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TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . . .
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LESSON 3: ..1
Measurements of Distance, Errors in Measurement ………………..

LESSON 4: Pacing ………………………………………………………………………………………………… . . .3 . .

LESSON 5: Measurements of Direction and Angles ………………………………
.. .. .8 . .
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LESSON 6: Bearing and Azimuths ………………………………………………….. . . 14
LESSON 7: Magnetic Declination …………………………………………………... . . 16
LESSON 8: Balancing the Traverse ………………………………………………... 19

LESSON 9 Area Computation ……………………………………………………… 22

LESSON 10: Curvature and Refraction, Elevation Determination ……………….. 29

LESSON 11: Leveling

Differential Leveling …………………………………………………….. 36

Double - Rodded Leveling …………………………………………….. 42

Three - Wire Leveling …………………………………………………... 48

Reciprocal Leveling ……………………………………………………. 54

Profile Leveling ………………………………………………………….. 57

Two Peg Method Leveling …………………………………………….. 60

Trigonometric Leveling …………………………………………………. 65

Measurements by Stadia or incline distance, Sources of error in

LESSON 13: stadia work ………………………………………………………………
73

LESSON 14: Stadia Interval Factor …………………………………………………………………………. 79

LESSON 18: Horizontal Curves

Simple Curve ……………………………………………………………. 82

Compound Curve ………………………………………………………. 88

Reverse Curve …………………………………………………………. 97

Spiral Curve ……………………………………………………………... 103

Fundamental of Surveying
Lesson

MEASUREMENTS OF DISTANCE, ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
The following values were determined in a series of tape measurement of a line:
100.3244, 100.2432, 100.1845, 100.4630 and 100.3220 meters. A surveyor wants to
determine the following:
a) Most probable value of the measured length.
b) The probable error in single measurement
c) The probable error of the mean.

SOLUTION:

x x - x̄ = v 𝐯𝟐
100.3244 0.0170 0.0003
100.2432 - 0.0642 - 0.0041
100.1845 - 0.1229 - 0.0151
100.4630 0.1556 0.0242
100.3220 0. 0146 0.0002
∑𝐯 𝟐 = 0.0055

a. Most probable value of the measured length

100.3244 + 100.2432 + 100.1845 + 100.4630 + 100.3220
x̄ =
5
x̄ = 100.3074 meters

b. Probable error in single c. Probable error of the mean:

measurement:

∑v 2 ∑v 2
PES =  0.6745√ PEm =  0.6745√
n−1 n (n − 1

0.0055 0.0055
PES =  0.6745√ PEm =  0.6745√
5−1 5 (5 − 1
𝑷𝑬𝑺 =  𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒎.
𝑷𝑬𝒎 =  𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟐 𝒎.

1|Page
Lesson

MEASUREMENTS OF DISTANCE, ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
The four approximately equal sides of tract of land were measured and the
measurements included the following errors:  0.0851,  0.0141,  0.1751, and 
0.2051, respectively. Determine the probable error for the total length (or perimeter) of
the tracts.

SOLUTION:

PEs =  √PE12 + PE22 + PE32 + PE42

PES =  √( 0.0851)2 + ( 0.0141)2 + ( 0.1751)2 + ( 0.2051)2

𝑷𝑬𝑺 =  𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟑𝟏 𝒎.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
A rectangular lot has sides a=51.1700m and b=30.3001m each having probable
errors 0.02, 0.05 meters respectively. Compute for the probable error of the calculated
area.

SOLUTION:

PEP =  √(Q1 x PE2 )2 + (Q2 x PE1 )2

PEP =  √(51.1700 + 0.05)2 + (30.3001 + 0.02)2

𝑷𝑬𝑷 =  𝟐. 𝟔𝟐𝟗𝟑 𝒎𝟐

2|Page
Lesson

PACING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
A line 100 m long was paced by a surveyor for four times with the following data,
142, 145, 145.5, 146. Then another line was paced four times again with the following
results, 893, 893.5, 891, 895.5.
a) Determine the pace factor.
b) Determine the mean number of paces for the new line.
Determine the paced distance of the new line.

SOLUTION:

a. Pace factor:

∑(No.of paces)
Mean no. of paces =
No.of trials
142 + 145 + 145.5 + 146
M1 =
4
M1 = 144.6250 paces

Length of measurement line

Pace factor =
Mean no. of paces
100 m
Pace factor =
144.6250 paces

Pace factor = 0.6914 m/paces

b. Mean number of paces for the new line:

893 + 893.5 + 891 + 895.5

M2 =
4

𝑴𝟐 = 893.2500 paces

c. Paced distance of the new line:

Paced distance of new line = M2 x PF

Paced distance of new line = 893.2500 x 0.6914
Paced distance of new line = 617.5931 m

3|Page
Lesson

PACING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
A surveyor has a pace factor of 0.8730 m/paces.

a) He counts 58 paces while walking from point A to point B. What is the distance
between A and B?

SOLUTION:

Paced distance = PF x mean no. of paces

Paced distance = 0.8730 m/paces x 58 paces
Paced distance = 50.6340 m.

b) How many paces should the same surveyor count to lay out a line approximately
100m long?

SOLUTION:

100 m. long – Paced distance

Paced distance = pace factor x mean no. of paces
100 m. = 0.8730 m/paces (mean no. of paces)
m
100 m 0.8730pace mean no.of paces
=
0.8730 m/paces 0.8730 m/paces

Mean no. of paces = 114.5475 paces

4|Page
Lesson

PACING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
A 45-meter course AB, on level ground was paced by a surveyor for the purpose
of determining his pace factor. The number of paces for each trial taken are shown in
the accompanying tabulation.
Pacing Data
Trial Line Taped No. of Paces Mean
Distance
1 AB 50
2 BA 53
3 AB 45 51 52
4 BA 53
5 AB 52
6 BA 53

Determine the following:

a) Determine his pace factor.
b) If the surveyor then took 771, 770, 768, 770, 772 and 769 paces in walking an
unknown distance CD, what is the length of the line?

SOLUTION:

a. Determining Pace Factor

∑(No.of paces)
Mean no. of paces =
No.of trials
50 + 53 + 51 + 53 + 52 + 53
M1 =
6
M1 = 52 paces

Length of measurement line

Pace factor =
Mean no. of paces
45 m
Pace factor =
52 paces
Pace factor = 0.8654 m/paces

5|Page
Lesson

PACING

b. Determining Unknown Distance

771 + 770 + 768 + 770 +772 + 769

M2 =
6

𝐌𝟐 = 770 paces

Paced Distance = M2 x PF

Paced Distance = 770 paces x 0.8654 m/paces

Paced Distance = 666.3580 m

6|Page
Lesson

PACING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4:
In five trials of walking along a 90-m course on fairly level ground, a pacer for a
survey party counted 51, 52.5, 51.5, 52.5, and 51.5 strides respectively. He then
started walking an unknown distance XY in four trials which were recorded as follows:
88.5, 89, 88, and 87 strides. Determine the following:
1. Pace factor of the pacer.
2. Length of line XY.
3. Percentage of errors in the measurement if the taped length of XY is 150.5.

SOLUTION:
1. Determining Pace Factor
L = 90.0 m (length of course)
n1 = 5 (number of trials taken)
Sum1 = (51 + 52.5 + 51.5 + 52.5 + 51.5)
Sum1 = 259 strides or 518 paces
M1 = Sum1 / n1 = 518 / 5
M1 = 176.25 paces (mean number of paces to walk the course)
PF = L / M1 = 90 m / 103.6 paces
PF = 0.869 m / pace (pace factor of pacer)

2. Determining Unknown Distance

n2 = 4 (number of trials taken on XY)
Sum2 = (88.5 + 89 + 88 + 87)
Sum2 = 352.5 strides or 705 paces
M2 = 𝑆𝑢𝑚2 / n2 = 705 / 4
M2 = 176.25 paces (mean number of paces to walk line XY)
PD = M2 (PF) = 176.25 (0.869 m / pace)
PD = 153.2 m (paced length of line XY)

3. Determining Percentage of Error

TD = 150.5 m (taped distance)
PD = 153.2 m (paced distance)

Percentage of Error = (TD – PD / TD)(100%)

150.5−153.2
Percentage of Error = ( 150.5 )(100%)
Percentage of Error = 1.79%

7|Page
Lesson

MEASUREMENTS OF DIRECTION AND ANGLES

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
Convert the following azimuths (Reckoned from North) to bearings.
AZIMUTH (RFN) BEARING
a) 41°
b) 115°
c) 198°
d) 222°
e) 289°
f) 180°
g) 90°
h) 270°

SOLutiOn:
*The blue arrow pertains to the bearing.
a) 41° b) 115° c) 198°

Bearing: N 41° E 180° - 115° = 65 198° - 180° = 18°

Bearing: S 65° E Bearing: S 18° W

d) 222° e) 289° f) 180°

222° - 180° = 42° 360° - 289° = 71° Due South

Bearing: S 42° W Bearing: N 71° W

8|Page
Lesson

MEASUREMENTS OF DIRECTION AND ANGLES

g) 90° h) 270°

Due East Due West

AZIMUTH (RFN) BEARING

a) 41° N 41° E
b) 115° S 65° E
c) 198° S 18° W
d) 222° S 42° W
e) 289° N 71° W
f) 180° Due South
g) 90° Due East
h) 270° Due West

9|Page
Lesson

MEASUREMENTS OF DIRECTION AND ANGLES

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
Convert the following azimuths (Reckoned from South) to bearings.
AZIMUTH (RFS) BEARING
a) 41°
b) 115°
c) 198°
d) 222°
e) 289°
f) 180°
g) 90°
h) 270°

SOLutiOn:
*The blue arrow pertains to the bearing.
a) 41° b) 115° c) 198°

Bearing: S 41° W 180° - 115° = 65 198° - 180° = 18°

Bearing: N 65° W Bearing: N 18° E

d) 222° e) 289° f) 180°

222° - 180° = 42° 360° - 289° = 71° Due North

Bearing: N 42° E Bearing: S 71° E

10 | P a g e
Lesson

MEASUREMENTS OF DIRECTION AND ANGLES

g) 90° h) 270°

Due West Due East

AZIMUTH (RFS) BEARING

a) 41° S 41° W
b) 115° N 65° W
c) 198° N 18° E
d) 222° N 42° E
e) 289° S 71° E
f) 180° Due North
g) 90° Due West
h) 270° Due East

11 | P a g e
Lesson

MEASUREMENTS OF DIRECTION AND ANGLES

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
Convert the following bearings to azimuths (Reckoned from North). Express
your answer in degree, minutes, and seconds.
BEARING AZIMUTHS (RFN)
a) N 36° 17’ 54” E
b) S 78° 13’ 15” E
c) S 52° 34’ 09” W
d) N 67° 23” 14” W

SOLutiOn:
*The blue arrow pertains to the azimuth.

a) N 36° 17’ 54” E b) S 78° 13’ 15” E

Azimuth: 36° 17’ 54” 180° - 78° 13’ 15 = 101° 46’ 45”
Azimuth: 101° 46’ 45”

c) S 52° 34’ 09” W d) N 67° 23’ 14” W

180° + 52° 34’ 09” = 232° 34’ 09” 360° - 67° 23’ 14” = 292° 36’ 46”
Azimuth: 232° 34’ 09” Azimuth: 292° 36’ 46”

12 | P a g e
Lesson

MEASUREMENTS OF DIRECTION AND ANGLES

BEARING AZIMUTHS (RFN)

a) N 36° 17’ 54” E 36° 17’ 54”
b) S 78° 13’ 15” E 101° 46’ 45”
c) S 52° 34’ 09” W 232° 34’ 09”
d) N 67° 23” 14” W 292° 36’ 46”

13 | P a g e
Lesson

BEARING AND AZIMUTHS

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
The direction of line FG is S 45°25’30’’ W. the angle to the left at G from F to H
is 70°50’10’’. What is the bearing of line GH.

SOLUTION:
Bearing of GH = 70°50’10’’ - 45°25’30’’
= 25°24’40’’
N 25°24’40’’ W

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
The azimuth of line KL is 125°10'20". The angle to the right at L from K from to
M is 35°30'15". What is the azimuth of line LM?

SOLUTION:
Azimuth of LM:
= 125°10'20" + 180°0'0" + 35°30'15”
= 340° 40' 35"

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
The azimuth of line CD is 210°10'35". The angle to the right at C from D to B is
125°20'8". What is the azimuth of line CB?

SOLUTION:
Azimuth of CB = 210°10'35" + 125°20'8"
= 335° 30' 43"

14 | P a g e
Lesson

BEARING AND AZIMUTHS

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4:
The bearing of line ST is N 75°35'22"W. The deflection angle at S from T to U
is 125°14'44"R. The angle to the left at U from T to V is 65°53'18". What is the
bearing of line UV?

SOLUTION:
t = 125°14'44" - 75°35'22"
= 49°39'22"
Bearing UV:
U = 65°53'18" - 49°39'22"
= 16°13'56"
= S 16°13'56" E

SAMPLE PROBLEM 5:
The azimuth from A1 to B3 is 325°52'17". The bearing of line A1 to C4 is S
87°35'33"E. What is the angle to the right at A1 from B3 to C4?

SOLUTION:
Az A1 – C4 = 180°00'00" - 87°35'33"
= 92°24'27"
A = AzA1 – C4 – AzA1 – B3
= 92°24'27" - 325°52'17"
= - 233°27'50"
= - 233°27'50" + 360°
= 126°32'10"

SAMPLE PROBLEM 6:
The bearing from D5 to T6 is S 35°25'53"W. The bearing from T6 to L7 is N
55°27'42"W. What is the deflection angle at T6 from D5 to L7?

