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INTRODUCTION TO ICT

INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATIONS
TECHNOLOGY
2023
“The illiterate of the 21st century will not be
those who cannot read and write, but those who
cannot learn, unlearn, and relearn.”
Alvin Toffler
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INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS

TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
ICT stands for Information and Communications Technology. It refers to the use of digital
technologies to process, store and communicate information. ICT encompasses a wide range
of tools and devices, including computers, software, smartphones, and the Internet.
The primary purpose of ICT is to facilitate the creation, sharing, and management of
information. It has revolutionized the way people communicate and do business, making it
easier and faster to access and share information with others.
ICT plays a vital role in many aspects of modern life, from education and healthcare to
entertainment and commerce. In education, for example, ICT has transformed the way
students learn by providing access to a wealth of digital resources, online courses, and virtual
classrooms. In healthcare, ICT has enabled doctors and researchers to collaborate more
effectively, improving patient outcomes and advancing medical knowledge.
Some of the key components of ICT include:
❖ Hardware: This includes computers, smartphones, servers, and other devices that
process and store information.
❖ Software: This refers to the programs and applications that run on hardware devices.
Examples of software include operating systems, word processors, and media players.
❖ Networks: These are the systems and protocols that enable devices to communicate
with each other. Networks can be wired or wireless and can range in size from local area
networks (LANs) to wide area networks (WANs).
❖ Internet: This is a global network of interconnected computers and servers that allows
people to access and share information from anywhere in the world.
❖ Digital media: This includes text, images, audio, and video that are stored and
transmitted digitally.
Generally, ICT is a critical component of modern society, driving innovation, productivity, and
economic growth. Its impact is felt in every aspect of our lives, from how we work and learn to
how we communicate and entertain ourselves.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TECHNOLOGY AND DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY

Technology is a broad term that refers to the application of scientific knowledge and tools to
create practical solutions and improve processes. It encompasses a wide range of methods,
techniques, tools, and materials that are used to accomplish specific tasks or goals.
Technology can include both digital and non-digital components. Examples include solar
panels, planes, airplanes, etc.
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Digital technology, on the other hand, specifically refers to technologies that involve the use
of digital or electronic systems to process, store, transmit, and display information. It
revolves around the use of binary code (0s and 1s) to represent and manipulate data. Digital
technology is characterized by its ability to convert information into a digital format, making
it more versatile, easily transferable, and manipulable. Examples include laptops,
smartphones, smartwatches, etc.

DEFINITION OF ICT AND ITS RELATED TERMINOLOGIES

• Information is the representation of knowledge such as facts, data or opinions in any
medium or form, including text, numeric, graphic, cartography or audio-visual forms.
• Communication is the act or process of sending and receiving (transferring or
exchanging) information between individuals through technological resources. Or
Communication is the transfer of data and/or information from one computer to
another through a communication medium. Communication medium refers to the
means of sending and receiving data or information; mobile phones, computers,
radios, televisions, etc.
• Technology is the application of the sum of scientific knowledge, skills, methods,
techniques, and processes for human life and the environment.
• Information Technology (IT) is the study or use of computers or interconnected
systems for the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and sending of data or information.
• Communications Technology is the electronic systems used for the transfer of
information among people and/or machines. E.g., TV, Radio, Fax machine, Telephone,
Internet.
• ICT is a diverse set of digital technological tools and resources used to communicate,
create, store, disseminate, and manage data or information in a digital form. or
ICT implies digital technology which consists of electronic devices and its associated
human interactive materials that enable the user to employ them for a wide range of
teaching–learning processes in addition to personal use.
• ICTs is an acronym that stands for Information and Communication Technologies and it
refers to all communication technologies, employed in the transmission of information.
These include radio, television, fax machine, mobile phones, internet, software,
computers, wireless networks, middleware, video-conferencing, social networking, and
other media applications and services.

I.C.T TOOLS
ICT tools are digital infrastructures such as computers, printers, scanners, software programs,
projectors, digital cameras, pen drives, photocopier machines, radio, TV, Wi-Fi, etc.
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IMPACT OF ICT
1. Education: The impact of ICT on education has been significant, revolutionizing teaching
and learning methods, improving access to educational resources, and enhancing the
quality of education. Opportunities have been created for learners to develop their
problem-solving abilities, creativity, reasoning skills, and communication skills. However,
ICT has also made it difficult for teachers to verify the originality of the reports and
paperwork students present as their own. The internet has now given access to
documents from other writers and they can turn them in as their own.

I. The CSSPS (Computerized School Selection and Placement System) is an online system
used by the Ghana Education Service to facilitate the selection and placement of
students into senior high schools (SHS) after the completion of their junior high school
(JHS) education. The CSSPS system was introduced in 2005 to replace the manual
selection and placement process, which was deemed inefficient and prone to errors.
The system utilizes the academic performance of students in their Basic Education
Certificate Examination (BECE) to allocate them to their preferred senior high schools
based on their choices and available vacancies. The CSSPS system has significantly
improved the efficiency and transparency of the SHS placement process in Ghana.

II. E-learning has played a significant role in advancing education by providing access to
education, promoting flexibility and personalization, improving engagement and
motivation, and reducing costs.

III. Research has played a vital role in advancing education by providing insights into
effective teaching and learning methods, identifying areas for improvement, informing
policy decisions, and developing innovative approaches to education. Through research,
educators can better understand student needs, tailor instruction to meet those needs,
and continuously improve the quality of education.

2. Communication: ICT has revolutionized communication, transforming the way people

communicate and interact with one another. With the advent of technologies such as
email, social media, instant messaging, and video conferencing, communication has
become faster, more convenient, and more accessible than ever before. ICT has enabled
people to connect with each other regardless of geographical barriers, facilitating cross-
border collaboration and breaking down cultural and linguistic barriers. It has also made it
easier for businesses, organizations, and individuals to disseminate information and reach
wider audiences, leading to increased efficiency, productivity, and innovation. Overall, ICT
has had a profound impact on communication, changing the way we connect, share
information, and collaborate.
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3. Economy: ICT has had a profound impact on the economy, transforming the way
businesses and industries operate, amplifying brain power and creativity, and driving
economic growth and development. With the advent of technologies such as the internet,
mobile devices, and cloud computing, businesses can operate more efficiently and cost-
effectively, reach wider markets, and tap into new sources of revenue.

4. Health: ICT has had a significant impact on health by transforming the way healthcare
professionals communicate, diagnose, and treat patients. With the use of digital
technologies, healthcare providers can access and share patient information more easily,
collaborate with colleagues remotely, and use advanced diagnostic tools to identify and
treat diseases more effectively. ICT has also made it easier for patients to access health
information, monitor their own health, and communicate with healthcare providers,
improving overall healthcare outcomes and patient satisfaction. Additionally, the use of
telemedicine and digital health technologies has increased access to healthcare services
for people in remote and underserved areas, improving healthcare equity and reducing
healthcare costs.

5. Transport: The impact of ICT on transport has been significant, revolutionizing the way
people and goods are moved around the world. With the use of digital technologies,
transportation systems have become more efficient, reliable, and safe, with real-time
traffic information, GPS navigation, and intelligent transport systems. ICT has also enabled
the development of new transportation modes such as ride-sharing and autonomous
vehicles, which have the potential to reduce traffic congestion, emissions, and travel time.
Furthermore, ICT has facilitated the integration of different modes of transportation, such
as public transport, cycling, and walking, providing travelers with more sustainable and
convenient travel options. Overall, the impact of ICT on transport has transformed the
way people and goods move around, making transportation systems safer, more efficient,
and more sustainable.

