together. Proof a—b>Oande-d>0 — -.a—b+c-d>0 ate=(b+d)>0 nate>btd iar New Senor Mathematis Extension 2 for Yar 129 Asa general rule, inequalities cannot be subtracted from one another, nor divided into each other. For example: Consider the pair of inequalities 12>6 a) and 4>3 pl [1] - 2] givesa true result: 8>3 [1] + [2] givesa true result: 3>2 But now consider the inequalities. 12> 10 (3 and 100>3 (4) [3]—[4] gives a false result: -88>7 Bigg [3] + [4] gives a false results 55 >33 Techniques for proving inequalities 1. Use the properties of inequalities listed above. 2 Use proof by contradiction, 3 Use a known fact. For example: (a — 6)’ 2 0 for real a, b; or a variation of this, such as (Va — Vb} 20. Another useful identity is (a + b)° = (a b)° + 4ab, which enables the statement (a+ 6)" 2 4ab (as (a~b)"2 0 for real a, b). 4 Substitute different expressions into known inequalities. 5 Ifthe inequality to be proved involves trigonometric, logarithmic or exponential terms, then a calculus- based approach is probably needed. Example 13 Ifa>-1, show that a’+1>a° +a. Solution ‘Technique: To prove X > Y, prove that X - ¥>0. *(a—1)—(a—1) > O.as a >=1, so (a + 1) is positive; also, (a — 1)’ is positive o@+ioadta. Example 14 a, b, cand d are positive real numbers, Prove that: (a) a +b'>2ab (b) +h +C2ab+ bet ca () @+B40+d 2 2ab+ cd) (@) ifa+b+c=1, then ab+be+ cas es and state the condition for which equality is true ©) (a+b? 2 ab, and hence that U-+ 24 for all real x except 0. Chapter2 The nature of proof 61Solution (a) Method 1 Method 2—Proof by contradiction (a b> 0 for real a,b Assume that a? +b? <2ab for all real a,b. —2ab+b'>0 + @—2ab+ <0 a+ Pz mb (a~6)?<0 for real, b ‘This contradicts the fact that the square of a real number is non-negative. *, Assumption is false, so: a” +b” > 2ab (bo) @+h°>2ab rey] Similarly: a? +c 2 2ac 2) Similarly: 6? +c? 2 2be 13} (114 [21+]: 2(a’ +b? +2) 22(ab+ be + ca) PHP +> abs bet ca ‘This shows how to extend from a known result involving two variables to a similar result involving three variables: use the known result to generate each of the three paired results, then add. © a+b > 2ab uy Similarly: +d 22d (4) (+ [4k a+b + +d'> ab + ed) ‘This shows a method to extend from a known result involving two variables toa similar result involving four variables: use the known result to generate two suitable paired results, then add. (d) The question now involves a + b + c, which suggests you examine (a+ b +0)". (atbtofaa@ +h +2 + 2ab+bc+ca) 23(ab+be+ca) using the result of part (b) 1° 3(ab + be-+ ca) Butatb+c : a * ab+be+ cass ‘Note that in the inequality a’ + b* 2 2ab (1], equality occurs when a = b. Similarly, equality occurs in [2] ‘when a= c. Hence the equality ofthis result in part (A) occurs when a Asa+b+c=1, equality 1 4 (©) Using (a +b)? = (a— by? + dab: you have (a b)' 2 0, so (a+ b)* 2 4ab. ‘occurs when a Letting a= Yx and b you obtain: (Berge) eee (e yea Example 15 4, b, care positive real numbers. Prove that: (@ ater ) (a+b(t+t)o4 © (arb+a(t+teteo (A) Extend this to the general case. Ifx, x, x, ...x, ate positive real numbers, prove that: Gitate ttle det Lert MM Xs Xn = New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12Solution @ Wa-J,) 20 © (a+by(L+}) by sa-24+130 ) witha a a > a++2>2 This could also have been 24 from part (a) 4" done very well by contradiction. ieee © arbroftetelaiedesebrrebs cag gti =34(2+2)o(2+2)0(bo 5) 23424242 using part (@) 29 pe, eal i ware +o @ (x +x +354... +) Ree Ae ee De 4 Be, % BoM Ry =n 1+ (every possible