SOLUTION:
T = 180° - (55°27'42 + 35°25'53")
= 89°06'25"
= 89°06' 25" R

15 | P a g e
Lesson

MAGNETIC DECLINATION

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
A form of a regular pentagon is described as a field. The direction of the surveyed bounding
sides has an assumed meridian of 5° to the right of the meridian’s true North and South. With
the assumed meridian of the survey, the bearing of one side AB is N 32°30’0’’ W. Compute the
following:
a. True Bearing of BC
b. True Azimuth of CD
c. True Bearing of AE

SOLUTION:
*Summation of the interior angles of a closed polygon*
(n-2)180° = (5-2)180° = 540°
540
Value of each interior angle = = 𝟏𝟖𝟎
5

LINES BEARING AZIMUTH

AB N 27°20’ W 152°40’
BC N 44°40’ E 224°40’
CD S 63°20’ E 296°40’
DE S 8°40’ W 8°40’
AE S 80°40’ W 80°40’
AB N 27°20’ W 152°40’

a. True Bearing of BC b. True Azimuth of CD

72° - 27°20’ = 44°40’0’’ 360° - 63°20’ = 296°40’
True Bearing of BC = N 44°40’0’’ E True Azimuth of CD = 296°40’0’’

c. True Bearing of AE
72° + 8°40’ = 80°40’
True Bearing of AE = S 80°40’0’’ W

16 | P a g e
Lesson

MAGNETIC DECLINATION

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
A 690.28 square meter area of an equilateral field ABC has a side AB with a
magnetic bearing of N45°48’0’’ E in 1970, when the magnetic declination was 0°50’0’’.
Assume that B and C are on the North East side. Determine the following:

a. True Bearing of AB
b. Length of AD with point D on the line BC and making the area of the triangle
ABD 1/3 of the whole area
c. Bearing of line AD

SOLUTION:
a. True Bearing of AB:
True Bearing of AB = 45°48’0’’ + 0°50’0’’
True Bearing of AB = N46°38’0’’E

b. Length of AD
*The triangle is equilateral; therefore, it is also
equiangular*

AB = BC = CA
1
Area = sin 60°
2
(𝐴𝐵)2 𝑠𝑖𝑛60°
690.28 = 2

AB = 39.9266
A1 = 1/3 (690.28)
A1 = 230.0933
39.9266 (𝑋) 𝑠𝑖𝑛60°
A1 = 2

X = 13.3089 m
(AD)2 = (39.9266) 2 + (13.3089) 2 – 2(39.9266) (13.3089) cos60°
(AD)2 = 1239.8819
AD = 35.2120 m

c. Bearing of line AD
sin 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛60°
= 35.2120
13.3089

𝜃= 19.9892 or 19°52’21.14’’

Bearing of AD = 46°38’0’’ + 19°52’21.14’’

Bearing of AD = N 66°30’21.14’’ E
17 | P a g e
Lesson

MAGNETIC DECLINATION

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
An interior angle of a five-sided traverse is given as follows: A = 118°30’ ; B =
97°32’ ; C = 143°54’ ; and D = 133°18’. An assumption AB due North is not measured
in angle E. Find the:
a. Deflection Angle at C
b. Bearing of line DE
c. Bearing of line AE

SOLUTION:

a. Deflection Angle at C
C = 180° - 143°54’ = 36°06’
C = 36°06’ R

b. Bearing of DE: c. Bearing of AE

AB = 180° - 97°32’ *Get the angle of E*
AB = N 82°28’ E 118°30’ - 97°32’ = 20°58’
CD = 143°54’ - 82°28’ 82°28’ - 20°58’ = 61°30’
CD = S 61°26’ E 61°30’ - 14°44’ = 46°46’
DE = 180° - 61°26’ E = 46°46’
DE = 118°34’
DE = 133°18 - 118°34’ EA = 14°44’ + 46°46’
DE = S 14°44’ E EA = N 61° 30’ W

18 | P a g e
Lesson

BALANCING THE TRAVERSE

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
Calculate the latitudes and departures of the traverse.

Course Bearing Length (m) Latitude Departure

AB 𝑁 5° 30′ 𝐸 495.85 + 493.57 + 47.53
BC 𝑁 46° 02′ 𝐸 850.62 + 590.53 + 612.23
CD 𝑆 67° 38′ 𝐸 855.45 - 325.53 + 791.01
DE 𝑆 12° 25′ 𝐸 1,020.87 - 996.99 + 219.51
EF 𝑆 83° 44′ 𝑊 1,117.26 - 121.96 - 1,110.58
FA 𝑁 55° 09′ 𝑊 660.08 + 377.19 - 541.70

SOLUTION:
Computing Latitude: Latitude = Length × Cos (Bearing)

LatAB = 495.85 Cos (5° 30') = + 493.57

LatBC = 850.62 Cos (46° 02') = + 590.53

LatCD = 855.45 Cos (67° 38') = - 325.53

LatDE = 1,020.87 Cos (12° 25') = - 996.99

LatEF = 1,117.26 Cos (83° 44') = - 121.96

LatFA = 660.08 Cos (55° 09') = + 377.19

Computing Departure: Departure = Length × Sin (Bearing)

DepAB = 495.85 Sin (5° 30') = + 47.53

DepBC = 850.62 Sin (46° 02') = + 612.23

DepCD = 855.45 Sin (67° 38') = + 791.01

DepDE = 1,020.87 Sin (12° 25') = + 219.51

DepEF = 1,117.26 Sin (83° 44') = - 1,110.58

DepFA = 660.08 Sin (55° 09') = - 541.70

19 | P a g e
Lesson

BALANCING THE TRAVERSE

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
Determine the latitude, departure, length, and bearing of the traverse.

Course Length (m) Bearing Latitude Departure

AB 290 118° -136.1 256

BC 300 65° 20’ 125.2 272.6

CD 370 325° 303 -212.2

DE 290 230° -186.4 -222.2

EA ? ? ? ?

SOLUTION:
LatitudeEA = -136.1 + 125.2 + 303 – 186.4 = 105.7
DepartureFA = 256 + 272.6 – 212.2 – 222.2 = 94.2

𝐷
BearingFA = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 𝐿 )
LengthFA = √𝐷2 + 𝐿2
94.2
LengthFA = √94.22 + 105.72 BearingFA = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (105.7)

LengthFA = √8,873.64 + 11,172.49 BearingFA = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (0.8912)

LengthFA = 141.58 m BearingFA = 41.7°

Course Length (m) Bearing Latitude Departure

AB 290 118° -136.1 256

BC 300 65° 20’ 125.2 272.6

CD 370 325° 303 -212.2

DE 290 230° -186.4 -222.2

EA 141.58 41.7° 105.7 94.2

20 | P a g e
Lesson

BALANCING THE TRAVERSE

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
Determine the latitude, departure, and error of closure of the given traverse.

Course Length (m) Bearing Latitude Departure

AB 85.21 35° 10’ ? ?

BC 209.75 70° 65’ ? ?

CD 150.18 160° 53’ ? ?

DE 156.10 226° 45’ ? ?

EA 230.36 300° 45’ ? ?

SOLUTION:
LatAB = 85.21 cos(35°10’) = 69.657 DepAB = 85.21 sin(35°10’) = 49.077
LatBC = 209.75 cos(70°65’) = 67.999 DepBC = 209.75 sin(70°65’) = 198.421
LatCD = 150.18 cos(160°53’) = -141.898 DepCD = 150.18 sin (160°53’) = 49.183
LatDE = 156.10 cos(226°45’) = -106.957 DepDE = 156.10 sin(226°45’) = -113.699
LatEF = 230.36 cos(300°45’) = 117.781 DepEF = 230.36 sin(300°45’) = -197.973

Error of closure = √(∑𝐿)2 + (∑𝐷)2 Error of closure = √268.052805

Error of closure = √(6.582)2 + (−14.991)2 Error of closure = 16.3720 m

Course Length (m) Bearing Latitude Departure

AB 85.21 35° 10’ 69.657 49.077

BC 209.75 70° 65’ 67.999 198.421

CD 150.18 160° 53’ -141.898 49.183

DE 156.10 226° 45’ -106.957 -113.699

EA 230.36 300° 45’ 117.781 -197.973

∑𝐿 = 6.582 ∑𝐷 = −14.991

21 | P a g e
Lesson

AREA COMPUTATION

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
In the accompanying tabulation are given the adjusted latitudes and adjusted
departures of a closed traverse. Calculate the area by:
a. DMD method
b. DPD method

DMD METHOD

Adjusted Latitude Adjusted Departure

Line DMD Double Areas
(+N) (-S) (+N) (-S)

AB 490.27 47.27 47.27 23 195.86

BC 587.12 608.89 703.43 412 997.82

CD 327.41 786.78 2 099.10 -687 266.33

DE 1 002.76 218.32 3 104.20 -3 112 767.59

EF 122.67 1 116.62 2 205.90 -270 597.75

FA 375.01 544.64 544.64 204 245.45

SUM 1 452.64 -1 452.84 1 161.26 -1 161.26

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Lesson

AREA COMPUTATION

SOLutiOn:

a. Computation of DMD
DMDAB = 47.27
DMDBC = 47.27 + 47.27 + 608.89 = 703.43
DMDCD = 703.43 + 608.89 + 786.78 = 2 099.10
DMDDE = 2 099.10 + 786.78 + 218.32 = 3 104.20
DMDEF = 3 104.20 + 218.32 - 1 116.62 = 2 205.90
DMDFA = 2 205.90 - 1 116.62 - 544.64 = 544.64

Computation of Double Areas

DOUBLE AREA = DMD x ADJUSTED LAT.

DOUBLE AREAAB = 47.27 x 490.71 = 23 195.86

DOUBLE AREABC 703.43 x 587.12 = 412 997.82
DOUBLE AREACD = 2 099.10 x (-327.42) = -687 266.33
DOUBLE AREADE = 4 104.20 x (-1 002.76) = -3 112 767.59
DOUBLE AREAEF = 2 205.90 x (-122.67) = -270 597.75
DOUBLE AREAFA = 544.64 x 374.01 = 204 245.45

ΣDA = -3 430 192.54

THEREFORE:
2 x AREA = -3 430 192.54
AREA = 1 715 096.27 m²

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Lesson

AREA COMPUTATION

Line DMD Double Areas

+NDA -SDA
AB 47.27 +23 195.86
BC 703.43 +412 997.82
CD 2 099.10 -687 266.33
DE 3 104.20 -3 112 767.59
EF 2 205.90 -270 597.75
FA 544.64 +204 245.45
SUM +640 439.13 -4 070 631.67

SOLutiOn:
b. Computation of DPD
DPDAB = 490.71
DPDBC = 490.71 + 490.71 + 587.12 = 1 568.54
DPDCD = 15 668.54 + 587.12 - 327.41 = 1 828.25
DPDDE = 1 828.25 - 327.41 - 1 002.76 = 1 828.25
DPDEF = 498.08 - 1 002.72 - 122.67 = - 627.35
DPDFA = - 627.35 - 122.67 + 375.01 = - 375.01

Computation of Double Areas

DAAB = 490.71 x 47.27 = 2 395.86
DABC = 1 568.54 x 608.89 = 955 068.32
DACD = 1 828.25 x 786.78 = 1 438 430.54
DADE = 498.08 x 218. 32 = 108 740.83
DAEF = 627.35 x (- 1 116.62) = 700 511.56
DAFA = 375.01 x (- 544.64) = 204 245.45

ΣDA = 3 430 192.56

THEREFORE:
2 x AREA = 3 430 192.56
AREA = 1 715 096.28 m²

24 | P a g e
Lesson

AREA COMPUTATION

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
A parcel of land has been surveyed in the field and the lengths and bearings of
the various sides are shown.

LINES BEARING DISTANCES

AB N 53° 27’ E 59.82 m

BC S 66° 54’ E 70.38 m

CD S 29° 08’ W 76.62 m

DA N 52° 00’ W 95.75 m

a. Compute the error of closure for the traverse shown.

b. What is the precision of the linear measurement of this traverse.
c. What is the total area included within the traverse in acres.

SOLutiOn:
a. Error of closure
LINES BEARING DISTANCES LATITUDE DEPARTURE

AB N 53° 27’ E 59.82 m + 35.62 + 48.06

BC S 66° 54’ E 70.38 m - 27.61 + 64.74

CD S 29° 08’ W 76.62 m - 66.93 - 37.30

DA N 52° 00’ W 95.75 m + 58.95 - 75.45

302.57 m +0.03 +0.05

Error of closure = √(0.03)² + (0.05)²

Error of closure = 0.0583

25 | P a g e
Lesson

AREA COMPUTATION

b. Precision of linear measurement

0.0583
Precision = 302.57

1
Precision = 5190

Precision = 1:5190

c. Area in acres :

LATITUDE DEPARTURE DMD DOUBLE AREA

+ 35.61 + 48.05 + 48.05 + 1 711.06

- 27.61 + 64.73 + 160.83 - 4 440.46

- 66.94 - 37.31 + 188.35 - 12 601.46

+ 58.94 - 75.47 + 75.47 + 4 448.20

0 0 A = 5441.36 m²

2A = 10 882.72
A = 5 441.36 m²

NOTE: 1 acre = 4 047 m²

5 441.36
Area = 4 047

Area = 1.34 acres

26 | P a g e
Lesson

AREA COMPUTATION

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
The given compound data of a five-sided lot.

LINES LATITUDE DEPARTURE DMD DOUBLE AREA

AB + 57.81 + 16.03 ? ?

BC x + 72.04 ? - 1 002.71

CD y + 13.36 + 189.50 - 8 108.71

DE - 18.75 ? ? ?

EA + 13.36 - 48.18 ? ?

a. Compute the bearing of the line CD.

b. Compute the DMD of line DE.
c. Compute the area of the 5-sided lot in square meters.