6. Entertainment: The impact of ICT on entertainment has been significant, transforming the
way people consume and interact with media. With the use of digital technologies,
entertainment has become more accessible, interactive, and personalized, with a vast
array of content available on-demand through streaming services, social media, and
gaming platforms. ICT has also enabled the creation of new forms of entertainment, such
as virtual reality experiences, augmented reality games, and interactive media
installations. Furthermore, ICT has facilitated the global distribution of entertainment,
enabling creators to reach audiences worldwide and providing consumers with a diverse
range of content from different cultures and languages.
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ADVANTAGES OF ICT
1. ICT has made it easier and faster to communicate with others, whether they are in the
same location or on the other side of the world. This has resulted in increased
collaboration and productivity in many industries.
2. ICT has enhanced access to information by making it easily accessible and shareable
regardless of one’s location.
3. In governance, it is used to carry out public activities such as national identification of
citizens, driver and vehicle registration (DVLA), taxes, and revenue mobilization amongst
others
4. ICT has made it possible to automate many tasks and processes, resulting in increased
efficiency and productivity. This has allowed businesses to operate more efficiently,
reduce costs, and improve customer satisfaction.
5. In health-care, patient records, and diagnostic and specialist surgical equipment are well
kept and maintained.
6. ICT has made information processing very fast.
7. There is a vast store of data availability via the internet.
8. Individuals and corporations can engage in teleworking – working from home using the
Internet.
9. Inventions such as robots can be used for dangerous or repetitive work.

DISADVANTAGES OF ICT
1. Technology revolves and is improved upon almost every day so to have the most current
technology, one has to keep upgrading which might come with its associated cost.
2. As ICT use increases, so does the risk of cyber-attacks, data breaches, malware, and
other security threats. These risks can lead to loss of sensitive data, financial loss, and
reputational damage.
3. As people rely more on technology for communication and social interaction, there is a
risk of social isolation and loneliness. This can have negative impacts on mental health
and well-being.
4. As technology advances, some jobs may become automated or outsourced, leading to
job displacement and unemployment.
5. Constant exposure to ICT tools may have negative impact on one’s health since most of
the tools are made using chemicals.
6. Unscrupulous people can misuse others’ personal data by altering their information
negatively or defaming them.
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7. As people become increasingly reliant on technology, there is a risk of over-dependence,

which can lead to problems if technology fails or is unavailable. This can result in loss of
productivity, communication breakdown, and other issues.

CAREERS IN ICT
1. Computer Engineer: A computer engineer is a professional who designs, develops, and
maintains computer hardware and software systems. Computer engineers typically have
a strong background in computer science, electrical engineering, and mathematics, and
use their knowledge to develop and improve computer systems for a variety of
applications.

2. Web Designer: A web designer is a professional who designs and creates websites,
updates its information periodically, or administers its day-to-day operation. The web
designer is responsible for creating user-friendly, visually appealing, and functional
websites that meet the needs of their clients.
Web designers typically have a strong background in graphic design, user experience
design, and web development. They may work with a variety of design tools, such as
Adobe Photoshop, Illustrator, and InDesign, to create website layouts, images, and
graphics. They may also work with web development languages such as HTML, CSS, and
JavaScript to create the interactive components of a website.
3. Database Administrator: A database is an organized collection of related data stored
electronically for rapid search and retrieval in a computer system. A database
administrator, often abbreviated as DBA, is a professional responsible for the design,
implementation, maintenance, and management of databases in an organization. They
ensure that the organization's database systems are secure, available, and performant.
Database administrators may work in a variety of industries, such as healthcare, finance,
or government, where databases are a critical component of the organization's IT
infrastructure

4. Network Administrator: Computer Network consists of two or more computers that are
linked in order to share resources. Network Administrator is responsible for installing
and maintaining the computer hardware and software systems that make up a
computer network. This is the person designated in an organization to ensure that
network is available, secure, and performing optimally.
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5. Software Developer: A software engineer is a professional who applies engineering

principles to the design, development, testing, and maintenance of software. They work
on creating software solutions that meet the needs of individuals or organizations.
Also referred to as programmers or software engineers are the creative minds behind
computer software programs that allow people to do specific tasks on a computer or
another device. They write codes using computer languages; Java, C++, Python, etc.
6. Internet Café Operator: They attend to clients who use the café and ensure that they
are able to use the internet to get the results they require, also ensure that computers
and equipment are fully operational and do not pose danger to users.

7. Data Scientist: Data Science is the process of using data to find solutions or predict
outcomes for a problem. A data scientist turns raw data into valuable insights that an
organization needs in order to grow and compete. They interpret and analyze data from
multiple sources to come up with imaginative solutions to problems.
For instance, a data scientist working for Facebook might analyze the types of pages
users ‘like’, and then use this information to decide what type of advertisement the user
will see when using their Facebook account. In 2020 98% of Facebook’s revenue ($86bn)
came from advertisements, whiles 86% of Twitter’s revenue ($3.2bn) was equally
generated through advertisements.
8. Cybersecurity Expert: A Cybersecurity expert is a specialist who has extensive
knowledge and skills in protecting computer systems, networks, and sensitive
information from unauthorized access, cyber-attacks, and data breaches. These experts
address loopholes and flaws that affect computer systems and create a company's
security protocols and procedures.

9. ICT Tutor: An ICT tutor is a professional who teaches and guides individuals to develop
the skills and knowledge they need to use ICT effectively and confidently in a range of
personal and professional contexts. ICT tutors may work in a variety of educational
settings, such as schools, colleges, universities, or training institutions, educating
students of all ages and abilities.
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ELECTRONIC LEARNING (E-LEARNING)

E-learning refers to the use of digital technology to facilitate teaching and learning. E-learning
can take many forms, including online courses, webinars, virtual classrooms, educational apps,
and more. E-learning tools include computers, software, internet, etc.
E-learning includes the following forms of learning techniques:
• Computer-Based Training (CBT) is a training that uses computers and software
programs to teach or train individuals. It is typically used in workplace training,
professional development, and certification programs. CBT is focused on training and
assessment, and is generally designed for adult learners in professional settings. It is a
self-paced method of learning that allows students to study and complete coursework
at their own pace, using multimedia tools like videos, audio, images, and interactive
software programs.
• Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) CAI is an approach to teaching that uses
computers to assist in the delivery of instruction. It is commonly used in educational
settings to provide students with interactive lessons and activities that reinforce
specific skills and knowledge. CAI is focused on instruction and learning and is designed
for students in academic settings. CAI programs may include multimedia elements like
videos, audio, and graphics to enhance the learning experience.
• Internet-Based Training (IBT) is a type of training that is delivered over the internet. It
provides learners with access to training materials, resources, and instructional content
through a web-based platform or application. IBT can take many forms, including online
courses, webinars, podcasts, video tutorials, and virtual classrooms.
• Web-Based Training (WBT) is a type of online training that is delivered over the World
Wide Web. It specifically uses a web-based platform or application to provide learners
with access to training materials, resources, and instructional content.
• Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) is an online space that provides students and
teachers with a set of tools and resources to support online learning. VLEs are designed
to facilitate communication and collaboration between teachers and students, as well as
between students themselves, and to provide access to learning materials and
resources. VLE is a comprehensive online learning platform designed for educational
institutions to deliver online courses and related administrative processes. Examples
include Blackboard, Canvas, Google Classroom and Edmodo.
• Multimedia Learning is the learning that occurs when students build mental
representations from words and pictures that are presented for them. Various types of
media, such as text, images, audio, video, and animations are used to enhance the
learning experience. This approach to learning is based on the idea that people learn
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better when information is presented in multiple formats that appeal to different

senses.
• Technology-Enhanced Learning (TEL) is the application of technology to enhance or
support the learning experience. This can include a variety of technologies, such as
digital media, computer software, the internet, mobile devices, and virtual reality.

ADVANTAGES OF E-LEARNING
1. Learners can access course materials and participate in learning activities from
anywhere with an internet connection, at any time.
2. It can reach an unlimited number of learners.
3. Geographical barriers are eliminated.
4. It is on-demand access which means learning can happen precisely when needed.
5. It enhances computer and internet skills.
6. There is convenience and flexibility such that learners are not necessarily bound to a
specific day/time to physically attend classes, allowing them to balance their
educational pursuits with work, family, and other responsibilities.
7. There is a significant reduction of education cost.
8. E-learning has made education more accessible to people in remote or underserved
areas, as well as those with disabilities or other challenges that may make traditional
classroom learning difficult.
9. Flexible learning: E-learning provides flexibility in terms of when and where students can
learn, allowing them to balance their educational pursuits with work, family, and other
responsibilities.
10.E-learning can be cost-effective, as it eliminates the need for physical classrooms and
reduces or eliminates travel expenses and other associated cost for students and
teachers.
11.E-learning allows learners to access learning materials and resources anytime and
anywhere, facilitating continuous learning and development.

