sensors

Review
Embedded Sensors for Structural Health Monitoring:
Methodologies and Applications Review
Pedro M. Ferreira 1 , Miguel A. Machado 1,2, * , Marta S. Carvalho 1,2 and Catarina Vidal 1,2

1 UNIDEMI, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, NOVA School of Science and Technology,
Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
2 Laboratório Associado de Sistemas Inteligentes, LASI, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal
* Correspondence: miguel.m@fct.unl.pt

Abstract: Sensing Technology (ST) plays a key role in Structural Health-Monitoring (SHM) systems.
ST focuses on developing sensors, sensory systems, or smart materials that monitor a wide variety
of materials’ properties aiming to create smart structures and smart materials, using Embedded
Sensors (ESs), and enabling continuous and permanent measurements of their structural integrity.
The integration of ESs is limited to the processing technology used to embed the sensor due to its
high-temperature sensitivity and the possibility of damage during its insertion into the structure.
In addition, the technological process selection is dependent on the base material’s composition,
which comprises either metallic or composite parts. The selection of smart sensors or the technology
underlying them is fundamental to the monitoring mode. This paper presents a critical review of
the fundaments and applications of sensing technologies for SHM systems employing ESs, focusing
on their actual developments and innovation, as well as analysing the challenges that these tech-
nologies present, in order to build a path that allows for a connected world through distributed
measurement systems.

Keywords: embedded sensors; sensing technology; smart materials; structural health monitoring;
Citation: Ferreira, P.M.; Machado, non-destructive evaluation
M.A.; Carvalho, M.S.; Vidal, C.
Embedded Sensors for Structural
Health Monitoring: Methodologies
and Applications Review. Sensors 1. Introduction
2022, 22, 8320. https://doi.org/
The design, fabrication, construction, and implementation of Embedded Sensors (ESs),
10.3390/s22218320
smart materials, and smart structures are currently among the greatest challenges in en-
Academic Editor: Luca De Marchi gineering research; additionally, innovation regarding sensors and sensor systems are
Received: 4 October 2022
essential for the development of smart structures technology [1]. In this regard, Structural
Accepted: 27 October 2022
Health Monitoring (SHM) consists of monitoring structures and structural components
Published: 30 October 2022
in real-time and throughout their life cycle, including during their manufacturing pro-
cess, without compromising their structural integrity. Structural health should remain
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
as specified during the design stage, although it can be changed due to normal ageing
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
and use, environmental action, and accidental events. The concept of SHM can be tackled
published maps and institutional affil-
from a periodic-monitoring perspective, through periodic maintenance actions, or from
iations.
a continuous-monitoring perspective, using Sensing Technology (ST), such as embedded
sensors and smart materials. Fibre Optic Sensors (FOSs) and Piezoelectric Sensors (PSs)
are some of the most widely used technologies for the development of these types of
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
materials, although there are other technologies, such as capacitive methods, electromag-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. netic techniques, and materials with characteristics and/or properties that can be used for
This article is an open access article structural monitoring, such as Shape Memory Alloys (SMA), as will be verified throughout
distributed under the terms and this review.
conditions of the Creative Commons Currently, continuous and real-time SHM systems are assisted with the classical
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) techniques, such as ultrasounds [2], X-rays [3], infrared
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ thermography [4], holographic interferometry [5], eddy currents [6,7], and terahertz [8],
4.0/). among others, which require highly specialised labour along with expensive procedures.

Sensors 2022, 22, 8320. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22218320 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 2 of 33

Furthermore, periodic inspections, which are the most traditional form of structural moni-
toring, are unable to provide any information on accidents and failures that occur between
two successive revisions. Consequently, there is a growing interest in the development of
sensitive materials or structures that integrate sensors that provide real-time information
about the material itself or its environment. The use of these sensitive materials offers a
good opportunity to implement health-monitoring systems that can operate throughout a
component’s life cycle. The continuous monitoring of the material’s integrity will result
in its greater durability and reliability. ESs must satisfy a set of requirements, i.e., they
must not damage the structure, they must achieve similar conventional NDT techniques’
sensitivity, and be able to monitor a significant part of the structure [9].
ST has been in constant development, resulting in successful applications, but there
are a set of challenges that motivate research and development in this area, such as new
sensors that can find the exact location of the damage and its characteristics, or that
can monitor structural resilience, for example. Moreover, it is essential to ensure the
long life of ST, or, alternatively, to create sensors that are easily replaceable. Wireless
sensor technology represents a step forward since the use of wired sensors causes many
problems, including the increased cost of applications and the cost of labour, as well as
reducing the reliability of data transmission [10]. With the development that is underway
in nanotechnology, it is important to invest resources in sensors inspired by this area, thus
guaranteeing the possibility of implementing sensory networks in topologies and variable
structures. The implementation of these sensors translates into an increase in the reliability
in detecting structural damage. On the other hand, more sensors will generate more data,
so it is necessary to develop models for data analysis and processing for storage while
simultaneously ensuring their efficiency [11,12].
Since ESs are developed and optimised for monitoring certain physical and mechanical
properties in specific structures and performance under particular conditions, in this article,
an in-depth review is carried out regarding the state of the art of their development
and innovation. The typologies of ESs that currently exist are presented, as well as the
fundamentals and physical principles underlying this technology and its applications.
A comparison is made among ESs, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages,
which concludes with the exposure of the challenges that this technology presents for the
near future.

2. Fundaments and Techniques of SHM

SHM systems are developed based on a set of elements that represent the essence
of implementing these systems. First, an SHM system consists of a sensory network
connected to the structure or structural component, a network that can in turn consist of a
set of integrated sensors and possibly smart materials as well. This is the main difference
when compared to conventional NDT techniques. The sensory network is essential for
conducting automated and continuous inspections, but the high number of sensors running
continuously generates a large number of data that need to be processed, and in many cases
in real-time. Therefore, it is necessary to have optimised data-processing facilities to ensure
the instant analysis of structures or structural components through the instantaneous
acquisition of monitoring data. Finally, there are essential algorithms that analyse the
stored data, with appropriate corrections for environmental factors, to predict the location
of the damage and its characterization [13–15].
There are a set of monitoring techniques that are currently used in the widest applica-
tions, which are classified as vibration-based techniques [16], FOSs [17], PSs [18], electrical
resistance techniques [19], electromagnetic techniques [9], eddy current techniques [20–22],
and capacitive methods [19].
Vibration-based techniques, also known as modal analysis techniques, which analyse
the dynamic response of a structure or structural component when excited by a spectrum
of frequencies, are the most widely used type for civil engineering applications [23,24],
such as wooden and composite structures [16,19]. Additionally, these techniques can also
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 3 of 33

be implemented in the analysis of structures subject to environmental factors [25], contact

detection, and force sensing [26].
The implementation of technology with FOSs consists of an instrument capable of
transforming a certain physical or chemical parameter into information to be monitored
by varying parameters that define the optical wave, such as intensity, phase, wavelength,
and polarisation. Based on the type of parameters that are changed, different types of
optical sensors have been developed, in which the most used are the intensity-based
sensors, the phase-modulated optical fibre sensors or interferometers, and the wavelength-
based sensors or Fibre Bragg Gratings (FBG) [9,27,28]. FOSs offer great potential for SHM
applications. Their importance for structural integrity-monitoring applications stems from
factors such as their long-life cycle, high-temperature resistance, flexibility, immunity to
electromagnetic interference, and reduced implementation costs [29,30]. In this regard,
their application becomes very versatile and can be used for monitoring buildings, bridges,
highways, pipelines, tunnels, dams [30], and railways [31], or for fire safety studies and
structural fire applications [32], composite materials [33], or wooden structures [19].
Traditional non-destructive ultrasonic inspection techniques suffer from challenges
such as acoustic coupling, structural accessibility, and a low signal-to-noise ratio in highly
attenuating materials. The use of embedded or attached PSs overcomes some of these
difficulties as they remain permanently attached or embedded in the structure or structural
component throughout its life cycle, including during its manufacturing process. So
far, most inspections using ultrasonic emission techniques have focused on piezoelectric
transducers. The most significant design techniques based on piezoelectric transducers can
be classified into three classes, as their behaviour can be passive, active, or mixed. These
main classes are acoustic, acoustic-ultrasonic emissions using piezoelectric transducers,
and electromechanical impedance. The latter is one of the most promising techniques for
the development of SHM systems because it is very simple to implement and uses low-cost,
small, and lightweight PSs. It should be noted that PSs have a wide range of applications
and can be implemented in metallic or composite structures [7,9,34–39].
The electrical resistance techniques can use a particular material or structural compo-
nent as a sensitive material, i.e., this technique is based on the variation of the resistance of a
given material. An example of the application of this technique is the monitoring of carbon
fibre-reinforced polymers (CFRP), since carbon fibres are electrical conductors incorporated
in an insulating matrix. The measurement of global electrical resistance appears to be a
valuable technique for monitoring fibre cracking in unidirectional arrangements as well as
in the delamination process. Therefore, carbon sensors can be used for the in situ moni-
toring of the structural integrity of industrial composite components (primary structures),
such as aircraft wings and helicopter blades, in real-time, and possibly with lower costs
when compared to current composite structure inspection techniques. Nevertheless, much
has yet to be achieved in this area [40–43].
Inspections by eddy currents are one of the NDT techniques that are based on the
principle of electromagnetism. The electric current of a coil creates the primary magnetic
field, which in the presence of a conductive material, induces alternating electrical currents
in the component. Consequently, these create a secondary magnetic field, contrary to the
primary field, which is measured using another coil. Induced currents circulate in planes
perpendicular to the magnetic flux, usually parallel to the coil winding [44]. Damage
changes materials’ conductivity, thereby affecting eddy currents and modifying the sec-
ondary magnetic field. These techniques can be used to measure electrical conductivities
and magnetic permeabilities, detect defects, detect and analyse corrosion in the material,
and measure coating thicknesses [6,7,20,21,45].
Other techniques that make use of the component’s electrical properties are the low-
frequency electromagnetic techniques, which monitor the integrity of a given component
by measuring the electrical conductivity and dielectric signature of the components [42,43],
as well as capacitive methods, in which electrodes are placed on the outer surface of the
sample and electric tension is applied between them, creating a condenser system, wherein
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 4 of 34

Sensors 2022, 22, 8320

[42,43], as well as capacitive methods, in which electrodes are placed on the outer surface 4 of 33
of the sample and electric tension is applied between them, creating a condenser system,
wherein capacity changes are indicative of internal properties (such as the materials’ na-
ture or their humidity content) [9,19]. In addition, continuous wave terahertz imaging was
capacity changes are indicative of internal properties (such as the materials’ nature or
found to be especially interesting for imaging water infiltrations and composite materials
their humidity content) [9,19]. In addition, continuous wave terahertz imaging was found
that contain conductive wires [8]. Thermography techniques have also been used to mon-
to be especially interesting for imaging water infiltrations and composite materials that
itor the health of systems, such as the innovative variant of active transient thermography
contain conductive wires [8]. Thermography techniques have also been used to monitor the
known as double active transient thermography, which increased the temperature con-
health of systems, such as the innovative variant of active transient thermography known
trast for delamination defects at different depths and locations [4].
as double active transient thermography, which increased the temperature contrast for
Currently, there is a very wide set of techniques that allow for the accomplishment
delamination defects at different depths and locations [4].
of effective and functional SHM systems. One of the main elements of SHM is the sensory
Currently, there is a very wide set of techniques that allow for the accomplishment of
network, which is a set of sensors placed strategically on the surface or inside of the struc-
effective and functional SHM systems. One of the main elements of SHM is the sensory
tural component, or even smart materials with sensory characteristics, networked in a
network, which is a set of sensors placed strategically on the surface or inside of the
fashion that allows
structural for theor
component, permanent
even smart monitorization
materials with of sensory
structural components or
characteristics, struc-
networked
tures. ESs comprise a developing field, and in the last years, studies have been
in a fashion that allows for the permanent monitorization of structural components orintensified
because the challenges
structures. that STaimposes
ESs comprise are incentives
developing field, andfor inthe
theprogression
last years, of science.
studies Con-
have been
sequentially, it will be possible to learn more about the applications and the challenges
intensified because the challenges that ST imposes are incentives for the progression of
thatscience.
ES technology currently it
Consequentially, provides.
will be possible to learn more about the applications and the
challenges that ES technology currently provides.
3. Sensor Technology
3.ST
Sensor Technology
focuses on the development of sensors, sensory systems, or smart materials that
detect aST wide variety
focuses on of
thethe properties of
development ofstructural components.
sensors, sensory systems,Today’s technology
or smart materialsal-that
ready enables
detect a widethe variety
monitorisation and detection
of the properties of stimulicomponents.
of structural that exist around us, using
Today’s ex-
technology
tremely accurate sensory systems, which are inexpensive to install and
already enables the monitorisation and detection of stimuli that exist around us, usingmaintain and en-
ergy-efficient
extremely [46]. Therefore,
accurate sensory it is fair to say
systems, thatare
which sensors are vital to
inexpensive components
install andfor creatingand
maintain
energy-efficient
value [46]. Therefore,
in existing technological it is fairand
processes to say that
their sensors are vital components for creating
industries.
value in existing
Sensors technological
are technological processes
devices and their
that enable industries.
the quantification of the physical, chem-
Sensors areproperties
ical, or biological technological devices that
of materials, enable the
converting quantification
them into signalsofmeasured
the physical, chem-
by ap-
ical, orequipment,
propriate biological properties
as illustratedof materials,
in Figure 1, converting
and a wide them intoof
variety signals measured
existing by ap-
sensors are
propriate
available for equipment,
any industrial as application.
illustrated inInFigure 1, and
addition, a wide
for more variety of industrial
demanding existing sensors
ap-
are available
plications, sensorsforcan
anyhelp
industrial application.
to improve processesIn and
addition,
offer for more demanding
significant protection industrial
for in-
applications,
dustrial equipment sensors can help to[30,31].
or components improve processes and offer significant protection for
industrial equipment or components [30,31].

Figure
Figure 1. Sensor’s
1. Sensor’s definition.
definition.

TheThe existence
existence of of sensors
sensors in in industrialand
industrial andstructural
structuralcomponents
componentsenables
enables the
the detec-
detection
of defects or damage and the acquirement of reports on structural integrity.
tion of defects or damage and the acquirement of reports on structural integrity. Data from Data from
the implementation of sensors are processed and analysed by a set of instruments andand
the implementation of sensors are processed and analysed by a set of instruments
algorithms
algorithms for for
datadata analysis,
analysis, andand if any
if any anomalies
anomalies areare identified,
identified, a set
a set of preventative
of preventative andand
monitoring
monitoring actions
actions is carried
is carried outout to ensure
to ensure thethe safety
safety of industrial
of industrial components
components [1,30,31].
[1,30,31].
With the constant evolution of ST and its recent developments, it is important to point
With the constant evolution of ST and its recent developments, it is important to point
out that sensors can be divided into Surface Sensors (SSs) and Embedded Sensors (ESs).
out that sensors can be divided into Surface Sensors (SSs) and Embedded Sensors (ESs).
The difference between them is depicted in Figure 2. The SSs are applied and coupled
The difference between them is depicted in Figure 2. The SSs are applied and coupled to
to the surface of components, thereby enabling life cycle monitoring. However, they are
the surface of components, thereby enabling life cycle monitoring. However, they are sus-
susceptible to damage from environmental factors or service conditions, including during
ceptible to damage from environmental factors or service conditions, including during the
the manufacturing process. The ESs are integrated into components, which can result in
manufacturing process. The ESs are integrated into components, which can result in smart
smart materials or smart components that can monitor themselves during their life cycle
and the manufacturing process.
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 5 of 34
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 5 of 34

Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 materials or smart components that can monitor themselves during their life cycle and the
materials or smart
manufacturing components that can monitor themselves during their life cycle and 5the
process.
of 33

manufacturing process.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 2. Implementation of monitoring sensors: (a) surface sensors and (b) embedded sensors.
Figure
Figure2. 2.
Implementation of of
Implementation monitoring sensors:
monitoring (a)(a)
sensors: surface sensors
surface and
sensors (b)(b)
and embedded sensors.
embedded sensors.
ST can lead to two monitoring methodologies, i.e., depending on how the sensors are
STST
implemented, cancan
leadlead
either
to two
to two monitoring
monitoring
passive or active
methodologies,
methodologies, i.e., depending
i.e., depending
monitoring. Figure on how
3 illustrates
on how the sensors
the sensors
the two possibleare
are implemented,
implemented, either
either passivepassive or active monitoring.
or active monitoring. Figure 3 illustrates
Figure 3 illustrates the two
the two for possible
possible
approaches to monitoring a component. In passive monitoring, the information the
approaches
approaches to monitoring a acomponent.
component.InIn passive monitoring, the information forfor the
analysis comestofrommonitoring
the variation passive
of the component’s monitoring, the
physical properties information
under inspec- the
analysiscomes
analysis comesfrom fromthethevariation
variation ofof the
the component’s
component’s physical
physical properties
properties under
under inspection,
inspec-
tion, a variation that is caused by interactions that the component suffers throughout its
a variation that is caused by by
interactions that thethe
component suffers throughout its life
lifetion, a variation
cycle. This typethat of is caused
monitoring interactions
requires that that component
the components suffers
under throughout
inspection haveits
cycle.
life cycle.This type of monitoring
Thisproperties,
type of monitoring requires that the components
requires that the under
componentsand inspection
under have certain
inspection have
certain physical
physical properties, such
such as as piezoelectricity,
piezoelectricity, pyroelectricity,
pyroelectricity, thermoelectricity,
and thermoelectricity, among
certain
among physical
others properties,
[9,47–49]. such as piezoelectricity, pyroelectricity, and thermoelectricity,
others [9,47–49].
among others [9,47–49].