SOLutiOn:
a. BEARING of line CD
Double Area = Lat x DMD
- 8 108.71 = y (189.50)
y = - 42.79
Lat. of line CD = - 42.79
Dep. of line CD = + 13.36

𝐷𝑒𝑝.
tan bearing = 𝐿𝑎𝑡.

13.36
tan bearing = 42.79

Bearing = S 17° 20’ E

27 | P a g e
Lesson

AREA COMPUTATION

b. DMD of line DE
Dep. of line DE = + 16.03 + 72. 04 + 13.36 - 48.18
Dep. of line DE = - 53.25

DMD of DE = + 13.36 + 189.50 - 53.25

DMD of DE = 149.61

c. Area of the 5-sided lot in acres.

LINES LATITUDE DEPARTURE DMD DOUBLE AREA

AB + 57.81 + 16.03 + 16.03 +

BC x + 72.04 + 104.10 - 1 002.71

CD - 42.79 + 13.36 + 189.50 - 8 108.71

DE - 18.75 - 53.25 + 149.61 - 2 805.19

EA + 13.36 - 48.18 - 48.18 + 643.68

2A = 10 346.01
A = 5 173.005 m²

Σ+LAT = + 57.81 + 13.36 - 42.79 - 18.75

Σ+LAT = - 9.63
x = - 9.63
A = 5 173.005 m²

5 173.005
A= 4 047

A = 1.278 acres

28 | P a g e
Lesson

CURVATURE AND REFRACTION, ELEVATION DETERMINATION

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
A man’s eyes 1.75 meters above sea level can barely see the top of a lighthouse
which is at a certain distance away from a man.
1) What is the elevation of the top of the lighthouse above sea level if the
lighthouse is 20 kilometers away from the man.
2) How far is the lighthouse from the man in meters if the top of the lighthouse is
14.86 meters above sea level.
3) What is the height of the tower at a distance 20 kilometers away from the man
that will just be visible without the line of sight approaching nearer than 1.75
meters to the water.

SOLutiOn:
1) Elevation of the top of the lighthouse:

1.75 = 0.067 𝐾1 2
1.75
𝐾1 = √0.067

𝐾1 = 5.1107 km.
h = 0.067 𝐾2 2
𝐾2 = 20 – 𝐾1
𝐾2 = 20 – 5.1107
𝐾2 = 14.8893 km.
h = 0.067 (14.8893)²
h = 14.8533 meters (above sea level)

29 | P a g e
Lesson

CURVATURE AND REFRACTION, ELEVATION DETERMINATION

2) Distance from lighthouse from the man:

ℎ1 = 0.067𝐾1 2

1.75 = 0.067 𝐾1 2
1.75
𝐾1 = √
0.067

𝐾1 = 5.1107
ℎ2 = 0.067 𝐾2 2

14.86 = 0.067 𝐾2 2
14.86
𝐾2 = √
0.067

𝐾2 = 14.8927 km.
D = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2
D = 5.1107 + 14.8927
D = 20.0034 km

3) Height of the tower at a distance of 20 km. away from the man:

ℎ1 = 0.067 (20)2

ℎ1 = 26.8000 m.

H = ℎ1 + 1.75
H = 26.8000 + 1.75
H = 28.5500 meters

30 | P a g e
Lesson

CURVATURE AND REFRACTION, ELEVATION DETERMINATION

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
Considering curvature and refraction correction of the earth surface.
1) The F.S. reading on the rod at point B is 1.86 m. The correction for
curvature only is 0.048 m. If H.I. = 238.17
m. and the corrected elevation of B is 236.35 m., what is the correction
for refraction only?
2) At point B, the F.S. reading is 2.23 m. The corrected elevation of B is
144.86 m., considering refraction and curvature. If H.I. = 147.063 m. and
the correction for refraction is 0.005, what is the correction for curvature?
3) Considering curvature and refraction, the corrected elevation of point C is
311.85 m. The F.S. reading on the rod at C is 2.16 m. The correction for
curvature is 0.046 while that for refraction is 0.004. Determine H.I.

SOLutiOn:
1) Correction for curvature only: Curvature and refraction:
Corrected F.S. = 238.17 - 236.35 = curvature – refraction
Corrected F.S.= 1.82m 0.04 = 0.048 – x
Error in F.S. reading = 1.86 - 1.82 x = 0.048 – 0.04
Error in F.S. reading = 0.04 x = 0.008 (refraction correction)
Curvature and refraction correction = 0.04

2) Curvature correction: 3) Value of H.I.

F.S.= 147.063 - 144.86 Curvature and refraction correction
F.S.= 2.203 = 0.046 – 0.004
Curvature and refraction correction = 0.042
= 2.23 - 2.203 Corrected F.S. = 2.16 – 0.042
= 0.027 Corrected F.S. = 2.118 m .
Curvature and refraction: H.I. Elev. + Corrected F.S.
= Curvature – refraction correction H.I.= 311.85 + 2.118
0.027 = Curvature - 0.005 H.I.= 313.968 m.
Curvature = 0.027 + 0.005
Curvature = 0.032 m.

31 | P a g e
Lesson

CURVATURE AND REFRACTION, ELEVATION DETERMINATION

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
Considering the effects of curvature and refraction, the difference in elevation of
points B and C is found out to be 11.356 m. From point A in between B and C is the
angle of elevation of B and C are 18°30° respectively.
1) If C is 2000 m. from A, how far is B from A?
2) If the elevation of A is equal to 200 m., find the elevation of B.
3) Find also the elevation of C.

SOLutiOn:
1) Distance of B from A:

ℎ𝑐𝑟1 = 0.067 x2
ℎ𝑐𝑟2 = 0.067 (2)2
ℎ𝑐𝑟2 = 0.268 m.
ℎ1 = x tan 18°30°
ℎ1 = 0.3346x km.
ℎ1 = 334.6x m.
ℎ2 = 2000 tan 8°15°
ℎ2 = 289.9862 m.
ℎ1 + ℎ𝑐𝑟1 = 111.356 + ℎ1 + ℎ𝑐𝑟2
334.6x + 0.067x2 = 111.356 + 289.9862 + 0.268
x2 + 4994.0299x − 5994.1821 = 0
x = 1.2003 km.
x = 1200.3 meters

2) Elevation of B:
Elev. of B = Elev. A + h1 + hcr1

Elev. of B = 200 + 334.6 (1.2003) + 0.067 (1.2003)2

Elev. of B = 601.7169 meters

3) Elevation of C:
Elev. of C = Elev. B − 111.356
Elev. of C = 601.7169 − 111.356
Elev. of C = 490.3609 meter

32 | P a g e
Lesson

CURVATURE AND REFRACTION, ELEVATION DETERMINATION

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4:

A man standing on the ground can see just the tip of a tower 25 km away. If the
eye of the man is 1.8 above mean sea level, determine the height of the tower above
sea level considering the curvature and refraction correction.

SOLutiOn:

1. Find the value of x

hcr = 0.0675k2

1.8m = 0.0675x2

x2 = 26.667

x = 5.164 km

2. Height of the tower

hcr = 0.0675k2
2
hcr = 0.0675(25-x)
2
h = 0.0675(25 - 5.164)
h = 26.559 m

Height of the tower = 26.559 meters

33 | P a g e
Lesson

CURVATURE AND REFRACTION, ELEVATION DETERMINATION

SAMPLE PROBLEM 5:

Two hills A and B, 90 km apart, has elevations of 60 m and 200 m, respectively.

What should be the minimum height of tower that could be constructed at B so that it
would be visible from A considering the effect of curvature and refraction correction.

SOLutiOn:
1. Find the value of x.
hcr = 0.0675x2
60 m = 0.0675x2
x2 = 888.889
x = 29.814 km

2. Find the value of h.

hcr = 0.0675k2
2
200 + h = 0.0675(90 - 29.814)
h = 44. 509 m

Height of the tower = 44.509 meters

34 | P a g e
Lesson

CURVATURE AND REFRACTION, ELEVATION DETERMINATION

SAMPLE PROBLEM 6:

Elevation of triangulation station A is 300 m while that of B is 740 m. In between

station A and B is a mountain C having an elevation of 375 m. The height of transit
placed at A is 1.2 m. If the distance AC is 30 km and BC is 50 km, determine the height
of tower that could be constructed at B so that the line of sight will just pass through
the mountain C with a clearance of 1.5 m.

SOLutiOn:
D2
1. h = h2 + D (h1 - h2) – 0.0675D1 D2
2+ D1

50
376.5 = 740 + y + 50 + 30 [301.20 – (740 + y) – 0.0675(30)(50)

5
376.5 - 740 = y + 8 (-438.8 - y) – 100.5

5
-363.5 + 100.5 = y – 274.25 - 8y

3
-263 + 274.25 = 8y

y = 30 m

2. Height of tower A and C

D2
h = h2 + D (h1 - h2 ) – 0.0675D1 D2
2+ D1

15
946 = 915 + y + 15+15 [(975 + y) – (915 + y)] – 0.0675(15)(15)

1
946 – 915 = y + 2[60] – 15.075

31 – 30 + 15.075 = y

y = 16.075

35 | P a g e
Lesson

DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
Determine the elevation of Bench Mark 2 (BM2) and the Height of Instrument
in turning point 1, 2, and 3 (TP1, TP2, TP3). Check the answer with arithmetic
checking.

STA BS HI FS Elevation (m)

BM1 1.25 ? 200 m

TP1 6.50 ? 4.90 ?

TP2 5.60 ? 3.80 ?

TP3 3.25 ? 2.62 ?

BM2 3.48 ?

SOLUTION:

STA BS HI FS Elevation (m)

BM1 1.25 201.25 200 m

TP1 6.50 202.85 4.90 196.35 m

TP2 5.60 204.65 3.80 199.05 m

TP3 3.25 205.28 2.62 202.03 m

BM2 3.48 201.8m

∑𝑩𝑺 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟔 ∑𝑭𝑺 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟖

36 | P a g e
Lesson

DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING

Arithmetic Checking:

DE1 = ∑𝐵𝑆 − ∑𝐹𝑆 DE2 = Elev BM2 – Elev BM1

DE1 = 16.6 – 14.8 DE2 = 201.8 – 200

DE1 = 1.8 DE2 = 1.8

DE1 = DE2 ✔

ANSwERS:

Elevation of BM2 = 201.2 m

HI TP1 = 202.85

HI TP2 = 204.05

HI TP3 = 204.68

37 | P a g e
Lesson

DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
Complete the differential level notes shown below. Level notes from BM1 to BM4

STA BS HI FS Elevation (m)

BM1 1.256 ? 127.133 m

TP1 1.116 ? 1.886 ?

TP2 1.228 ? 1.527 ?

BM2 1.189 ? 2.246 ?

BM3 1.010 ? 2.017 ?

TP3 1.831 ? 2.656 ?

BM4 2.765 ?

SOLUTION
STA BS HI FS Elevation (m)

BM1 1.256 128.389 127.133 m

TP1 1.116 127.619 1.886 126.503 m

TP2 1.228 127.320 1.527 126.092 m

BM2 1.189 126.263 2.246 125.074 m

BM3 1.010 125.256 2.017 124.246 m

TP3 1.831 124.431 2.656 122.600 m

BM4 2.765 121.666 m

∑𝑩𝑺 = 𝟕. 𝟔𝟑 ∑𝑭𝑺 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟎𝟗𝟕

38 | P a g e
Lesson

DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING

Arithmetic Check:

DE1 = ∑FS – ∑BS DE2 = Elev BM1 – Elev BM4

DE1 = 13.097 – 7.63 DE2 = 127.133 – 121.666

DE1 = 5.467 DE2 = 5.467

DE1 = DE2 ✔

39 | P a g e
Lesson

DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
Using the following notes, what is the elevation of BM14?

STA BS HI FS Elevation (m)

BM12 4.64 ? 209.65 m

TP1 5.80 ? 5.06 ?

TP2 2.25 ? 5.02 ?

BM13 6.02 ? 5.85 ?

TP3 8.96 ? 4.34 ?

TP4 8.06 ? 3.22 ?

TP5 9.45 ? 3.71 ?

TP6 12.32 ? 2.02 ?

BM14 1.98 ?

SOLUTION:
STA BS HI FS Elevation (m)

BM12 4.64 214.29 209.65 m

TP1 5.80 215.03 5.06 209.23 m

TP2 2.25 212.26 5.02 210.01 m

BM13 6.02 212.43 5.85 206.41 m

TP3 8.96 217.05 4.34 208.09 m

TP4 8.06 221.89 3.22 213.83 m

TP5 9.45 227.63 3.71 218.18 m

TP6 12.32 237.93 2.02 225.61 m

BM14 1.98 235.95 m

∑𝑩𝑺 = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟓 ∑𝑭𝑺 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟐

40 | P a g e
Lesson

DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING

Arithmetic Checking:

DE1 = ∑BS – ∑FS DE2 = Elev BM14 – Elev BM12

DE1 = 57.5 – 31.2 DE2 = 235.95 – 209.65

DE1 = 26.3 DE2 = 26.3

DE1 = DE2 ✔

ANSwER:
Elevation of BM14 = 235.9500 meters

41 | P a g e
Lesson

DOUBLE-RODDED LEVELING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
Data shown is obtained from a double-rodded line of levels of a certain cross-
section of the proposed of Manila-Laguna Road.
a. Find the difference in elevation between TP2 and TP3.
b. Find the elevation of BM2.
c. What is the difference in elevation between BM1 and BM2.