DISADVANTAGES OF E-LEARNING
1. Most online learning happens on the student’s schedule, so students will have to be
self-disciplined and motivated to complete activities on schedule in other to be
successful.
2. Adequate technical skills are required in other for a learner to be able to use a computer
and not be overwhelmed by typing, browsing the internet, sending and reading
attachments among others.
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3. Since there is no direct interaction with the instructor or fellow learners during the
learning process therefore there is a lack of human contact, therefore creating a sense
of isolation and a lack of social interaction.
4. It focuses more on theory.
5. Cheating is unavoidable since students won’t be physically supervised by teachers
during online assessments.
6. E-Learning is limited to certain disciplines such as social science and humanities, rather
than scientific fields such as medical science and engineering which require a certain
level of hands-on practical experience.
7. E-learning may not be accessible for all students, particularly those with disabilities or
limited access to technology. This can create barriers to learning and limit opportunities
for certain students.

DATA AND INFORMATION

DATA
Data is raw or unprocessed fact. Data comes in many forms including numbers, text, words,
symbols, images, audio, and video. Data relates to transactions, events, and facts and can be
obtained through interviews, experimentation, observation, questionnaires, internet amongst
others.
TYPES OF DATA
QUALITATIVE DATA
Qualitative data is descriptive in nature and is non-numeric. It cannot be expressed as a
number but is used to describe or understand phenomena. Data that represent nominal or
ordinal scales such as gender, socioeconomic status, and religious preferences are usually
considered to be qualitative data.

QUANTITATIVE DATA
Quantitative data is numerical in nature and can be measured or counted. It is anything that
can be expressed as a number, or quantified. Examples are scores on tests, number of hours of
study, age, weight, temperature, or height. These data may be represented by interval or ratio
scales. Quantitative data can also be classified as discrete or continuous.

Discrete data is numerical data that can only take on certain values, usually integers or whole
numbers, and cannot be divided into smaller units. (1, 2, 3, …) It’s a finite value between two
points obtained by counting. Discrete data cannot be broken down into smaller parts.
Examples include the number of children in a family, the number of students in a classroom,
the number of items sold, students’ grade level, the number of cars in a parking lot, the
number of books on a shelf, etc.
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Continuous data is numerical data that can take on any value within a certain range, usually
on a continuous scale (1.9, 4.7 …). It’s an infinite value obtained by measuring. Examples
include, height, weight, time, distance, volume, height, temperature, etc.

QUALITATIVE DATA QUANTITATIVE DATA

Deals with descriptions Deals with numbers
Data can be observed but not measured Data can be measured
Data can be expressed in length, height,
Data can be described with colours, area, volume, weight, speed, time,
textures, smells, tastes, appearance, beauty, temperature, humidity, sound levels, cost,
etc. members, ages, etc.
Qualitative – Quality Quantitative - Quantity

SCALE OF MEASUREMENT
Scale of measurement is used to define and categorize variables. There are four scales of
measurement which are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
Note: A variable is any characteristic, number, or quantity that can be measured or counted or
a Variable is any quantity whose value changes. It is also called data item.

NOMINAL SCALE
Nominal scale is a scale where variables are simply “named” or labelled with no specific order.
It divides variables into mutually exclusive, labelled categories. It gives descriptions to
categories that do not have a natural order or ranking and the numbers used to represent
each category are arbitrary. For example, if we were collecting data on the gender of
participants in a study, we might assign the number 1 to females and 2 to males, but these
numbers do not represent any underlying quantitative value.
Examples: gender, marital status, blood type, race, genotype, nationality, smart phone brands,
favourite school, job titles etc.
Dichotomous Variables are nominal variables that have only two categories or levels.
Examples: Male/Female, True/False, Head/Tail, Rich/Poor, Yes/No, Pass/Fail, etc.

ORDINAL SCALE
This scale classifies variables into categories that have a natural order or rank. These set or
categories are either ordered from least to most and a reverse in same metric (vice versa). The
numbers assigned to each value have some meaning in terms of their order. It can also be
used to represent non-mathematical ideas such as satisfaction, happiness, etc. Examples
include Teachers’ rank, Police rank, School grade, Education level, Seniority level,
Socioeconomic status, etc.
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INTERVAL SCALE
It offers labels, order, as well as, a specific interval between each of its variable options. The
order of the variables as well as the difference between these variables is known, meaning the
distance between any two adjacent values is always the same. For example, Rate from 1 to 7
your experience. It is measured along a numerical scale that has equal intervals between
adjacent values. Also, temperature is an example of interval data, where 0 degrees does not
represent the absence of temperature. Its limitation is that it has no “true zero point”.
Examples: Speed, Temperature, IQ, Date, Year, etc.

RATIO SCALE
This is the most advanced scale of measurement and is used to measure variables with equal
intervals between the values and a true zero point. It bears all the characteristics of an interval
scale; in addition, it can also accommodate the value of “zero” on any of its variables. It deals
with scores where there is the same numerical distance between each score.
Example: Weight, distance, amount, length, time, and exam score where a value of 0 indicates
the absence of the attribute being measured.

Data Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Labelled
Meaningful Order
Measurable Difference
Can Accommodate Absolute Zero

SOURCES OF DATA
1. Internal Data – this is the data generated from within an organization or business.
Internal sources of data are often more reliable as they come from first-hand knowledge
and experience. Examples: the total number of students in WGHS, sales data, customer
data, employee data, etc.

2. External Data – this is the data obtained from outside an organization. External sources
can provide valuable information that may not be available internally. Examples: the
amount of money government spends on FSHS, the number of books government sends
to WGHS, population census, social media data, etc.
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INFORMATION
Information is facts, or data that has been processed, analyzed, or interpreted in a meaningful
way. Information is derived from data through the process of organizing, analyzing, and
interpreting data to create a meaningful context, which enables decision-making or action.
Information is a set of organized data that conveys meaning and is useful to the user. In other
words, data becomes information when it is put into context and given meaning.

VALUE OF INFORMATION
1. Economical: The value of information should exceed the cost of producing it. The cost
involved in obtaining, processing, and using information must be cost-effective.
2. Reliable: Information should be from a valid and trusted source with verifiable facts.
3. Flexible: Information should be able to adapt and respond to changing circumstances.
This will allow individuals and organizations to be more responsive, agile and adjust
their strategies, plans, and actions in response to new information or changes in the
environment in achieving their goals and objectives. Information can quickly become
outdated, and circumstances can change rapidly, making it essential to have flexible
information that can adapt to new situations.
4. Accessible: Information should be easy to obtain or access at any time.
5. Currency: Information should be up to date and not obsolete.
6. Concise: Information should be to the point and devoid of unnecessary elements.
7. Complete: Information should contain all the details required.
8. Clarity: Information should be well understood and clearly presented.
9. Consistency: Information should be free of contradictions or convention breaks.
10. Accuracy: Information should be precise and free from distortion, bias, or errors
11. Relevant: Information should be fit for the purpose for which it is required.
12. Timely: Information should be available when needed.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DATA AND INFORMATION

DATA INFORMATION
Raw facts and figures Processed facts
It is unorganized It is organized
It is meaningless It is meaningful
It cannot be used for decision making It can be used for decision making
It has no or little value It is worthy
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INFORMATION PROCESSING CYCLE

Information Processing Cycle (IPC) is the sequence of steps or processes that converts data
into information. For data to be transformed into information it must go through a logically
related pattern and these include; input, processing, output, storage, and distribution.

1. Input: Input is the stage where the user enters raw data into the computer electronically.
The data can be in the form of text, numbers, images, or any other format. The computer
accepts data via input devices such as scanners, microphones, keyboards, joysticks, and
barcode readers.