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Component-monitoring
Figure approaches
3. Component-monitoring with embedded
approaches sensors:
with embedded (a) passive
sensors: and (b)and
(a) passive active
(b) active
Figure 3. Component-monitoring approaches with embedded sensors: (a) passive and (b) active
monitoring.
monitoring.
monitoring.
In active monitoring,
In active monitoring, the the
information
information for for
analysis
analysiscomes
comes fromfromthethe application
application of of
stim-
stimuli
uli from
fromIn an
active monitoring,
an embedded
embedded the information
actuator.
actuator. TheThecapture for
capture ofanalysis
of the
the comescaused
response
response from the
causedbyapplication is of
by stimulus
stimulus stim-
is
achieved
ulibyfrom
achieved byan
a set embedded
aofset
sensors,
of sensors, actuator.
embedded
embedded orThe
on capture
or the
on of the
surface.
the surface. This response
This type caused
typeofofmonitoring
monitoringby stimulus
requires
requiresthat is
achieved
that the by
the components a
componentstoset of sensors,
to be embedded
be inspected
inspected have or on
have certain the surface.
certain physical This
physical properties, type
properties,such of monitoring
suchas requires
aspiezo-resistivity,
piezo-resis-
that the components
pyro-resistivity, and to be inspected
thermos-resistivity, have certain
among
tivity, pyro-resistivity, and thermos-resistivity, among others [9,47–49]. physical
others properties,
[9,47–49]. such as piezo-resis-
tivity,
SSs pyro-resistivity,
SSs
are are
the the
most most and
conventional thermos-resistivity,
conventional sensors
sensors usedused among
in others
in structural
structural [9,47–49].
integrity-monitoring
integrity-monitoring applica-
appli-
tions
cations SSs
and are
and the
areare most
based
based ononconventional
thethe sensors
transmission
transmission used in structural
of electrical
of electrical signals.
signals. integrity-monitoring
However,
However, theythey easily
easily appli-
suffer suffer
cations
electrical and
electrical
or aremagnetic
or
magneticbased oninterference;
the transmission
interference; therefore, ofinelectrical
therefore, in last
the signals.
the last
20 However,
20 years,
years, intenseintense they easily suffer
developments
developments in in
theelectrical
field of or
the field ofmagnetic
FOSs FOSs
have have interference;
been been achieved.
achieved. therefore,
FOSsFOSs in the alast
provide
provide 20 years,
a more
more intense
beneficial
beneficial developments
alternative
alternative forthe
for theinin-
the field
spection
inspection of FOSs
ofofSHM have
SHMsystems been
systemsand achieved.
andfuture FOSs
futuresmart provide
smartstructures a more
structures compared beneficial
compared to alternative
to traditional technol-the
for
traditional technologies.
inspection
ogies. of SHM
Currently, thesystems
ESs areand underfuture smart
intense structures compared
development. to traditional
Review studies, such as technol-
those of
ogies.
Wang
Currently, the ESs are under intense development. Review studies, such as thoseal.
et al. [50] and Janeliukstis et al. [51], have already been conducted. Wang et of [50]
Wang et al. [50] and Janeliukstis et al. [51], have already been conducted. Wang et al. [50] of
Currently,
investigated the
the ESs are
incorporation under of intense
thin-film development.
piezoelectric Review
sensors studies,
within such as
aircraft those
composite
Wang et al.the
components.
investigated [50] and monitoring
This Janeliukstis
incorporation et al. [51],
technology
of thin-film have already
is quite
piezoelectric been within
versatile.
sensors conducted.
However, Wang
other
aircraft et al. [50]
technologies
composite
investigated
may provide
components. the incorporation
Thisbetter of thin-film
results, technology
monitoring as will be seen piezoelectric
throughout
is quite versatile. sensors
thisHowever, within
work. Moreover, aircraft composite
the monitoring
other technologies
may provide better results, as will be seen throughout this work. Moreover, thetechnologies
components.
of metallic This
parts monitoring
in aircrafts technology
is very is quite
important, versatile.
since they However,
are the other
main material
monitor-in these
may provide
applications; better results,
however, theyas will
are notbe seen
included throughout
in the this
Wang work.
et al.
ing of metallic parts in aircrafts is very important, since they are the main material in these [50]Moreover,
analysis. the monitor-
Relative to the
ing of
work metallic
of parts
Janeliukstis in aircrafts
et al. [51],isavery
larger important,
analysis since
was they
carried
applications; however, they are not included in the Wang et al. [50] analysis. Relative to are
out,the main
reviewing material
and in these
presenting
applications;
the limitations however, they are with
of technologies not included
respect toinincorporating
the Wang et piezoelectric
al. [50] analysis. Relative
sensors and fibreto
optic sensors in composite components.
This study, on the other hand, provides an overview of the existing sensor technologies
that can be embedded—as well as the processes and embedding techniques available and
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 6 of 33

their associated limitations—in metallic and composite components. With the progress of
science, new mechanisms arise from the development of systems integrated into structural
components, in addition to the advancement of smart materials, which is increasingly close
to obtaining smart structural components. For this reason, we present a section exposing
the recent research developed in the ESs field.

4. Embedded Sensors and Its Applications

The ESs in structural components have been a topic of research in the last decades and
they have proven themselves to be a dominant technology. FOSs and PSs are among the
most widely used technologies for the development of ESs, although there are other tech-
nologies. Throughout this section, an overview of the state of the art is presented, namely,
the technologies developed in the ESs field, their methodologies for sensor integration, and
their applications.

4.1. Fibre Optic Sensors

FOSs have recently emerged as a promising technology for incorporation into structures
or structural components. With built-in sensors, it is possible to monitor structural parameters
in critical locations that are not accessible for traditional sensors. In addition, these sensors
can be used to validate or improve a project during the design stage or to obtain information
about the performance and structural integrity of the in-service components.
FOSs are made of long-lasting materials (e.g., silica), which are resistant to corrosion
and high tensile loads, and possess elongations up to 5%, leading to long life cycles. These
sensors’ resistance to high temperatures enables the measurement of temperatures from
200 to 800 ◦ C with a silica core, and up to 1500 ◦ C with a sapphire core, wherein the
measurement resolutions are on the order of 0.1 ◦ C. Another important feature is the
flexibility that these sensors have because they can be applied to complex surfaces that are
difficult to access, as well as perform local or distributed measurements, which can range
from 1 mm to tens of kilometres [29,30].
Each type of FOSs is based on a set of principles underlying the propagation of the
optical wave and its physical properties. Although optical fibres are present at their base,
FOSs can undergo geometrical (size and shape) and optical changes (refractive index
and mode conversion) due to various environmental disturbances, while transmitting
light from one place to another. These phenomena are unwanted; thus, over the years,
attempts have been mase to minimize such adverse influences in order to obtain smoother
and more reliable transmitted signals. However, optical fibres have found applications
in ST applications due to these optical changes that can be used to measure external
stimuli. Developments in this area have shown that sensitive disturbances in temperature,
voltage, rotation, and electrical and magnetic currents can be converted or encoded into
corresponding changes, such as amplitude (intensity), phase, frequency, wavelength, and
polarisation, in the optical properties of transmitted light [17,25,30,52]. Table 1 presents
a summary of the different types of FOSs, as well as the technologies implemented, the
measurements they perform, the optical wave parameters that are influenced, and an
illustrative scheme of the technology [53–56].
Many intensity-based sensors, as is the case of interferometric FOSs, are local sensors
that enable the measurement of changes at specified locations in a structure. Interferometric
FOSs are by far the most used local sensors because they offer the best sensitivity. This
measuring technique is mainly based on the design of optical changes induced in light as
it propagates along the optical fibre. The light from a source is equally divided into two
fibre-guided paths: one reference path and one analysis path. In the interferometric sensors,
two mirrors are used that are adjusted to mix the wave and form a “fringe pattern”, which
is directly related to the difference in the phase of optical waves caused by the two mirrors.
The most common configurations of interferometric sensors are the FOSs Mach–Zehnder,
Michelson, and Fabry–Perot [30,53,57,58].
 Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 7 of 33

Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 Table 1. Types of optic fibre sensors (adapted from [30,56]). 7 of

Point Sensor Quasi-Distributed Sensor Distributed Sensor

Fabry–Perot Cavity
Fibre Bragg Raman/Rayleigh
Sensors Fibre Grating
Bragg Grating Fibre Bragg Grating Brillouin
Brillouin
Long gage
Longsensor
gage sensor
Strain
Strain (displacement, accelera-
(displacement, acceleration,
Strain (displacement,
Strain (displacement, pressure,
Measurands
Measurands tion, pressure, relative
pressure, relative fissure,
fissure, in- Temperature/Strain
Temperature/Strain
pressure, temperature)
temperature) inclination, etc.)
clination, etc.)
Phase-modulated optical
Modulation Phase-modulated
Modulation Method fibre optical
sensors, fibre
or Wavelength Intensity
Wavelength Intensity
Method sensors, or interferometers
interferometers

Schematic
Schematic

Manygrating
A Bragg intensity-based
is a permanent sensors, as ismodulation
periodic the case ofofinterferometric
the refractive indexFOSs, arecore
in the local senso
ofthat enable theoptical
a single-mode measurement
fibre. The of FBG changes
sensor, at specified
which can belocations in a structure.
easily multiplexed to measureInterferome
ric FOSs are by far the most used local sensors because they offer
voltages in many locations, is a type of Quasi-distributed sensor, i.e., a type of distributed the best sensitivity. Th
measuring
Bragg reflectortechnique
built into a isshort
mainly fibrebased
opticon the design
segment, which ofreflects
opticalcertain
changes induced in light
wavelengths
ofitlight and transmits
propagates alongallthe others.
optical This is achieved
fibre. The lightby from
creating a periodic
a source variation
is equally in the into tw
divided
refractive index of the fibre core, which generates a specific dielectric
fibre-guided paths: one reference path and one analysis path. In the interferometric se wavelength mirror.
Any change in the local voltage or temperature alters the core refraction index and the wave
sors, two mirrors are used that are adjusted to mix the wave and form a “fringe pattern
period, followed by changes in the wavelength of reflected light, which can be monitored.
which is directly related to the difference in the phase of optical waves caused by the tw
There are several important concerns in FBGs’ selection and associated monitoring systems.
mirrors.
For example,Thethemost common
spectral overlapconfigurations of interferometric
of the grating changes sensors wavelength.
the adjacent desirable are the FOSs Mach
Zehnder, Michelson, and Fabry–Perot [30,53,57,58].
On the other hand, side bands at the measured wavelength, the detector filter, and an
inadequateA Bragg grating
light source is introduce
also a permanent errorsperiodic modulation
into the system of the refractive index in th
[17,52,59,60].
core Theofdistributed
a single-modeFOSs optical fibre. The
are best-suited FBG structural
for large sensor, which can be since
applications easilyallmultiplexed
fibre
optic segments act as sensors; therefore, disturbances within
measure voltages in many locations, is a type of Quasi-distributed sensor, i.e., various segments of the a type
structure can be measured. This type of sensor is based on the modulation
distributed Bragg reflector built into a short fibre optic segment, which reflects certa of light intensity;
therefore, fractures or local damage in a structure cause variation in light intensity. Two
wavelengths of light and transmits all others. This is achieved by creating a periodic va
major distributed sensor methodologies are Optical Time Domain Reflectometry (OTDR)
iation in the refractive index of the fibre core, which generates a specific dielectric wav
and Brillouin dispersion. OTDR, Rayleigh, and Fresnel dispersions are used to monitor
length mirror.
structural Any On
disturbances. change in the
the other local
hand, voltage
Brillouin or temperature
dispersion shows thealters
doppler thechange
core refractio
index and the wave period, followed by changes in the wavelength
in the light frequency that is related to the measurements. Distributed sensors have not of reflected ligh
which
yet foundcan be monitored.
extensive use in civilThere are several
structural important
applications concerns
due to their in FBGs’
insufficient selection and a
resolutions,
sociated
weak monitoring
signals, and heavysystems.
demodulation For example,
systems.the spectralthey
However, overlap
have of thepotential
great grating changes
in th
civil engineering due to their inherent distributive nature, so
adjacent desirable wavelength. On the other hand, side bands at the measured wav long as their obstacles are
overcome
length, the[30,53,61].
detector filter, and an inadequate light source also introduce errors into th
Recently, there have been scientific reports about the inclusion of FOSs in composites
system [17,52,59,60].
and certain metallic components, particularly those having a low melting point. The
The distributed FOSs are best-suited for large structural applications since all fib
techniques for the inclusion of FOSs reported so far involve complex methodologies, so it is
ofoptic segments
scientific actlook
interest to as for
sensors;
easier waystherefore, disturbances
to incorporate FOSs inwithin various
these types segments of th
of structures.
structure can be measured. This type of sensor is based on the modulation of light inte
sity; therefore, fractures or local damage in a structure cause variation in light intensit
Two major distributed sensor methodologies are Optical Time Domain Reflectomet
(OTDR) and Brillouin dispersion. OTDR, Rayleigh, and Fresnel dispersions are used
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 8 of 33

Therefore, Sections 4.1.1 and 4.1.2 present a set of applications and methodologies that have
been developed in recent years to incorporate the sensors and ensure the monitoring of the
integrity of metal and composite structural components.

4.1.1. Applications for Composite Components

The components obtained with composite materials have great relevance in engi-
neering applications, so they have become fundamental mechanisms for the control and
monitoring of a component’s integrity. When referring to the SHM mechanism of compos-
ite components, this includes the real-time monitoring of the manufacturing and curing
processes of composites and the in situ non-destructive evaluation of in-service structural
components. So, it is difficult to perform using conventional NDT methods, thus giving rise
to the possibility of using FOSs embedded in the composite component’s matrix. The use of
these types of sensors has a set of advantages due to their flexibility to easily form systems
or sensory networks and create smart materials, enabling the continuous monitoring of the
base material.
Currently, composite materials can be obtained through a wide range of products,
such as metals, ceramics, or even polymers. However, most applications of embedded FOSs
focus on polymer matrix composites [62–70]. In the composite production phase, FOSs can
be embedded in the matrix or between the laminates of the composite to monitor certain
conditions, such as the composite-stacking sequence, the resin flow during processing [62],
the curing process of the laminates [71], or the misalignment of the fibres, which can lead
to a significant reduction in the mechanical strength of the laminates [66]. In addition,
embedded FOSs can be used to monitor the residual strains and temperature profiles
developed during fabrication [67]. During the post-production phase, these sensors allow
for the simultaneous monitoring of strains and temperatures to which the component
is subjected during its life cycle, and, in special cases, they can also be used to detect
acoustic waves [70]. During the production process, misalignment, gaps, or overlaps of the
laminates or fibres may arise. Such defects may endanger the component’s integrity when
it is in service; therefore, the use of embedded FOSs ensures great control over the possible
spread of defects during the component’s life cycle [67].
In most applications of the monitoring of composite components, sensors such as
Extrinsic Fabry–Perot Interferometers (EFPI) and FBG are implemented since these types of
sensors can be easily distributed throughout a real structure with a single fibre. In addition,
FBG sensors enable the identification of strains on dynamic requests, while extrinsic Fabry–
Perot interferometers enable the identification of transient events [70]. The EFPI and
FBG sensors are embedded in polymeric matrices and used to monitor—in real-time and
simultaneously—the curing process of laminate composites, ensuring effective damage
detection during the composites’ manufacturing process [71]. In addition, depending on
the type of defect in terms of size and materials, three significant changes in the wavelength
profiles of the FOSs sensors can be observed. These changes include the shape of the
wavelength profiles, changes in the length of the corresponding waves, and the wavelength
profiles’ inclination during the cooling process at room temperature [66].
Considering the materials used to manufacture composites and the manufacturing
process, the type of fibre and the selected orientations strongly influence the temperature
profiles obtained and the residual strains. In addition, FBG sensors can accurately determine
the residual strains induced during the manufacturing and post-processing stages, as well as
the thermal expansion behaviour of continuous fibre-reinforced thermoplastic composites
when manufactured by fused filament fabrication [67].
Different applications can make use of this type of sensor. Tables 2 and 3 present an
overview of the state of the art and the developments made regarding embedded sensors,
additionally presenting the different types of FOSs used and the methodologies of the
integration of sensors for each of the applications developed.
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 9 of 33

Table 2. Overview of applications and methodology of integrating Fibre Bragg grating (FBG) Sensors
for composite structural components.

Methodology of
Author Measurements Sensitivity Applications
Integrating Sensors
Kuang et al. [62] Open Contact Carbon Fibre/Epoxy
Strain -
(2001) Moulding Processes Laminate.
Keulen et al. [63] Open Contact
Strain 0.001 nm/mε Composite Panel
(2011) Moulding Processes
Ramly et al. [64] Resin Infusion Sandwich Composite
Strain -
(2012) Processes. Panel
Bremer et al. [65] Open Contact
Strain and Crack 0.0033 mm/N
(2017) Moulding Processes
Composite
Oromiehie et al. [66] Automated Fibre
Defects - Components for the
(2018) Placement
Aerospace Industry
Kousiatza et al. [67] Fused Filament Complex Lightweight
Residual Strain -
(2019) Fabrication. Structures
Mieloszyk et al. [68] Open Contact
Temperature and Strain - Marine Applications
(2021) Moulding Processes
Fibre-Reinforced
Hurtado et al. [69] Resin Transfer
Strain up to 7500 µ Polymer Structure
(2021) Moulding
Failure

Table 3. Overview of applications and methodology of integrating both Fibre Bragg grating (FBG)
Sensors and Extrinsic Fabry–Perot Interferometers (EFPI) for composite structural components.