pairing of the form oe 2n+"C,x2_ (from the n different x terms, there are "C, pairs) where i) nt hxn(n—1)x2 an [ta tH 4.4%) Arithmetic and geometric means ‘The arithmetic mean of a and b is ash, the average of a and b. ‘The geometric mean of a and bis Vab. The numbers a, Vab, b form a geometric sequence. Example 16 Prove that the arithmetic mean of two positive real numbers, a and b, is equal to or greater than the geometric a+b fap, mean, ie. prove that 95" 2 Jab. Solution Consider the expression (234) = ab: at Dab + = ott ab = @ +2ab+b? = 4ab 4 2ab+b Chapter 2. The nature of poo eeHence (#52) > ap ‘Taking the positive square root of both sides gives oe The triangle inequality ‘the triangle inequality states that |x|+|y| 2[x+y|. This Proof t was proved geometrically in Chapter 1, section 1.8 on page 31. Remember thatif|x| 0 then ab(a’ +b) > 2a°b? 2 If0 onl? +2) forxy.2>0, (A) Write similar expressions for y* +2' and z* +x’. {e) Using results from parts (¢) and (d), prove that x’ + y* +z’ 2 3ayz. (9 Ifa, ¢, dare positive, deduce that: @ atb+e23Vabe () (a+b+Oa+b+dlarc+d(b+e+d) 2 8labed 4 (a) Show that a’ +6" +c 2 ab + be + ca for real a, by. (b) Hence show that (a + b + 0)’ 2 3(ab + be + ca). 5 Given that a” + b° +. > ab + bc + ca for real a, b, c, show that xy’ + y'z" + 2°x" > xyz(x+y +2). 6 (a) Prove that **? > Jab. Hence prove that S+6+ +4 » Yabed for positive a b,c aatbte <(atb+ey’ (b) Letd= S446 show that abe (2*2*¢) eb ‘New Seior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 127 For each of the following, write an inequality that describes the statement and then identify the question above (from questions 1-6) that involves the proof ofthe statement. (a) The area of a rectangle cannot be greater than the square of the average length of its two sides. (b) ‘The volume of a rectangular prism cannot be greater than the cube of the average length of its three sides. 8 Ifx>Oandy>0, prove that: (a) ® J+4e—8 x yo ety 9 (a) Ifaand bare real numbers, prove that 4a°~ 6ab + 4” 2a" +b’. (b) Write the binomial expansion of (a — b)' and prove that a‘ + b* > a°b + ab’ ifa>Oand b>0. 10 Prove that the average of the squares of two unequal positive numbers is greater than the square of the average of those two numbers. 41 Use the results #22 > Jab and SEF > Yabe to prove that (a) (b+0(c+ a)(a+b) 2 Babe (b) bel +0) + calc a) +ab(a +b) 2 babe (e) BC+ Ca +a 2 abela+b+c) d) (ab + xy)(ax+ by) > dabxy (©) ax+bysiifa+8=1ande+y'=1. 12 (a) Use “#2*€ > Yabe to show that: () x'y +y'2+27x2 Saye aftyt+ (b) Write the expansion of (x+y +z)’ and hence show that (x+y +2z)° 2 27xyz. 13 For positive , by dy prove that: (@) abs cdsyla* +b? +d*) (b) (a+5b)(a+ 2b) 2 9b(a +b) ( (aso(tep}oa 14 The area of triangle is given by Heron’s formula as A = /s(s—a)(s— = —e) where a, band care the lengths of the sides and s = 4(a+b-+c). Given that Jab < 2+ and ab+be+casa?+¥+0, Pepe? ° Pee 4c Ast shee Asote show that: 15 Let pbe an integer greater than 1. Show that x” + (p~ 1) > px for all x> 0. For what values of x does the equality hold? 16 Ifaisany constant, prove that e*~e* 2 e'(—a). 