HEIGHT OF
BACKSIGHT FORESIGHT ELEVATION
STATION INSTRUMENT
(m) (m) (m)
(m)
BM1 2.60 50.00
BM1 2.60
TP1 H 1.95 1.24
TP1 L 1.05 1.98
TP2 H 2.05 0.75
TP2 L 1.25 1.34
TP3 H 2.75 3.26
TP3 L 1.50 3.14
BM2 2.54
BM2 2.54
∑BS: 15.75 ∑FS: 16.79

SOLutiOn:
HEIGHT OF
BACKSIGHT FORESIGHT ELEVATION
STATION INSTRUMENT
(m) (m) (m)
(m)
BM1 2.60 52.60 50.00
BM1 2.60 52.60
TP1 H 1.95 53.31 1.24 51.36
TP1 L 1.05 51.67 1.98 50.62
TP2 H 2.05 54.61 0.75 52.56
TP2 L 1.25 51.58 1.34 50.33
TP3 H 2.75 54.10 3.26 51.35
TP3 L 1.50 49.94 3.14 48.44
BM2 2.54 51.56
BM2 2.54 47.40
∑BS: 15.75 ∑FS: 16.79

42 | P a g e
Lesson

DOUBLE-RODDED LEVELING

Arithmetic Check:
∑BS−∑FS 𝐵𝑀2 (𝐻)+𝐵𝑀2 (𝐿)
Mean Elev BMb = Elev BM1 + ( ) Mean Elev BMb =
2 2
15.75−16.79 51.56 𝑚+47.40𝑚
= 50.00 m + ( ) =
2 2

= 49.48 m = 49.48 m

a. Find the difference in elevation between TP2 and TP3.

52.56 𝑚+50.33 𝑚
Elevation of TP2 = 2

= 51.45 m
51.35 𝑚+48.44 𝑚
Elevation of TP3 = 2

= 49.90 m
Difference in elevation = 51.45 m – 49.90 m
Difference in elevation = 1.55 m

b. Find the elevation of BM2.

51.56 𝑚+47.40 𝑚
Elevation of BM2 = 2

Elevation of BM2 = 49.48 m

c. What is the difference in elevation between BM1 and BM2.

50.00 m – 49.48 m = 0.52 m

43 | P a g e
Lesson

DOUBLE-RODDED LEVELING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
Data shown is obtained from a double-rodded line of levels of a certain cross-
section of the proposed of Gangnam-Busan Road.

a. Find the difference in elevation between TP1 and TP3.

b. Find the elevation of BM2.
c. What is the difference in elevation between BM1 and BM2.

HEIGHT OF
BACKSIGHT FORESIGHT ELEVATION
STATION INSTRUMENT
(m) (m) (m)
(m)
BM1 1.68 175.00
BM1 1.68 175.00
TP1 H 5.26 2.54
TP1 L 3.24 1.98
TP2 H 3.46 5.15
TP2 L 2.16 3.09
TP3 H 1.75 4.12
TP3 L 4.34 3.25
BM2 2.97
BM2 2.43

SOLutiOn:
HEIGHT OF
BACKSIGHT FORESIGHT ELEVATION
STATION INSTRUMENT
(m) (m) (m)
(m)
BM1 1.68 176.68 175.00
BM1 1.68 176.68 175.00
TP1 H 5.26 179.40 2.54 174.14
TP1 L 3.24 177.94 1.98 174.70
TP2 H 3.46 177.71 5.15 174.25
TP2 L 2.16 177.01 3.09 174.85
TP3 H 1.75 175.34 4.12 173.59
TP3 L 4.34 178.10 3.25 173.76
BM2 2.97 172.37
BM2 2.43 175.67
∑BS: 23.57 ∑FS: 25.53

44 | P a g e
Lesson

DOUBLE-RODDED LEVELING

Arithmetic Check:
∑BS−∑FS 𝐵𝑀2 (𝐻)+𝐵𝑀2 (𝐿)
Mean Elev BMb = Elev BM1 + ( ) Mean Elev BMb =
2 2

23.57−25.53 172.37+175.67
= 175.00 m + ( ) =
2 2

= 174.02 m = 174.02 m

a. Find the difference in elevation between TP1 and TP3.

174.14 𝑚+174.70 𝑚
Elevation of TP1 = 2

= 174.42 m
173.59 𝑚+173.76 𝑚
Elevation of TP3 = 2

= 173.68 m
Difference in elevation = 174.42 m – 173.68 m
Difference in elevation = 0.74 m

b. Find the elevation of BM2.

172.37 𝑚+175.67 𝑚
Elevation of BM2 = 2

Elevation of BM2 = 174.02 m

c. What is the difference in elevation between BM1 and BM2.

175.00 m – 174.02 m = 0.98 m

45 | P a g e
Lesson

DOUBLE-RODDED LEVELING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
Data shown is obtained from a double-rodded line of levels of a certain cross-
section of the proposed of London Bridge-Big Ben Road.
a. Find the height of instrument of TP2.
b. Find the elevation of TP3.
c. Find the elevation of BM2.

HEIGHT OF
BACKSIGHT FORESIGHT ELEVATION
STATION INSTRUMENT
(m) (m) (m)
(m)
BM1 5.49 80.00
BM1 5.49 80.00
TP1 H 3.95 2.98
TP1 L 2.64 3.26
TP2 H 4.01 1.89
TP2 L 3.33 3.41
TP3 H 5.57 2.00
TP3 L 2.35 1.25
BM2 4.09
BM2 3.77

SOLutiOn:
HEIGHT OF
BACKSIGHT FORESIGHT ELEVATION
STATION INSTRUMENT
(m) (m) (m)
(m)
BM1 5.49 85.49 80.00
BM1 5.49 85.49 80.00
TP1 H 3.95 86.46 2.98 82.51
TP1 L 2.64 84.87 3.26 82.23
TP2 H 4.01 88.58 1.89 84.57
TP2 L 3.33 84.79 3.41 81.46
TP3 H 5.57 92.15 2.00 86.58
TP3 L 2.35 85.89 1.25 83.54
BM2 4.09 88.06
BM2 3.77 82.12
∑BS: 32.83 ∑FS: 22.65

46 | P a g e
Lesson

DOUBLE-RODDED LEVELING

Arithmetic Check:

∑BS−∑FS 𝐵𝑀2 (𝐻)+𝐵𝑀2 (𝐿)

Mean Elev BMb = Elev BM1 + ( ) Mean Elev BMb =
2 2

32.83−22.65 88.06+82.12
= 80.00 m + ( ) =
2 2

= 85.09 m = 85.09 m

a. Find the height of instrument of TP2.

88.58+84.79
Elevation of TP2 = 2

Elevation of TP2 = 86.69 m

b. Find the elevation of TP3.

86.58 𝑚+83.54 𝑚
Elevation of TP3 = 2

Elevation of TP3 = 85.06 m

c. Find the elevation of BM2.

88.06+82.12
Elevation of BM2 = 2

Elevation of BM2 = 85.09 m

47 | P a g e
Lesson

THREE - WIRE LEVELING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
Complete the three-wire leveling notes and do the arithmetic check.

BACKSIGHT (BS) FORESIGHT (FS) ELEV.

Sta. HAIR MEAN STADIA HI HAIR MEAN STADIA
READING READING (S) READING READING (S)
(in m)

1.152
BM1 0.935 444.242
0.718

2.764 1.117
TP1 2.420 0.899
2.057 0.682

1.713 1.900
TP2 1.440 1.537
1.166 1.172

2.591 1.450
TP3 2.094 1.177
1.599 0.904

0.913 2.210
TP4 0.730 1.714
0.547 1.218

1.393
BM2 1.410
1.227

48 | P a g e
Lesson

THREE - WIRE LEVELING

SOLUTION:
BACKSIGHT (BS) FORESIGHT (FS) ELEV.
Sta. HAIR MEAN STADIA HI HAIR MEAN STADIA
(in m)
READING READING (S) READING READING (S)
1.152
BM1 0.935 0.935 0.434 445.117 444.242
0.718

2.764 1.117
TP1 2.420 2.420 0.727 446.698 0.899 0.899 0.435 444.278
2.057 0.682

1.713 1.900
TP2 1.440 1.440 0.547 446.602 1.537 1.536 0.728 445.162
1.166 1.172

2.591 1.450
TP3 2.094 2.095 0.992 447.520 1.177 1.177 0.546 445.425
1.599 0.904

0.913 2.210
TP4 0.730 0.730 0.366 446.536 1.714 1.714 0.992 445.806
0.547 1.218

1.393
BM2 1.410 1.410 0.366 445.126
1.227

∑BS = +7.620 ∑FS = -6.736

Arithmetic Check:

Elevation BM1 + ∑BS + ∑FS = BM2

444.242m + (+7.620) + (-6.736) = 445.126m

445.126 m = 445.126 m

49 | P a g e
Lesson

THREE - WIRE LEVELING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
Do the arithmetic check after finishing the three-wire leveling notes. And also:
a. Find the elevation difference between TP2 and TP3.
b. What is the difference in elevation between BM1 and BM2.

BACKSIGHT (BS) FORESIGHT (FS) ELEV.

Sta. HAIR MEAN STADIA HI HAIR MEAN STADIA
READING READING (S) READING READING (S)
(in m)

2.388
BM1 1.667
452.320
0.996

0.910 1.535
TP1 0.515 0.875
0.121 0.215

2.099 2.381
TP2 1.594 2.000
1.089 1.620

2.575 2.147
TP3 1.945 1.654
1.315 1.160

1.833
BM2 1.203
0.573

50 | P a g e
Lesson

THREE - WIRE LEVELING

SOLUTION:
BACKSIGHT (BS) FORESIGHT (FS) ELEV.
Sta. HAIR MEAN STADIA HI HAIR MEAN STADIA
(in m)
READING READING (S) READING READING (S)
2.388
BM1 1.667
1.684 1.392 454.004 452.320
0.996

0.910 1.535
TP1 0.515 0.875
0.515 0.789 453.644 0.875 1.320 453.129
0.121 0.215

2.099 2.381
TP2 1.594 2.000 451.644
1.594 1.010 453.238 2.000 0.761
1.089 1.620

2.575 2.147
TP3 1.945 1.654
1.945 1.260 453.529 1.654 0.987 451.584
1.315 1.160

1.833
BM2 1.203
1.203 1.260 452.326
0.573

∑BS = +5.738 ∑FS = -5.732

Arithmetic Check:
Elevation BM1 + ∑BS + ∑FS = BM2
452.320m + (+5.738) + (-5.732) = 452.326m
452.320 m = 452. 320 m
a. Find the elevation difference between TP2 and TP3.
Difference in elevation = Elev. TP2 – Elev. TP3
Difference in elevation = 451.644 – 451.584
Difference in elevation = 0.06m

b. What is the difference in elevation between BM1 and BM2.

Difference in elevation = Elev. BM2 – Elev. BM1
Difference in elevation = 452.326 – 452.320
Difference in elevation = 0.006m

51 | P a g e
Lesson

THREE - WIRE LEVELING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
Fill out the leveling note and perform the arithmetic check for the data displayed,
which was received from a three-wired line of levels.
a. Find the height of instrument of TP2.
b. Find the elevation of TP3.
c. Find the elevation of BM2.

BACKSIGHT (BS) FORESIGHT (FS) ELEV.

Sta. HAIR MEAN STADIA HI HAIR MEAN STADIA
(in m)
READING READING (S) READING READING (S)
1.567
BM1 1.234
452.320
0.901

1.364 1.352
TP1 1.008 1.151
0.652 0.950

0.938 0.835
TP2 0.732 0.623
0.526 0.411

1.043 0.998
TP3 0.992 0.698
0.941 0.398

1.089
BM2 0.973
0.857

52 | P a g e
Lesson

THREE - WIRE LEVELING

SOLUTION:
BACKSIGHT (BS) FORESIGHT (FS) ELEV.
Sta. HAIR MEAN STADIA HI HAIR MEAN STADIA
(in m)
READING READING (S) READING READING (S)
1.567
BM1 1.234 1.237 0.666 453.557
452.320
0.901

1.364 1.352
TP1 1.008 1.008 0.712 453.414 1.151 1.151 0.402 452.406
0.652 0.950

0.938 0.835
TP2 0.732 0.732 0.412 453.523 0.623 0.623 0.424 452.791
0.526 0.411

1.043 0.998
TP3 0.992 0.992 0.102 453.817 0.698 0.698 0.600 452.825
0.941 0.398

1.089
BM2 0.973 0.973 0.232 452.844
0.857

∑BS = +3.969 ∑FS = -3.445

Arithmetic Check:

Elevation BM12 + ∑BS + ∑FS = BM13

452.320m + (+3.969) + (-3.445) = 452.844m

452.844 m = 452.844 m

a. Find the height of instrument of TP2 = 453.523m

b. Find the elevation of TP3 = 452.825m

c. Find the elevation of BM13 = 452.844m

53 | P a g e
Lesson

RECIPROCAL LEVELING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
A reciprocal leveling is observed across a wide river and the reciprocal readings
were taken between points A and B as follows. With instrument set up near A, the rod
readings on A are 2.283 m and 2.285 m. The reciprocal level readings on the opposite
side of the river at point B are 3.618, 3.619, 3.621 ad 3.622 m. With the instrument set
up near B the rod readings on B are 4.478 m and 4.476m, and the rod readings on the
opposite side of the river at point A, the rod readings are 3.143, 3.140, 3.146 and 3.144.
a) Compute the difference in elevation between A and B with the instrument set up
near A.
b) What is the true difference in elevation between A and B?
c) If the elevation A is 300 m, what is the elevation of B?