Author Methodology of Integrating Sensors Measurements Sensitivity Applications

Leng et al [71] Carbon Fibre
Open Contact Moulding Processes Strain -
(2003) -reinforced Polymer
Oliveira et al. [70] Carbon Fibre
Compression Moulding Processes Strain 2.6 µε/N
(2008) -reinforced Polymer

The studies carried out with respect to the monitoring of composites’ manufacture
with embedded FOSs, namely, the Fibre Bragg grating and the Extrinsic Fabry–Perot Inter-
ferometer (EFPI), have shown their capability and potential in certain future applications
and serve as basic knowledge towards this goal. During the process of integrating FOSs into
the polymer matrix, many authors [62–64] reported challenges regarding sensor fastening
or FOSs breaks. These problems are critical and may lead to incorrect monitoring and
consequently jeopardise the component integrity analysis, requiring the implementation of
mechanisms or techniques for their prevention. To solve these issues, FOSs complemented
with textile reinforcements have been implemented and studied by Bremer et al. [65] and
Alwis et al. [72]. This textile reinforcement will make use of its conventional counterparts,
and civil infrastructure will be fully incorporated with sensors to ensure safety, comfort,
and long-term durability.
Accordingly to Kuang et al. [62] and Ramly et al. [64], the composite-manufacturing
process can cause the appearance of residual strain in FOSs. Therefore, it is essential to
perform a predicted analysis of the residual strain because this strain may lead to deviations
from the results and influence the structural component’s monitoring. In this regard, the
signal obtained when FBG sensors are properly embedded and readable have a difference
of minus 1 nm when compared to the signal obtained before FBG sensors were embedded
in the composite matrix [64]. Therefore, the signal reduction obtained is not very significant
when compared to the typical strain sensitivity of FBG sensors, which corresponds, for
 perform a predicted analysis of the residual strain because this strain may lead to devia-
tions from the results and influence the structural component’s monitoring. In this regard,
the signal obtained when FBG sensors are properly embedded and readable have a dif-
ference of minus 1 nm when compared to the signal obtained before FBG sensors were
embedded in the composite matrix [64]. Therefore, the signal reduction obtained is not
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 10 of 33
very significant when compared to the typical strain sensitivity of FBG sensors, which
corresponds, for example, to 1.2 pm/με for the wavelength of 1550 nm, leading to the con-
clusion that incorporating FOSs is feasible and may be an alternative to conventional
example,
NDTs. to 1.2 pm/µε
Embedded opticalfor theFBG
fibre wavelength of 1550
sensors can nm, leading
also detect to the conclusion
small delamination that
or disen-
incorporating FOSs is feasible and may be an alternative to conventional
gagements between the matrix and fibres via an FBG spectrum change, allowing for the NDTs. Embedded
optical fibre
prediction of FBG sensors can also
a fibre-reinforced detectbeam’s
polymer small delamination or disengagements
structural failure [69]. between
the matrix and fibres via an FBG spectrum change, allowing for the
Regarding the correlation between FBG sensors and EFPI, each has a preferred prediction of a fibre-
ap-
reinforced polymer beam’s structural failure [69].
plication, which is why these types of FOS are used simultaneously, complementing the
Regarding
monitoring the correlation
process, as shown inbetween
the works FBG
of sensors and[71]
Leng et al. EFPI,
andeach has aetpreferred
Oliveira ap-
al. [70]. For
plication,the
example, which is why
curing theseand
process types of FOStests
bending are can
usedbesimultaneously,
monitored withcomplementing
the incorporation the
monitoring process, as shown in the works of Leng et al. [71] and Oliveira
of these sensor types, which is extremely advantageous, since, regardless of the loading et al. [70]. For
example,
type or lifethe curing
phase process
of the and bending
structural testsmixed
component, can beand
monitored
completed withmonitoring
the incorporation
are guar- of
these sensor types, which is extremely advantageous, since, regardless of the loading type
anteed.
or life phase of the structural component, mixed and completed monitoring are guaranteed.
The main concepts related to the integration of FOSs into composite components are
The main concepts related to the integration of FOSs into composite components are
summarised in Figure 4. Figure 4 depicts a schematic of an acquisition system used in this
summarised in Figure 4. Figure 4 depicts a schematic of an acquisition system used in this
technology, and a summary of the advantages, limitations, and range of applications for
technology, and a summary of the advantages, limitations, and range of applications for
the incorporation of FOSs into composite components.
the incorporation of FOSs into composite components.

Fibreoptic
Figure4.4.Fibre
Figure opticsensors
sensorsembedded
embeddedin
incomposite
compositecomponents.
components.

4.1.2. Applications for Metal Components

4.1.2. Applications for Metal Components
FOSs are attractive for in situ structural monitoring, especially metallic structural
FOSs are attractive for in situ structural monitoring, especially metallic structural
components since the sensors that use optical properties provide silent monitoring, greater
components since the sensors that use optical properties provide silent monitoring,
sensitivity, good accuracy, and high-temperature capacity.
greater sensitivity, good accuracy, and high-temperature capacity.
Metals such as steel, nickel, iron, and titanium have high melting points. In this sense,
Metals such as
metal-processing steel, nickel,involving
technologies iron, andthe
titanium have
melting high melting
of metals points.
will lead to the Indestruction
this sense,
metal-processing technologies involving the melting of metals will lead to the
of FOSs, which is undesirable. Therefore, to avoid the damage of FOSs, it is necessary to destruction
of FOSs,
resort to which
a set ofismaterial-processing
undesirable. Therefore, to avoidthat
technologies thedoes
damage of FOSs,the
not involve it fusion
is necessary to
of a base
resort
metal,to a set
such as of material-processing
shape technologies
deposition manufacturing, that does
Layered not involveLaser
Manufacturing, the fusion of a
Deposited,
base
ultrasonic additive manufacturing, electron beam melting, Magnetron Sputtering, De-
metal, such as shape deposition manufacturing, Layered Manufacturing, Laser and
posited, ultrasonic additive manufacturing, electron beam melting, Magnetron Sputter-
Electroplating.
ing, and Electroplating.
Over the last few years and based on the techniques of the incorporation of FOSs, a set
of systems has been developed that enables the monitoring of strains, temperature varia-
tions, and cracking using mainly FOSs of the FBG type [73–82]. Xiao Chun Li et al. [73–76]
are among the main boosters in the development of methodologies capable of integrating
sensors into metal components, in this case using low-temperature processes, magnetron
sputtering, and electroplating.
The FBG sensors incorporated into components manufactured, for example, with
nickel and stainless steel provide high sensitivity, good accuracy, and high-temperature
capacity for temperature measurements. Regarding sensitivity in temperature measure-
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 11 of 33

ments, embedded FBG sensors have better results than those shown when sensors are not
embedded [75] and an accuracy of about 2 ◦ C [74].
For strain measurements, embedded sensors in metal were capable of high sensitivity,
precision, and linearity, while unembedded FBG sensors achieved similar results [75]. In
addition, the results obtained by Schomer et al. [78] showed that the embedded FBG sensors
accurately track the strain for temperatures above 400 ◦ C.
The different applications that can use this type of sensor are presented in Table 4
through an overview of the state of the art and the developments made regarding FOSs.
The different types of FOSs used and the methodologies of the integration of sensors for
each of the applications developed for metallic components are also presented.
Xiao Chun Li et al. [73,76] have contributed to the development of methodologies for
the integration of FOSs into metal components, focusing mainly on the structural compo-
nents obtained via nickel and stainless steel, and not covering the components fabricated
from aluminium alloys, which are currently one of the main applications. The technology
developed by these authors has shown very promising results, mainly due to the integra-
tion process of FOSs developed that leads to temperature and strain measurements with
satisfactory sensitivity when compared to the same unembedded sensors. Their work en-
ables the monitoring of the residual strain coming from the manufacturing process and high
temperatures but neglects the monitoring of cracks and porosity in structural components.
Alemohammad et al. [77] used a similar FOS-embedded process, incorporating the
FOSs into a cutting tool and reporting results on the validation of this methodology when
the component is subjected to thermal cycles, wherein said results were good and relevant.
However, this research could also have focused on the analysis of strain cycles since this
type of application is subjected to very high stresses that can lead to the fracture of the
cutting tool.
Schomer et al. [78], Chilelli et al. [81], and Hehr et al. [82] demonstrated the feasibility
of integrating FOSs into metal matrices through UAM and monitoring the temperature,
cracks, and residual stress, respectively, in structural components. This type of process
also has great potential for monitoring the components present in environments subject to
high temperatures, which does not happen with piezoelectric sensors as will be analysed
later on.
Grandal et al. [79] and Jinachandran et al. [80] implemented different methodologies to
incorporate FOSs with very promising results. The sensors presented identical thermal and
strain sensitivities when compared with the same unembedded sensors. These methodolo-
gies also ensure the durability, detachability, and reusability of the monitoring equipment.
However, the application range is still too small, requiring expansion for application with
other metallic materials.
Figure 5 contains summary of the current state of the art, presenting a schematic of
an acquisition system, a set of advantages, limitations, and a range of applications for the
incorporation of FOSs into metal components.

Table 4. Overview of applications and methodology of integrating Fibre Bragg grating sensors in
metal structural components.

Methodology of
Author Measurements Sensitivity Applications
Integrating Sensors
Nickel and
Li et al. [73] Magnetron Sputtering
Temperature 0.0245 nm/◦ C Stainless-Steel
(2000) and Electroplating
Structures.
Nickel and
Li et al. [74] Magnetron Sputtering
Temperature 0.021 nm/◦ C Stainless-Steel
(2001) and Electroplating
Structures
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 12 of 34

components obtained via nickel and stainless steel, and not covering the components fab-
ricated from aluminium alloys, which are currently one of the main applications. The tech-
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 12 of 33
nology developed by these authors has shown very promising results, mainly due to the
integration process of FOSs developed that leads to temperature and strain measurements
with satisfactory sensitivity when compared to the same unembedded sensors. Their
Table 4. Cont.
work enables the monitoring of the residual strain coming from the manufacturing pro-
cess and high temperatures but neglects the monitoring of cracks and porosity in struc-
Methodology of
Author tural components. Measurements Sensitivity Applications
Integrating Sensors
Alemohammad et al. [77] used a similar FOS-embedded process, incorporating the
−3 nm/µε Monitoring the
Li et al. [75] Magnetron
FOSs into Sputtering Strain
a cutting tool and reporting results1.245
on the× 10
validation of this methodology when
◦ Accumulation of
(2003) and
the Electroplating
component is subjected Temperature 0.0334 nm/
to thermal cycles, wherein saidC results were good and rele-
Residual Strain
vant. However, this research could also have focused on the analysis of strain cycles since
Turbine Blades and
Li et al. [76] this type of application isTemperature
subjected to very high stresses that can lead to the fracture
Layered Manufacturing - others’ Rotary Metal of
(2004) the cutting tool. Tooling
Alemohammad et al. [77]
Schomer et
Magnetron Sputtering
al. [78], Chilelli et al.
Residual Stress
[81], and Hehr et al. [82] demonstrated the feasibility
◦ C.
(2011) of integrating
and FOSs into metal
Electroplating matrices through 21
Temperature UAMpm/and monitoringMetaltheCutting Tools
temperature,
cracks, and residual stress, respectively, in structural components. This type of process
Schomer et al. [78] Ultrasonic Additive High-Temperature
also has great potential for Temperature
monitoring the components - present in environments subject
(2017) Manufacturing Environments
to high temperatures, which does not happen with◦ piezoelectric ◦
sensors as will be ana-
Grandal et al. [79] Laser Cladding Strain 29 pm/ C–23 pm/ C. High-Temperature
lysed later on.
(2018) Technology Temperature 0.9 pm/µε–1 pm/µε. Environments
Grandal et al. [79] and Jinachandran et al. [80] implemented different methodologies
Iron Pipelines and
Jinachandran et al. [80] to incorporate
Metal FOSs with very
Packaging using promising results.0.4456
Strain The sensors
µε/N presented identical thermal
◦ other Ferromagnetic
(2018) Stainless Steelsensitivities
and strain and Tin Temperature
when compared with the11.16 samepm/ C
unembedded sensors. These meth-
Components
odologies also ensure the durability, detachability, and reusability of the monitoring
Chilelli et al. [81] Ultrasonic Additive Length of
equipment. However, the application
Cracks range is still too small, requiring expansion
Complex for ap-
Systems
(2019) Manufacturing 0.286 ± 0.033 mm
plication with other metallic materials.
Figure Residual Stress
5 contains summary of the current state of the art, presenting a schematic
Hehr et al. [82] Ultrasonic Additive Fibre-Routing Designsof
Temperature -
(2020) an acquisition system, a set
Manufacturing of advantages,
Delamination
limitations, and a range of applications
and for the
Alloy Systems
incorporation of FOSs into metal components.

Figure 5.
Figure Fibreoptic-embedded
5. Fibre optic-embedded sensors
sensors for
for metal
metal components.
components.

4.2. Piezoelectric Sensors

4.2. Piezoelectric Sensors
The piezoelectric effect was discovered in 1880 by the Curie brothers and was first used
The piezoelectric effect was discovered in 1880 by the Curie brothers and was first
by Paul Langevin in the development of ultrasounds, based on quartz crystal transducers,
used by Paul Langevin in the development of ultrasounds, based on quartz crystal trans-
during the first World War. The development of piezoelectric ceramics, such as Lead
ducers,
Zirconateduring the(PZT)
Titanate first World War. Titanate,
and Barium The development of piezoelectric
was revolutionary. ceramics,
Moreover, such
to obtain as
better
Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT) and Barium Titanate, was revolutionary. Moreover,
properties than crystals after being polarised, they also offered flexible geometries and to
dimensions because they could be manufactured through sintering. Currently, piezoelectric
ceramics of the PZT type, in their various applications, are the predominant ceramics in
the market. In addition, other materials can also be found, such as PT (PbTiO3 ) and PMN
(Pb (Mg1 /3 Nb2 /3) O3 ), that are used in devices that require special and very specific
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 13 of 33

properties, such as high-temperature transducers. However, there are even more materials
that have a piezoelectric effect, which can be classified into one of the following groups:
piezoelectric ceramics, quartz crystals, piezoelectric composites, hydro soluble crystals,
piezoelectric monocrystals, piezoelectric semiconductors, or piezoelectric polymers [83,84].
The knowledge and electromechanical behaviour of these materials are fundamental
for the industry, especially those that depend and focus on the ultrasound aspect. From the
groups defined above, piezoelectric ceramics are the ones with a greater flexibility of shape
and properties, being widely used in the production of ultrasound equipment, NDT, and
actuators [85].
Of all these possible applications, the possibility of developing technology that al-
lows for inspections of structural components, and the periodic or continuous monitoring
of structural integrity, through traditional or innovative NDT equipment represents one
of the most important applications. The most significant defect or damage inspection
techniques based on piezoelectric transducers can be grouped into three classes, wherein
their behaviours can be passive, active, or mixed. These main classes are acoustic emis-
sions, acoustic–ultrasonic emissions using piezoelectric transducers, and electromechanical
impedance [9].
The technique based on electromechanical impedance (EMI) is considered one of the
most promising methods for the development of SHM systems. This technique is simple
to implement and uses small and inexpensive piezoelectric sensors. However, practical
problems have made it difficult to apply this technique to real-world structures, and the
effects of temperature have been cited in the literature as critical problems [18,39].
Regarding non-destructive ultrasonic inspection techniques, there are problems re-
garding the reproducibility of the acoustic coupling, accessibility to the structure, and
the weak signal-to-noise ratio in highly attenuating materials. The use of built-in or con-
nected piezoelectric sensors overcomes some of these difficulties because they remain
permanently connected to the structure, and these sensors can be used to monitor the
integrity of a given component from its manufacturing phase to the end of its life cycle. At
present, most works dealing with acoustic and ultrasonic processes have used piezoelectric
transducers [9,83,84,86,87].
Recently, there have been reports in the scientific community of the incorporation of
piezoelectric sensors into composites and some metals. The techniques for the inclusion
of piezoelectric sensors reported so far involve complex methodologies, so it is a scientific
interest to look for easier ways to incorporate piezoelectric sensors into metal or composite
structures. Therefore, Sections 4.2.1 and 4.2.2 present a set of applications and method-
ologies that have been developed in recent years as a way to incorporate the sensors and
ensure the monitoring of the integrity of metal and composite structural components.

4.2.1. Applications for Composite Components

The interest in the concept of self-monitoring structural components has grown in
recent years due to its potential to enable the continuous monitoring of the next genera-
tion of smart structures [88–101]. Considering the studies developed, the applications of
piezoelectric-embedded sensors for composite components are mainly based on structures
or components of reinforced concrete [88,93,95–99]. The development of structures or
components of reinforced concrete with PSs incorporated to obtain smart structures is
particularly suitable for implementation in numerous fields, mainly in civil engineering,
because PSs are characterized by being reliable and stable over a long term. Additionally,
the use of PSs embedded in reinforced concrete structures is a unique opportunity for the
SHM of civil structures due to PSs’ compatibility with new or existing infrastructures.
For this type of application, PSs based on PZT, as discs or fibres, can be used. In certain
applications, a self-sensing structural material with piezoresistive characteristics, based on
the addition of carbon nanotubes, can be obtained [93].
Sensors are usually attached to the reinforcing bars on key parts of reinforced concrete
structures, which are susceptible to damage or are difficult to access, such as bridge shoes,
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 14 of 33

pavement connections, or docks. In these applications, there are a set of parameters to be

monitored, including internal strains [88]; the effect of corrosion [95]; measurements of
healthy and damaged steel bars in reinforced concrete beams [96]; strengths/behaviours
evaluated by in-plane tensile, in-plane tension–tension fatigue, and short beam strength
tests [89]; and deformations, strain, and damage [93].
The ability to monitor structural integrity is only possible if the use of ESs is successful.
In this regard, studies have shown that the actuators and PSs are sensitive to the damage in
concrete and steel reinforcement bars; however, the sensitivity of the transducers depends
greatly on the frequency of the excitation selected. Thus, the use of these sensors to monitor,
detect concrete fissures, and analyse steel yield can be considered as a highly promising
and non-destructive structural monitoring method [96].
Embedded piezoelectric sensors can also be used to monitor other types of composite
materials, among which are materials obtained by glass fibre/epoxy composite laminates.
In addition, it is also possible to use ESs to improve the internal stresses of the structural
component. In this regard, the use of Piezoelectric Fibre Composite Sensors (PFCSs) has
more advantages when compared to traditional PZT ESs, because the use of PFCSs leads to
a 56% reduction in the concentration of longitudinal stresses and a 38% reduction in the
concentration of transverse stresses when compared with the use of PZT ESs, although
none of these types of sensors affect the fatigue behaviour of the base material [89].
For static and continuous monitoring, the techniques presented show great promise for
the development of smart structural materials, which can be used to monitor the integrity
of engineering systems in civil, mechanical, or aerospace structures. Possible applications
for the structural components in civil infrastructure include the use of sensors integrated
into columns, bridge beams, and pillars; the deployment of smart mortars and smart bricks
for masonry structures; or in the structural components obtained by glass fibre/epoxy
composite laminates [88,93].
This type of sensor is used to obtain different applications; so, Tables 5 and 6 present
an overview of the state of the art and the developments made regarding ESs, while also
presenting the different types of PSs used and the methodologies for the integration of the
sensors for each of the applications developed.
Based on the studies presented in Table 5, the PSs are incorporated into reinforced
concrete and on their reinforcement bars. In this respect, the PSs have great applicability
due to the ease of incorporating these sensors into the reinforced concrete matrix, since
before drying the concrete, the cement mortar can be easily handled. In addition, the
production process of reinforced concrete structures is carried out at room temperature,
which represents an advantage towards incorporating PSs, because the use of PSs is limited
by their Curie temperature, which in many applications is higher than room temperature.
Authors such as Wu et al. [88,90], Karayannis et al. [96], Gopalakrishnan et al. [97],
and Sha et al. [99] have developed studies on the structural components obtained in
reinforced concrete, conducting experimental tests that simulate real applications, such
as the de-bonding and bending tests on reinforced concrete beams, and tensile tests on
reinforcement bar. Both studies showed feasibility in identifying the presence of damage,
such as concrete cracking, steel bar elongation, their locations [96], and dynamic stress-
sensing capability [99]. Downey et al. [93] has also shown that the use of self-sensing
structural material with piezoresistive characteristics based on the addition of carbon
nanotubes into a cementitious matrix can provide these monitoring indices. However, there
is still great difficulty in estimating the damage and controlling the volume of collected data,
since in these types of applications there is great potential for implementing multi-sensing
technology, that is, to incorporate numerous PSs into the reinforced concrete matrix. Despite
the multi-sensing nature of the PZT-based sensors, connecting them in series or parallel is
a promising method to reduce the volume of data collected from the sensors to identify
damage in a structure [97]. Environmental factors can permanently damage the integrity of
a reinforced concrete structures through the corrosion of the concrete and reinforcing bars.
The authors Talakokula et al. [95] and Ahmadi et al. [98] found that incorporating PSs into
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 15 of 33

the concrete matrix or in strategic locations allowed for the monitoring of the corrosion
process, in turn enabling preventative action and control over what occurs inside.