2. Processing: In the processing stage, the raw data is manipulated or transformed into
useful information. The central processing unit (CPU) in the system unit also known as the
Processor is the key component of the computer that performs these operations. The CPU
which is the brain of the computer is the key hardware component for interpreting
programs, instructions, and processing.

3. Output: This is the stage where the processed data known as information is presented to
the user. Examples of output devices include; monitor, projector, printer, and speaker.

4. Storage: This is the stage where the processed data is stored for future use. Typical
storage devices include pen drives, hard disks, CDs, and floppy disks amongst others.

5. Distribution: This last stage of the information processing cycle involves the transmission
of the processed information to the end-user or intended recipient. This can be done
through a variety of means, such as email, messaging platforms, file-sharing systems, or
physical distribution such as printed reports or memos.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
A computer is an electronic device that receives data, processes data, produces results, and
stores data. It is an electronic machine, operating under the control of instructions or
programs stored in its memory, which accepts data (input), manipulates the data according
to specified processes, produces results (information), and stores the results for subsequent
delivery to the user. Basically, a computer transforms data into information. It can perform a
variety of tasks such as calculations, data analysis, word processing, video editing, gaming,
and much more.
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COMPONENTS OF THE COMPUTER SYSTEM

The computer system is a set of interrelated elements that enable the computer to function
as a complete unit.
The components of the computer system are:
1. Hardware: Hardware refers to the physical parts of the computer that can be seen and
touched. Examples include the monitor, speaker, keyboard, mouse, scanner, and system
unit.
2. Software: Software is the set of instructions/programs that control the operation of the
computer. They are therefore the parts of the computer that cannot be seen or touched.
Examples are system software (operating system, utilities) and application software (web
browsers, word processors).
3. Liveware (User): An individual who uses a computer is a liveware. This includes experts
who know a lot about computers and how they work and novices who have very little
knowledge about computers.
4. Procedure: Procedure is a fixed, step-by-step series of actions computer users need to
follow to correctly perform a task.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER
1. It is an electronic device or machine.
2. It can store and retrieve large amounts of data.
3. It has a very high speed of operation.
4. Computers are versatile in nature and can perform different types of tasks.
5. Computers are diligent and can work for a long period of time with the same speed and
accuracy without getting tired or fatigued.

LIMITATIONS OF A COMPUTER
a. They can only perform tasks that it has been programmed to do.
b. Computers cannot do any work without instructions from the user.
c. It executes instructions as specified by the user and does not take its own decisions.
The above limitations lead to two important consequences;
i. A computer cannot think.
ii. A computer cannot make a mistake.
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FUNCTIONS OF COMPUTER
A computer has four main basic functions:
a. Accepts data and instructions Input
b. Processes data Processing
c. Produces output (Information) Output
d. Stores instructions, data, and results Storage

USES OF COMPUTERS
1. Communication: Computers are used for email, messaging, social media, and video
conferencing for personal and business communication.
2. Education: Computers are used in education for research, online learning, writing and
editing, and creating presentations.
3. Entertainment: Computers are used for gaming, streaming movies and music, and
creating digital art and music.
4. Manufacturing: Computers are used for designing products, controlling assembly lines,
and managing supply chains in the manufacturing industry.
5. Transportation: Computers are used in air traffic control, navigation, and tracking
systems for ships, trucks, and trains.
6. Healthcare: Computers are used for medical research, managing patient records, and
assisting in medical procedures.
7. Government and Public Services: Computers are used in government for record-
keeping, voting systems, and public services such as online tax filing and permit
applications.
8. Travel and Tourism: Computers are used for booking flights, hotels, and tours, and for
creating travel itineraries and online reviews.
9. Security: Computers are used for security systems, such as access control and
surveillance cameras, and for digital forensics and data recovery in law enforcement.
10. Sports: Computers are used in sports for tracking player performance, analyzing game
data, and creating simulations and models.
 17

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Classification of computers refers to categorizing computers based on various factors such as
their purpose, size, performance, functionality, and architecture. By classifying computers, we
can better understand their features and capabilities, and determine which type of computer
is best suited for a particular task or application. There are many ways to classify computers,
and some of the most common methods include:

By Data Representation/Type

A. Analog Computer: Analog computers operate by measuring instead of counting. They

deal with continuous physical quantities that change with time such as pressure,
current, speed, voltage, sound, light, and temperature. Thus, analog computers are
measuring devices. An analog computer is therefore defined as an information device
that operates using physical quantities received from continuously varying variables.
Examples are thermometers, petrol pump indicators, speedometers, multimeters,
hydrometers, measuring scales, barometers, etc.

B. Digital Computer: It is a type of computer that uses discrete binary digits, called bits, to
represent data and perform calculations. In these computers, the input data (numbers,
words, pictures, sound, etc.) are converted into binary form before processing takes
 18

place. This is because the processing chips in the CPU only recognize binary digits (bits).
Each bit has a value of either 0 or 1, and combinations of bits can represent a wide
range of data, from numbers to text to images and videos. It is often described as
operating by “counting”. Examples are smartphones, laptops, palmtops, notebooks, etc.

C. Hybrid Computer: A hybrid computer is a computer that combines both the features
and capabilities of a digital computer and an analog computer. It is part digital and part
analog thus; it has the ability to either represent data in a numerical format using the
binary mode or by representing data as physical quantities using varying variables.
Examples are automated teller machines, money-counting machines, Ultrasound
machines, etc.

By Size, Processing Speed, and Storage Capacity:

A. Supercomputers: They are the fastest,

most expensive, biggest, highly
advanced, and most powerful type of
computers. They are special, high-
capacity computers and are used when
billions or even trillions of calculations
are needed speedily. They are used to
undertake intensive tasks such as
performing complex calculations and
processing massive amounts of data,
accurate weather forecasting, climate
research, nuclear energy research, molecular research, aircraft design, and oil
exploration amongst others. These machines are capable of tackling scientific,
engineering, and research problems that require immense computational power and
memory. Their speed is in the 100-million-instructions-per-second (MIPS) range. For
example, the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA) of the United States of
America uses supercomputers to track and control space explorations. The Ghana-India
Kofi Annan Centre of Excellence in ICT (AITI-KACE) is Ghana's first Advanced Information
Technology Institute (AITI). It was established in 2003, through a partnership between
the government of Ghana and the government of India. The centre also houses West
Africa's first supercomputer.
 19

B. Mainframe Computers: Also known as

‘big iron’, these are large, high-
performance, and expensive
computing systems designed to
handle substantial workloads and
support critical business applications.
capable of supporting hundreds, or
even thousands of users
simultaneously and can also store
enormous information. Mainframes
are commonly used in industries such
as banking, finance, healthcare,
insurance utilities, government agencies, and large-scale enterprises where high
performance, reliability, and security are of utmost importance. The main difference
between supercomputers and mainframe computers is that supercomputers channel all
their power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas mainframe
computers use their power to execute many programs concurrently.

C. Minicomputers: Minicomputers are sometimes

referred to as mid-range computers. This is because
they are desk-sized machines and fall between the
abilities and sizes of mainframes and microcomputers.
They are similar to mainframe computers in function
but are smaller in terms of size, disk, and memory
capacity. They offer substantial processing power, and
multi-user capabilities supporting from 4 to about 200
users simultaneously. Medium-sized companies make
use of such computers to analyze large datasets, utilize
them for transaction processing, manage customer
accounts, perform financial calculations, and research projects, amongst others.

D. Microcomputers: These are the most widely used and fastest growing type of computers.
They are small, low-cost, and single-user and also consist of CPU, input, output, storage
units, and software. They have become ubiquitous and have had a significant impact on
various aspects of modern life, from personal productivity to entertainment and beyond.
Microcomputers are also referred to as “personal computers” (PC) which come in a variety
of forms such as desktops, laptops, personal digital assistants, notebooks, palmtops, and
tablets.
 20

Classification by Purpose
A. General Purpose Computers
They are computing devices designed to perform a wide range of tasks. They are
versatile, adaptable, and have the capability of dealing with different problems and
acting in response to programs created to meet different needs. Examples are
smartphones, laptops, desktop computers, etc.