SOLutiOn:
Instrument Set Up at A Mean Rod Instrument Set Up at B Mean Rod
Reading Reading
Rod Reading 2.283 2.284 Rod Reading 4.478 4.477
at A 2.285 at B 4.476
Rod Reading 3.618 3.62 Rod Reading 3.143 3.143
at B 3.619 at A 3.140
3.621 3.146
3.622 3.144

ΔELEV observed at A = 2.284-3.62 ΔELEV observed at B = 3.143 - 4.477

a) ΔELEV observed at A = -1.366 m ΔELEV observed at B = -1.334 m
−1.366+(−1.334)
TRUE ΔELEV = 2

b) TRUE ΔELEV = 1.355 m

ELEV OF B = 300 -1.335
c) ELEV OF B = 298.665 m

54 | P a g e
Lesson

RECIPROCAL LEVELING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
Reciprocal Leveling readings were taken between two points A and B as shown
on the table and diagram below. Determine the true difference in elevation and the
elevation of B. Elevation at A is 951.750 m.

Instrument Set Up Near A Instrument Set Up Near A

STA BS FS STA BS FS
A 1.283 B’ 1.478
1.284 1.480
1.286 1.476
1.283 1.478
B 0.675 A’ 2.143
0.674 2.140
0.677 2.145
0.674 2.142
0.677 2.143
0.678 2.146
SUM 5.136 4.055 SUM 12.859 5.912
MEAN 1.284 0.676 MEAN 2.143 1.478

SOLutiOn:
Difference in Elevation Difference in Elevation
at Instrument Set Up at Instrument Set Up
Near A: Near A:
DEA = 1.284 – 0.676 DEB= 2.143 – 1.478
DEA = 0.608 DEB = 0.665

True difference in Elevation:

0.608+0.665
TDE = 2

TDE = 0.637 m

Elevation at B:
ELEV OF B = Elevation at A ± TDE
ELEV OF B = 951.750 + 0.637
ELEV OF B = 952.387 m

55 | P a g e
Lesson

RECIPROCAL LEVELING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
In leveling across a wide river on Pampanga, a reciprocal level reading was taken
between points B and C as shown in the tabulation.
a) Compute the difference in elevation between B and C with instrument set up
near B.
b) Compute the true difference in elevation between B and C.
c) If the elevation of B is 346.50 m, compute the elevation of C.

Instrument Set up Near B Instrument Set up Near C

STA BS FS STA BS FS
B 2.283 C’ 2.478
2.284 2.480
2.286 2.476
2.283 2.478
C 1.675 B’ 3.143
1.674 3.140
1.677 3.145
1.674 3.142
1.677 3.143
1.678 3.146
SUM 9.136 10.055 SUM 18.859 9.914
MEAN 2.284 1.676 MEAN 3.143 2.478

SOLutiOn:
a) Difference In Elevation Between B And C With Instrument Set Up Near B
= 2.284 – 1.676
= 0.608
Difference In Elevation Between B And C With Instrument Set Up Near C
= 3.143 – 2.478
= 0.665

b) True Difference in Elevation c) Elevation at C = 346.50 + 0.6365

0.608+0.665
= Elev. at C = 347.1365 m
2

True Difference in Elev. = 0.6365 m

56 | P a g e
Lesson

PROFILE LEVELING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
A profile level route from BM12 to BM13 are given below.
a) Complete the profile leveling notes and perform arithmetic check.
b) Find the elevation of TP4.
c) Determine the height difference of BM12 and BM13.
Station BS HI FS IFS ELEVATION (m)
BM12 3.5 200
0+00 2.00
1+00 2.10
2+00 1.87
3+00 1.98
TP4 1.87 0.76
4+50 0.89
5+50 0.95
6+00 2.64
6+70 2.31
BM13 1.48

SOLUTION:
Station BS HI FS IFS ELEVATION (m)
BM12 3.5 203.50 200
0+00 2.00 201.50
1+00 2.10 201.40
2+00 1.87 201.63
3+00 1.98 201.52
TP4 1.87 204.61 0.76 202.74
4+50 0.89 203.72
5+50 0.95 203.66
6+00 2.64 201.97
6+70 2.31 202.30
BM13 1.48 203.13
Σ = 5.37 Σ = 2.24

a. ARITHMETIC CHECK:
Elev. BM12 + Σ BS - Σ FS = Elev. BM13
200m + 5.37 – 2.24 = Elev. BM13
203.13m = 203.13 m

b. Elev. of TP4 = 202.74 m

c. BM 13 – BM12
203.13 – 200 = 3.13 m

57 | P a g e
Lesson

PROFILE LEVELING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
Prepare a set of profile leveling notes to survey a road along the mountain;
a) Compute all elevations and perform arithmetic check.
b) Determine the heigh difference of TP1 and TP2.
c) Find the elevation of BM2.

Station BS HI FS IFS ELEVATION (m)

BM1 4.72 321.25
0+00 3.32
0+50 3.56
TP1 5.11 4.15
1+100 4.32
1+200 4.45
1+300 5.22
TP2 5.89 4.75
2+50 2.80
2+75 2.66
2+100 2.35
BM2 1.82
SOLUTION:
Station BS HI FS IFS ELEVATION (m)
BM1 4.72 325.97 321.25
0+00 3.32 322.65
0+50 3.56 322.41
TP1 5.11 326.93 4.15 321.82
1+100 4.32 322.61
1+200 4.45 322.48
1+300 5.22 321.71
TP2 5.89 328.07 4.75 322.18
2+50 2.80 325.27
2+75 2.66 325.41
2+100 2.35 325.72
BM2 1.82 326.25
Σ = 15.72 Σ = 10.72

a. ARITHMETIC CHECK:
Elev. BM1 + Σ BS - Σ FS = Elev. BM2
321.25m + 15.72 – 10.72 = Elev. BM2
326.25m = 326.25m
b. TP2 - TP1
DW 322.18m – 321.82m = 0.36m
c. Elev. BM2 = 326.25m

58 | P a g e
Lesson

PROFILE LEVELING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
Arrange the following description in the form of profile level notes complete its
elevation. A level is set up and a reading of 3.000 m is taken on a bench mark the
elevation of which is 14.358 m. at the beginning of the line to be profiled, the rod
reading is 2.825 m, 45m from the beginning it is 1.557m, at 60m it is 0.852m, at
66m and 81m the rod readings are 1.397m and 0.921m respectively. On a rock that
is not on line, the rod reading is 0.439m. The level is then removed ahead, set up
a rod reading of 2.547 m is observed, the rod still being held on the rock. The
readings along the profile are then resumed: 90 m from the beginning of the line,
the rod reading is 1.569m, 120m from the beginning of the line rod reading is
1.625m, finally at 150m from the from the beginning of the line rod reading is
2.000m.

a) Find the elevation of TP.

b) Difference in elevation of point 120m and 66m from the beginning of the line.

SOLUTION:
Station BS HI FS IFS ELEVATION (m)
BM 3.000 17.358 14.358
0 2.825 14.533
45 1.557 15.801
60 0.852 16.506
66 1.397 15.961
81 0.921 16.437
TP 2.547 17.466 2.439 14.919
90 1.569 15.897
120 1.625 15.841
150 2.000 15.466
Σ = 5.547 Σ = 4.439

ARITHMETIC CHECK:
Elev. BM + Σ BS - Σ FS = Elev. BM2
14.358 + 5.547 – 4.439 = Elev. BM2
15.466m = 15.466m

a. Elev. of TP = 14.919m

b. Point 120m – Point 66m

15.961 - 15.841 = 0.12m

59 | P a g e
Lesson

TWO PEG METHOD

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
The following findings were made using a dumpy level's two-peg test approach.

Instrument set up near A Instrument set up near B

Rod reading on A 2.532 0.478
Rod reading on B 3.056 1.507

1. Find A and B's difference in elevation if the line of sight is not adjusted.
2. If the instrument is still setup at B, determine the accurate rod reading on A.
3. Determine the error in the line of sight.

2.532
3.056

0.478
1.507

SOLUTION:
1. 2.532 + x = 3.056 – e 2. x + e = 0.524
x + e = 0.524
e= -0.253
x + 0.478 – e = 1.507
x-e= 1.029 Rod Reading on A= 0.478-0.253
2𝑥 1.553
= Rod Reading on A = 0.225
2 2
x= 0.777

3. Error in the line of sight = -0.253 m

60 | P a g e
Lesson

TWO PEG METHOD

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
The following observations were made during a two-peg test using the model
wild and the NA2 dumpy level.

Instrument set up near C Instrument set up near D

Rod reading on A 1.639 0.973
Rod reading on B 1.458 0.432

Point C is equally far from points A and B, and point d is 12 m from a and 72m
from B.

1. What is the actual elevational difference between a and b?

2. Adjusting the line of sight while keeping the level in the same location
ssdepends on the rod reading.
3. What is the comparable rod reading on A while the instrument is still at D
aaand the line of sight is horizontal?

SOLUTION
1. 1. 639 + e = 1.458 + e + x
1.639 - 1.458 + e – e = x
x= 0.181 1.458
1.639

2.
0.973 + e1 = e2 + 0.432 + x
0.973 + e1 = e2 + 0.432 + 0.181
0.973 + e1 = e2 + 0.163
0.973 0.973 - 0.432 = e2 – e1
0.432
e2 – e1 = 0.541
x= 0.181

61 | P a g e
Lesson

TWO PEG METHOD

𝑒2 𝑒1 e2= 6e1
\ =
12 72 e2= 6(0.1082)
72𝑒1
e2 = e2= 0.649
12
e2= 6e1
e2 – e1 = 0.541 Rod reading on B = 0.432+e2

6e1– e1 = 0.541 Rod reading on B = 0.432+0.649

5e1 = 0.541 Rod reading on B = 1.081

0.541
e1 = 125

e1=0.1082

3. Rod reading on A =0.973 + e1

Rod reading on A =0.973 + 0.108
Rod reading on A =1.081

62 | P a g e
Lesson

TWO PEG METHOD

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
At a distance of around 120 meters, two pegs A and B are hammered into the
earth. At station Q, a dumpy level is placed exactly halfway between pegs A and B.
Staff readings on pegs A and B were discovered to be 3.149 m and 3.513 m,
respectively. The instrument was subsequently moved and placed in line BA, 20 meters
away from peg A, at point P after that. On pegs A and B, the staff readings were 1.763
m and 0.847 m, respectively. What is the actual elevational difference between the two
points? What rod readings on B indicate that the line of sight has to be altered with the
level in the same location at P? Check these reading against the true difference in
elevation previously determined.

SOLUTION:
Level at midway
Staff reading on A = 3.513 m
Staff reading on B = 3.149 m
True difference of level = d = 3.513 - 3.149 = 0.364 m
True difference of level = 0.364 m

Level at 20 m from A
Staff reading on A = 1.763 m
Staff reading on B = 0.847 m
Apparent difference of level = d' = 1.763-0.847 = 0.916 m
A= 1.763 - 0.364 = 1.399 m
A = 1.399 m

63 | P a g e
Lesson

TWO PEG METHOD

Collimation error in 120 m = 0.847- 1.399 =- 0.552 m

Collimation error in 20 m = -0.552 x 20/120 = -0.092 m

Correction at A'+0.092 m
Correct reading at 'A' = 1.763 + 0.092 = 1.855 m
Correct reading at 'A' = 1.855 m

Collimation error at 'B' in a distance of 140 m = -0.552 x 140/120 = -0.644 m

Correction at 'B' = + 0.644 m

Correct reading at 'B' = 0.847 + 0.644 = 1.491 m
Correct reading at 'B' = 1.491 m

Check:
Difference between 'A' and 'B' = 1.855 - 1.491 = 0.364

64 | P a g e
Lesson

TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
From point A in between points B and C, the angles of elevation are 18°30’ and
8°15’ respectively. Point C is 2000m from point A, and point B is 1200m from point A.
Elevation of point A is 219.42m above sea level.
1. Compute the difference in elevation between points B and C, considering the
effect of the Earth’s curvature and refraction.
2. Compute the difference in elevation between points A and C.
3. Compute the elevation of points B.

SOLutiOn:

1. Diff. in elevation between points B and C:

hcr1= 0.0675(1.2km)2
hcr1= 0.0972m
hcr2= 0.0675(2km)2
hcr2= 0.27m

65 | P a g e
Lesson

TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING

h1= 1200 tan (18°30’) h2= 2000 tan(8°15’)

h1= 401.5144m h2=289.9862m

H= (h1 + hcr1) - (h2 + hcr2)

H= (401.5144m + 0.0972m) – (289.9862m + 0.27m)
DEBC = H = 111.3554m

2. Diff. in elevation between points A and C:

DEAC= h2 + hcr2
DEAC= 289.9862m + 0.27m
DEAC= 290.2562m

3. Elevation of B:

Elev. B= Elev. A + h1 + hcr1

Elev. B= 219.42m + 289.9862m + 0.27m
Elev. B= 509.6762m

66 | P a g e
Lesson

TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
A transit is set up at point B which is between points A and B. The vertical angle
observed towards point A is known to be -20° and that of C is +12° The horizontal
distance between A and B is 642.80m, and that of B and C is 1032.40m. The height of
instrument is 1.5m above B, with A having an elevation of 146.32m. Considering the
effect of curvature and refraction correction.
1. Compute the difference in elevation between points A and B.
2. Compute the difference in elevation between points A and C.
3. Compute the elevation of point B.

SOLutiOn:

1. Diff. in elevation between points A and B:

hcr1= 0.0675(0.6428km)2
hcr1= 0.0279m
hcr2= 0.0675(1.0324)2
hcr2= 0.0719m

67 | P a g e
Lesson

TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING

H1= h1 + hcr1
h1= 233.9601m – 0.0279m
h1= 233.9322m

DEAB= 233.9322m – 1.5m

DEAB= 232.4322m

2. Diff. in elevation between points A and C:

h2= 1032.40tan(12)
h2= 219.4434m

H2= 219.4434m + 0.0719m

H2= 219.5153m

DEAC= h1 + H2
DEAC= 233.9322m + 219.5153m
DEAC= 453.4475m

3. Elev. of point B:
Elev. B= Elev. A + DEAB
Elev. B= 146.32m + 232.4322m
Elev. B= 378.7522m

68 | P a g e
Lesson

TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
A trigonometric leveling conducted by Jereza Surveying Company, the two points
A and B of a certain rough terrain are each distance 2000m from a third point C, from
which the measured vertical angles to, A is +3°30’ and to B is +1°30’. Elevation at
point C is known to be 342.60m above the sea level. Point C is in between points A
and B.
1. Compute the difference in elevation between points A and B considering
the effect of the Earth’s curvature and refraction.
2. Compute the difference in elevation between points B and C.
3. Compute the elevation of point A.