Table 5. Overview of applications and methodology of integrating Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT)
piezoelectric sensors into composite structural components.

Methodology of
Author Measurements Sensitivity Applications
Integrating Sensors
Wu et al. [88] Mounted on Reinforced Reinforced Concrete
Damage 1 to 15 × 10−3 V
(2006) Concrete Structures
Konka et al. [89] Open-Contact Stress
- Composite Structures
(2011) Moulding Processes Ultimate Strength
Tang et al. [94] Vacuum-Assisted Resin Damage Prediction
Failure -
(2011) Transfer Moulding in Composites
Talakokula et al. [95] Mounted on Reinforced Reinforced Concrete
Corrosion -
(2015) Concrete Structures
Karayannis et al. [96] Mounted on Reinforced Admittance
- Concrete Beams’ Cracking
(2016) Concrete Signatures
Gopalakrishnan et al. [97] Mounted on Reinforced Conductance Reinforced Concrete
-
(2019) Concrete Signatures Structures
Corrosion
Ahmadi et al. [98] Mounted on Reinforced Reinforced Concrete
(Electro-Mechanical -
(2021) Concrete Structures
Impedance)
Encapsulation with Stress
Sha et al. [99] Reinforced Concrete
Concrete, Epoxy Resin, (Electromechanical -
(2021) Structures
and Curing Agent Impedance)
Degradation
Huijer et al. [100] Open-Contact Carbon Fibre-Reinforced
Failure -
(2021) Moulding Processes Plastics
(Acoustic Emissions)
Damage
Gayakwad et al. [101]
Mounted on Concrete (Electromechanical - Concrete Structures
(2022)
Impedance)
Wu et al. [90] Mounted on Reinforced
Strain 169 to 278 pC/µε Concrete Structures
(2022) Concrete

Regarding polymer matrix composites, there is a small range of manufacturing pro-

cesses that allow for the incorporation of PSs due to the Curie temperature that limits
the applicability of these sensors. Therefore, processes such as open contact-moulding
processes [89] and the vacuum-assisted resin transfer moulding [94] are good alternatives
since they allow PSs’ incorporation without their disuse. As for the PSs used, composite
compatibility is one of the main conditions for good monitoring operations. In this regard,
according to Konka et al. [89], the conventional PZT sensors seem to have low compatibility
with composites; hence, the reduction in strength values is higher when compared to
piezoelectric fibre composite sensors, which seem to have very high compatibility with
composites. Hence, a piezoelectric fibre composite sensor would be an ideal choice as an
embedded sensor when compared with PZT sensors.
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 16 of 34

is a promising method to reduce the volume of data collected from the sensors to identify
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 16 of 33
damage in a structure [97]. Environmental factors can permanently damage the integrity
of a reinforced concrete structures through the corrosion of the concrete and reinforcing
bars. The authors Talakokula et al. [95] and Ahmadi et al. [98] found that incorporating
Table
PSs 6. Overview
into of applications
the concrete matrix orand methodology
in strategic of integrating
locations allowedother
for piezoelectric
the monitoringsensors into
of the
composite process,
corrosion structuralin
components.
turn enabling preventative action and control over what occurs in-
side.
Methodology of
Author Regarding
Types of Sensors polymer matrix composites, thereMeasurements
Integrating Sensors
is a small range of manufacturing
Applications pro-
cesses that allow for the incorporation of PSs due to the Curie temperature that limits the
Damage
Lin et al. [91] applicability of theseOpen-Contact
sensors. Therefore,
Mouldingprocesses such as open contact-moulding
Metallic and pro-
Thin Dielectric Film Material
(2001) Process or Others
cesses [89] and the vacuum-assisted resin transfer Composite Structures
moulding [94] are good alternatives
Degradation
since they allow PSs’ incorporation without their disuse. As for the PSs used, composite
Carbon
Takagi et al. [92] compatibility is one of theOpen-Contact
Piezoelectric Fibres
main conditions for good monitoring operations.
Active Vibration
In this regard,
Fibre-Reinforced
(2006) according to Konka et al. Moulding
[89], theProcess
conventional PZT sensors seem to Polymerlow
have compati-
Composites
bility with composites; hence, the reduction in strength values is higher when compared
SHM in Civil,
Downey et al. [93] to piezoelectric which seemDamage
Carbon Nanotubes fibre composite
Mounted on sensors,
Concrete to have very high Mechanical,
compatibility andwith
(2017) composites. Hence, a piezoelectric fibre composite sensor Failurewould be an ideal choice as an
Aerospace Structures
embedded sensor when compared with PZT sensors.
In addition to conventional PZT sensors, there is another type of ST that enables the
In addition
monitoring to conventional
of structural componentsPZT sensors, there
and offers an is another type
alternative of ST that enables
to conventional the
sensors.
monitoring of structural components and offers an alternative to conventional
One such type of technology is presented by Lin et al. [91], who demonstrates that when sensors.
One such type
combined with of
a technology
sophisticated is presented by Lin system
data acquisition et al. [91],
andwho demonstrates
diagnostic thatitwhen
software, can
dramatically reduce inspection costs, allow for more frequent maintenance periods,itand
combined with a sophisticated data acquisition system and diagnostic software, can
dramatically reduce inspection costs, allow for more frequent maintenance periods, and
reduce the appearance of catastrophic structural failures.
reduce the appearance of catastrophic structural failures.
Finally, Takagi et al. [92] demonstrated once again the versatility of PSs through the
Finally, Takagi et al. [92] demonstrated once again the versatility of PSs through the
use of piezoelectric fibres with a metal core that functions as a sensor or an actuator for
use of piezoelectric fibres with a metal core that functions as a sensor or an actuator for
effectively controlling active vibration.
effectively controlling active vibration.
The Figure 6 shows a schematic of an acquisition system used in this technology, and
The Figure 6 shows a schematic of an acquisition system used in this technology, and
a review of the advantages, limitations, and range of applications for the incorporation of
a review of the advantages, limitations, and range of applications for the incorporation of
PSs into the composite components.
PSs into the composite components.

Piezoelectricsensors
Figure6.6.Piezoelectric
Figure sensorsembedded
embeddedinto
intocomposite
compositecomponents.
components.

4.2.2. Applications for Metal Components

4.2.2. Applications for Metal Components
Currently, the applications for metal components [91,102–106] use sensitive ceramic
Currently, the applications for metal components [91,102–106] use sensitive ceramic
and polymeric piezoelectric sensors, more specifically PZT sensors [102] and Piezoelectric
and polymeric piezoelectric sensors, more specifically PZT sensors [102] and Piezoelectric
Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) sensors [106]. Traditional manufacturing approaches
to incorporating active materials—such as piezoelectric materials—into metals can be
problematic due to their high temperatures during production or the long curing times
of the adhesives used to connect the sensor to the metal. To bridge the challenges that
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 17 of 33

technological processes present, the scientific community has carried out a set of devel-
opments, among which is their focus on the development of a process of “stop and go”,
which consists of taking a break in the manufacturing process of a given component to
allow for the inclusion of PSs [102], or the inclusion of sensors through the joining of metal
components in the solid-state, i.e., by ultrasonic additive manufacturing [106].
Based on the mechanisms that currently exist to incorporate PSs in metal components,
it was possible to obtain responses of about 3 V of maximum voltage, for pressure values
not exceeding 40 MPa, and good behaviours when requested with different frequencies
(i.e., 10 Hz, 15 Hz, 20 Hz, and 25 Hz), for PZT piezoelectric sensors. For applications with
PVDF sensors, the studies led to an average sensitivity of 9.4 mV µε−1 and the ability to
detect strains.
The studies carried out so far proved the feasibility of manufacturing smart compo-
nents with ESs. In addition, they can evaluate the components’ performance, leading to the
possibility of manufacturing smart components that can have an impact in industries such
as the energy, aerospace, automotive, and biomedical industries, or for applications such as
air/fuel premixing, pressure pipes, and turbine blades [91,102,106].
Different applications can make use of these types of sensors; Table 7 presents an
overview of the state of the art and the developments made regarding embedded sensors,
also presenting the different types of piezoelectric sensors used and the methodologies for
the integration of the sensors for each of the applications developed.

Table 7. Overview of applications and methodology of integrating different types of sensors such as
Thin Dielectric Films, Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT) Piezoelectric Sensors, Piezoelectric Ultrasonic
Transducers, and Piezoelectric polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) in metal structural components.

Methodology of
Author Measurements Sensitivity Applications
Integrating Sensors
Open
Lin et al. [91] Damage Metallic and
Contact-Moulding -
(2001) Material Degradation Composite Structures
Process or Others
Hossain et al. [102] Pressure Tubes and
Electron Beam Melting Stress 0.42 to 0.53 V/kN
(2016) Turbine Blades
Tseng et al. [103] Solid Metal Structural
Casting Temperature 0.37 °C/bit
(2018) Component
Altammar et al. [104] Sandwich Panel Wave Propagation
- Laminate Structures
(2018) Manufacturing Analysis (Damage)
Yanaseko et al. [105] Evaluation of Viscosity
Hot-Pressing Process Displacement 14.0 mV/µm
(2019) Characteristics
Ramanathan et al. [106] Ultrasonic Additive Functionalised Metal
Strain 9.4 mV/µε
(2021) Manufacturing Structures

Based on the studies developed, the processes to incorporate PSs into metal matrices
are based on the additive manufacturing process, allowing greater control of the sensors’
positioning and avoiding their damage.
The authors, whose studies are reported in Table 7, have shown that the use of PSs
inside metal components allows for the monitoring of external stimuli, such as strain and
temperature variations, with satisfactory sensitivities. However, there are several factors
that are fundamental to be studied to validate the applicability and versatility of this
strand of ST. Regarding service factors, the possibility of monitoring, detecting, locating,
and sizing possible damage or cracks is essential to ensuring the integrity of structural
components. With respect to environmental factors, the action of corrosion can lead to
irreparable consequences in the metal structure, as it is essential to study the possibility of
PSs’ ability to monitor the corrosive actions that a metal structure is subjected to during its
life cycle.
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 18 of 34

components. With respect to environmental factors, the action of corrosion can lead to
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 irreparable consequences in the metal structure, as it is essential to study the possibility 18 of 33
of PSs’ ability to monitor the corrosive actions that a metal structure is subjected to during
its life cycle.
InInFigure
Figure7 7presents
presentsa asummary
summaryofofthe thecurrent
currentstate
stateofofthe
theart,
art,presenting
presentinga aschematic
schematic
ofofananacquisition
acquisitionsystem,
system,a aset
setofofadvantages,
advantages,limitations,
limitations,and anda arange
rangeofofapplications
applicationsfor
for
the
theincorporation
incorporationofofPSs
PSsinto
intothe
themetal
metalcomponents.
components.

Figure
Figure Piezoelectric
7.7.Piezoelectric sensors
sensors embedded
embedded into
into metalcomponents.
metal components.

4.3. Other Embedded Sensors

4.3. Other embedded Sensors
In this regard, a set of applications that use sensors or sensory systems with optical
In this regard, a set of applications that use sensors or sensory systems with optical
properties (FOSs) or with piezoelectric properties has been analysed. Although most SHM
properties (FOSs) or with piezoelectric properties has been analysed. Although most SHM
applications are based on these two technologies, it is important to note that they are not the
applications are based on these two technologies, it is important to note that they are not
only ones; in this sense, other structural monitoring alternatives with ESs will be analysed
the only ones; in this sense, other structural monitoring alternatives with ESs will be ana-
throughout this section. These alternatives are monitoring technologies based on SHM
lysed throughout this section. These alternatives are monitoring technologies based on
techniques, such as capacitive methods, electromagnetic techniques (for example, eddy
SHM techniques, such as capacitive methods, electromagnetic techniques (for example,
currents), and materials with characteristics and properties that can be used for structural
eddy currents),
monitoring, and
such asmaterials with characteristics
Shape Memory Alloys (SMA). and properties that can be used for
structural monitoring, such as Shape Memory
Several studies have been developed using Alloysthese
(SMA).
SHM techniques to obtain self-
Several studies have been developed using these SHM
monitored structural components, mainly for application in techniques
composites to obtain self-mon-
and metal compo-
itored structural components, mainly for application in composites and metal compo-
nents. Therefore, Sections 4.3.1 and 4.3.2 present a set of applications and methodologies
nents. Therefore,
that have Sections 4.3.1
been developed and 4.3.2
in recent present
years a set of applications
as a methodology and methodologies
to incorporate sensors and
that have been developed in recent years as a methodology to incorporate sensors and
ensure the monitoring of the integrity of metal and composite structural components.
ensure the monitoring of the integrity of metal and composite structural components.
4.3.1. Applications for Composite Components
4.3.1. Applications for decades,
In the last two Composite Components
there has been significant growth in the development of
In the last two
multifunctional decades, there
technologies has been
to improve significant
materials’ growth in
properties. the development
Multifunctional of mul-
technologies
tifunctional
enable the technologies
acquirementtoofimprove materials’
SHM systems properties.
in order Multifunctional
to detect technologies
structural damage and for
enable
strain the acquirement of SHM systems in order to detect structural damage and for
sensing.
strain sensing.
Regarding applications obtained in composite materials, a set of embedded SHM tech-
niques has been
Regarding developed obtained
applications to incorporate the structural
in composite components
materials, a set of [107–113].
embeddedStarting
SHM
with SHMhas
techniques techniques that havetocapacitive
been developed incorporatemethods as their components
the structural basis, the scientific community
[107–113]. Start-
haswith
ing developed technologies
SHM techniques that
that allow
have for the monitoring
capacitive methods asoftheir
the deformations that a particu-
basis, the scientific com-
lar component is subjected due to dynamic impacts by including
munity has developed technologies that allow for the monitoring of the deformationsa pair of wires in adjacent
that
a layers to obtain
particular a complex
component condenser.
is subjected With
due to the capacitance
dynamic impacts byvariation
includingofathis
paircondenser,
of wires
initadjacent
is possible to monitor
layers to obtainthea deformations inflicted
complex condenser. on the
With thestructural component
capacitance variation [111].
of thisIn
another approach,
condenser, the authors
it is possible to monitordeveloped a built-in monitoring
the deformations inflicted on sensor to monitor
the structural the water
component
content
[111]. inside reinforced
In another approach, theconcrete
authorsstructures
developed based on a passive
a built-in and wireless
monitoring sensor tocondenser
monitor
resonance circuit [107].
Regarding the electromagnetic techniques based on SHM techniques, techniques have
been developed to determine the humidity content and, consequently, the deterioration of
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 19 of 33

reinforced concrete structures. To this end, smart sensors are incorporated into concrete
structures for real-time monitoring. These sensors are microstrip patch antennae that
generate a set of electromagnetic waves allowing for the determination of the degree of
humidity in the structure [110].
The development of SHM systems also employs materials that have interesting prop-
erties, as is the case of Shape Memory Alloys (SMA). SMA are metal alloys that, when
deformed, return to their initial format if heated. These materials are generally lightweight,
found in solid-state, and present an alternative to mechanical actuators such as hydraulics,
pneumatics, and motorised systems. These alloys have applications in the robotics, automo-
tive, aerospace, and biomedical industries. In addition, these materials can be incorporated
within the traditional carbon fibre-reinforced polymer composites to increase the mechan-
ical properties of composite panels and explore their intrinsic electrothermal properties.
That is, with the variation of the electrical resistance and the internal resistance-heating
source provided by the SMA network, it is possible to perform rapid monitoring of the
strains’ distribution and an in situ visualization through thermographic images of the
damage [108].
The methodologies for integrating this type of sensor or materials are fundamentally
based on a reinforced concrete structure, on the inclusion of sensors during the production
phase and in polymer matrix composites, and on the inclusion of these before the curing
process. However, new approaches to methodologies for obtaining smart sensor materials
are beginning to emerge, such as the use of magnetron sputter deposition to deposit
thin films on heat-sensitive materials such as fibre-reinforced polymers, also known as
composite materials [112].
The different applications that can make use of this type of sensor are presented in
Table 8 through an overview of the state of the art and the developments made regarding
ESs, also presenting the different types of ESs used and the integration methodologies of
the sensors for each of the applications developed.
In addition to fibre optic and piezoelectric ESs, many authors have developed another
type of ES aiming at monitoring other material properties and structures that are not
possible with FOSs and PSs, namely, the group of capacitive methods. These methods
enable the monitoring of the moisture content of reinforced concrete structures [107], which
is a huge advantage since excess moisture leads to the appearance of biological agents,
cracks, and delimitations. The monitoring of components with lattice structures is also a
great challenge due to the difficulty of incorporating sensors; however, the use of capacitive
methods enables researchers to overcome this difficulty and, consequently, evaluate the
internal efforts of this type of material, as detailed by Ong et al. [107]. However, these
types of ES have some limitations that can affect their performance, i.e., capacitive methods
are much more sensitive to changes from environmental conditions, such as temperature
and humidity variations, although, under certain conditions, this sensitivity can be easily
changed. In addition, the measurement of capacitance or electrical resistance can be
easily misinterpreted.
Other material properties can be used to inspect structural components. The use of
SMA is another alternative and, according to Pinto et al. [108], it is possible to monitor, scale,
and locate the appearance of a broken fibre, crack, or delamination in carbon reinforced
plastic composites through thermography. At the same time, it allows for the monitoring
of stress–strain behaviour due to the thermo-mechanical behaviour of SMA. However,
thermography does not have a sufficient resolution to identify small defects and has
difficulties in quantifying damage depth [108].
The cost, weight, or physical size of the sensors restrict the total number that a
structure can accommodate—which is often the case for complex systems—and leads to an
abundance of data for processing. In this regard, the use of carbon nanotube fibre sensors
enables lower costs and weight and ensures a simple and easy way to incorporate the fibres
inside the composite [109]. Another advantage of this application is that the use of carbon
nanotube fibre sensors embedded in composites requires only a simple measurement
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 20 of 33

of the electrical resistance to monitor the efforts that are applied in the component [109].
Therefore, Meoni et al. [113] applied this type of sensor inside reinforced concrete structures,
leading to the development of a viable measurement technique. However, carbon nanotube
technology is recent, so its true potential is still unknown, and the production process of
carbon nanotubes is relatively expensive.