17 Letg(x) =sinx—x. {@) Show that g(0) =0 and g"(0)=0. (©) Show that -2< g'(x)$0 forall x (C) Hence explain why g(x) $0 for x20. (A) Explain why sinx 0 48 On the curve y=e", Pand Q are two points with x-coordinates a and b y respectively, @ > b. Let R be the midpoint of chord PQ. (@) Prove that y= ¢ is concave up for all x. e+e te seT, (b) Explain why se (©) Hence showthate"+e+e+e">4e © ifa>b>c>d. 19 By letting a= andb =} in ash 2 Vab, prove that: Chapter2. The nate of prot i24 In this exercise you have proved each ofthe following: tbe Jab atbees Yabe atbteed 5 abcd ‘These are the first three instances of a general result, which says that the arithmetic mean of a set of n non-negative numbers is greater than or equal to the geometric mean of the numbers: Rb t th Ht to tI > dak, Note that equality occurs when all of the x, are equal. ‘There are many ways of proving this general result. This question will develop two proofs. (@) @ Show that f(x) =x - e* has only one stationary point, which is a maximum turning point at (1,0). Noting that f(x) is continuous for all x, explain why x S e*~' forall real x. Let x,, x, ...x, be non-negative numbers with arithmetic mean X, ie. X Kika Ky x’ the general AM-GM (arithmetic mean-geometric mean’) inequality. (b) Fora second proof, you take Jensen's theorem as the starting point. (You will not prove Jensen's ‘theorem; if you are interested, you can find its proof ftom an internet search.) Reworded for simplicity, Jenser’s theorem states that in a function that is concave down for some domain, the average of function values in that domain is less than or equal to the function value at the average of the n values: Leads fle)s + fla) « Stet. 2%) For a concave-up function, this inequality is reversed. mtx tite 7 . Using the fact“! 0. (i) Let, x...%, be non-negative numbers with arithmetic mean X, ie, X= 1224s Write Jensenis theorem as it applies to the function y = log, x. (ii) Hence complete this proof of the AM-GM inequality. (©) By substitution into the result pa ee a > gfeany. 2, » prove that n! 2.4 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION, HARDER QUESTIONS In this section, you will construct harder mathematical induction proofs in a variety of situations. You will also study a slightly different form of induction in which you need to assume S(1), (2), ..,S(R) are true in order to prove that S(k+ 1) is true. (ty forall positive integers n. Induction questions forn >1 Example 17 ‘Use mathematical induction to prove that n’ ~ n is a multiple of 6 for n> 2. ‘Solution Step 1 n=2: Exp=2°-2=8-2=6, which isa multiple of 6. Hence the result is true for n Step 2 Assume the result is true for n =k, ie. assume that k° ~ k= 6M, where M is a positive integer. Prove the result is true for n =k + 1, i.e. prove that (k+ 1)°~(k-+ 1) isa multiple of 6. Exp =(k+1)°—(k+1) =R 43K 43k4+1—k-1 = -k+3K 43k =6M+3Kk+ 1) oe New Senor Mathematics Extension 2 fr Yar 12Now since k isa positive integer then k(k + 1) is even so that k(k+ 1) = 2N, where Nis an integer. Hence Exp =6M+3%2N 6(M +N) which isa multiple of 6 Step 3 "The result is true for n = k-+ 1 ifit is true for for n=2+ 1 and by the principle of mathematical ‘Sigma notation Series questions to be proved by induction are often written using sigma notation, 3, to save space. Yrr+y. A Hence 124203433644. thx (E+ D= Delt) For example: 1X2+2x343%4+... $x (M41 = “ & and 1x 24234344... AX (EET) #(k+ + 2)= Dir(r +1) + (k+IMK+D) = Pore +1). Prove that Sp(r+1) = Me M2), Solution Step 1 n=1: LHS = Jir(r+1)=1x2=2; RHS= 1*2*3 = 2 =LHS Result is true when i ‘Step 2. Assume the resultis true for n =k, ie. assume that) r(r-+1)= K(k+1)(k+2) ae by Prove the result is true for n= k+ 1, Le. prove that )'r(r +1) = Aouihe2 3) ‘et a LHS= Yirir+1) = E Dre y+ e+ ye+2) + (k+1(k+2) =teeaye+2(+1) ks3 ck ih+2)(3) K+) k+ 2)(k+3) 3 =RHS Step 3 The results true for n= k-+ 1 if itis true for for n=1+1 and by the principle of mathematical induction k, But the result is true for n= 1, hence itis true rue for all 12 1 Chapter 2 The nature of proofExample 19 ie Prove by induction that (22 1)(3*—1)...