B. Special Purpose Computers

They are special computing devices designed to perform a specific task or set of limited
classes of tasks efficiently and effectively. They are built to excel in a particular domain
or industry where their specialized capabilities are required and cannot be used for
tasks apart from what they have been designed to perform. Examples are ATMs,
ultrasound machines, money-counting machines, cameras, calculators, traffic-light
control systems, etc.
 21

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used.
Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies.
However, these days, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make
up an entire computer system. Computers have evolved through several generations since
their inception. Each generation represents a significant advancement in technology, leading
to faster processing speeds, increased storage capacity, and improved capabilities. There are
five (5) computer generations known to date. Here is a brief overview of the generations of
computers:

First Generation
First-generation computers were from
1946 -1959. They used vacuum tubes
for circuitry and magnetic drums for
data storage which were over 100 feet
long, 10 feet high, and weighed 30
tonnes. The principal component for
the construction of their central
processing unit was a valve that relied
on machine language to perform
operations. A valve is an electronic
switch with three connections. To input any information, punch cards were needed while
output was regularly displayed on printouts. These computers were very expensive to operate,
consumed a considerable amount of electricity, and generate a lot of heat, therefore, needing
a cooling system such as an air conditioner. Some of the computers in this generation were
ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC, EDSAC, IBM-701, and IBM-650.

Second Generation
Second-generation computers were from
1959-1965. In this generation, transistors
replaced vacuum tubes. Magnetic core
memory was used for storage. These
computers were faster, more energy-
efficient, generated less heat, and were
less bulky, allowing them to be cheaper,
smaller, faster, and more reliable, than
the first-generation computers. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for
input and printouts for output but moved from the machine language to symbolic or assembly
languages allowing users to issue out instructions in words. Some computers of this generation
were IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600, and UNIVAC 1108.
 22

Third Generation
Third-generation computers were from
1965-1971. Integrated circuits (ICs) were
introduced, which incorporated multiple
transistors and other electronic
components on a single chip of
semiconductor material. This
advancement led to smaller computers,
increased processing power, and reduced
costs. These computers were more reliable, efficient, and smaller and could run multiple
applications because they had operating systems, unlike the first two generations of
computers. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with these computers
through keyboards and monitors, therefore, becoming accessible to a lot of users for the first
time. Some computers of this generation were IBM-370/168, TDC-316, Honeywell-6000 series,
IBM-360 series, and PDP (Personal Data Processor).

Fourth Generation
The fourth-generation computers were
from 1971-1980. This generation of
computers was introduced by the
development of the microprocessor,
consisting of a single chip containing the
CPU, memory, and other components,
which revolutionized the computer
industry. As a result, what in the first
generation, filled an entire room, could
now fit in the palm of the hand. Also, these computers outperformed previous computers as
they were more accurate, more powerful, compact, reliable, produced less heat, performed
with great speed, and were more affordable which in effect gave rise to the Personal
Computer (PC) revolution. Some computers of this generation were IBM PC and Apple II.

Fifth Generation
Fifth-generation computers are from 1980
till date. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and
parallel processing, and supercomputing
form the basis of this generation of
computers and it interprets the means and
method of making computers think like
human beings. It is still in development but
these computers are anticipated to
recognize images, and graphics, have the ability to make decisions, solve complex problems,
and process information at a faster rate. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop
 23

devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-
organization. Some examples are Laptops, Notebooks, Robots, modern smartphones, and
computer games.

Generation Description

First Generation 1946 – 1959 Vacuum Tube

Second Generation 1959 – 1965 Transistor

Third Generation 1965 – 1971 Integrated Circuit

Fourth Generation 1971 – 1980 Microprocessor

Fifth Generation 1980 – till date Artificial Intelligence

BOOTING, REBOOTING, AND SHUTTING DOWN

Booting is the process of switching ‘ON’ the computer and starting the operating system. The
process of booting is done simply by pressing the power button on the system unit. There are
two types of booting; Cold and Warm booting.

1. Cold Booting
Cold booting is starting a computer when its power has been turned off completely for a short
or long time. This can be easily done by connecting the computer to electric power and
pressing on its power button.

2. Warm Booting
Warm booting refers to the process of restarting the computer after it has been in operation
for a while. It is also known as rebooting. Usually, the computer is warm when warm booting
or rebooting is performed.

Reasons for Warm Booting

1. After installing a new programme.
2. When some programmes are not responding to a command.
3. When the computer keeps on freezing.
4. After installing some new devices like USB modem which must be identified and accepted
by the system unit.
 24

Methods of Warm Booting or Rebooting

1. Using the Start button
i. Click on the Start button
ii. Click on the Power button
iii. Click on the Restart button from the pop up menu

2. Using the CTRL, ALT and DEL keys

i. Press on the CTRL, ALT and DEL keys simultaneously
ii. A new screen will be displayed, check the lower right corner to see the power button and
press on it
iii. Click on the Restart button from the pop up menu

3. Using ALT + F4
i. Press and hold on ALT and press on the F4 keys concurrently to display the “shut down
windows” dialog box
ii. Click on the drop down arrow to select “Restart” and then click “OK”

Steps Of The Booting Process

There are six steps of the booting process and they include: BIOS and Setup Program, The
Power-On-Self-Test (POST), The Operating system Loads (Booting Up), System Configuration,
System Utility Loads and Users Authentication.

Step 1: BIOS and Setup Program

Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) is typically stored on a small, RAM chip on the computer's
motherboard. It is responsible for initializing and controlling various hardware components
during the booting process and providing a bridge between the hardware and the operating
system. BIOS includes the instructions that the computer uses to accept input and output load
to transfer from a storage device to memory.
Setup Program is a special program containing settings to control hardware. Furthermore, the
program can only be accessed while the BIOS information is visible.

Step 2: The POST

When you turn on the computer, the power supply sends electricity to the system, triggering
the Power-On Self-Test. During POST, the computer's hardware components are checked to
ensure they are functioning properly. This includes checking the processor, memory, storage
devices, and other hardware components. If any issues are detected, the computer may emit a
beep code or display an error message.
 25

Step 3: The Operating System (OS) Loads

BIOS searches for the operating system. Setting in complementary metal oxide semiconductor
(CMOS) determines where to look for the operating system. In this step, the operating
system’s kernel is also loaded into the computer’s memory. The operating system takes
control of the computer and begins loading system configuration information. Booting Up is
the process where the operating system and other important system software are loaded onto
the main memory and executed.

Step 4: System Configuration

Registry is a database that stores information about peripherals and software. Peripheral is a
device connected to a computer. Driver is a utility program that makes peripheral devices
function properly. The operating system’s registry configures the system. In this step, divers
are also loaded into the memory.

Step 5: System Utility Loads

System utilities are basic functioning programs, for example, volume control, antivirus, etc. In
this step, system utilities are loaded into the memory.

Step 6: Users Authentication

If any password has been set up in the computer system, the system checks for user login and
authentication. Once the user enters the login Id and password correctly the system finally
starts. After all these processes, the user interface starts, enabling user interaction with the
computer and its programs also, allowing the user to interact with the computer, launch
applications, and perform various tasks.

Shutting Down of the Computer

Shutting down is the process that closes down shared files and programs that are running in
the background before the computer is turned off.