Table 8. Overview of applications, type of embedded sensors used, and methodology of integrating
sensors for composite structural components.

Methodology of
Author Types of Sensors Measurements Applications
Integrating Sensors
Passive and Wireless Real-Time Monitoring
Ong et al. [107] Mounted on
Inductor–Capacitor Water Content of Water Content
(2008) Reinforced Concrete
Resonant Circuit in Structures
Pinto et al. [108] Shape Memory Open Contact Strain Distribution Carbon-Reinforced
(2012) NiTi Alloy Moulding Process Damage plastic Composites
Sebastian et al. [109] Glass Fibre Coated Open Contact Carbon-Reinforced
Strain
(2014) with Carbon Nanotube Moulding Process plastic Composites
Teng et al. [110] Microstrip Patch Mounted on Moisture Content Reinforced Concrete
(2019) Antenna Reinforced Concrete Deterioration Structures
Santiago et al. [111] Additive Deformation Metal and Ceramic
Capacitance System
(2020) Manufacturing. Impacts Lattices
Magnetron-Sputtering
Cougnom et al. [112] Deposition and Fabrication of
Thin Films Heating Elements
(2021) Open Contact- Heating Elements.
Moulding Process
Meoni et al. [113] Mounted on Reinforced Reinforced Concrete
Carbon Nanotubes Strain
(2021) Concrete Structures
Loads
Gino et al. [114] Resin Infusion Glass Fibre-
PZT Powder (Through the
(2022) Processes reinforced Polymer
Electrical Signal)

A procedure using ceramic PZT powders as a self-sensing composite material was

also successfully developed. The piezoelectric powder is interleaved between the glass
fibre-reinforced polymer prepreg plies and the piezoelectric signals are collected using
brass-sheet electrodes. Fibre Bragg gratings and piezoceramics have been proposed as
real-time sensors integrated into laminates. Their presence, however, has a negative impact
on the mechanical properties of the hosting laminate. So, Gino et al. [114] demonstrated that
PZT powder laminates have higher sensitivity than PZT commercial disk laminates and
that the mechanical properties of the powder laminate are comparable to the non-sensing
reference counterpart. This is a new technology that the authors of this paper believe has
enormous potential.
A new breed of implanted nanocomposite sensor network has been developed for
implementing an in situ, ultrasound tomography-driven SHM of carbon fibre-reinforced
polymer (CFRP) laminates. Individual sensing units were formulated with graphene
nanosheets using a spray deposition process, circuited with highly conductive carbon
nanotube fibres as wires, and then implanted into CFRP laminates to form a dense sensor
network [115]. Monitoring the moisture content inside the concrete structure is one of the
most critical factors to ensure structural integrity. However, many of the types of equipment
or technologies used to measure moisture content are destructive and require additional
drilling in the material to perform measurements. In this regard, Teng et al. [110] developed
a microstrip patch antenna that presents a precise calibration, validated by a numerical
model, which is reliable, easy to use, and is implemented inside the structure. However, self-
generated energy for data transmission remains a challenge for these technologies, because
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 21 of 34

additional drilling in the material to perform measurements. In this regard, Teng et al.
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320
[110] developed a microstrip patch antenna that presents a precise calibration, validated 21 of 33
by a numerical model, which is reliable, easy to use, and is implemented inside the struc-
ture. However, self-generated energy for data transmission remains a challenge for these
technologies, because the power supply typically has a longer service life than the struc-
the power
tures supply
in which typically
these typeshasof asensors
longer are
service life than[110].
integrated the structures
Wireless in which sensors
passive these types
can
of sensors are integrated [110]. Wireless passive sensors can offer a
offer a good solution to these problems. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)-passive good solution to these
problems. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)-passive sensors do not require batteries
sensors do not require batteries or maintenance so the sensors can be embedded in struc-
or maintenance so the sensors can be embedded in structures such as walls, packaging,
tures such as walls, packaging, or in clothing. Consequentially, a sensor’s lifetime must be
or in clothing. Consequentially, a sensor’s lifetime must be the same as the lifetime of the
the same as the lifetime of the structure in which it is embedded. Thus, the output from
structure in which it is embedded. Thus, the output from the sensor can be read through
the sensor can be read through different materials [116,117]. RFID with sensing properties
different materials [116,117]. RFID with sensing properties is predicted to become a key
is predicted to become a key product of the next generation because it can also be used in
product of the next generation because it can also be used in force measurements since strain
force measurements since strain is proportional to force. [118]. The traditional RFID tag is
is proportional to force. [118]. The traditional RFID tag is typically used in power supply
typically used in power supply and data transfers [117]. One problem with this technol-
and data transfers [117]. One problem with this technology is the low power output of the
ogy is the low power output of the tag. RFID-based sensing has often been limited to low
tag. RFID-based sensing has often been limited to low power consumption sensors such
power consumption sensors such as those used in temperature sensing [119]. In Suzuki et
as those used in temperature sensing [119]. In Suzuki et al.’s work [117], a displacement
al.’s work [117], a displacement sensor was developed using an external strain gauge and
sensor was developed using an external strain gauge and two tags, one providing power
twothe
for tags, one providing
on-board power
electronics andfor the on-board
strain gauge and electronics
the otherand strain
tag for gauge anddata.
transferring the other
The
tag for transferring data. The sensor was tested in “real” conditions
sensor was tested in “real” conditions and the reading of signals through various materials and the reading of
signals
used through various
in buildings materials used
was successfully in buildings was successfully performed.
performed.
Embedded sensors allow for
Embedded sensors allow for the additionthe addition of of value
value oror functionalities
functionalities in in structural
structural
components; however, they can compromise the structural properties of the host material.
components; however, they can compromise the structural properties of the host material.
Therefore, the
Therefore, the work
workdeveloped
developed by by Cougnom
Cougnom et et al.
al. [112]
[112] presents
presentsan analternative
alternative that
that does
does
notdeteriorate
not deterioratethe theproperties
propertiesbutbutrather
ratherguarantees
guarantees anan increase
increase depending
depending on on
thethe typol-
typology
ogy
of theofthin
the films
thin films deposited.
deposited. Consequently,
Consequently, this composite
this composite material
material enablesenables the fabri-
the fabrication
cation
of of single-metal
single-metal thermocouple
thermocouple thin and thin and heating
heating elements. elements.
Therefore, Figure 8 shows the advantages, limitations,
Therefore, Figure 8 shows the advantages, limitations, and andrange
range ofof applications
applications for for
each of the technologies presented throughout this section. The advantages
each of the technologies presented throughout this section. The advantages and limitations and limita-
tions
are are related
related to the behaviour
to the behaviour that the structure
that the structure presents withpresents with
respect respect
to the typetoof the type of
embedded
embedded
sensor used.sensor used.

Figure 8. Other
Figure8. Other embedded
embedded sensors
sensors for
forcomposite
compositecomponents.
components.

4.3.2. Applications for Metal Components

4.3.2. Applications for Metal Components
ESs’ monitoring of components manufactured with metallic materials is a more
ESs’ monitoring of components manufactured with metallic materials is a more com-
complex process when compared to the components obtained with composite materi-
plex process when compared to the components obtained with composite materials
als [73,120–124]. In this regard, technological processes such as laser-assisted metal depo-
[73,120–124]. In this regard, technological processes such as laser-assisted metal
sition, low-temperature processes, magnetron sputtering and electroplating [73,121,124],
ultrasonic metal welding [120,122], and a hybrid-manufactured metal process with an in
situ process interruption [123] are used to incorporate sensors or materials that enable
continuous monitoring.
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 22 of 33

Through the technological processes mentioned, there is the possibility of incorpo-

rating sensors or materials, such as thin-film [73,120] or shape memory alloys [122], to
monitor the thermomechanical behaviour of structural components, as well as eddy current
sensors [124] for studies of crack propagation and its evolution over time.
This type of sensor has been implemented in practical applications; so, Table 9 presents
an overview of the state of the art and the developments made regarding ESs, also present-
ing the different types of ESs used and the integration methodologies of the sensors for
each of the applications developed.

Table 9. Overview of applications, type of embedded sensors used, and methodology of integrating
sensors for metal structural components.

Methodology of
Author Types of Sensors Measurements Applications
Integrating Sensors
Thin-Film Nickel and
Li et al. [73] Laser Assisted
Thermo-Mechanical Strain Stainless-Steel
(2000) Metal Deposition
Sensor Structures
Nickel, Stainless-Steel,
Cheng et al. [120] Thin-Film
Ultrasonic Metal Welding Temperature and Titanium Alloy
(2007) Thermocouple
Tools
Monitoring of
Zhang et al. [121] Laser-Assisted
Micro Ring Sensor Temperature Manufacturing
(2008) Metal Deposition
Processes
Monitoring of
Hahnlen et al. [122] Shape Memory NiTi Ultrasonic Additive
Temperature Manufacturing
(2010) Alloy Manufacturing
Processes
Juhasz et al. [123] Hybrid Manufactured Metal Structural
Passive Sensor-Printed Strain
(2020) Metal Structure Components.
Sholl et al. [124] Metal Structural
Eddy Current Sensors Laser Powder Bed Fusion. Crack Propagation
(2021) Components.

Li et al. [73] and Cheng et al. [120] developed technologies for temperature monitoring
in metal structural components through thin-film thermos-sensors but used different
methodologies for the sensors’ integration, i.e., the laser-assisted metal deposition and the
ultrasonic metal-welding techniques, respectively. In the case of the application studied
by Li et al. [73], it is notorious that there is a spread of strain values measures, which,
according to the author, is due to the acquisition process’ limited resolution and the
electrical noise generated during the amplification and transport of the signal. Therefore, it
can be concluded that although the process of integrating thin-film thermal sensors has
been well-achieved and presents a response to external loads, the signal obtained is very
noisy and has poor resolution. Regarding the study accomplished by Cheng et al. [120], a
monitoring sensitivity identical to traditional thermocouples was obtained and provided
strong evidence that the heat generated during ultrasonic welding may not be critical
for structural integrity. In this regard, this type of ES has great potential to improve the
understanding of numerous other manufacturing processes by providing in situ monitoring
with high spatial and temporal resolution in critical locations.
Still, in the context of temperature monitoring, Zhang et al. [121] developed a small
sensor, i.e., a micro-photonic sensor, which allowed the authors to obtain data with a
significantly improved spatial and temporal resolution and a sensitivity higher than many
applications with FOSs. As the operation of this sensor is based on optical properties, they
present immunity to electromagnetic interference, and they are suitable for operation and
monitoring in processes with a high operating electrical voltage and/or current, such as
resistance welding, work involving high-voltage cables, etc. However, the challenges of
incorporating this type of micro ring sensor arise from the fact that most metal structures
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 23 of 34

Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 23 of 33

incorporating this type of micro ring sensor arise from the fact that most metal structures
have a hostile manufacturing environment and require sensors to be manufactured and
incorporated
have a hostilebefore they are tested
manufacturing in an industrial
environment environment.
and require sensors to be manufactured and
The ultrasonic
incorporated additive-manufacturing
before they are tested in an industrial processenvironment.
is one of the main methods that allow
The incorporation
for the ultrasonic additive-manufacturing
of different materials process
into ais metal
one of matrix.
the mainHahnlen
methodsetthat al.allow
[122]
for the incorporation
demonstrated of different of
the possibility materials
obtaining into aluminium
a metal matrix. alloy Hahnlen et al. [122]
composites withdemon-
shape
strated
memory theNiTi,
possibility of obtainingGalfenol,
magneto-strictive aluminium andalloy composites
electroactive with phases.
PVDF shape memory NiTi,
This enables
magneto-strictive Galfenol, and electroactive PVDF phases. This enables
the monitoring of properties such as the stresses and strains inside of a metallic structure, the monitoring of
properties such as
the non-contact the stresses
sensing and strains
of composite stressinside of a metallic
and strain utilizing structure, the non-contact
the embedded magneto-
sensing
strictiveofmaterial,
composite andstress and strain utilizing
vibration-sensing the embedded
properties, respectively. magneto-strictive material,
and vibration-sensing
Juhasz et al. [123]properties,
described the respectively.
implementation of an internal passive sensor printed
Juhasz et al. [123] described the implementation
on a hybrid-manufactured metal structure during an of an
in internal
situ processpassive sensor printed
interruption. This
on a hybrid-manufactured metal structure during an in situ process
hybrid process combined the benefits of traditional manufacturing (machining) with interruption. This hy-
ad-
brid process
ditive combined the
manufacturing, benefits
resulting inof traditional
more complex manufacturing (machining)
structures composed with additive
of several materi-
manufacturing, resulting inbeing
als, with this combination more onecomplex
of thestructures composed
main advantages of of
theseveral
hybridmaterials,
processes.withThe
this combination
greater benefit ofbeing one ofprocess
the hybrid the main advantages
is the potentialofaccess
the hybrid processes.
to internal cavities The greater
machined
benefit
within ofanthe hybrid process
intermediate layerisstructure
the potential duringaccess to internal cavities
manufacturing to placemachined
components. within an
intermediate layer structure during manufacturing to place components.
Among the NDT technologies available, the eddy current technique has some ad-
Among
vantages, the as
such NDT technologies
robustness and available,
no requirementthe eddyforcurrent
surfacetechnique
preparationhas some advan-
or couplings
tages, such as robustness and no requirement for surface preparation
[45]. In addition, they feature compact and suitable solutions for incorporation into SHM or couplings [45].
In addition, they feature compact and suitable solutions for incorporation
applications [124]. According to Sholl et al. [124], it was possible to develop an application into SHM ap-
plications [124]. According to Sholl et al. [124], it was possible to develop
that provides real-time data on the dimensions of a crack, allowing this type of sensor to an application
that provides real-time data on the dimensions of a crack, allowing this type of sensor to
be connected to a monitoring centre and consequently triggering a set of reparations or
be connected to a monitoring centre and consequently triggering a set of reparations or
replacements according to the state of crack propagation. However, if a defect or planar
replacements according to the state of crack propagation. However, if a defect or planar
crack does not cross or interfere with the current, this will not be found and may endanger
crack does not cross or interfere with the current, this will not be found and may endanger
the integrity of the component.
the integrity of the component.
Figure 9 shows a review of the advantages, limitations, and range of applications for
Figure 9 shows a review of the advantages, limitations, and range of applications for
each of the technologies presented throughout this section. The advantages and limita-
each of the technologies presented throughout this section. The advantages and limitations
tions are related to the behaviour that the structure presents with respect to the type of
are related to the behaviour that the structure presents with respect to the type of embedded
embedded sensor used.
sensor used.

Figure9.9. Other
Figure Otherembedded
embeddedsensors
sensorsfor
formetal
metalcomponents.
components.

5.
5. Methodology
Methodology forfor Sensor
Sensor Integration
Integration
Integrating
Integrating sensors inside aagiven
sensors inside givencomponent
component isis one
one ofof the
the major
major challenges
challenges in
in the
the
development
development of self-monitored structures since the integrity of both the sensor and com-
of self-monitored structures since the integrity of both the sensor and com-
ponent
ponent must
must be
be ensured.
ensured. InIn this
this regard,
regard, the
the process
process of
of integrating
integrating the
the sensors
sensors into
into the
the
structural components is not straightforward, as these components can consist of
structural components is not straightforward, as these components can consist of metals metals or
polymers, or a set of materials, as in the case of composites. The ESs used are limited to
the processing technology used to embed the sensor due to their usual high temperature
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 24 of 34

Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 24 of 33

or polymers, or a set of materials, as in the case of composites. The ESs used are limited to
the processing technology used to embed the sensor due to their usual high temperature
sensitivity and to the possibility of damage during the incorporation process. In addition,
sensitivity
the and
selection of to
thethe possibility of
technological damage
process duringon
depends thethe
incorporation process.
base material’s In addition,
composition.
the selection of the technological process depends on the base material’s composition.
Based on the applications and technologies analysed in the previous section, it can
Based on the applications and technologies analysed in the previous section, it can be
be concluded that there are appropriate technological processes in place or methodologies
concluded that there are appropriate technological processes in place or methodologies for
for incorporating sensors into structural components. Therefore, in Sections 5.1 and 5.2, a
incorporating sensors into structural components. Therefore, in Sections 5.1 and 5.2, a set
set of technological processes for the manufacture and processing of composites and me-
of technological processes for the manufacture and processing of composites and metallic
tallic materials are presented and analysed.
materials are presented and analysed.
5.1.
5.1. For
For Composite
Composite Components
Components
Currently, it is possible to
Currently, it is possible to obtain
obtain enough
enough types
types of
of composite
compositematerials;
materials;accordingly,
accordingly,
aa set
set of techniques for the processing and manufacture of composite materials
of techniques for the processing and manufacture of composite materials has
has been
been
developed, which can be divided into several typologies. Among them exist
developed, which can be divided into several typologies. Among them exist open moulding open mould-
ing (Figure
(Figure 10a),10a),
resinresin infusion
infusion processes
processes (Figure
(Figure 10b),
10b), and and high-volume
high-volume mouldingmoulding
methods,meth-
such
ods, such as automated fibre placement (Figure 10c), compression moulding
as automated fibre placement (Figure 10c), compression moulding (Figure 10d) [125–127], (Figure 10d)
[125–127],
and spray and spray deposition
deposition processes [115].
processes [115].