SOLutiOn:

1. Difference in elevation between points A and B:

hcr1= 0.0675(2km)2
hcr1= 0.27m
hcr2= 0.0675(2km)2
hcr2= 0.27m

69 | P a g e
Lesson

TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING

h2= 2000tan(3°30’) h1= 2000tan(1°30’)

h2= 122.3252m h1= 52.3718m

H + h1 + hcr1 = h2 + hcr2
H + 52.3718m + 0.27m = 122.3252m + 0.27m
DEAB = H = 69.9534m

2. Difference in elevation between points B and C:

DEBC= h1 + hcr1
DEBC= 52.3718m + 0.27m
DEBC= 52.6418 m

3. Elevation of A:
Elev. A= Elev. C + h2 + hcr2
Elev. A= 342.60m + 122.3252m + 0.27m
Elev. A= 465.1952 m

70 | P a g e
Lesson

TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4:
Two hills A and C have elevations of 600 m. and 800 m. respectively. In between A
and C is another hill B which has an elevation of 705 m. and is located at 12 km. from
A and 10 km. from C.
1. Determine the clearance or obstruction of the line of sight at hill B if the observer
is at A so that C will be visible from A.
2. If C is not visible from A, what height of tower must be constructed at C so that
it could be visible from A with the line of sight having a clearance of 2 m. above
hill B.
3. What height of equal towers at A and C must be constructed in order that A, B
and C will be intervisible.

SOLutiOn:
1. Obstruction of the line of sight at hill B:
D2 (h1 - h2 )
h = h2 + - 0.067D1 D2
D1 + D2

10 (600 - 800)
h = 800 + - 0.067(12)(10)
12 +10

h = 701.05
Obstruction = 705 - 701.05
Obstruction = 3.95

2. Height of tower at C so that it could be visible from A with a 2 m. clearance

above hill B:

D2 (h1 - h2 )
h = h2 + - 0.067D1 D2
D1 + D2

10 [600 - (800 + x)]

707 = (800 + x) + - 0.067(12)(10)
12 +10

707 = 800 + x - 90.91 - 0.4545x - 8.04

x = 10.91 meters

71 | P a g e
Lesson

TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING

3. Height of equal towers at A and C so that it will be intervisible:

D2 (h1 - h2 )
h = h2 + - 0.067D1 D2
D1 + D2

10 [(600 + x) - (800 + x)]

707 = (800 + x) + - 0.067(12)(10)
12 +10

707 = 800 + x - 90.91 - 8.04

x = 3.95 meters

72 | P a g e
Lesson
MEASUREMENTS BY STADIA OR INCLINED DISTANCE,
SOURCES OF ERROR IN THE STADIA WORK

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
A survey party proceeded to do their stadia survey work as follows: the transit
was set up at a point A and with the line of sight horizontal, took rod readings with the
rod at points B and C, which were then measured to have taped distances from A to
200 m., and 600m. respectively.

Rod B Rod C

Stadia Interval 2.001 0.600

The distance from the centre of the instrument to the principal focus was
recorded as 0.30 m. Then they went on to survey other points, with some of the data
recorded as follows: with the transit at point D, two points E and F were sighted.

Rod E Rod F

Stadia Interval 2.120 m 3.560 m

Vertical Angle +4’22” -3’17”

1) Compute the stadia interval factor.

2) Compute the horizontal distance DE and DF.
3) Compute the differences in elevation between points D and E and points D and F.

SOLUTION:

1) Stadia Interval factor:

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Lesson
MEASUREMENTS BY STADIA OR INCLINED DISTANCE,
SOURCES OF ERROR IN THE STADIA WORK

𝑓𝑆
𝐷= + (𝑓 + 𝑐)
𝑖 𝐷2 − 𝐷1 = (𝐾𝑆2 + 𝑅) − (𝐾𝑆1 + 𝑅)
𝑓 𝐷2 −𝐷1
𝐾= = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐾=
𝑖 𝑆2 −𝑆1
200−60
𝑅 = (𝑓 + 𝑐) = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐾= 2.001−0.600
(𝑓 + 𝑐) = 0.30 K = 99.93 (stadia interval factor)
𝐷1 = 𝐾𝑆1 𝑅
𝐷2 = 𝐾𝑆2 𝑅

2) Horizontal distances DE and DF:

Assume elevation of D = 100 m

𝑓
𝐻= 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + (𝑓 + 𝑐)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑖
𝐻 = 99.93(2.12)𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 4′22" + (0.30)𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 4′22"

H = 210.92 m

3) Differences in elevation between points D and E and points D and F:

𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
𝑉=𝑖𝑆 + (𝑓 + 𝑐)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2

𝑠𝑖𝑛 8′44"
V = 99.93(2.12) + (0.3) sin 4’22”
2
V = 16.11 m

𝑠𝑖𝑛 6′34"
V = 99.93(3.56) + (0.3) sin 3’17”
2
V = 20.36 m

Elevation of F = 100 + HI - 20.36 - HI = 79.64 m

Difference in elevation between D and F = 20.36 m

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Lesson
MEASUREMENTS BY STADIA OR INCLINED DISTANCE,
SOURCES OF ERROR IN THE STADIA WORK

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:

The upper and lower stadia hair readings on a stadia rod held at station B were
observed as 3.50 and 1.00 m, respectively, with the use of a transit with an interval
focusing telescope and having a stadia interval factor of 99.5. The height of the
instrument above station A is 1.45 m and the rod reading is taken at 2.25 m. If the
vertical angle observed is -23’34”, determine the following:
1) Inclined stadia distance
2) Difference in elevation between two stations.
3) The elevation of Station B, if the elevation of Station A is 155.54 m above sea
level.

SOLUTION:

𝒇
= 𝟗𝟗. 𝟓
𝒊

f + c = 0 (interior focusing)

1) Inclined stadia distance:

𝑓
𝐷 = 𝑖 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + (𝑓 + 𝑐)

D = 99.5 (2.50) cos 23’34” + 0

D = 228 m

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Lesson
MEASUREMENTS BY STADIA OR INCLINED DISTANCE,
SOURCES OF ERROR IN THE STADIA WORK

2) Difference in elevation between the two stations.

𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
𝑉=𝑖𝑆 + (𝑓 + 𝑐)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2

1
V + 99.5 (2.50) 2 sin ( 2 x 23’34”) + 0

V = 91.16

𝐷𝐸𝐴𝐵 = 2.25 + 91.16 − 1.45

𝑫𝑬𝑨𝑩 = 91.96 m

3. The elevation of station B, if the elevation of station A is 155.54 m above

mean sea level.

Elev. at B = 155.54 - 91.96

Elev. at B = 63.58 m

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Lesson
MEASUREMENTS BY STADIA OR INCLINED DISTANCE,
SOURCES OF ERROR IN THE STADIA WORK

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:

A transit with a stadia interval factor of 100,8 was set at C on the line between
points A and B, and the following stadia readings were observed.

Position of Vertical
HAIR READINGS
Rod Angle

Upper Middle Lower

Rod at A + 15’35” 1.330 1.175 1.020 m

Rod at B -8’08” 1.972 1.854 1.736 m

If the stadia constant is 0.381 m. determine the following:

1) Length of line AB
2) Difference in elevation between points A and B.
3) Find the horizontal distance from the transit to the rod held at B.

SOLUTION:

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Lesson
MEASUREMENTS BY STADIA OR INCLINED DISTANCE,
SOURCES OF ERROR IN THE STADIA WORK

𝑆𝐴 = 1.330 − 1.020 𝑆𝐵 = 1.972 − 1.736

𝑺𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏 𝑺𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟔

1. Length of line AB
𝑓
𝐻= 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + (𝑓 + 𝑐)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑖
𝐻𝐴 = 100.8 (1.330 - 1.020)𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 15°35’ + 0.381 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 15°35’

𝐻𝐴 = 29.36 m

𝐻𝐵 = 100.8 (0.236)𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 8°08’ + 0.381 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 8°08’

𝐻𝐵 = 22.69 m

𝐻𝐴𝐵 = 29.36 + 23.69

𝑯𝑩 = 53.05

2. Difference in elevation between points A and B.

𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑆 + (𝑓 + 𝑐)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑖 2
1
𝑉𝐴 = 100.8(0.31) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2 𝑥 15′35") + 0.381𝑠𝑖𝑛15′35"
2
𝑉𝐴 = 8.91 𝑚
1
𝑉𝐵 = 100.8(0.236) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2 𝑥 8′08") + 0.381𝑠𝑖𝑛8′08"
2
𝑉𝐵 = 3.39 𝑚

𝐷𝐸𝐴𝐵 = 1.854 + 3.39 + 8.19 - 1.175

𝑫𝑬𝑨𝑩 = 12.259 m

3. Horizontal distance from the transit to the rod held at B

𝐻𝐵 = 100.8 (0.236) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 8’08” + 0.381 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 8’08”

𝑯𝑩 =23.69 m

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Lesson

STADIA INTERVAL FACTOR

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
Given below are the field observations of successive rod reading at each point
as shown. Determine the stadia interval factor K of the instrument used. Assume that
the stadia constant is zero.
STADIA HAIR
DISTANCE FROM TRANSIT TO READINGS
POINT
ROD (m) UPPER LOWER
(m) (m)
a 30 0.96 0.66
b 45 1.1 0.64
c 60 1.21 0.6
d 75 1.35 0.58
e 90 1.47 0.56
f 105 1.57 0.53
g 120 1.72 0.5

SOLutiOn:
HD = Ks + C; C = 0, S = a - b
a. 30 = k (0.96 - 0.66) + 0; k = 100
b. 45 = k (1.1 - 0.64) + 0; k = 97.83
c. 60 = k (1.21 - 0.60) + 0; k = 98.36
d. 75 = k (1.35 - 0.58) + 0; k = 97.40
e. 90 = k (1.47 - 0.56) + 0; k = 98.90
f. 105 = k (1.57 - 0.53) + 0; k = 100.96
g. 120 = k (1.72 - 0.5) + 0; k = 98.36
K = zk/7 = 691.81/7
K = 98.83m

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Lesson

STADIA INTERVAL FACTOR

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
An engineer’s level with a stadia constant of 0.30m was set up on the line
between two points, A and B, and the following hair readings were observed.

HAIR READINGS
ROD POSITION
UPPER (a) MIDDLE (b) LOWER (b)
ROD HELD AT A 1.330m 1.175m 1.020m
ROD HELD AT B 1.972 1.854 1.736

If the stadia interval factors of the level is 99.5, determine the length of the line AB.

SOLutiOn:
HD1 = d1; HD2 = d2
HD = Ks + C; S = a - b;
K= 99.5
HD1 = 99.5 (1.33 - 1.02) + 0.3; d1 = 31.145
HD2 = 99.5 (1.972 - 1.736) + 0.3; d2 = 23.782
Lab = d1+d2
Lab = 54.927m

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Lesson

STADIA INTERVAL FACTOR

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
A transit was set up at point A. The stadia rod is placed at points B and C and
rod readings show stadia intercepts from B and C as 2.001m and 0.600m, respectively.
Distance AB and AC are measured as 200m and 60m, respectively. Compute the
stadia interval factor.

SOLutiOn:

DAB = KSAB + (F + c)
DAC = KSAC + (F + c)
(60-200) = K(0.6-2.001)

K = 99.93

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVES – SIMPLE CURVE

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
A simple curve has a central angle of 36° and a degree of curve of 6°.
a. Find the nearest distance from the midpoint of the curve to the point of
intersection of the tangents.

b. Compute the distance from the midpoint of the curve to the midpoint of the
long chord joining the point of curvature and point of tangency.

c. If the stationing of the point of curvature is at 10 + 020, compute the stationing

of a point on the curve which intersects with the line making a deflection angle
of 8° with the tangent through PC.

SOLutiOn:
a. Distance from midpoint of curve to P.I.:

1145.916 1
R= E = R( I − 1)
6 cos( )
2

1
R = 190.986 m E = 190.986(cos(18°) − 1)

𝑬 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟐𝟖𝟔 𝒎

b. Distance from the midpoint of the curve to the midpoint of the long
chord
I
M = R(1 − cos 2)

= 190.986(1 − cos(18°))
𝑴 = 𝟗. 𝟑𝟒𝟕𝟓𝒎

c. Stationing of B
πRI
I = 2θ LB = 180° Sta. of B = Sta. of P. C. +LB
π(190.986)(16°)
I = 2(8°) L= Sta. of B = (10 + 020) + 53.3333 m
180°

I = 16° LB = 53.3333 m 𝑺𝒕𝒂. 𝒐𝒇 𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟎𝟕𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVES – SIMPLE CURVE

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
A simple curve of the proposed extension of Mantabahadra Highway have a
direction of tangent AB which is due North and tangent BC bearing N50°E. Point A
is at the P.C., whose stationing is 20 + 130.46. The degree of curve is 4°.
a. Compute the long chord of the curve.
b. Compute the stationing of point D on the curve along a line joining the center
of the curve which makes an angle of 54° with the tangent line passing thru
the P.C.
c. What is the length of the line from D to the intersection of the tangent AB.