Methods of Shutting Down

1. Using the Start button
i. Click on the Start button
ii. Click on the Power button
iii. Click on the Shutdown button from the pop up menu

2. Using ALT + F4
i. Press and hold on ALT and press on the F4 keys concurrently to display the “shut down
windows” dialog box
ii. Click on the drop down arrow to select “Shut down” and then click “OK”
 26

Power Down Options

1. Shut Down or Turn Off: When this option is selected, the computer is shut down: You’re
logged out of your account, which closes your programs and allows you to save your
data. Windows then shuts itself down, and eventually the computer turns itself off.
2. Restart: The computer is shut down and then started again when this option is chosen
from the Shut Down menu. It’s also called a reset or a warm boot.
3. Switch User: You remain logged in to the computer and your programs continue to be
open, but choosing this option allows another user to access the computer.
4. Sleep: The computer is put into a low-power consumption mode, saving energy. Also
known as Stand By, this mode may put the entire computer, or only the monitor or hard
drives, into low-power mode. In this power-saving mode, the computer comes back to
life quickly, usually with the press of a key or jiggle of the mouse.
5. Hibernate: Choosing this option, the best power-saving mode, shuts down the
computer and turns it off. But information in memory is saved so that when the
computer turns on again, you simply resume your former activities (after logging in, of
course). Hibernation saves the most power, but it takes longer to restart the computer
than either Sleep or Standby mode, because you’re literally turning it on again.
6. Lock: Locks up the computer while you're away from it (same as clicking the Lock
button).
7. Log Off/Sign out: Switches to another user account on the computer after closing all of
your open programs and Windows processes.

Consequences Of Failing To Properly Shut Down A PC

1. Start-up will take longer when you next turn on the machine, as the system works will
scan through for disk errors.
2. Important data that hasn’t been saved might be lost.
3. Hard disk could also suffer a head crash.

Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

An uninterruptible power supply is a device that allows a computer to keep running for at
least a short time when the primary power source is lost.
 27

THREATS TO COMPUTERS AND USERS

A threat is any dangerous, hazardous, or risky person or thing that might exploit a weakness to
breach with the intent to cause possible harm or damage. Computers and their users are
exposed to different types of threats which include:
➢ Natural threats
➢ Human or man-made threats
➢ Threats to computer users

Natural Threats To Computers

Natural threats to computers are threats caused by nature. Some of these threats include:
1. Heat/Fire 3. Dust
2. Flood 4. Rodents

1. Heat/Fire
As electronic devices, computers depend on electricity to function therefore generating a lot
of heat during operation, and if not properly cooled, this heat can cause components to
overheat and fail. High ambient temperatures, poor ventilation, or malfunctioning cooling
systems can contribute to overheating. This is why computers have heat sinks and cooling fans
in them to keep them cool. It is advisable that users use computers in cool environments
because excessive heat can destroy them in the event of overheating. Again, when a fire
outbreak occurs, it is likely to damage computers.

Safety Measures
1. Avoid using computers in areas that are extremely hot.
2. Keep computers away from any threat of fire.
3. Smoke and fire detectors can be installed in rooms where computers are kept to
protect them from fire.
4. Computers should be used in areas with good ventilation in order to keep a safe
temperature.

2. Flood
Computers are not made to resist water and as a result, if they come into contact with water,
they might be damaged. In the event of a flood, it will lead to irreversible damage to
computers and data. Keeping computer systems in elevated areas can help minimize these
risks

Safety Measures
1. It is necessary to keep computers well away from liquids.
2. Computers should not be used in humid areas, otherwise the users should ensure that
they are kept dry always.
 28

3. Dust and Particulate Matter

Dust and other particles in the air can accumulate on computer components, clogging fans,
and heat sinks causing overheating. Excessive dust can also create electrical shorts or interfere
with proper connectivity. While it may be easy to clean their exterior, dust which settles in the
computers can be difficult to clean and may even corrupt the device if it settles on sensitive
parts such as the memory disk. Excessive dust could also cover the internal components that
need air to cool down, making them susceptible to overheating.

Safety Measures
1. Cover computers with jackets when not in use.
2. Windows can also be closed when computers are not being used.

4. Rodents
Rodents like rats and mice have the tendency of chewing electrical cables and wires. These
animals are able to enter the system unit through any opening found on the device to chew its
cables and wires. This exposes the wires and causes short-circuiting when the wires come into
contact with each other or other flammable materials, thereby destroying the computer
system.
Safety Measures
1. Seal any gaps or openings in walls, floors, or ceilings that could serve as entry points for
rodents.
2. Users should avoid eating in areas where computers are stored. This could prevent
rodents from being drawn to these areas.

Human/Man-made Threats To Computers

These are threats that humans pose to computers through their actions. These threats may
include:
1. Electrical faults 3. Human errors
2. Water 4. Malware

1. Electrical Faults
Computers are electronic devices and that makes them invariably susceptible to electrical
dangers like improper wiring, faulty electrical connections, and incorrect installation of power
systems by individuals can lead to electrical faults that may damage computer systems. Power
surges, power fluctuations, and power cuts can equally damage computers.

2. Water/Liquids
Water damage can occur due to human-related incidents such as accidental spills, improper
handling of liquids near computers, or inadequate protection against water sources which can
cause electrical circuits to malfunction and hamper the operation of the computer. Failing to
properly secure computers in areas prone to leaks can result in water damage, leading to
hardware failures or data loss.
 29

3. Human Errors
Human errors can encompass a wide range of actions or omissions that lead to computer-
related issues. These errors can include misconfiguring system settings, incorrectly applying
software updates, or physical damage to the computer either intentionally or unintentionally.
Human errors can have significant consequences, including physical damage, data loss, or
system crashes.

4. Malware
Malware is any type of software that is designed by individuals to damage your computer or
gain unauthorized access to your personal information. Basically, Malware is any “malicious
software” created to infiltrate a computer system to tamper with its proper functions or steal
information. Human involvement is necessary for creating, distributing, and executing
malware. Examples of Malware include:

a. Virus e. Worms
b. Trojan Horse g. Adware
c. Ransomware

a. Virus
Viruses are malicious programs that attach themselves to legitimate files or software and
replicate themselves when executed. They are electronic programs written intentionally to
change the way a computer operates without the permission of the user. They can spread to
other files or systems, causing damage to data, disrupting computer operations, or stealing
sensitive information. Some examples of viruses include: chernobryl virus, ILoveU virus, etc.
Software developers create viruses for three (3) primary reasons;

i. To make money by selling anti-virus.

ii. To expose the flaws and shortcomings of existing computer programs.
iii. To damage computer systems.

Sources of Computer Virus

i. Pop-up adverts online.
ii. Internet Websites
iii. E-mail messages or file attachments to e-mails.
iv. Infected software or computer programs.
v. Pen drives, floppy diskette, external hard drives.
vi. Infected files.
vii. Fake anti-virus software
viii. Computer network
ix. Hackers
 30

Types of Virus

i. Boot sector Virus: This type of virus infects the boot sector of a computer's hard drive
or other storage devices. They activate when the infected system is booted, allowing
them to spread to other storage devices or interfere with the boot process.

ii. Rootkit Virus: A rootkit virus is a type of malware that is specifically designed to gain
unauthorized access and control over a computer system while remaining hidden from
detection. It is normally disguised as operating system files that attempt to allow
someone to gain control of a computer system.

iii. Macro Virus: Macro viruses infect files that contain macros, such as documents,
spreadsheets, or presentations. Macros are simple programs that can be written to
automate repetitive tasks in a document or make calculations in a spreadsheet. They
exploit the macro functionality in applications like Microsoft Office to execute
malicious code, often resulting in the spread of the virus to other files. Some examples
of macro viruses are Melissa. A, 097M/Y2K, Relax, Balas.

iv. Polymorphic Virus: Polymorphic virus is designed to change its code or signature each
time it infects a new file. It uses a special method of encoding or encryption to infect
computer systems by creating multiple files thereby replicating itself. This makes it
more difficult to detect using traditional or less sophisticated antivirus software and
this is because it alters its digital signature pattern whenever it replicates itself.
Examples include Elkern, Marburg, Satan Bug, and Tuareg.
v. File Infector Virus: This virus attaches itself to executable files (e.g., .exe, .com) and is
activated when such programs are run which can slow down the program and produce
other damaging effects. It can modify or overwrite the host file, making it self-
replicating. Executable files are a set of instructions that are the primary means of
running software applications or programs on a computer system

vi. Resident Virus: This virus resides in the computer's memory and executes whenever
the operating system is active or specific actions are performed. It can interfere with
the computer’s normal system operation, leading to the corruption of files and
programs. It can infect files as they are accessed or modify system functions to
maintain their presence. Examples are MrKlunky, CMJ, Randex, and Meve.

vii. Overwrite Virus: This virus infects files by overwriting their content with malicious
code, therefore losing the original content. It infects folders, files, and even programs,
making them unusable or causing them to execute malicious code when opened or
executed. To delete this virus, you also need to get rid of your file.

viii. Logic Bombs/Time Bombs: These viruses are malicious code designed to execute at a
specific date or when specific conditions are met. For example, a logic bomb may be
 31

set to activate on a particular date or when a specific action occurs, leading to

disruptive or damaging effects.

ix. Multipartite Virus: This virus combines characteristics of file infectors and boot sector
viruses. It can infect both executable files and the boot sectors, making them versatile
and challenging to remove.