Figure
Figure 10.
10. Methodology
Methodology for
for sensor
sensor integration
integration into
into composite
composite components.

Based on the existing technological

technological processes
processes for
for the
the manufacture
manufactureof of composite
compositema-ma-
terials, there
terials, there are
are already studies that have experimentally
experimentally validated
validated the
the use
use of embedded
embedded
sensors in composite
sensors composite materials.
materials.Therefore,
Therefore,FOSs
FOSsandandPSs
PSsare thethe
are main
maintechnologies
technologiesused for
used
incorporation of ESs into composite materials, mainly making use of advanced
for incorporation of ESs into composite materials, mainly making use of advanced com- composite
materials
posite and fibre/metal
materials laminates,
and fibre/metal carbon fibre-reinforced
laminates, polymer laminates,
carbon fibre-reinforced sandwich
polymer laminates,
compositecomposite
sandwich panels, and continuous
panels, fibre-reinforced
and continuous thermoplastic
fibre-reinforced compositescomposites
thermoplastic fabricated
through the
fabricated fused filament
through the fused fabrication
filament technique
fabrication[62–68,70,71,88,89,91,92,94–99].
technique [62–68,70,71,88,89,91,92,94–
99].
5.2. For Metal Components
Metallic
5.2. For Metal structures
Componentsor structural components represent a large part of the applications
in engineering; therefore, the methodologies of integrating sensors into these types of
Metallic structures or structural components represent a large part of the applica-
components are fundamental. However, most technological processes for the manufacture
tions in engineering; therefore, the methodologies of integrating sensors into these types
and processing of metallic materials may compromise the integrity of sensors or sensory
of components are fundamental. However, most technological processes for the manufac-
components. In this regard, it is essential to combine sensors’ physical limits with the
ture and processing of metallic materials may compromise the integrity of sensors or sen-
manufacture or transformation’s technological process so that it is possible to ensure the
sory components. In this regard, it is essential to combine sensors’ physical limits with the
most efficient structural monitoring possible.
manufacture or transformation’s technological process so that it is possible to ensure the
Currently, certain applications have already been validated; that is, the use of FOSs
most efficient structural monitoring possible.
and PSs embedded in metal components are already possible through a set of manufac-
turingCurrently, certain
technologies withapplications havethat
characteristics already
allowbeen validated;
for the that
integrity of is,
thethe use of These
sensors. FOSs
and PSs embedded in metal components are already possible through a set of manufac-
technologies are the shape deposition-manufacturing (Figure 11a), the electron beam-melting
turing
(Figuretechnologies with characteristicsand
11b), the magnetron-sputtering thatelectroplating
allow for the (Figure
integrity of the
11c), andsensors. These
the ultrasonic
technologies are the shape deposition-manufacturing (Figure 11a), the electron
additive-manufacturing (Figure 11d) methods [73–79,81,82,102,103,105,106,120–124,128–131]. beam-
melting
The(Figure
sensor 11b), the magnetron-sputtering
integration methodologies for metaland electroplating
components (Figure
are mainly11c),based
and the
on
solid-state-processing technologies, layered manufacturing or electroplating, and laser-
deposition techniques. This strand is still under development; however, there are already
Sensors
Sensors 2022,
2022, 22,
22, 8320
8320 25
25 of
of 34
33

ultrasonic additive-manufacturing
applications with sensors, integrated circuits, (Figure 11d) methods
or actuators incorporated [73–
within structural
79,81,82,102,103,105,106,120–124,128–131].
structures or components, which are fully functional.

Figure 11.
Figure Methodology for
11. Methodology for sensor
sensor integration
integration into
into metal
metal components.
components.

6. Discussion and Challenges in Embedded Sensors

The sensor integration methodologies for metal components are mainly based on
Generally, all sensors
solid-state-processing or monitoring
technologies, layeredsystems present a set
manufacturing or of challenges that
electroplating, and must
laser-be
overcome to ensure high structural reliability, such as the
deposition techniques. This strand is still under development; however, there are already accurate detection of damage.
The use of wiring
applications to connect
with sensors, sensors causes
integrated circuits, many problems,
or actuators including the
incorporated associated
within structuralcost
of its application, as well as the reduction
structures or components, which are fully functional. in the reliability of data transmission [51,132–134].
The use of embedded FOSs is associated with a set of challenges. These are a result of the
operational
6. Discussion characteristics
and Challenges of theinFOSs and theSensors
Embedded incorporation processes used. Regarding the
incorporation of FOSs in composite components, the processes of fixing and handling FOSs
Generally, all sensors or monitoring systems present a set of challenges that must be
are sometimes delicate situations and can lead to optical fibre breakdown; thus, not only is
overcome to ensure high structural reliability, such as the accurate detection of damage.
the insertion area of optical fibres important, but so too is the protection of the optical fibres
The use ofthat
to ensure wiring to connect
monitoring sensors
is not causes
affected. many problems,
Positioning the FOSs including
is also athe associated
challenge cost
because
of its application, as well as the reduction in the reliability
the orientations of composite reinforcement fibres influence the spectrum response of the of data transmission [51,132–
134]The
FOSs after usefabrication,
of embedded whichFOSs canislead
associated with a set
to insensitivity of challenges.
towards These are a As
crack propagation. result
far of
as
the operational characteristics of the FOSs and the incorporation
the curing process is concerned, this can lead to non-uniform strains causing noisy signals processes used. Regard-
ing
andthe incorporation
impeding of FOSs inofcomposite
the monitoring components. components,
Mechanical thedegradation
processes of due fixing toandthe han-
poor
dling FOSs are sometimes delicate situations and can lead
mechanical properties at the sensor–composite material interface is a common issue in these to optical fibre breakdown;
thus, not onlyespecially
applications, is the insertionwhen area of optical
it comes to softfibres important,
and flexible but sostructures.
composite too is the protection
Given the
of the optical fibres to ensure that monitoring is not affected.
soft nature of unconsolidated textile reinforcement fabrics, the mismatch between Positioning the FOSs the is also
sensor
aand
challenge because
the fabric the orientations
is a challenging of composite
issue from reinforcement
the perspectives of bothfibres
sensorinfluence
measurement the spec-
and
trum
fabricresponse
properties of [135,136].
the FOSs after fabrication, which can lead to insensitivity towards crack
propagation.
Embedding As far
theasFOSsthe curing process
in metallic is concerned,
components is a this
more can lead to non-uniform
challenging process, asstrains
one of
causing noisy signals and impeding the monitoring of components.
the main challenges is to ensure that the FOSs are not damaged during the incorporation Mechanical degrada-
tion
phase, dueastosome
the poor
of the mechanical
technological properties
processesat the sensor–composite
used require high pressures material(as interface
is the caseis a
common
of the UAM), issue and
in these
the applications,
FOSs are veryespeciallyfragile. In whenthisitregard,
comes to soft andthe
although flexible
FOSscompo-remain
site structures.
functional Giventemperatures
at higher the soft nature whenof unconsolidated
compared to piezoelectric textile reinforcement
sensors, it isfabrics,
important the
mismatch
to developbetween
protection theandsensor and the fabric
reinforcement systems is afor
challenging issue from
FOSs to withstand the perspectives
temperatures above
of
theboth sensor
melting measurement
point of metallicand fabric properties
materials to increase[135,136].
the range of applications. Regarding
Embedding
the fixation the FOSs process,
and handling in metallic thecomponents
challenges are is alike
more thosechallenging
presentedprocess, as one
for composite
of the main challenges
components. is to ensureprocesses
The incorporation that the FOSs of FOSsare not damaged
in metal during the
components incorpora-
involve high
tion phase, as
operational some
costs since of the
the equipment
technological used processes
for processingused require
the metal high pressures
is quite (as is and
expensive, the
it is important
case of the UAM), to reduce
and thethese FOSscosts.
are very fragile. In this regard, although the FOSs remain
Whenatreferring
functional to piezoelectric-embedded
higher temperatures when compared sensors, there are sensors,
to piezoelectric several challenges
it is important that
aredevelop
to associated with their
protection andimplementation.
reinforcement systemsFor smartfor composite
FOSs to structures,
withstand it is necessary
temperatures
to ensure
above electrical
the melting insulation,
point of metallic electrical
materials shielding,
to increase or the
electromagnetic compatibility,
range of applications. Regard- as
piezoelectric sensors are susceptible to electromagnetic interferences.
ing the fixation and handling process, the challenges are like those presented for compo- Regarding the effect
of temperature,
site components. itThe is essential
incorporation to ensure thermal
processes coupling,
of FOSs in metal as piezoelectric
components involve sensorshigh lose
their piezoelectric properties when the curing temperatures of the composites exceed the
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 26 of 33

Curie temperature. In addition, the use of certain piezoelectric sensors leads to geometric
disturbances, such as stress concentration at the sensor’s location and in its surrounding
area, so it is necessary to optimize the sensors such that they are small and light. Finally, the
use of embedded piezoelectric sensors requires a large, complicated, and power-consuming
monitoring system since each sensor requires a monitoring channel and an adequate
number of wires to be connected. However, technological progress has been emerging to
manufacture nanoscale wires via printing or chemical deposition to decrease the quantity
of wire used [137].
Regarding applications in metallic materials’ structures, the challenges related to
the characteristics of embedded piezoelectric sensors are identical to those related when
applied to composite structures. However, concerning the embedding process of sensors,
these are already distinct, since, in this segment, the processes are thus far mainly based on
additive or solid-state-manufacturing processes. Therefore, some challenges to be overcome
in the future are the high costs associated with the equipment for the metal processing,
which then extend to other processing technologies, e.g., processes that use fusion of the
base material.
FOSs and PSs are currently the main technologies used for the incorporation of ESs
into structural components, although the micro- and nanotechnology fields have shown in-
teresting results with respect to ensuring the possibility of implementing sensory networks
in variable structures and topologies. As a consequence, more sensors will generate more
monitoring data, requiring the development of more efficient models for data analysis and
processing [138,139]. In addition to FOSs and PSs, there are also other technologies, such as
capacitive methods and electromagnetic techniques (for example, eddy currents), and ma-
terials with characteristics and properties that can be used for structural monitoring, such
as shape memory alloys. These technologies generally use thin-film sensors, microstrips,
or nanotubes; therefore, problems may occur related to fixing thin-film or electromagnetic
interferences in microstrips.
According to the authors of this work, there are certainly numerous challenges to
solve when it comes to embedding different types of sensors into structural components.
However, one of the primary solutions to many of the challenges presented is the possibility
of implementing hybrid systems. Hybrid systems with FOSs and PSs, for example, as
presented by Yu et al. [140], provide synergy for these types of applications.
Structures’ durability with respect to embedded sensors is a main concern, so re-
searchers have also investigated the ESs with respect to determining their effects on
the mechanical behavior of a host structure. Warkentin and Crawley et al. [141] tested
graphite/epoxy coupons with embedded integrated circuits on silicon chips, showing a 15%
decrease in the ultimate strength of the host laminate with the embedded chips. In addition,
Crawley et al. found that the ultimate strength of a graphite/epoxy laminate was reduced
by 20% when a piezoceramic was embedded in the composite. Chow et al. [142] performed
an analytical study that showed interlaminar stresses were five times higher with the
embedment of an inert, rectangular implant in a graphite/epoxy laminate. They indicated
the integrity of smart structures was affected due to the insertion of sensors/actuators [143].
With regard to FOSs’ incorporation, the research indicates that there was no degra-
dation in the compressive strength when the optical fibers were placed parallel to rein-
forcing fibers, and there was no change in mechanical behavior due to embedded optical
fibers [72,144,145].
The integration of sensors inside composite and metallic parts is still in the early
stages of development, mainly for metal components. Thus, there is scarce literature
available to compare their performance, either structurally or in terms of efficiency and
economy. Nevertheless, given the trends in new reinforcement techniques, combined with
the potential for digital fabrication, it is possible to conclude that there is potential in the
incorporation of sensors inside components without compromising the structural integrity
of the components.
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 27 of 33

Monitoring metallic components is significantly more difficult than monitoring poly-

meric components when using the ESs presented due to the sensor incorporation process.
The incorporation of instrumentation or electronic sensors into structural components can
sometimes endanger the component’s integrity and lead to problems associated with sensor
fixation before embedment because glues and adhesives can be degraded under certain
circumstances. Thus, according to the authors of this work, the application of metallic
components manufactured from multifunctional materials and high-sensorial property
materials will be the future of SHM.
SHM risk analysis is of the upmost value for companies such as insurance companies,
and the use of computational methods are gaining significant relevance. Chang et al. [146]
explored the feasibility of integrating built-in piezoelectric-based diagnostic techniques
with a progressive failure analysis to monitor damage in composite structures. Saravanos
et al. [147] developed a coupled analysis of a layered composite structure with embedded
piezoelectric sensors and actuators. Giurgiutiu et al. [37] investigated the use of finite
element analysis to simulate various SHM methods with piezoelectric wafer sensors. A
physics-based model incorporating PZT sensor measurement was developed by Ghoshal
et al. [148] to study acoustic wave generation and propagation in plates. Kim et al. [149]
developed a finite element-based methodology to model embedded sensors in delaminated
composite structures with piezoelectric sensors. Their results showed that embedded
sensors provide more information on delamination than surface-mounted systems. The
strength of PZT piezoelectric sensors is usually significantly lower than that of their host
structures. Yan et al. [150] developed a method for the online detection of cracks in
composite plates with embedded piezoelectric sensors using wavelet analysis. Butler
et al. [151] investigated computational models focusing on PZT sensors, actuators, and
associated techniques for damage detection.
The capability and versatility of the mechanics model with the coupled quasi-static
and free dynamic response of composite functionality in an active (applied voltages) or
sensory (applied force/displacement) mode were critical for assessing risk analysis-focused
SHM. However, the computational methods for evaluating embedded sensors in metallic
parts are limited; thus, researchers must focus on this area due to the extensive use of metal
parts in SHM.

7. Conclusions
Embedded sensors currently represent one of the main fields of sensing technology;
therefore, the scientific community has focused its efforts on the development and optimiza-
tion of a set of technologies that ensure the continuous monitoring of structural integrity.
SHM systems use a vast range of techniques; however, Fibre-Optic Sensors (FOSs) and
Piezoelectric Sensors (PSs) have proven that, through the right technological processes, ESs
can be incorporated into components or structures.
The selection of smart sensors or the technology underlying them is fundamental to
the type of monitoring that is intended to be performed, i.e., each embedded sensor is
developed and optimised to monitor certain physical and mechanical properties in specific
structures and perform under specific conditions. Regardless of the type of embedded
sensors or smart-sensing technology, there are limitations of use related to the physical,
chemical, and mechanical limits of each. In this sense, with the correct selection of embed-
ded sensors and technological process for its integration, it is possible to obtain structures or
structural components that are reliable, attaining the possibility of continuous monitoring
is both effective and accurate.
The review of studies developed on embedded sensors in structural components
showed that over the last 15 years, there has been exponential growth not only in terms
of the technological progress but also in the development of new applications that use
composite materials, essentially promoted by their increasing use in industrial applications.
However, the development of applications with metallic components has suffered few
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 28 of 33

advances, evidencing their scarce and barely industrialised nature, so it is crucial to allocate
resources to boost the development of smart metallic systems.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, P.M.F., M.A.M., M.S.C. and C.V.; methodology, P.M.F.,
M.A.M. and C.V.; formal analysis, P.M.F., M.A.M. and C.V.; investigation, P.M.F.; resources, C.V.;
data curation, P.M.F.; writing—original draft preparation, P.M.F.; writing—review and editing,
M.A.M., M.S.C. and C.V.; visualization, P.M.F.; supervision, C.V.; project administration, C.V.; funding
acquisition, C.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT-MCTES) via the
project UIDB/00667/2020 (UNIDEMI) and the PhD grant UI/BD/151055/2021.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The Authors acknowledge Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT-MCTES)
for its financial support via the project UIDB/00667/2020 (UNIDEMI). Pedro M. Ferreira also ac-
knowledges FCT-MCTES for funding the PhD grant UI/BD/151055/2021.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Spencer, B.F.; Ruiz-Sandoval, M.E.; Kurata, N. Smart Sensing Technology: Opportunities and Challenges. Struct. Control Health
Monit. 2004, 11, 349–368. [CrossRef]
2. Andreades, C.; Malfense Fierro, G.P.; Meo, M. A Nonlinear Ultrasonic SHM Method for Impact Damage Localisation in Composite
Panels Using a Sparse Array of Piezoelectric PZT Transducers. Ultrasonics 2020, 108, 106181. [CrossRef]
3. Duarte, V.R.; Rodrigues, T.A.; MacHado, M.A.; Pragana, J.P.M.; Pombinha, P.; Coutinho, L.; Silva, C.M.A.; Miranda, R.M.;
Goodwin, C.; Huber, D.E.; et al. Benchmarking of Nondestructive Testing for Additive Manufacturing. 3D Print. Addit. Manuf.
2021, 8, 263–270. [CrossRef]
4. Machado, M.A.; Silva, M.I.; Martins, A.P.; Carvalho, M.S.; Santos, T.G. Double Active Transient Thermography. NDT E Int. 2021,
125, 102566. [CrossRef]
5. Santos, T.G.; Oliveira, J.P.; Machado, M.A.; Inácio, P.L.; Duarte, V.R.; Rodrigues, T.A.; Santos, R.A.; Simão, C.; Carvalho, M.;
Martins, A.; et al. Reliability and NDT Methods. In Additive Manufacturing Hybrid Processes for Composites Systems; Springer:
Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 265–295. [CrossRef]
6. Machado, M.A.; Rosado, L.; Pedrosa, N.; Miranda, R.M.; Piedade, M.S.T. Customized Eddy Current Probes for Pipe Inspection.
Stud. Appl. Electromagn. Mech. 2017, 42, 283. [CrossRef]
7. Machado, M.A.; Rosado, L.S.; Mendes, N.M.; Miranda, R.M.; Santos, T.G. Multisensor Inspection of Laser-Brazed Joints in the
Automotive Industry. Sensors 2021, 21, 7335. [CrossRef]
8. Costa, F.B.; Machado, M.A.; Bonfait, G.J.; Vieira, P.; Santos, T.G. Continuous Wave Terahertz Imaging for NDT: Fundamentals and
Experimental Validation. Measurement 2021, 172, 108904. [CrossRef]
9. Balageas, D.; Fritzen, C.-P.; Güemes, A. Structural Health Monitoring; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2010; Volume 90,
ISBN 1-905209-01-0.
10. Fu, Y.; Peng, C.; Gomez, F.; Narazaki, Y.; Spencer, B.F. Sensor Fault Management Techniques for Wireless Smart Sensor Networks
in Structural Health Monitoring. Struct. Control Health Monit. 2019, 26, e2362. [CrossRef]
11. Ou, J.; Li, H. Structural Health Monitoring in Mainland China: Review and Future Trends. Struct. Healht Monit. 2010, 9, 219–231.
[CrossRef]
12. Sony, S.; Laventure, S.; Sadhu, A. A Literature Review of Next-Generation Smart Sensing Technology in Structural Health
Monitoring. Struct. Control Health Monit. 2019, 26, e2321. [CrossRef]
13. Güemes, A.; Fernandez-Lopez, A.; Pozo, A.R.; Sierra-Pérez, J. Structural Health Monitoring for Advanced Composite Structures:
A Review. J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 13. [CrossRef]
14. Brownjohn, J.M. Structural Health Monitoring of Civil Infrastructure. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 2007, 365,
589–622. [CrossRef]
15. Farrar, C.R.; Worden, K. An Introduction to Structural Health Monitoring. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 2007, 365,
303–315. [CrossRef]
16. Montalvao, D. A Review of Vibration-Based Structural Health Monitoring with Special Emphasis on Composite Materials. Shock
Vib. Dig. 2006, 38, 295–324. [CrossRef]
17. Lopez-Higuera, J.M.; Rodriguez Cobo, L.; Quintela Incera, A.; Cobo, A. Fiber Optic Sensors in Structural Health Monitoring. J.
Light. Technol. 2011, 29, 587–608. [CrossRef]
18. Qing, X.; Li, W.; Wang, Y.; Sun, H. Piezoelectric Transducer-Based Structural Health Monitoring for Aircraft Applications. Sensors
2019, 19, 545. [CrossRef]
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 29 of 33

