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Subject Specialist Mathematics BPS 17 Interview Questions

1 Define Zero

Zero is a numerical value that represents the absence or null quantity of

something. It is the integer that comes after -1 and before 1 on the number line.
In mathematics, zero serves as the point of origin for both positive and negative
numbers, and it plays a crucial role in various arithmetic operations, algebraic
equations, and scientific calculations.

Zero is also used as a placeholder in positional numeral systems, enabling us to

represent numbers using a combination of digits (such as 0, 1, 2, ..., 9) and place
values (ones, tens, hundreds, etc.). This system allows us to represent a wide
range of numbers using a finite set of symbols.

In addition to its mathematical significance, zero has historical and cultural

importance. It has been independently discovered in different cultures and
civilizations and has played a fundamental role in the development of
mathematics, astronomy, and other scientific fields.

2. Define Geometry

Geometry is a branch of mathematics that deals with the study of shapes, sizes,
properties, and the spatial relationships between objects. It explores the
fundamental concepts related to points, lines, angles, surfaces, and solids.
Geometry has been a foundational field of mathematics for centuries and has
applications in various scientific, engineering, and artistic disciplines.

Key concepts in geometry include:

1. Points: Basic, undefined elements that have location but no size or dimension.
2. Lines: Straight paths that extend infinitely in both directions. They are composed
of an infinite number of points.
3. Angles: The measure of the amount of rotation between two rays that share a
common endpoint, called the vertex.
4. Polygons: Closed figures made up of straight line segments connected end-to-
end. Common polygons include triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, hexagons,
etc.
5. Circles: A round, two-dimensional figure in which all points on the boundary are
equidistant from the center.
6. Solid Figures: Three-dimensional shapes that have length, width, and height.
Examples include cubes, cylinders, spheres, and pyramids.
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7. Coordinate Geometry: The study of geometry using coordinates and algebraic

equations to describe geometric shapes and relationships.
8. Transformations: Operations that move, rotate, or reflect geometric figures
while preserving their basic properties.
9. Euclidean Geometry: The classical geometry developed by Euclid, focusing on
properties of points, lines, angles, and their relationships.
10. Non-Euclidean Geometry: Geometries that deviate from the axioms of Euclidean
geometry, leading to different notions of parallel lines and angles. Examples
include hyperbolic and elliptic geometries.

Geometry has applications in various fields, including architecture, engineering,

computer graphics, physics, astronomy, and art. It provides tools for measuring
and analyzing space, designing structures, modeling physical phenomena, and
much more. The development of geometry has played a significant role in
shaping our understanding of the physical world and has paved the way for
advances in numerous scientific disciplines.

3. What is probability and its range ?

Probability is a concept in mathematics and statistics that measures the likelihood

or chance of an event occurring. It quantifies uncertainty and provides a way to
express our degree of belief in the occurrence of different outcomes. Probability
is often expressed as a value between 0 and 1, where 0 represents an impossible
event and 1 represents a certain event. The range of probability values is
therefore [0, 1].

Here's a breakdown of the probability scale and its interpretation:

 0: A probability of 0 indicates that the event is impossible and cannot occur.

 Between 0 and 1: Any value between 0 and 1 indicates the likelihood of an event
occurring. The closer the probability is to 0, the less likely the event is, and the
closer it is to 1, the more likely the event is.
 1: A probability of 1 indicates that the event is certain to occur.

Probability can also be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the probability

value by 100. For example, a probability of 0.25 is equivalent to 25%.

In mathematical terms, the probability of an event "A" is denoted as "P(A)" and is

calculated by dividing the number of favorable outcomes by the total number of
possible outcomes in a given situation.
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Probability is a fundamental concept in statistics and is widely used in various

fields, including science, economics, engineering, and everyday decision-making.
It provides a framework for dealing with uncertainty and making informed
choices based on available information.
4. What is Newton Raphson method ?

The Newton-Raphson method, often simply referred to as the Newton method, is

an iterative numerical technique used to find approximate solutions to equations,
particularly when finding the roots of real-valued functions. It's a powerful
method for finding roots of equations but requires an initial guess close to the
actual root for convergence.

The method is named after Isaac Newton and Joseph Raphson, both of whom
contributed to its development. The basic idea behind the Newton-Raphson
method is to start with an initial guess for a root of a function and then iteratively
refine that guess by using the tangent line to the function at that point.

Here's a general outline of the Newton-Raphson method:

1. Start with an initial guess "x₀" for the root of the function.
2. Calculate the value of the function and its derivative at that point: "f(x₀)" and
"f'(x₀)".
3. Use the formula:
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x₁ = x₀ - f(x₀) / f'(x₀)
This calculates the next approximation, "x₁", by moving along the tangent line to
the function at "x₀" until it intersects the x-axis.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 with the newly calculated approximation, obtaining "x₂",
then "x₃", and so on, until the sequence of approximations starts to converge to
the actual root.

The Newton-Raphson method is known for its fast convergence, but it's
important to note that its success depends on the initial guess and the properties
of the function. If the initial guess is too far from the actual root or if the function
has certain characteristics that cause the method to diverge, it might not yield
accurate results.

Despite its limitations, the Newton-Raphson method is widely used in various

fields, including mathematics, engineering, physics, and finance, for solving
equations and finding numerical solutions to problems involving root-finding.

5. What is convex function ?

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A convex function is a mathematical function that satisfies a specific condition

related to its curvature. Intuitively, a convex function is one where any chord (line
segment) connecting two points on the graph of the function lies above the
graph, or in other words, the function "curves upward" or does not "bend inward"
between its points.