(n?— (ine) for all integers n > 2. Solution Note that this involves a product of terms rather than a sum of terms, Let S(n) be the statement that (2°—1)(3°—1)...(n°— 1) = "OD for ntegers n 2 2. Step 1 Prove that S(2) is true. == = 22+) _ LHS=(2°-1)=3 RHS= aa =3 LHS=RHS “. S(2) is true Step 2. Assume S(K) is true for a positive integer k> 2. 5 teasume that (==). pj EH) ay Now prove that S(k + 1) is true if $(&) is true. Le prove that (2?~1)(3?=1)...(Ik+1?=1)= (een edt) (Cer i)ty (e+ 2), 2(k+1) iS =[(2? = 1)(3" = 1)... = 1)] ((k+ 1-1) using [a]: = GD 02 +26 = PHN ica42) = (RIF (k++ 2) Fy ki)? (+ N+ 2) 2 — (+ (k+2) Te yateenacs 7, Step 3 Conclusion S(k+1) is true if'$(K) istrue (Step 2) S(2) is true (Step 1) «by induction, S(7) is true forall integers n> 2. Ifthe question in Example 19 had been to prove by induction that (2° 1)(3°- 1)... (= 1) = fot en) for all rn integers n 2 1, then the proof would not have worked. New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12EXERCISE 2.4 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTIO! Talal habe base Miies Use mathematical induction to prove the following results. 1 rr+1 = itive integer. ity for na pos . 4 Prove that 3° Prove that n° — 1 is a multiple of 6 for n> 1, n a positive integer. Prove that n+ 2n is divisible by 8 i'm is an even integer. Prove that 3" ~ 1 is divisible by 80 for m a positive integer. 2 3 4 5 Prove that )\(2r—1)=n, 6 Prove Sts 7 Prove that (1)(1-35} (4) ml forza _ 2 GF Dn 2) 8 Prove that (1) m 9 Prove that ¥ log( 4) =tog(n +) a 410 Prove that x" — y" is divisible by (xy) for n a positive integer. 11. Prove that x” — 1 is divisible by (x — 1) for ma positive integer. Use the result that = 2.5 OTHER INDUCTION QUESTIONS. ‘There is quite a range of situations in which you will use mathematical induction to prove results. 412 Prove that Syrlog(“4) Example 20 Prove by induction that 3" > 1 + 2n for all integers n > 1 (ie. prove that 3" —1 —2> 0), Solution Let $(n) be the statement that 3" — 1 ~ 2n > 0 for integer n. Step 1 Prove that $(2) is true. (Note that 1 =2 is the first case.) LHS=37 =4 >0 SQ) is true. 4 Step 2 Assume S(K) is true for an integer k 22. ie.assumethat 3'—1-2k>0 {al Chapter 2 The nature of proofNow prove that S(k + 1) is true if S(k) is true. ie.provethat —3**!—1~2(k+ 1) >0 LH x3'-1-2k-2 =3x3'-2k-3 ‘We need to link [a] to this, so we need to group 3‘~ 1 ~2k together. However, the term in 3* is multiplied by 3, so we need 3(3°— 2k ~ 1). Form this group and ‘pay back’ the extra terms as required: x3 6k-3+ 4k (3° = 2k 1) + Ake >0 as 38-1-2k>0 from {a and k>0 LH Step 3 Conclusion S(k+1) is true if $(K) is true (Step 2) SQ) is true (Step 1) + by induction, S(n) is true forall integers n > 2. Example 21 Prove that n” 2 2n +1 for positive integers n> 3. Solution Let S(n) be the statement that n° ~ (2n +1) >0. Step 1 Prove that $(3) is true, LHS =3*-6-1 =9-7 =2>0 Hence (3) is true, Step 2 Assume that S(k) is true, ie. assume that K*—2k—1>0. Prove that S(k + 1) is true if S(K) is true, ie. (k+1)°~2(k+ 1) ~1>0. LHS =(k+1)'-2(k+1)-1 = +2k+1-2k-2-1 =K-2k-142k-1 >0+2k-1 >0as2k—1>5 when k23. Hence S(k + 1) is true if S(K) is true. Step 3 But S(3) is true so by the principle of mathematical induction S(n) is true for all n> 3. Example 22 Prove that 3°*** — 2" is divisible by 5 for any positive integer n. Solution Step 1 n= 1: LHS =3°-2*=729 - 4=725, which is divisible by 5. Hence the result is true when n= 1, New Senior Mathematics Extension 2 for Year 12Step 2 Assume the result is true for n =k, ie. assume that 3% ** — 2*= 5M, where M is a positive integer. rue for n= k + 1, ie. prove that 3"** — 2***? is divisible by 5. Prove the result i Ripa gts pitt xa ax zt xa 9x ates x2 x5M+5x2* =5(9M +2"), which is divisible by 5. Step 3 The result is true for n= K+ 1 ifitis true for n= k. But the result is true for m= 1, hence itis true for n=1+1and by the principle of mathematical induction it is true for all n 2 1. Example 23 Prove that every integer greater than 1 is either prime or a product of primes. Solution Let S(1) be the proposition that » is either prime or a product of primes, n 2 2. Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 2isa prime -. $(2) is true. Assume S(2), S(3), S(4),... S(k) are true. Thus prove that S(k + 1) is true. assume 3 is either prime or a product of primes assume 4 is either prime ora product of primes assume 5 is either prime or a product of primes assume k is either prime or a product of primes, Now k+ 1 is either prime, in which case S(k + 1) is true, or k+ 1 is composite, in which case k+1=pxq where p and q are integers less than k (so that both p and q are either prime or a product of primes, because both p and q are in the set of assumed primes or products of primes.) +. k+ 1 =p Xq isa product of primes and S(k + 1) is true. Conclusion S(k +1) is true if S(2), S(3), S(4),...S(k) are true. S(2) is true. by induction, S(n) is true forall integers n = 2. Example 24 Construct a proof by induction of the geometrical property that ‘the angle sum of an n-sided polygon is (n=2) x 180? forall integers m2 3. Solution Let S(n) be the statement that the angle sum of an n-sided polygon is (n— 2) x 180° for integer n. ‘Step 1 Prove that S(3) is true, ‘When m= 3, angle sum = (3 ~2) x 180°= 180°, which is the angle sum of a triangle. ++ $(3) is true. ‘Step 2 Assume S(K) is true for an integer k>3. i.e. assume that the angle sum of a k-sided polygon is(k—2) x 180° [a] Chapter 2 The nate of root ES‘Now prove that S(k+ 1) is true if S(K) is true, i.e, prove that the angle sum of a (k + 1)-sided polygon is ([k + 1] ~2) x 180° =(k=1) x 180° In the (K+ 1)-sided polygon, construct a diagonal that divides the polygon into a k-sided polygon and. ‘triangle. (This can always be done.) Angle sum of (k + 1)-sided polygon = (angle sum of k-sided polygon) + (angle sum of triangle) using [a]: = (K=2) x 180° + 180° (k= 1) x 180° (as required) Step 3. Conclusion S(k-+1)is true if S(K) is true (Step 2) (3) is true (Step 1) +. by induction, S(n) is true for all integers n> 3. Pen ecuren ket Use mathematical induction to prove the following results 1 1? —11n+302 0 forall integers n 26. 2 n?>—Sn + 14 for all integers n > 2. 3. 12">7"+5" for all integers n 22. 4 10"22"+3" +5" forall positive integers 5 Ifx>0, prove that (1 +x)" 21 + nx forall positive integers n. 6 Prove that 2" =n’ for positive integers n 2 4. (Hint: Use the result from Example 21 page 70.) 7 (@) If F(n)=n’ + 20n, find F(n + 2) — P(x). (b) Hence prove that n° +.20n is divisible by 48 ifn is even. d axl first proving (1) that (x 8 (@) Prove that = nx" for any positive integer » by (then writing x"*'=.x.x" and using the product rule to prove that S(k + 1) is true, (b) Summatise your results to give the proof of the result by induction, 9 Prove that the nth odd number is 2n 1 10 ifn and rare positive integers, prove that nal), nnt)(n+2)..dn+r=1) _ (n+1)(n+2)..