SOLutiOn:
a. Long chord:
1145.916
R= 4

R = 286.479 m

L
= Rsin(25°)
2

L = 2(286.479)sin(25°)
𝑳 = 𝟐𝟒𝟐. 𝟏𝟒𝟐𝟓 𝒎

b. Stationing of D:
πRI
LD = 180° Sta. of D = Sta. of P. C. +LD
π(286.479)(36°)
LD = Sta. of B = (20 + 130.46) + 180
180°

LD = 180 m 𝑺𝒕𝒂. 𝒐𝒇 𝑫 = 𝟐𝟎 + 𝟑𝟏𝟎. 𝟑𝟔

c. Distance DE:
286.479
cos (36°) = DE = OE − R
OE
286.479
OE = cos (36°) OE = 354.1075 − 286.479

OE = 354.1075 m 𝑫𝑬 = 𝟔𝟕. 𝟔𝟐𝟖𝟓 𝒎

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HORIZONTAL CURVES – SIMPLE CURVE

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
The tangents of a simple curve have bearings of N20°E and N80°E respectively.
The radius of the curve is 200 m.
a. Compute the external distance of the curve.
b. Compute the middle ordinate of the curve.
c. Compute the stationing of point A on the curve having a deflection angle of 6°
from the P.C. which is a 1 + 200.00.

SOLutiOn:

a. External distance: c. Stationing of point A:

1
E=R( I − 1) IA = 12°
cos( )
2
πRI
1 LA = 180°
E = 200 (cos(30°) − 1)
π(200)(12°)
𝑬 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟗𝟒𝟎𝟏 𝒎 = 180°

LA = 41.8879 m
b. Middle Ordinate:
Sta. of A = Sta. of P. C. +LD
I
M = R (1 − cos 2)
B = (1 + 200.00) +
M = 200 (1 − cos(30°)) 41.8879
𝑴 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟕𝟗𝟒𝟗 𝒎 𝑺𝒕𝒂. 𝒐𝒇 𝑨 = 𝟏 + 𝟐𝟒𝟏. 𝟖𝟖𝟕𝟗

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVES – SIMPLE CURVE

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4:
The tangent thru the P.C. has a direction due north and the tangent through the
P.T. has a bearing of N 50° E. It has a radius of 200 m. Using arc basis. Stationing
of P.C. is 12+060.
1. Compute the tangent distance of the curve.
2. Compute the long chord of the curve.
3. If a line making an angle of 62° with the tangent thru the P.C. intersects the
curve at point B, what is the stationing of B if this line passes through the
center of the curve.

SOLutiOn:

1. Tangent distance: 3. Station of B:

𝐼 ϴ=180-90-62
T = R tan
2
ϴ= 28°
T = R tan 25°
T = 200 tan 25°
𝜋𝑅 𝜋(200)
T = 93.2615 L=I = 28°
180 180

2. Long chord: L = 97. 7384 m

𝐼
L= 2R sin Sta. of B = (12 + 060) + (97.7384)
2
L= 2(200) sin25°
Sta. of B = 12+ 157.7384
L= 169.0473 m

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVES – SIMPLE CURVE

SAMPLE PROBLEM 5:
The tangent distance of a 3° simple curve is only ½ of its radius.
1. Compute the angle of intersection of the curve.
2. Compute the length of curve.
3. Compute the area of the fillet of curve.

SOLutiOn:

1. Angle of Intersection:
𝐼 1 𝐼
T = R tan ; R = R tan
2 2 2
𝐼 1
tan =
2 2
I = 2tan-1 (0.5)
I = 53.1301°

2. Length of curve:
𝐿 20 20
= L = 53. 1301° ( 3 ) L= 354.2007 m
𝐼 3

3. Area of fillet of a curve:

𝐿 𝜋𝑅
=
𝐼 180°
354.2007(180°)
R=
𝜋(53.1301°)
R = 381.9719m
1 𝐴 𝜋𝑅 2
T= R =
2 𝐼 360°
𝜋(381.9719)2
T = 190.9860 m Ai =53.1301° [ ]
360°
1
AT = 2[2 (𝑅)(𝑇)] Ai = 67,647.3573 m

AT = 381.9719 (190.9860) Af = 72,951.2853 – 67,647.3573

AT = 72,951.2853 Af = 5303.928 m2

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVES – SIMPLE CURVE

SAMPLE PROBLEM 6:
A simple curve has a radius of 286.48 m. Its distance from P.C. to P.T. along the
curve is equal to 240m.
1. Compute the central angle of the curve. Use arc basis.
2. Compute the distance from the mid-point of the long chord to the mid-point of
the curve.
3. Compute the area bounded by the tangents and the portion outside the
central curve in acres.

SOLutiOn:
1. Center angle
𝐿 20
=
𝐼 𝐷
1145.916 1145.916
D= = = 4°
𝑅 286.48
𝐿 20 240 20
= ; =
𝐼 𝐷 𝐼 4°
I = 48°

2. Distance from midpoint of curve to midpoint of long chord:

𝐼 48
M = R (1-cos ) ; M = 286.48 (1-cos )
2 2
M= 24.7675 m

3. Area bounded by the tangents and outside the central curve:

TR(2) 𝜋(𝑅)2 (𝐼)

T = R tan 24° Area = [ 2 ] − [ 360° ]

2
127.5491(286.48)(2) 𝜋(286.48) (48)
T = 286.48 tan 24° Area = [ 2
] − [ 360°
]

T = 127.5491 Area = 2162.5339 m2

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVES – COMPOUND CURVE

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
On a rail road line, two tangents that intersect at station 10 + 243 so as to form an
angle of 36°28’ are to be connected by a compound curve consisting of two simple
curves. The simple curve beginning at the P.C. which is at station 10 + 163 is to be a
4° curve whose degree is based on a 20 m chord and is to have a central angle of 17°.
Using chord basis.
a. What should be the radius of the other simple curve that ends at the P.T.?
b. Compute the stationing of the P.C.C.
c. What is the length of the tangent from the P.I. to the P.T. of the compound curve?

SOLutiOn:

a. Radius of second curve:

Solve for R1 Solve for T1

D1 10
D1 = 4° sin⁡( 2 ) = R T1
tan(8°30′) = 286.5371
1

10
sin⁡(2°) = R T1 = 42.8233⁡m
1

R1 = 286.5371⁡m

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVES – COMPOUND CURVE

Solve for T2:

AB 37.1767
AV = 80 − 42.8233⁡ = sin⁡(19°28") T1 + T2 = 66.3034
sin⁡(143°32′ )

AV = 37.1767⁡m⁡ AB = 66.3034⁡m⁡ 42.8233 + T2 = 66.3034

T2 = 23.4801⁡m

Solve for R2:

T2 23.4801
tan(9°44′) = R2 = = 136.8847⁡m⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡ 𝑹 =𝟏𝟑𝟔.𝟖𝟖𝟒𝟕 𝒎
R2 tan(9°44′)

b. Stationing of P.C.C.:
πRI
L = 180° Stationing⁡of⁡P. C. C. = Sta. of⁡P. C. +L
π(286.5371)(17°)
L= Stationing⁡⁡⁡. = (10 + 163) + 85.0173
180°

L = 85.0173⁡m 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈⁡𝒐𝒇⁡𝑷. 𝑪. 𝑪. = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐𝟒𝟖. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟑

c. Distance from P.I. to P.T. of compound curve:

VB 37.1767
= sin⁡(19°28") Distance⁡from⁡P. I. to⁡P. T. = VB + T2 ⁡
sin⁡(17°)

VB = 32.6156⁡m Distance = 32.6156 + 23.4801

VB = 32.6156⁡m 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟓𝟔. 𝟎𝟗𝟓𝟕⁡𝒎

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVES – COMPOUND CURVE

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
The common tangent AB of a compound curve is 76.42 m with an azimuth of
268°30’. The vertex V being inaccessible. The azimuth of the tangents AV And VB was
measured to be 247°50’ and 282°50’ respectively. The stationing at A is 10 + 010.46
and the degree of the first curve is 4° based on the 20 m chord. Use chord basis.
a. Compute the stationing of P.C.C.
b. Compute the radius of the second curve
c. Compute the stationing of the P.T.

SOLutiOn:
a. Stationing of P.C.C.:
I = 282°50′ − 247°50′ = 35°
I1 = 268°30′ − 247°50′ = 20°40′
I2 = 180° − 145° − 20°40′ = 14°20′

Solve for T1:

D 10 10
sin⁡( 1 ) = sin⁡ 2° =
2 R1 R1
R1 = 286.5371⁡m
T1 = R1 tan⁡(20°40′ )
T1 = 286.5371 tan(10°20′ )
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡T1 = 52.2448⁡m

Solve for Station of P.C.

πR1 I1
L1 = Sta. of⁡P. C. = (10 + 010.46) − 52.2448
180°

π(286.5371)(20°40′ )
L1 = Sta. of⁡P. C. = 9 + 958.2152
180°

L1 = 103.3543⁡m

Solve for Station of P.C.C.

Sta. of⁡P. C. C = Sta. of⁡P. C. +⁡L1
Sta. of⁡P. C. C = (9 + 958.2152) + 103.3543
𝑺𝒕𝒂. 𝒐𝒇⁡𝑷. 𝑪. 𝑪. = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟎𝟔𝟏. 𝟓𝟔𝟗𝟓

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVES – COMPOUND CURVE

b. Radius of second curve:

T1 + T2 = 76.42
52.2448 + T2 = 76.42
T2 = 24.1752⁡m

T2 = R 2 tan⁡(7°10′ )
24.1752 = R 2 tan⁡(7°10′ ).
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟗𝟐. 𝟐𝟔𝟓𝟗⁡𝒎

c. Stationing of P.T.:

πR2 I2
L2 = 180°
π(𝟏𝟗𝟐.𝟐𝟔𝟓𝟗)(14°20′ )
L2 = 180°

L2 = 48.0980⁡m.

Sta. of⁡P. T. = Sta. of⁡P. C. C. +L2

⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡= (10 + 061.5695) + 48.0980

𝑺𝒕𝒂. 𝒐𝒇⁡𝑷. 𝑻. = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟗. 𝟔𝟔𝟕𝟓

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVES – COMPOUND CURVE

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
In a compound curve, the line connecting the P.I. at point V and the P.C.C. is an
angle bisector. AV is 270 meters and BV = 90 m. The stationing of A is 6 + 421 and that
of B is 6 + 721. Point A is along the tangent passing thru the P.C. while point B is along
the tangent passing thru the P.T. The P.C.C. is along line AB.
a. Compute the radius of the first curve passing thru the P.C.
b. Compute the radius of the second curve passing thru the P.T.
c. Determine the length of the long chord from P.C. to P.T.

SOLutiOn:

a. Radius of first curve:

AB = (6 + 721) − (6 + 421)

AB = 300⁡m

T1 + T2 = 300

*In any triangle the angle bisector divides the opposite sides into segments
whose ratio is equal to that of the other sides.*

𝑇1 𝑇
= 902 T1 + T2 = 300 T2 = 75⁡m
270

90𝑇1 = 270𝑇2 (3T2 ) + T2 = 300 T1 = 225⁡m

𝑇1 = 3𝑇2 4T2 = 300

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVES – COMPOUND CURVE

Using Cosine Law:

(90)2 = (270)2 + (300)2 − 2(270)(300) cos A A = 17°09′

Using Sine Law:

270 90
= sin⁡(17°09′ ) I1 = 17°09′
sin B

B = 62°11′ I2 = 62°11′

Solve for R1

I 17°09′
T1 = R1 tan⁡( 21) 225 = R1 tan ( ) = 1492.1464⁡m
2

R1 = 1492.1464 m

b. Radius of second curve:

I 62°11′
T2 = R 2 tan⁡( 22) 75 = R 2 tan ( ) = 124.3698⁡m R2 = 124.3698 m
2

c. Length of long chord from P.C. to P.T.

𝐶
sin(8°34.5′ ) = ⁡ 2(1492.1464)
1

C1 = ⁡444.9697⁡m
𝐶
sin(31°5.5′ ) = ⁡ 2(124.3698)
2

C2 = ⁡128.4513⁡m

θ = 180° − 31°5.5′ − ⁡8°34.5′

θ = 140°20′

Using Cosine Law:

L2 = (444.9697)2 + (128.4513)2 − 2(444.9697)(128.4513) cos(140°20′ )

𝑳 = 𝟓𝟒𝟗. 𝟗𝟗𝟑𝟗⁡𝒎

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVES – COMPOUND CURVE

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4:
The common tangent of a compound curve makes an angle of 14° and 20° with the
tangent of the first curve and the second curve, respectively. The length of the chord
from the P.C. to P.C.C. IS 73.5 m and that from P.C.C. to P.T. is 51.3.
1. Find the length of the chord from the P.C. to the P.T. if it is parallel to the common
tangent.
2. Find the radius of the first curve.
3. Find the radius of the second curve.

SOLutiOn:

1. Length of the curve:

L2 = √73.52 + 51.32 − 2(73.5)(51.3)𝑐𝑜𝑠163°⁡

L =123.4728 m

2. Radius of the first curve: 3. Radius of the second curve:

𝐼 𝐼
C=2Rsin C=2Rsin
2 2
𝐶1/2 73.5/2 𝐶1/2 51.3/2
R1 = = ⁡⁡ 𝑠𝑖𝑛7° R2 = ⁡⁡ =
𝑠𝑖𝑛7°⁡ 𝑠𝑖𝑛7°⁡ 𝑠𝑖𝑛10°
R1 = 301.5525 m R2 = 147.7125 m

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVES – COMPOUND CURVE

SAMPLE PROBLEM 5:
A compound curves passes thru a common tangent AB having a length of 300 m.
The radius of the first curve is equal to 290 m and a central angle of 42°. Of the radius
of the second curve is 740m.
1. Compute the length of the tangent of the second curve.
2. Compute the central angle of second curve.
3. Compute the stationing of PT if PC is a (20 + 542.20).