Signs of a Virus Attack

i. Loss of disk space.
ii. Unexplained data loss.
iii. Data/Programs get corrupted.
iv. Frequent computer crashes.
v. Slow computer performance.
vi. The computer freezes.
vii. Missing, altered, or encrypted files
viii. Unreliable computer behavior.
ix. Sudden restarting of the computer without the user’s instruction.
x. Programs and data files are corrupted or difficult to locate.
xi. Unknown files or sub-directories are created.

How to Protect Computers Against Virus

i. Install and update the Antivirus installed on the computer periodically.
ii. Scan all the systems with the antivirus.
iii. Do not use pirated software.
iv. Download files or programs from trusted websites.
v. Keep operation systems updated.
vi. Turn on the firewall. A firewall is a security device — computer hardware or
software — that can help protect your network by filtering traffic and blocking
outsiders from gaining unauthorized access to the private data on your computer.

Note: Antivirus software is used to prevent, detect and remove computer viruses. They are
programs that scan the computer system to detect viruses. Examples of antivirus software are
AVG, Toolkit, McAfee, Avast, and Kaspersky. However, no antivirus program is perfect.

b. Trojan Horse
Trojans, or Trojan horses, are malware disguised as legitimate software or files. They have the
appearance of serving useful purposes, therefore tricking users into executing them, but they
serve a covert purpose which may be to cause data destruction, damage files, install additional
malicious software, compromise its security, or enable a hacker to gain unauthorized access to
the computer system. A Trojan horse must be sent by someone or carried by another program
and may arrive in the form of an email, joke program, or software.
 32

c. Ransomware
This is a type of malicious software that encrypts files on a victim's computer or network,
rendering them inaccessible. The attackers behind the ransomware then demand a ransom
payment from the victim in exchange for decrypting the files and restoring access.

d. Worms
Worms are programs that self-replicate and spread copies of themselves across multiple
computers on a network using email or other transport mechanisms, often opening a back
door to allow hackers to gain access to the computer system. They exploit vulnerabilities in
operating systems or network protocols to spread by relying on security failures such as
outdated operating systems and no antivirus software installed. A worm, unlike a virus works
without attaching itself to files or programs, thus, viruses require the spreading of an infected
host file, worms are standalone software and do not require a host or human help to spread.

f. Adware
Adware displays unwanted advertisements on the computer screen. It often comes bundled
with legitimate software downloads and can be used to retrieve information or collect
personal data without permission to deliver targeted advertisements as well as infect the
computer with viruses.

Threats To Computer Users

Computer users are exposed to threats as they use computers. These threats include:
1. Bad Posture 7. Repetitive Strain Injury
2. Theft 8. Phishing
3. Eye Impairment/Poor Vision 9. Identity Theft
4. Spyware 10. Internet Fraud
5. Electric Shock 11. Digital Addictions
6. Online tracking

1. Bad Posture
Bad posture refers to the improper sitting position of computer users. Bad posture is a threat
to computer users because it can lead to several physical and musculoskeletal health issues,
including neck, shoulder, and back pain. Spending long hours in front of a computer while
maintaining poor posture can put a strain on the body, leading to discomfort, pain, and
potential long-term health issues. To avoid bad posture computer users should be able to
reach the keyboard and mouse whilst bending their elbows at 90 degrees with their shoulders
relaxed. Moreover, if the computer hardware is arranged improperly, the user will suffer from
bad posture.
 33

2. Theft
Thieves steal computers, especially portable ones. They steal them with the intention to keep
them for personal use, selling them for money, or have unauthorized access to sensitive data
on them. Invariably, victims of this thievery act lose all data and information on the computer.

3. Eye Impairment/Poor Vision

Prolonged computer use, incorrect screen positioning, improper viewing distance, or
inadequate lighting can strain the eyes or may lead to poor vision. This can result in eye
discomfort, dryness, blurred and double vision, and headaches. It is advisable to look away
from the screen and close them for a few seconds every few minutes. A glare shield should
also be used to cover the screen of the monitor.

4. Spyware
Spyware is designed to spy on computer users without their knowledge or consent to collect
sensitive data for unauthorized purposes. Once installed it has the ability to monitor activities
on the device, collecting information such as financial data and login information. Some
spyware can alter computer settings or install other dangerous programs.

5. Electric Shock
Electric shock occurs when the human body part comes into contact with any source of
electricity that causes a sufficient current to pass through the skin either accidentally or
deliberately. This poses a significant threat to computer users and can occur when there is an
electrical fault or unsafe handling of electrical equipment. If computer users suffer any electric
shock, either through exposed wires or power surges, they might die or suffer from a related
health hazard. Power surges may also cause electrical malfunctioning and shocks can lead to
electrocution, fire, loss of important data, and damage to the computer.

6. Online Tracking
Online tracking refers to the collection of data about users' online behavior, which includes
their preferences, login information, browsing history, location data, and social media
activities, amongst others as they use the internet. This data is collected by third-party
companies who use it for personalization of content and services, targeted advertising, and
analytics purposes. These companies use tracking technologies such as cookies, web beacons,
browser fingerprinting, and tracking pixels to monitor and collect enormous amounts of data
on online users. These tracking technologies are also used to track a user's activities across
multiple websites. While online tracking can be used for legitimate purposes, such as
improving user experience or monitoring website performance, it has also raised concerns
about privacy and security. Users may feel uncomfortable with their online activities being
monitored and used for advertising purposes without their explicit consent. In response to
these concerns, some web browsers and online services now offer features that block or limit
online tracking, such as "Do Not Track" settings and ad blockers.
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7. Repetitive Strain Injury

Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) is the name given to injuries that result from fast repetitive work
such as typing. Repetitive Strain Injury is a more general term that can affect various parts of
the body, including the hands, wrists, arms, shoulders, neck, and back. Carpal tunnel syndrome
specifically affects the wrist and hand. Poor wrist and hand posture, such as excessive bending
or resting on hard surfaces while typing or using a mouse, can contribute to carpal tunnel
syndrome. This condition causes numbness, tingling, and weakness in the hand and fingers
due to compression of the median nerve in the wrist.

8. Phishing
Phishing is a prevalent and dangerous threat to computer users that involves the use of
fraudulent tactics to deceive individuals into revealing sensitive information, such as login
credentials, credit card details, or personal data. Phishing attacks typically occur through
various channels, including email, instant messaging, social media, or fake websites. This is
usually done by sending electronic mail purporting to come from reliable sources such as
banks or insurance companies. Often wanting you to verify your account details.

9. Identity Theft
Identity theft involves the unauthorized acquisition and use of someone's personal
information for fraudulent purposes. Identity theft is a form of stealing someone’s identity and
pretending to be the person in order to access resources and other benefits in the victim’s
name. It occurs when cybercriminals gain access to sensitive data, such as social security
numbers, credit card information, passwords, or other personally identifiable information, to
impersonate individuals or carry out fraudulent activities. Identity theft may include credit
card number theft and ATM spoofing.

10.Internet Fraud
Internet fraud, also known as online fraud, refers to various deceptive activities conducted
over the Internet with the intention of obtaining financial gain or personal information from
unsuspecting computer users. Internet fraud is also used to conduct fraudulent transactions or
to transmit the proceeds of fraud to financial institutions or to others connected with the
same scheme. In Ghana, internet fraud is often known as “419”, “Yahoo”, or “sakawa”.