(n+r) 2 14s ED 7 Soe 11 Prove that the sum of the exterior angles of a convex polygon with 1 sides is 360° for n 3. n(Qn+1)(7n+1) 12 Prove that (n-+1) + (+2)? +(n+3)? +... (2m for positive integers 7. 6 df = - 13 Prove that 4(4) pt for positive integers n. 44 Prove that 2(x") =n! for integral n,n 20 415 ‘The binomial theorem states that ifm is an integer, n> 1, then (x +a)" =)” "C,x'a~". Use mathematical induction to prove this result. = bs Now Senior Mathematics Extersion 2 for Year1216 7 18 19 a 23 24 25 ‘Ata mathematics conference, each of the n mathematicians attending wishes to shake hands with all the others, (@) Work out how many handshakes there are. (b) Use mathematical induction to prove your hypothesis in part (a). Prove that the number of diagonals of a convex polygon with n vertices is ™("—3) for n> 4, It is given that A > 0, B> 0 and mis a positive integer, (@) Factorise A"*'—A"B+B""'—B'A. (hb). Hence show that A""! +B" > A"B+B'A. A+B)" Hs Prove by induction that the greatest number of regions that a circle can be divided into by n straight lines is 4}(n? + n+2) forall positive integers m. (0) Prove by induetion that AEP sr all positive integers. Prove by induction that: sin + nz) = (-1)" sin. for all integers > 1 Suppose there is a country in which the only currency is $3 coins and $5 coins. (@) Construct a table to show how the amounts of money from $1 to $15 (in whole dollars) can be made using only $3 and $5 coins, Note that some amounts are impossible to achieve. (©) Complete the following statement, then prove it by induction: “Using only $3 and $5 coins, its possible to make Sn forall integers n 2 By induction, prove that for each positive integer n: (@) there are unique positive integers p, and q, such that (1 + V3)" (b) there are unique posit fegers p, and q, such that p,? ~ 34,” 0 4,93 (-2)" (@)_ Write the binomial expansion of (k +1)? where p isa positive integer. (b) 1fp isa prime number, identify which of the terms in the expansion do not have a factor of p. (©) Prove by induction on m that ifm is a positive integer and p is a prime number, then 1” nis a multiple of p. (a) Show that: tan(o+%) cot, (b) Prove by induction that tan[ (n+ oF] = C1)" for al integers n 21. (a) Show that 2k-+3 > 2J(k+INE+2) for k> 0. 1 Sy hyd sal fani- (b) Hence prove by induction that: leat +> 2h +1-1), (©) Consider the statement that 1 < 10!” for all positive integers N. Is this statement correct? Justify your Te ii answer. a 6 USING INDUCTION TO PROVE FIRS’ RECURSIVE FORMULAE Sto) 33 A recursive formula is when one term is defined in terms of one or more preceding terms. A recursive definition of a function allows you to evaluate the function at a certain value of n using value(s) of the function at some other value(s) of 1. A closed form definition allows a function to be evaluated directly from the required value of n, Example 25 [A sequence {u,] is defined recursively as u, =2, u,=6,4,=6u, ,—5u,_, for n23. Prove by induction the closed form definition 1, 5°"! +1 forall integers n2 1. Chapter 2 Thenature of proof — 73Solution Step 1 Prove true for the two initial cases. +1=2, which agrees with the recursive definition, S41 e ‘The proposition is true for n= 1 and n=2. Step 2 Assume the proposition is true for all integers from 1 to k. Thus prove that it is true for n=k + 1. hey , which agrees with the recursive definition. Forn=k+1: 51, iyss)-2 (using the recursive definition) Mine t= Sty 1)-5(6'7 +1) +6-1K5'=5 Hoa which is the closed