19. Palma, P.; Steiger, R. Structural Health Monitoring of Timber Structures – Review of Available Methods and Case Studies. Constr.
Build. Mater. 2020, 248, 118528. [CrossRef]
20. Machado, M.A.; Antin, K.-N.; Rosado, L.S.; Vilaça, P.; Santos, T.G. High-Speed Inspection of Delamination Defects in Unidirec-
tional CFRP by Non-Contact Eddy Current Testing. Compos. Part B Eng. 2021, 224, 109167. [CrossRef]
21. Antin, K.-N.; Machado, M.A.; Santos, T.G.; Vilaça, P. Evaluation of Different Non-Destructive Testing Methods to Detect
Imperfections in Unidirectional Carbon Fiber Composite Ropes. J. Nondestruct. Eval. 2019, 38, 23. [CrossRef]
22. Machado, M.A.; Antin, K.-N.; Rosado, L.S.; Vilaça, P.; Santos, T.G. Contactless High-Speed Eddy Current Inspection of Unidirec-
tional Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer. Compos. Part B Eng. 2019, 168, 226–235. [CrossRef]
23. Brownjohn, J.M.W.; De Stefano, A.; Xu, Y.-L.; Wenzel, H.; Aktan, A.E. Vibration-Based Monitoring of Civil Infrastructure:
Challenges and Successes. J. Civ. Struct. Health Monit. 2011, 1, 79–95. [CrossRef]
24. Humar, J.; Bagchi, A.; Xu, H. Performance of Vibration-Based Techniques for the Identification of Structural Damage. Struct.
Health Monit. 2006, 5, 215–241. [CrossRef]
25. Deraemaeker, A.; Reynders, E.; De Roeck, G.; Kullaa, J. Vibration-Based Structural Health Monitoring Using Output-Only
Measurements under Changing Environment. Mech. Syst. Signal Process. 2008, 22, 34–56. [CrossRef]
26. Sandykbayeva, D.; Kappassov, Z.; Orazbayev, B. VibroTouch: Active Tactile Sensor for Contact Detection and Force Sensing via
Vibrations. Sensors 2022, 22, 6456. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
27. Luyckx, G.; Voet, E.; Lammens, N.; Degrieck, J. Strain Measurements of Composite Laminates with Embedded Fibre Bragg
Gratings: Criticism and Opportunities for Research. Sensors 2010, 11, 384–408. [CrossRef]
28. Campanella, C.; Cuccovillo, A.; Campanella, C.; Yurt, A.; Passaro, V. Fibre Bragg Grating Based Strain Sensors: Review of
Technology and Applications. Sensors 2018, 18, 3115. [CrossRef]
29. Fidanboylu, K.A.; Efendioglu, H.S. Fiber Optic Sensors and Their Applications. In Proceedings of the 5th International Advanced
Technologies Symposium (IATS’09), Karabuk, Turkey, 13–15 May 2009; Volume 6, pp. 2–3.
30. Li, H.-N.N.; Li, D.S.; Song, G.B. Recent Applications of Fiber Optic Sensors to Health Monitoring in Civil Engineering. Eng. Struct.
2004, 26, 1647–1657. [CrossRef]
31. Du, C.; Dutta, S.; Kurup, P.; Yu, T.; Wang, X. A Review of Railway Infrastructure Monitoring Using Fiber Optic Sensors. Sens.
Actuators A Phys. 2020, 303, 111728. [CrossRef]
32. Bao, Y.; Huang, Y.; Hoehler, M.; Chen, G. Review of Fiber Optic Sensors for Structural Fire Engineering. Sensors 2019, 19, 877.
[CrossRef]
33. Güemes, A.; Fernández-López, A.; Díaz-Maroto, P.; Lozano, A.; Sierra-Perez, J. Structural Health Monitoring in Composite
Structures by Fiber-Optic Sensors. Sensors 2018, 18, 1094. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
34. Park, G.; Farrar, C.R.; di Scalea, F.L.; Coccia, S. Performance Assessment and Validation of Piezoelectric Active-Sensors in
Structural Health Monitoring. Smart Mater. Struct. 2006, 15, 1673–1683. [CrossRef]
35. Na, W.; Baek, J. A Review of the Piezoelectric Electromechanical Impedance Based Structural Health Monitoring Technique for
Engineering Structures. Sensors 2018, 18, 1307. [CrossRef]
36. Ha, S.K.; Keilers, C.; Chang, F.-K. Finite Element Analysis of Composite Structures Containing Distributed Piezoceramic Sensors
and Actuators. AIAA J. 1992, 30, 772–780. [CrossRef]
37. Giurgiutiu, V.; Zagrai, A.; Jing Bao, J. Piezoelectric Wafer Embedded Active Sensors for Aging Aircraft Structural Health
Monitoring. Struct. Health Monit. 2002, 1, 41–61. [CrossRef]
38. Dong, B.; Li, Z. Cement-Based Piezoelectric Ceramic Smart Composites. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2005, 65, 1363–1371. [CrossRef]
39. Baptista, F.; Budoya, D.; Almeida, V.; Ulson, J. An Experimental Study on the Effect of Temperature on Piezoelectric Sensors for
Impedance-Based Structural Health Monitoring. Sensors 2014, 14, 1208–1227. [CrossRef]
40. Karhunen, K.; Seppänen, A.; Lehikoinen, A.; Monteiro, P.J.M.; Kaipio, J.P. Electrical Resistance Tomography Imaging of Concrete.
Cem. Concr. Res. 2010, 40, 137–145. [CrossRef]
41. Baltopoulos, A.; Polydorides, N.; Pambaguian, L.; Vavouliotis, A.; Kostopoulos, V. Damage Identification in Carbon Fiber
Reinforced Polymer Plates Using Electrical Resistance Tomography Mapping. J. Compos. Mater. 2013, 47, 3285–3301. [CrossRef]
42. Tallman, T.N.; Wang, K.W. Damage and Strain Identification in Multifunctional Materials via Electrical Impedance Tomography
with Constrained Sine Wave Solutions. Struct. Health Monit. 2016, 15, 235–244. [CrossRef]
43. Silva, D.D.S.; Sobrinho, J.M.B.; Souto, C.R.; Gomes, R.M. Application of Electromechanical Impedance Technique in the Monitoring
of Sigma Phase Embrittlement in Duplex Stainless Steel. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2020, 788, 139457. [CrossRef]
44. Machado, M.A.; Rosado, L.S.; Santos, T.G. Shaping Eddy Currents for Non-Destructive Testing Using Additive Manufactured
Magnetic Substrates. J. Nondestruct. Eval. 2022, 41, 50. [CrossRef]
45. Machado, M.A.; Rosado, L.F.S.G.; Mendes, N.A.M.; Miranda, R.M.M.; dos Santos, T.J.G. New Directions for Inline Inspection of
Automobile Laser Welds Using Non-Destructive Testing. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2022, 118, 1183–1195. [CrossRef]
46. Wilson, J.S. Sensor Technology Handbook; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2004; ISBN 0-7506-7729-5.
47. Saeedifar, M.; Mansvelder, J.; Mohammadi, R.; Zarouchas, D. Using Passive and Active Acoustic Methods for Impact Damage
Assessment of Composite Structures. Compos. Struct. 2019, 226, 111252. [CrossRef]
48. Liu, M.; Zeng, Z.; Xu, H.; Liao, Y.; Zhou, L.; Zhang, Z.; Su, Z. Applications of a Nanocomposite-Inspired in-Situ Broadband
Ultrasonic Sensor to Acousto-Ultrasonics-Based Passive and Active Structural Health Monitoring. Ultrasonics 2017, 78, 166–174.
[CrossRef]
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 30 of 33

49. Chandarana, N.; Soutis, C.; Gresil, M. Passive and Active Monitoring for Defect Detection and Quantification in Composites. In
Proceedings of the Health Monitoring of Structural and Biological Systems XII, Denver, CO, USA, 27 March 2018; Volume 10600, p. 71.
50. Wang, Y.; Hu, S.; Xiong, T.; Huang, Y.; Qiu, L. Recent Progress in Aircraft Smart Skin for Structural Health Monitoring. Struct.
Health Monit. 2022, 21, 2453–2480. [CrossRef]
51. Janeliukstis, R.; Mironovs, D. Smart Composite Structures with Embedded Sensors for Load and Damage Monitoring – A Review.
Mech. Compos. Mater. 2021, 57, 131–152. [CrossRef]
52. Di Sante, R. Fibre Optic Sensors for Structural Health Monitoring of Aircraft Composite Structures: Recent Advances and
Applications. Sensors 2015, 15, 18666–18713. [CrossRef]
53. Rajan, G. Optical Fiber Sensors: Advanced Techniques and Applications; Taylor & Francis: Abingdon, UK, 2017.
54. Jackson, D.A.; Jones, J.D.C. Fibre Optic Sensors. Opt. Acta Int. J. Opt. 1986, 33, 1469–1503. [CrossRef]
55. Amanzadeh, M.; Aminossadati, S.M.; Kizil, M.S.; Rakić, A.D. Recent Developments in Fibre Optic Shape Sensing. Measurement
2018, 128, 119–137. [CrossRef]
56. Su, Y.-D.; Preger, Y.; Burroughs, H.; Sun, C.; Ohodnicki, P. Fiber Optic Sensing Technologies for Battery Management Systems and
Energy Storage Applications. Sensors 2021, 21, 1397. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
57. Inaudi, D.; Glisic Smartec, B.S. Overview of Fibre Optic Sensing Applications to Structural Health Monitoring. In Proceedings of
the Symposium on Deformation Measurement and Analysis, Lisbon, Portugal, 12–15 May 2008.
58. Ou, R.; Luo, L.; Soga, K. Brillouin Scattering Spectrum-Based Crack Measurement Using Distributed Fiber Optic Sensing. Struct.
Health Monit. 2021, 21, 1345–1366. [CrossRef]
59. Li, C.; Tang, J.; Cheng, C.; Cai, L.; Yang, M. FBG Arrays for Quasi-Distributed Sensing: A Review. Photonic Sens. 2021, 11, 91–108.
[CrossRef]
60. Luo, P.; Zhang, D.; Wang, L.; Jiang, D. Structural Damage Detection Based on a Fiber Bragg Grating Sensing Array and a Back
Propagation Neural Network: An Experimental Study. Struct. Health Monit. 2010, 9, 5–11. [CrossRef]
61. Sieńko, R.; Zych, M.; Bednarski, Ł.; Howiacki, T. Strain and Crack Analysis within Concrete Members Using Distributed Fibre
Optic Sensors. Struct. Health Monit. 2019, 18, 1510–1526. [CrossRef]
62. Kuang, K.S.C.; Kenny, R.; Whelan, M.P.; Cantwell, W.J.; Chalker, P.R. Embedded Fibre Bragg Grating Sensors in Advanced
Composite Materials. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2001, 61, 1379–1387. [CrossRef]
63. Keulen, C.; Rocha, B.; Yildiz, M.; Suleman, A. Embedded Fiber Optic Sensors for Monitoring Processing, Quality and Structural
Health of Resin Transfer Molded Components. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2011, 305, 012135. [CrossRef]
64. Ramly, R.; Kuntjoro, W.; Rahman, M.K.A. Using Embedded Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) Sensors in Smart Aircraft Structure
Materials. Procedia Eng. 2012, 41, 600–606. [CrossRef]
65. Bremer, K.; Weigand, F.; Zheng, Y.; Alwis, L.; Helbig, R.; Roth, B. Structural Health Monitoring Using Textile Reinforcement
Structures with Integrated Optical Fiber Sensors. Sensors 2017, 17, 345. [CrossRef]
66. Oromiehie, E.; Prusty, B.G.; Compston, P.; Rajan, G. Characterization of Process-Induced Defects in Automated Fiber Placement
Manufacturing of Composites Using Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors. Struct. Health Monit. 2018, 17, 108–117. [CrossRef]
67. Kousiatza, C.; Tzetzis, D.; Karalekas, D. In-Situ Characterization of 3D Printed Continuous Fiber Reinforced Composites: A
Methodological Study Using Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2019, 174, 134–141. [CrossRef]
68. Mieloszyk, M.; Majewska, K.; Ostachowicz, W. Application of Embedded Fibre Bragg Grating Sensors for Structural Health
Monitoring of Complex Composite Structures for Marine Applications. Mar. Struct. 2021, 76, 102903. [CrossRef]
69. Maldonado-Hurtado, D.; Madrigal, J.; Penades, A.; Ruiz, R.; Crespo, A.I.; Sales, S. Pultruded FRP Beams with Embedded Fibre
Bragg Grating Optical Sensors for Strain Measurement and Failure Detection. Sensors 2021, 21, 7019. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
70. de Oliveira, R.; Ramos, C.A.; Marques, A.T. Health Monitoring of Composite Structures by Embedded FBG and Interferometric
Fabry–Pérot Sensors. Comput. Struct. 2008, 86, 340–346. [CrossRef]
71. Leng, J.; Asundi, A. Structural Health Monitoring of Smart Composite Materials by Using EFPI and FBG Sensors. Sensors Actuators
A Phys. 2003, 103, 330–340. [CrossRef]
72. Alwis, L.S.M.; Bremer, K.; Roth, B. Fiber Optic Sensors Embedded in Textile-Reinforced Concrete for Smart Structural Health
Monitoring: A Review. Sensors 2021, 21, 4948. [CrossRef]
73. Li, X.; Golnas, A.; Prinz, F.B. Shape Deposition Manufacturing of Smart Metallic Structures with Embedded Sensors. In
Proceedings of the Smart Structures and Materials 2000: Sensory Phenomena and Measurement Instrumentation for Smart
Structures and Materials, Newport Beach, CA, USA, 12 June 2000; Volume 3986, p. 160.
74. Li, X.C.; Prinz, F.; Seim, J. Thermal Behavior of a Metal Embedded Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor. Smart Mater. Struct. 2001, 10,
575–579. [CrossRef]
75. Li, X.; Prinz, F. Metal Embedded Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors in Layered Manufacturing. J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 2003, 125, 577–585.
[CrossRef]
76. Li, X.; Prinz, F. Analytical and Experimental Study on Noncontact Sensing With Embedded Fiber-Optic Sensors in Rotating Metal
Parts. J. Light. Technol. 2004, 22, 1720–1727. [CrossRef]
77. Alemohammad, H.; Toyserkani, E. Metal Embedded Optical Fiber Sensors: Laser-Based Layered Manufacturing Procedures. J.
Manuf. Sci. Eng. 2011, 133, 031015. [CrossRef]
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 31 of 33