SOLutiOn:

1. Tangent of the second curve:

T1 = R tan 21°
T1 = 290 tan 21°
T1 = 111.3206 m
T2 = 300 – 111.3206
T2 = 188.6794

2. Central angle of the second curve:

𝐼 I2 𝑇2 I2 𝑇2 I2 188.6794
T2 =R2tan ; tan = tan = tan =
2 2 𝑅2 2 𝑅2 2 740

I2 = 28.6081° or 28° 36’

3. Stationing of the PT:

𝜋R1 𝜋R2
L1 = I1[180°] L2 = I2 [180°]

𝜋(290) 𝜋(740)
L1 = 42°[ 180° ] L2 = 28° 36’ [ 180° ]

L1 = 212.5811 m L2 = 369.3815 m

Sta. of PT = (20+542.20) + (212.5811) + (369.3815)

Sta. of PT = 21+124.1626 m

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVES – COMPOUND CURVE

SAMPLE PROBLEM 6:
A compound curve has the following data: I1 = 28°, I2 = 38°, R1 = 380 m,
R2 = 220 m. If P.C. is at sta. 20 +100.
1. Compute the length of the common tangent.
2. Compute the sta. of P.C.C.
3. Compute the sta. of P.T.

SOLutiOn:
1. Length of the common tangent:
𝐼
T = R tan
2

T1 = 380 tan 14°

T1 = 94.7446

T2 = 220 tan 19°

T2 = 75.7521

T1 + T2 = 94.7446 + 75.7521

T1 + T2 = 170.4967 m

2. Station of P.C.C.: 3. Station of P. T.:

𝜋R1 𝜋(380)
L1 = I1[180°]= 28°[ 180° ] 𝜋R2 𝜋(220)
L2 = I2[180°]= 38°[ 180° ]

L1 = 185.7030 L2 = 145.9095

P.C.C. = (20 + 000) + (185.7030) P.C.C. = (20 + 185.703) + (145.9095)

P.C.C. = 20 + 185.703 P.C.C. = 20 + 331.6125

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVE - REVERSED CURVES

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
In a rail road layout, the centerline of parallel tracks is connected with a reversed
curve of unequal radii. The central angle of the first curve is 16° and the distance
between parallel tracks is 27.60 m stationing of the P.C. is 15+420 and the radius of
the second curve is 290 m.
1. Compute the length of the long chord from the P.C. to P.T.
2. Compute the radius of the first curve.
3. Compute the stationing of the P.T.

SOLUTION:

1. Length of long chord:

27.60
Sin 8° =
L
27.60
L=
Sin 8°
L = 198.3142 m

3. Stationing of P.T :
2. Radius of first curve:
R1 I1 π 422.4731(16° )π
a = R1 - R1 Cos 16° = R1 (1 – Cos 16°) Lc1 = =
180° 180°
b = R 2 - R 2 Cos 16° = R 2 (1 – Cos 16°)
Lc1 = 117.9767
R2 I2 π 290(16° )π
a + b = 27.60 m Lc2 = =
180° 180°
R1 (1 – Cos 16°) + R 2 (1 – Cos 16°) Lc2 = 80.9833
= 27.60
(R1 + R 2 )(1 – Cos 16°) = 27.60 Sta. of P.R.C. = P.C. + Lc1
27.60
R1 + R 2 = (1−Cos 16°) Sta. of P.R.C. = (15+420) + 117.9767

R1 + R 2 = 712.4731 Sta. of P.R.C. = 15+537.9767

R1 = 712.4731 - R 2 Sta. of P.T. = P.R.C. + Lc2

R1 = 712.4731 – 290 Sta. of P.T. = (15+537.9767) + 80.9833

𝑹𝟏 = 422.4731 m Sta. of P.T. =15+618.9600

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVE - REVERSED CURVES

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
Three simple curves are connected to each other such that the first and the second
form a compound curve while the second and the third formed a reversed curve. The
distance between the point of curvature and the point of tangency of the compound
curve which is also the point of reversed curvature of the reversed curve is 485.025
meters. If the angle of convergence between the second and the third tangents is 15°,
I1 = 45°, R1 = 190.986 m, I2 = 60°, R 3 = 159.155 m and stationing at P.C. is 0+520.
1. Determine the stationing at P.T. at the end of the long chord.
2. Determine the angle between the long chord of the compound curve and the
first tangent.
3. Determine the angle between the long chord of the compound curve and the
second tangent.

SOLUTION:
1. Stationing at P.T.:
C1 C1
Sin 22.5° = =
2R1 2(190.986)

C1 = 2 (190.986) sin22.5°
C1 = 146.1744 m

Using Cosine Law:

(485.025)2 = (146.174)2 + C22-

2(146.174)𝐶2 Cos127.5°
235249.2506=21366.8383+ C22 + 𝐶2 177.9702
213882.4123=C22 + 𝐶2 177.9702
𝐶2 = 381.9722 m.

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVE - REVERSED CURVES

Using Sine Law: R2 I 2 π 381.9722(60° )π

Lc2 = =
180° 180°
381.97 485.025
= Lc2 = 400.0004 m
Sinθ Sin127.5°
381.97 Sin127.5°
Sin𝜃 = 485.025
381.97 Sin127.5° Sta, at the P.T. = P.C. + Lc1 + Lc2
𝜃= Sin−1 ( 485.025 )
Sta, at the P.T. = (0+520) +
𝜃=38.6665°
(150.0001)+(400.0004)
Sta. at the P.T. = 1+070.0005
𝛼=180°-127.5°-38.6665°
𝛼= 13.8335°
2. The angle that the long chord makes with

R1 I1 π 190.986(45° )π the first tangent = 61.1667°

Lc1 = =
180° 180°

Lc1 = 150.0001 m.

C2
Sin 30°=
2R2 3. The angle that the long chord makes with
381.9722 the second tangent = 43.8333°
R2=
2Sin 30°

R 2 = 381.9722 m.

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVE - REVERSED CURVES

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
Two parallel tangents are connected by a reversed curve having equal radii of 360.
1. If the central angle of the curve is 8° compute the distance between
parallel tangents.
2. Compute the length of chord from the P.C. to the P.T.
3. 3. If P.C. is at sta. 3+960.40, what is the stationing of the P.T.

SOLUTION:
1. Distance between parallel tangents:
x= 360 Cos°
x= 356.4965 m.

x + y = 360
y= 360 – x
y= 360 – 356.4965
y= 3.5035
2y = 2(3.5035)
2y= 7.0007 m.

2. Length of Chord from P. C to P. T.:

2(3.5035)
Sin 4°=
L
2(3.5035)
L=
Sin 4°

L= 100.4495 m.

3. Station of P.T.:
RIπ 360(8° )π
Lc = =
180° 180°
Lc = 50.2655 m.
Sta. of P.T. = P.C. + Lc + Lc
Sta. of P.T. =(3+960.40) +50.2655 +50.2655
Sta. of P.T = 4+060.931

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVE - REVERSED CURVES

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4:
Two parallel railway 200 m. apart were to be connected by equal turnouts. If the
intermediate tangent is 400 m. and the radius of curve is 1100 m.
1. Determine the central angle of the reverse curve.
2. If the P>C> is at sta. 20 + 460, find the sta. of the middle of the intermediate
tangent.
3. Find the sta. o P.T.

SOLUTION:

1. Central angle of the reverse curve:

400
tan 𝛼 = 2 (1100)

𝛼 = 10°18′
OG = √(400)2 + (2200)2
OG = 2236.07
2236.07 Cos 𝛽 = 2x + 200
X + 200 = R
X = R – 200

2236.07 Cos 𝛽 = 2(R - 200) + 200

2236.07 Cos 𝛽 = 2R - 400 + 200
2236.07 Cos 𝛽 = 2R - 200
1118.03 Cos 𝛽 = R - 100

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVE - REVERSED CURVES

𝑅 − 100
Cos 𝛽 = 1118.035
1100 − 100
Cos 𝛽 = 1118.035
1000
Cos 𝛽 = 1118.035

𝛽 = 26°34′
∅ = 26°34′ - 10°18’
∅ = 16°16’

2. Station of the middle of intermediate tangent:

R∅π
L= 180
1100 (16°16') π
L= 180

L = 312.30 m

Sta. = (20 + 460) + 312.30 + 200

Sta. = 20 + 972.30

3. Station of the PT:

Sta. of P.T. = (20 + 972.30) + 200 + 312.30
Sta. of P.T. = 21 + 484.60

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVES - SPIRAL CURVES

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
A simple curve having a radius of 280 m connects two tangents intersecting at an
angle of 50°. It is to be replaced y another curve having 80m spirals at its ends such
that the point of tangency shall be the same.
1. Determine the radius of the new circular curve.
2. Determine the distance that the curve will nearer the vertex.
3. Determine the central angle of the circular curve.
4. Determine the deflection angle at the end point of the spiral.
5. Determine the offset from tangent at the end point of the spiral.
6. Determine the distance along the tangent at the mis-point of the spiral.

SOLUTION:

1. Radius of the new circular curve:

Ts
Tan 25°=
280

Ts = 280tan 25°
Ts = 130.5661

Lc Xc 1
Ts = + ቀR c + ቁtan
2 4 4

Lc2 Xc Lc2
Xc = =
6Rc 4 24Rc

80 (80)2
130.5661= +൬R c + 24R ൰ tan25°
2 c
Rc2 +266.6667
80 (80)2
194.2280=ቀ ቁ
Rc
130.5661 - = ൬R c + 24R ൰ tan25°
2 c
194.2280 R c = Rc 2 +266.6667
266.6667
90.5700 = ൬R c + ൰ tan25° Rc 2 +266.6667 – 194.2280 R c = 0
Rc
𝑹𝒄 = 192.8452 meters
90.5700 266.6667
= ൬R c + ൰
tan25° Rc

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVES - SPIRAL CURVES

2. Distance that curve will nearer the vertex:

Old external distance:

(for old simple curve) For the new curve:
280
Cos 25°= (External curve)
OV
280 Xc 1
OV= Cos 25° 𝐸𝑠 = ቀR c + ቁ sec - Rc
4 2
OV=308.9458 m Xc Lc2
=
E= OV – 280 4 24Rc

E = 308.9458 – 280
E= 28.9458 m.

3. Central angle of the 4. Deflection angle at the end point of

circular curve: the spiral:

Ic = I – 2 S c i=
Sc
=
11.8843
3 3
Lc 180
Sc = i = 3.9614°
2Rc 𝜋
80 (180)
Sc =
2(192.8452)𝜋

𝑺𝒄 = 11.8843°

4. Offset from tangent at the end 6. Distance along the tangent at

point of the spiral: the mid-point of the spiral:

Lc2
When L = 40 m.
Xc =
6Rc 𝐿5
y= L-
40 Rc2 Lc2
(80)2
Xc = (40)5
6(192.8452)
y = 40 −
40 (192.8452)2 (80)2
𝑿𝒄 = 5.5312 m
y = 40 – 0.0108
y = 39.9892 m.

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVES - SPIRAL CURVES

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
An easement spiral curve has design speed of 100 kph. The radius of the central
curve is 360m, with a permissible super elevation of 0.07.
1. Compute the centrifugal acceleration so as not to cause discomfort to the
driver in m/𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 .
2. Compute the length of the transition curve to limit the centrifugal
acceleration.
3. Compute the length of the short tangent of the transition curve.

SOLUTION:
1. Centrifugal acceleration: 2. Length of transition curve to limit
centrifugal acceleration:
80
C= 0.0215 V3
75 + V Lc =
CR
80
C= 0.0215 (100)3
75 + 100
Lc =
0.4571(360)
C = 0.4571 m/𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟑
𝑳𝒄 = 130.6546 m𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔

3. Length of short tangent of transition curve:

Lc2
Xc =
6Rc

(130.6546)2
Xc =
6(360)

Xc = 7.9031 m.

Lc 180 X
Sc = Sin 10.3972° = S.T.
c
2Rc 𝜋
X
130.6546 (180) S.T.= Sin 10.3972°
c
Sc =
2(360)𝜋
7.9031
S.T.= Sin 10.3972°
Sc = 10.3972°
S.T. = 43.7915 meters

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Lesson

HORIZONTAL CURVES - SPIRAL CURVES

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
The spiral angle at the S.C. of a spiral easement curve is equal to 11.46°, with
a radius of 200m for the central curve.
1. Compute the length of throw at the T.S.
2. Compute the length of the long tangent of the spiral easement curve if
the distance along the tangent from the T.S. to the S.C. is 79.20 m.
3. Compute the value of the centrifugal acceleration in m/𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 .

SOLUTION:
1. Length of throw:
Lc2
Lc 180 Xc =
6Rc
Sc =
2Rc 𝜋
(80)2
Lc (180) Xc =
11.46 °= 6(200)
2(200)𝜋
Xc = 5.3333
2(200) π 11.46 °= Lc (180)
Xc 5.3333
2(200)π 11.46 ° P=ቀ ቁ=ቀ ቁ
Lc = 4 4
180
P = 1.3333
Lc = 80.0059 m

3. Centrifugal acceleration:
2. Length of long tangent:
0.036V3
Lc =
Rc

(200)80= 0.036 V 3

16000 3 16000
V3 = =ට
0.0360 0.0360

V= 76.3143 kph
Xc
tan 11.46 ° = 0.0215 V3
h Lc =
CR
5.3333
h= 0.0215 (76.3143)3
tan 11.46 °
80=
C(200)
h = 26.3080 m.
Long tangent = 79.20 – h C(200)80 = 0.0215 (76.3143)3
0.0215 (76.3143)3
Long tangent = 79.20 – 26.3080 C=
(200)80
Long tangent = 52.8920 m
C = 0.5972 m/𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟑 .

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