form definition. Step 3 Conclusion ‘The proposition is true for n= k+ 1 ifit is true for n = 1, Itis true for n=1, 2. +. by induction, it is true for all integers n 2 1. ie Example 26 (@) Ifu,,,=2u, +1 forall positive integer values ofr, prove that u, +1 = (b) Find the value of }u, if, Solution (@) r=1:u,=2u,+1 Consider w,+1=2""\(u, + Y). Step 1 When n= 1:LHS =u, + 1; RHS=2"(u, + 1) =u, + 1=LHS Hence the result is true for = 1 When n=2: LH = 2u, +2; RHS=2'(u, +1) =2u, +2=LHS Hence the result is true for n= 2. Step 2 Assume the result is true for n =k, given u, ,, = 2u + 1, ie. assume that 1 +1 = Prove the result is true for n=k-+ 1, ie. prove that u,,, +1=2!(u, +1). LHS = 144, +1 =2q 4141 = 241) =2(27(u, +1) =24(u,+1) =RHS Step 3 The result is true for n =k +1 ifitis true for n=k. But the result is true for n= 1, hence itis true for n= 1 +1 and by the principle of mathematical induction itis true forall n> 1. ee New Senor Mathematis Extension 2 for Yar 12 Fu, + 1).() uy =2"(141)-1 VE FORMULAE 1 Ifu,,,=3u, +4and u, = 1, use mathematical induction to prove that u, " — 2 forall positive integers n, 2 Iu, =6andu,,,=1, +2" + 4, use mathematical induction to prove that, integers n. 2" + 4n forall positive 3 A sequence is defined recursively as u, prove that 1, ,-: for n2 2. By induction, 4 A sequence is defined recursively as uy =5, 4, = 13,4, =5u, ~6u,_, for n> 3. By induction, prove that w,=2" +3" forall positive integers n. 5 A sequence is defined recursively as ts, = prove that u, uy =33,u, = 110, = 28u,_, for n> 3. By induction, " — 4" for all positive integers n. 6 A sequence is defined recursively a8 =0, 1,=25,11,=10u, , ~25u,_, for n2 3, By induction, prove that u, = (n~ 1)5" forall positive integers n. 7 The Fibonacci sequence is defined as u, = 1, =I, #,,.=1,,, + 4, for all positive integers m1 Prove by induction ht <3) fal poste ees 8 Ifa,=1,a,=6anda, 94,__ tse mathematical induction to prove that a, = 3" +3". 9 (@) Prove by contradiction that (4k +3)Vk <(4k-+1)VE-+1 for all k2 0. (b) Prove by induction that Vi +2 +V3+...4JnS hie for all integers n> 1. =, +3 =u, 43 =... prove by induction that 4, for all positive integers m, 377] 11 Ifu,=Oandifu, = (1 = 2)u, + nx for all positive integers n, prove that 1, = +(nx-1+(1-x)'). CHAPTER REVIEW 2 1. Use mathematical induction to prove the following results. @ Yer-1%= © YPajtemasy — @ Y[rsse)-eew . 1 (4-1) Larner Bn41 Chapter 2 The nature of proof1 Hea ENO ® Hn 5 array (©) Use mathematical induction to prove that Saenkees equals the result that you obtained in part (b). 2 (@) Simplify 8 Consider the sequence of numbers defined by T, =3, T,=2%T,_, +3 forall m2. (2) List the first five terms of this sequence. (©) Prove by induction that T, = 3(2" ~ 1) forall integers 2 1 = Oand ifu,, = (1+)u,— rx for all positive integral values ofr, prove by induction that 1 =t[i+m—a+a)"). 6 Ifx>0and y>0, prove by induction that (x + y)">x" + y" for all integers m 2 2. 7 (@) By writing cos([2k-+ 1)x) as cos (2kx-+ 2), and remembering that cos2x = 1 ~ 2sin’x, show that: sindke sin(2(k+1)x) sin sine ; (6) Use the esult of part (ao prove by induction that cosx + cos3x-+..+cos({2n— 1x) = SR) fora positive integers. +eos(2k-+1)x= 8 If x, xy.Xy...%, are positive real numbers, prove by induction that: lytyd tbody. tp )ee forall integers n > 1. (tbat gta ta tte 9 (a) Prove that x +x > Jx(x+1) for all real x20. (b) A sequence is defined as u, = 1, u,=2,1,,=1,_, + (n—1)u,. for n 23. Prove by indus that u, > val. DFE sew secrtanemaes extension 2 Year 2