11.Digital Addictions
Digital addiction, also known as technology addiction or internet addiction, refers to excessive
and compulsive use of digital devices and online activities, leading to negative effects on one's
physical, mental, and social well-being. It involves a loss of control over technology use and an
increasing dependency on digital platforms or devices.

Electronic addictions didn’t exist until about 20 years ago: texting, tweeting, surfing the web,
online shopping, and gambling. These digital products are engineered to be addictive, using
flashing lights, celebratory sounds, and “likes” to promise ever-greater rewards just a click
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away. People who spend more time on social media are more depressed than those who
spend less time on social media. Almost everyone has a digital drug of choice, and it will
probably involve using a smartphone.

In a 2012 study, Harvard research scientist reported that talking about oneself through social
media activities releases a pleasure sensation in the brain usually associated with food,
money, and sex. Dopamine, a chemical produced in the brain that functions as a
neurotransmitter, is associated with feelings of pleasure and reward. Dopamine is the
chemical we feel when we smoke, drink, and gamble. It is highly addictive. There are age
restrictions for smoking, drinking alcohol, and gambling but there are no age restrictions for
the usage of social media and cell phones which is equivalent to opening a liquor store and
allowing kids to patronize its products.

Digital addiction can contribute to mental health problems, including anxiety, depression,
irritability, insomnia, dysphoria, loneliness, social isolation, low self-esteem, and poor impulse
control. Signs of digital addiction include preoccupation with online activities, loss of track of
time while using technology, neglecting personal relationships or work/school obligations,
withdrawal symptoms when not using digital devices, and unsuccessful attempts to control or
reduce technology use. It can strain personal relationships, as individuals may prioritize online
activities over face-to-face interactions. It can also lead to social withdrawal, decreased social
skills, and difficulty in forming and maintaining meaningful connections.

Moreover, digital addictions can decrease focus, attention, and motivation, leading to poor
grades or performance evaluations, and eventually have a negative impact on academic
performance and work productivity.

Treatment approaches for digital addictions may involve cognitive-behavioural therapy,

support groups, and developing healthy digital habits. Prevention strategies include setting
limits on screen time, promoting offline activities, fostering face-to-face interactions, and
promoting digital literacy and responsible technology use.

RESPONSIBLE USE OF COMPUTERS

Responsible use of computers involves adopting rules, practices, and a sense of responsibility
that prioritize safety, security, productivity, and ethical considerations in order to achieve the
necessary security and efficiency of computer usage.

1. Computer Ethics
Ethics refers to moral rules, standards, or principles of behavior for deciding what is right and
wrong, in relation to the conduct and dealings of an individual with others. Computer ethics,
therefore, refers to the moral principles, rules, and standards that govern the use of
computers and technology. It involves considering the ethical implications of computer-related
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activities, decisions, and behaviors. Computer ethics addresses issues such as privacy, security,
intellectual property, access to information, and the social impact of technology.

2. Copyright
Copyright is a legal framework that grants exclusive rights to creators of original works, such as
literary, artistic, musical, and dramatic works, as well as computer software, films, and other
creative expressions. It provides creators with the right to control the use, distribution,
reproduction, and adaptation of their works, allowing them to benefit financially from their
creations. Copyright protection typically lasts for a specific duration, which varies depending
on the jurisdiction and the type of work. In most countries, copyright protection extends for
the lifetime of the author plus a certain number of years after their death. Once the copyright
term expires, the work enters the public domain, meaning it can be freely used by anyone
without permission or payment.

In Ghana, copyright law is governed by the Copyright Act of 2005 (Act 690), which provides
legal protection for original works and grants exclusive rights to copyright owners. The
duration of copyright protection in Ghana varies depending on the type of work:

Type Of Work Duration

Literary, Artistic, and Musical Works Copyright protection lasts for the life of the author
plus 70 years after their death.
Cinematographic Films Copyright protection for films lasts for 70 years from
the end of the calendar year in which the last of the
following individuals dies: the principal director, the
author of the screenplay, the author of the dialogue,
or the composer of music specifically created for the
film.
Sound Recordings and Broadcasts Copyright protection for sound recordings and
broadcasts lasts for 50 years from the end of the
calendar year in which the recording or broadcast
was first made.

3. Piracy
Piracy generally refers to the unauthorized reproduction, distribution, or use of copyrighted
material, such as movies, music, software, or books, without the permission of the copyright
holder. It involves obtaining or sharing copyrighted content without the permission of the
copyright holder or without legally acquiring the appropriate licenses. People who share files
(i.e. music and video) on their phones with other people via Bluetooth, Infrared, or any other
wired or wireless means are guilty of piracy. Piracy is a punishable offense under the Copyright
Act (2005), Act 690. Some types of piracy include:
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a. Softlifting: Also called softloading refers to the unauthorized sharing or use of software,
typically through actions such as installing a licensed software program on multiple
computers without the appropriate number of licenses or sharing software installation
disks or download links with others. For instance, when someone borrows and installs a
copy of a software application from a colleague whiles the license agreement does not
authorize the person to do so.

b. Client-server overuse: Installing more copies of the software than you have licenses for.
For instance, when several people on a network install and use programs on a server the
license does not allow them to do so.

c. Hard-disk loading: This refers to the practice of installing unauthorized or pirated

software onto computers and selling them to customers without obtaining the proper
licenses or permissions from the software vendors.

d. Counterfeiting: Counterfeiting refers to the production, distribution, or sale of goods

(software) that imitate or replicate genuine products without authorization, often with
the intention to deceive consumers into believing they are purchasing the genuine item.
It involves creating counterfeit copies of software products with the intent to deceive
and defraud consumers into believing they are acquiring genuine software.

4. Privacy
Privacy refers to the right of individuals to control the collection, use, and disclosure of their
personal information. It involves the ability to keep certain aspects of one's life and personal
data confidential and protected from unauthorized access or misuse. Computer users should
take measures to protect the privacy of others and themselves. This includes obtaining
consent before accessing or sharing personal data, using secure methods of data transmission,
and implementing appropriate security measures to safeguard sensitive information.

5. Censorship
Censorship refers to the control, suppression, or restriction of information, ideas, online
content, or artistic expression by governments, organizations, or individuals. It involves the
deliberate and systematic suppression or manipulation of content considered objectionable,
harmful, sensitive, or inconvenient, often with the aim of influencing or controlling public
opinion, maintaining social order, or protecting specific interests. The internet is home to
disturbing and derogatory content such as sex, nudity, violence, and strong language.
However, children who are not mentally prepared may see or hear such materials are exposed
to them, therefore censorship aims to block access or the distribution of materials that have
adult content or are “X-rated”.
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6. Plagiarism
Plagiarism denotes the act of using someone else's work, ideas, or intellectual property
without proper citation, attribution, or permission and presenting it as one's own original
creation. It involves the copying or closely imitating of written, visual, or creative works,
including manuscripts, articles, journals, images, music, videos, research findings, and more,
without giving credit to the original source. Plagiarism is a form of intellectual theft, which is a
punishable offense.

Rules and Regulations for the Proper Use of Computer Laboratories

1. Foods and drinks are not allowed into the laboratory.
2. Do not use external storage devices without permission.
3. Do not tamper with or modify the computer hardware or software settings.
4. Use the computers and equipment for academic or research purposes only.
5. Respect the privacy and personal space of other users.
6. Keep the computer workstation and surrounding area clean and tidy.
7. Comply with copyright laws and refrain from unauthorized copying or distribution of
copyrighted materials.
8. Do not restart a computer without the support and advice from a lab assistant.
9. Log off after using a computer.
10. Do not watch movies or view pornographic sites.
11. Save documents as often as possible.
12. Do not play around in the laboratory.
13. Do not access or attempt to access unauthorized websites or restricted content.
14. Report any technical issues or equipment malfunctions to the designated staff.
15. Follow any additional rules or instructions provided by the computer lab staff.