78. Schomer, J.J.; Dapino, M.J. High Temperature Characterization of Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors Embedded Into Metallic Structures
Through Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing. In Proceedings of the Volume 2: Modeling, Simulation and Control of Adaptive
Systems; Integrated System Design and Implementation; Structural Health Monitoring, Snowbird, UT, USA, 18 September 2017;
American Society of Mechanical Engineers: New York, NY, USA, 2017; Volume 58264, p. V002T05A003.
79. Grandal, T.; Zornoza, A.; Fraga, S.; Castro, G.; Sun, T.; Grattan, K.T.V. Laser Cladding-Based Metallic Embedding Technique for
Fiber Optic Sensors. J. Light. Technol. 2018, 36, 1018–1025. [CrossRef]
80. Jinachandran, S.; Li, H.; Xi, J.; Prusty, B.G.; Semenova, Y.; Farrell, G.; Rajan, G. Fabrication and Characterization of a Magnetized
Metal-Encapsulated FBG Sensor for Structural Health Monitoring. IEEE Sens. J. 2018, 18, 8739–8746. [CrossRef]
81. Chilelli, S.K.; Schomer, J.J.; Dapino, M.J. Detection of Crack Initiation and Growth Using Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors Embedded
into Metal Structures through Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing. Sensors 2019, 19, 4917. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
82. Hehr, A.; Norfolk, M.; Kominsky, D.; Boulanger, A.; Davis, M.; Boulware, P. Smart Build-Plate for Metal Additive Manufacturing
Processes. Sensors 2020, 20, 360. [CrossRef]
83. Gallego-Juarez, J.A. Piezoelectric Ceramics and Ultrasonic Transducers. J. Phys. E 1989, 22, 804–816. [CrossRef]
84. Cady, W.G. Piezoelectricity: Volume Two: An Introduction to the Theory and Applications of Electromechanical Phenomena in Crystals;
Courier Dover Publications: Mineola, NY, USA, 2018.
85. Chong, K.P.; Carino, N.J.; Washer, G. Health Monitoring of Civil Infrastructures. Smart Mater. Struct. 2003, 12, 483–493. [CrossRef]
86. Tressler, J.F.; Alkoy, S.; Newnham, R.E. Piezoelectric Sensors and Sensor Materials. J. Electroceram. 1998, 2, 257–272. [CrossRef]
87. Horchidan, N.; Ciomaga, C.E.; Frunza, R.C.; Capiani, C.; Galassi, C.; Mitoseriu, L. A Comparative Study of Hard/Soft PZT-Based
Ceramic Composites. Ceram. Int. 2016, 42, 9125–9132. [CrossRef]
88. Wu, F.; Chang, F.-K. Debond Detection Using Embedded Piezoelectric Elements in Reinforced Concrete Structures—Part I:
Experiment. Struct. Health Monit. 2006, 5, 5–15. [CrossRef]
89. Konka, H.P.; Wahab, M.A.; Lian, K. The Effects of Embedded Piezoelectric Fiber Composite Sensors on the Structural Integrity of
Glass-Fiber–Epoxy Composite Laminate. Smart Mater. Struct. 2012, 21, 015016. [CrossRef]
90. Wu, C.; Xiang, H.; Jiang, S.; Ma, S. Stress Monitoring of Concrete via Uniaxial Piezoelectric Sensor. Sensors 2022, 22, 4041.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
91. Lin, M.; Qing, X.; Kumar, A.; Beard, S.J. SMART Layer and SMART Suitcase for Structural Health Monitoring Applications. In
Proceedings of the Smart Structures and Materials 2001: Industrial and Commercial Applications of Smart Structures Technologies,
Newport Beach, CA, USA, 14 June 2001; Volume 4332, pp. 98–106.
92. Takagi, K.; Sato, H.; Saigo, M. Vibration Control of a Smart Structure Embedded with Metal-Core Piezoelectric Fibers. Adv.
Compos. Mater. 2006, 15, 403–417. [CrossRef]
93. Downey, A.; Garcia-Macias, E.; D’Alessandro, A.; Laflamme, S.; Castro-Triguero, R.; Ubertini, F. Continuous and Embedded
Solutions for SHM of Concrete Structures Using Changing Electrical Potential in Self-Sensing Cement-Based Composites. In
Proceedings of the Nondestructive Characterization and Monitoring of Advanced Materials, Aerospace, and Civil Infrastructure
2017, Portland, OR, USA, 19 April 2017; Volume 10169, p. 101691G.
94. Tang, H.-Y.; Winkelmann, C.; Lestari, W.; La Saponara, V. Composite Structural Health Monitoring Through Use of Embedded
PZT Sensors. J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct. 2011, 22, 739–755. [CrossRef]
95. Talakokula, V.; Bhalla, S. Reinforcement Corrosion Assessment Capability of Surface Bonded and Embedded Piezo Sensors for
Reinforced Concrete Structures. J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct. 2015, 26, 2304–2313. [CrossRef]
96. Karayannis, C.G.; Chalioris, C.E.; Angeli, G.M.; Papadopoulos, N.A.; Favvata, M.J.; Providakis, C.P. Experimental Damage
Evaluation of Reinforced Concrete Steel Bars Using Piezoelectric Sensors. Constr. Build. Mater. 2016, 105, 227–244. [CrossRef]
97. Balamonica, K.; Saravanan, T.J.; Priya, C.B.; Gopalakrishnan, N. Piezoelectric Sensor–Based Damage Progression in Concrete
through Serial/Parallel Multi-Sensing Technique. Struct. Health Monit. 2020, 19, 339–356. [CrossRef]
98. Ahmadi, J.; Feirahi, M.H.; Farahmand-Tabar, S.; Keshvari Fard, A.H. A Novel Approach for Non-Destructive EMI-Based Corrosion
Monitoring of Concrete-Embedded Reinforcements Using Multi-Orientation Piezoelectric Sensors. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 273,
121689. [CrossRef]
99. Sha, F.; Xu, D.; Cheng, X.; Huang, S. Mechanical Sensing Properties of Embedded Smart Piezoelectric Sensor for Structural Health
Monitoring of Concrete. Res. Nondestruct. Eval. 2021, 32, 88–112. [CrossRef]
100. Huijer, A.; Kassapoglou, C.; Pahlavan, L. Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Carbon Fibre Reinforced Composites with Embedded
Sensors for In-Situ Damage Identification. Sensors 2021, 21, 6926. [CrossRef]
101. Gayakwad, H.; Thiyagarajan, J.S. Structural Damage Detection through EMI and Wave Propagation Techniques Using Embedded
PZT Smart Sensing Units. Sensors 2022, 22, 2296. [CrossRef]
102. Hossain, M.S.; Gonzalez, J.A.; Hernandez, R.M.; Shuvo, M.A.I.; Mireles, J.; Choudhuri, A.; Lin, Y.; Wicker, R.B. Fabrication of
Smart Parts Using Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing Technology. Addit. Manuf. 2016, 10, 58–66. [CrossRef]
103. Tseng, V.F.-G.; Bedair, S.S.; Lazarus, N. Acoustic Power Transfer and Communication With a Wireless Sensor Embedded Within
Metal. IEEE Sens. J. 2018, 18, 5550–5558. [CrossRef]
104. Altammar, H.; Dhingra, A.; Salowitz, N. Ultrasonic Sensing and Actuation in Laminate Structures Using Bondline-Embedded
D35 Piezoelectric Sensors. Sensors 2018, 18, 3885. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
105. Yanaseko, T.; Sato, H.; Kuboki, I.; Mossi, K.; Asanuma, H. Vibration Viscosity Sensor for Engine Oil Monitoring Using Metal
Matrix Piezoelectric Composite. Materials 2019, 12, 3415. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 32 of 33

106. Ramanathan, A.K.; Gingerich, M.B.; Headings, L.M.; Dapino, M.J. Metal Structures Embedded with Piezoelectric PVDF Sensors
Using Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing. Manuf. Lett. 2021, 31, 96–100. [CrossRef]
107. Ong, J.B.; You, Z.; Mills-Beale, J.; Tan, E.L.; Pereles, B.D.; Ong, K.G. A Wireless, Passive Embedded Sensor for Real-Time
Monitoring of Water Content in Civil Engineering Materials. IEEE Sens. J. 2008, 8, 2053–2058. [CrossRef]
108. Pinto, F.; Ciampa, F.; Meo, M.; Polimeno, U. Multifunctional SMArt Composite Material for in Situ NDT/SHM and de-Icing.
Smart Mater. Struct. 2012, 21, 105010. [CrossRef]
109. Sebastian, J.; Schehl, N.; Bouchard, M.; Boehle, M.; Li, L.; Lagounov, A.; Lafdi, K. Health Monitoring of Structural Composites
with Embedded Carbon Nanotube Coated Glass Fiber Sensors. Carbon N. Y. 2014, 66, 191–200. [CrossRef]
110. Teng, K.; Kot, P.; Muradov, M.; Shaw, A.; Hashim, K.; Gkantou, M.; Al-Shamma’a, A. Embedded Smart Antenna for Non-
Destructive Testing and Evaluation (NDT&E) of Moisture Content and Deterioration in Concrete. Sensors 2019, 19, 547. [CrossRef]
111. Carradero Santiago, C.; Randall-Posey, C.; Popa, A.-A.; Duggen, L.; Vuksanovich, B.; Cortes, P.; Macdonald, E. 3D Printed
Elastomeric Lattices With Embedded Deformation Sensing. IEEE Access 2020, 8, 41394–41402. [CrossRef]
112. Cougnon, F.; Kersemans, M.; Van Paepegem, W.; Depla, D. Sputter Deposited Metal Layers Embedded in Composites—From
Fundamentals to Applications. Coatings 2021, 11, 190. [CrossRef]
113. Meoni, A.; D’Alessandro, A.; Mancinelli, M.; Ubertini, F. A Multichannel Strain Measurement Technique for Nanomodified Smart
Cement-Based Sensors in Reinforced Concrete Structures. Sensors 2021, 21, 5633. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
114. Gino, M.E.; Selleri, G.; Cocchi, D.; Brugo, T.M.; Testoni, N.; De Marchi, L.; Zucchelli, A.; Fabiani, D.; Focarete, M.L. On the Design
of a Piezoelectric Self-Sensing Smart Composite Laminate. Mater. Des. 2022, 219, 110783. [CrossRef]
115. Yang, J.; Su, Y.; Liao, Y.; Zhou, P.; Xu, L.; Su, Z. Ultrasound Tomography for Health Monitoring of Carbon Fibre–Reinforced
Polymers Using Implanted Nanocomposite Sensor Networks and Enhanced Reconstruction Algorithm for the Probabilistic
Inspection of Damage Imaging. Struct. Health Monit. 2022, 21, 1110–1122. [CrossRef]
116. Loh, K.J.; Lynch, J.P.; Kotov, N.A. Passive Wireless Sensing Using SWNT-Based Multifunctional Thin Film Patches. Int. J. Appl.
Electromagn. Mech. 2008, 28, 87–94. [CrossRef]
117. Ikemoto, Y.; Suzuki, S.; Okamoto, H.; Murakami, H.; Lin, X.; Itoh, H.; Asama, H. Force Sensor System for Structural Health
Monitoring Using Passive RFID Tags for Structural Health Monitoring. In Proceedings of the PORTABLE-POLYTRONIC 2008-2nd
IEEE International Interdisciplinary Conference on Portable Information Devices and the 2008 7th IEEE Conference on Polymers
and Adhesives in Microelectronics and Photonics, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, 17–20 August 2008; pp. 1–6.
118. Gao, J.; Sidén, J.; Nilsson, H.-E. Printed Temperature Sensors for Passive RFID Tags. In Proceedings of the 27th Conference In
Electromagnetics Research Symposium (PIERS), Xi’an, China, 22–26 March 2010; pp. 835–838.
119. Merilampi, S.; Björninen, T.; Ukkonen, L.; Ruuskanen, P.; Sydänheimo, L. Embedded Wireless Strain Sensors Based on Printed
RFID Tag. Sens. Rev. 2011, 31, 32–40. [CrossRef]
120. Cheng, X.; Datta, A.; Choi, H.; Zhang, X.; Li, X. Study on Embedding and Integration of Microsensors Into Metal Structures for
Manufacturing Applications. J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 2007, 129, 416–424. [CrossRef]
121. Zhang, X.; Jiang, H.; Li, X. Design, Fabrication, and Characterization of Metal Embedded Microphotonic Sensors. J. Manuf. Sci.
Eng. 2008, 130, 031104. [CrossRef]
122. Hahnlen, R.; Dapino, M.J. Active Metal-Matrix Composites with Embedded Smart Materials by Ultrasonic Additive Manufactur-
ing. In Proceedings of the Industrial and Commercial Applications of Smart Structures Technologies 2010, San Diego, CA, USA,
25 March 2010; Volume 7645, p. 76450O.
123. Juhasz, M.; Tiedemann, R.; Dumstorff, G.; Walker, J.; Du Plessis, A.; Conner, B.; Lang, W.; MacDonald, E. Hybrid Directed Energy
Deposition for Fabricating Metal Structures with Embedded Sensors. Addit. Manuf. 2020, 35, 101397. [CrossRef]
124. Stoll, P.; Gasparin, E.; Spierings, A.; Wegener, K. Embedding Eddy Current Sensors into LPBF Components for Structural Health
Monitoring. Prog. Addit. Manuf. 2021, 6, 445–453. [CrossRef]
125. Nagavally, R.R. Composite Materials-History, Types, Fabrication Techniques, Advantages, and Applications. Int. J. Mech. Prod.
Eng. 2017, 5, 82–87.
126. Chung, D.D.L. Composite Materials: Science and Applications; Springer Science & Business Media: Berlin, Germany, 2010.
127. Gay, D.; Hoa, S.V. Composite Materials; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2007; ISBN 9781420045208.
128. Merz, R.; Prinz, F.B.; Ramaswami, K.; Terk, M.; Weiss, L.E. Shape Deposition Manufacturing. In Proceedings of the 1994
International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, Austin, TX, USA, 8–10 August 1994.
129. Kelly, P.; Arnell, R. Magnetron Sputtering: A Review of Recent Developments and Applications. Vacuum 2000, 56, 159–172.
[CrossRef]
130. Friel, R.J.; Harris, R.A. Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing—A Hybrid Production Process for Novel Functional Products. Procedia
CIRP 2013, 6, 35–40. [CrossRef]
131. Körner, C. Additive Manufacturing of Metallic Components by Selective Electron Beam Melting—A Review. Int. Mater. Rev. 2016,
61, 361–377. [CrossRef]
132. Measures, R.M. Smart Composite Structures with Embedded Sensors. Compos. Eng. 1992, 2, 597–618. [CrossRef]
133. Rocha, H.; Semprimoschnig, C.; Nunes, J.P. Sensors for Process and Structural Health Monitoring of Aerospace Composites: A
Review. Eng. Struct. 2021, 237, 112231. [CrossRef]
134. Hassani, S.; Mousavi, M.; Gandomi, A.H. Structural Health Monitoring in Composite Structures: A Comprehensive Review.
Sensors 2022, 22, 153. [CrossRef]
Sensors 2022, 22, 8320 33 of 33

135. Kinet, D.; Mé Gret, P.; Goossen, K.W.; Qiu, L.; Heider, D.; Caucheteur, C. Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors toward Structural Health
Monitoring in Composite Materials: Challenges and Solutions. Sensors 2014, 14, 7394–7419. [CrossRef]
136. Montazerian, H.; Rashidi, A.; Milani, A.S.; Hoorfar, M.; Montazerian, H.; Rashidi, A.; Milani, A.S. Integrated Sensors in Advanced
Composites: A Critical Review. Crit. Rev. Solid State Mater. Sci. 2020, 45, 187–238. [CrossRef]
137. Yang, Y.; Duan, S.; Zhao, H. Advances in Constructing Silver Nanowire-Based Conductive Pathways for Flexible and Stretchable
Electronics. Nanoscale 2022, 14, 11484–11511. [CrossRef]
138. Chopra, I. Review of State of Art of Smart Structures and Integrated Systems. AIAA J. 2002, 40, 2145–2187. [CrossRef]
139. Sun, M.; Staszewski, W.J.; Swamy, R.N. Smart Sensing Technologies for Structural Health Monitoring of Civil Engineering
Structures. Adv. Civ. Eng. 2010, 2010, 724962. [CrossRef]
140. Yu, Y.; Liu, X.; Yan, J.; Wang, Y.; Qing, X. Real-Time Life-Cycle Monitoring of Composite Structures Using Piezoelectric-Fiber
Hybrid Sensor Network. Sensors 2021, 21, 8213. [CrossRef]
141. Crawley, E.F.; de Luis, J. Use of Piezoelectric Actuators as Elements of Intelligent Structures. AIAA J. 1987, 25, 1373–1385.
[CrossRef]
142. Chow, W.; Graves, M. Stress Analysis of a Rectangular Implant in Laminated Composites Using 2-D and 3-D Finite Elements. In
Proceedings of the 33rd Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference, Dallas, TX, USA, 13 April 1992; American
Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics: Reston, VA, USA, 1992.
143. Yocum, M.; Abramovich, H.; Grunwald, A.; Mall, S. Fully Reversed Electromechanical Fatigue Behavior of Composite Laminate
with Embedded Piezoelectric Actuator/Sensor. Smart Mater. Struct. 2003, 12, 556–564. [CrossRef]
144. Mendez, A.; Morse, T.F.; Mendez, F. Applications Of Embedded Optical Fiber Sensors In Reinforced Concrete Buildings And
Structures. In Proceedings of the Fiber Optic Smart Structures and Skins II, Boston, MA, USA, 5 February 1990; Udd, E., Ed.; SPIE:
Bellingham, WA, USA, 1990; Volume 1170, p. 60.
145. Bremer, K.; Alwis, L.S.M.; Zheng, Y.; Weigand, F.; Kuhne, M.; Helbig, R.; Roth, B. Durability of Functionalized Carbon Structures
with Optical Fiber Sensors in a Highly Alkaline Concrete Environment. Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2476. [CrossRef]
146. Chang, F.-K.; Markmiller, J.F.C.; Ihn, J.-B.; Cheng, K.Y. A Potential Link from Damage Diagnostics to Health Prognostics of
Composites through Built-in Sensors. J. Vib. Acoust. 2007, 129, 718–729. [CrossRef]
147. Saravanos, D.A.; Heyliger, P.R. Coupled Layerwise Analysis of Composite Beams with Embedded Piezoelectric Sensors and
Actuators. J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct. 1995, 6, 350–363. [CrossRef]
148. Ghoshal, A.; Martin, W.N.; Schulz, M.J.; Prosser, W.H.; Chattopadhyay, A. Simulation of Asymmetric Lamb Waves for Sensing
and Actuation in Plates. Shock Vib. 2005, 12, 243–271. [CrossRef]
149. Kim, H.S.; Ghoshal, A.; Chattopadhyay, A.; Prosser, W.H. Development of Embedded Sensor Models in Composite Laminates for
Structural Health Monitoring. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 2004, 23, 1207–1240. [CrossRef]
150. Yan, Y.J.; Yam, L.H. Online Detection of Crack Damage in Composite Plates Using Embedded Piezoelectric Actuators/Sensors
and Wavelet Analysis. Compos. Struct. 2002, 58, 29–38. [CrossRef]
151. Butler, S.; Gurvich, M.; Ghoshal, A.; Welsh, G.; Attridge, P.; Winston, H.; Urban, M.; Bordick, N. Effect of Embedded Sensors on
Interlaminar Damage in Composite Structures. J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct. 2011, 22, 1857–1868. [CrossRef]