More formally, a function "f(x)" defined on an interval "I" is considered convex if,
for any two points "x₁" and "x₂" within the interval "I" and for any value "λ"
between 0 and 1, the following inequality holds:

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f (λx₁ + ( 1 - λ)x₂) ≤ λ f (x₁) + ( 1 - λ) f (x₂)

In simpler terms, this inequality states that the value of the function at the
midpoint of the line segment connecting "x₁" and "x₂" must be less than or equal
to the weighted average of the function values at "x₁" and "x₂", where the weights
are determined by "λ" and "1 - λ".

Visually, this means that the graph of a convex function lies below any secant line
(line connecting two points on the graph) within the interval of interest.

Convex functions have several important properties:

1. Uniqueness of Global Minimum: If a convex function has a minimum, it is

guaranteed to be a global minimum. In other words, there's only one lowest
point on the graph.
2. No Local Minima: Convex functions do not have local minima other than the
global minimum. This property is beneficial for optimization problems.
3. Convexity Preserved by Composition: The composition of a convex function
with an affine function (a linear function plus a constant) is also convex.
4. Second Derivative Test: For twice-differentiable functions, convexity is related to
the positivity of the second derivative. A function is convex if and only if its
second derivative is non-negative within the interval of interest.

Convex functions have applications in various fields, including optimization,

economics, engineering, and statistics. In optimization problems, convexity often
simplifies the search for optimal solutions and ensures that global optima can be
found efficiently.

6 Who was Pythagorus , what was his ERA ?

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Pythagoras (circa 570–495 BCE) was an ancient Greek mathematician,

philosopher, and founder of the Pythagorean school of thought. He is best
known for the Pythagorean theorem, a fundamental theorem in geometry that
relates the sides of a right triangle. According to legend, Pythagoras and his
followers made significant contributions to mathematics, philosophy, and music
theory.

The Pythagorean theorem states that in a right triangle, the square of the length
of the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the
squares of the lengths of the other two sides. In mathematical terms, it can be
expressed as:

a² + b² = c²

Where "a" and "b" are the lengths of the triangle's legs, and "c" is the length of
the hypotenuse.

Regarding his era, Pythagoras lived during a time often referred to as the
"Classical Greek Era" or the "Ancient Greek Era." This era spanned from around
the 8th century BCE to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE. Pythagoras'
activities and contributions occurred during this time, particularly in the 6th and
5th centuries BCE. He was born on the island of Samos in the Aegean Sea and
later established a community in Croton (in present-day Italy) that focused on
mathematical and philosophical pursuits.

It's important to note that historical records from this era are sometimes limited
and may contain myths and legends, making it challenging to precisely
determine Pythagoras' life and accomplishments. Nevertheless, his work and
ideas have had a profound and lasting impact on mathematics, philosophy, and
the development of Western thought.

7 What is spline theory

Spline theory is a mathematical and computational approach used in various

fields to represent smooth curves or surfaces by using a piecewise polynomial
function. Splines are particularly useful for approximating complex shapes and
functions with a combination of simpler polynomial segments.

The basic idea behind spline theory is to divide a given interval into smaller
subintervals and then construct polynomial functions, called spline segments,
over each subinterval. These polynomial segments are carefully chosen to ensure
continuity and smoothness at the points where they connect.
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There are different types of splines, each with its own characteristics and
applications:

1. Piecewise Linear Spline: Also known as linear interpolation, this simplest form of
spline uses straight line segments to connect data points.
2. Cubic Spline: The most common type of spline used, cubic splines use cubic
polynomials to connect data points. Cubic splines ensure continuity of the first
and second derivatives, providing smooth curves that often pass through given
points.
3. B-spline: B-splines (basis splines) are a more flexible type of spline that allow for
local control over the shape of the curve. They are composed of polynomial
segments defined by basis functions and are often used in computer-aided
design (CAD) and computer graphics.
4. NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B-spline): NURBS are an extension of B-splines
that incorporate weights and non-uniform knot vectors, offering even greater
flexibility in representing complex curves and surfaces. They are widely used in
computer graphics, animation, and industrial design.
5. Bezier Curve: While not strictly a spline, Bezier curves are closely related and
widely used in computer graphics and design. They are defined by control points
and have a simple geometric interpretation.

Spline theory finds applications in various fields, including computer graphics,

computer-aided design, image processing, animation, geographic information
systems, and more. It provides a mathematical framework for creating smooth
and aesthetically pleasing curves and surfaces that can accurately approximate
complex shapes and data.

8. Branches of mathematics ?

Mathematics is a vast field with numerous branches, each focusing on specific

areas of study and applications. Here are some major branches of mathematics:

1. Arithmetic: The most basic branch of mathematics, dealing with basic operations
like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
2. Algebra: Involves the study of symbols and the rules for manipulating them. It
includes concepts like equations, polynomials, and linear algebra.
3. Geometry: Concerned with the properties and relationships of shapes, sizes,
angles, and spaces. It includes Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries.
4. Trigonometry: Deals with the relationships between the angles and sides of
triangles, often used in calculations involving triangles and periodic functions.
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5. Calculus: Focuses on rates of change and accumulation. Differential calculus

deals with derivatives and rates of change, while integral calculus deals with
integrals and areas under curves.
6. Statistics: Involves collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting data. It
includes probability theory, data analysis, and statistical inference.
7. Probability Theory: Studies uncertainty and randomness, providing a framework
to model and analyze uncertain events.
8. Number Theory: Explores the properties and relationships of integers and their
fundamental properties. It includes topics like prime numbers and divisibility.
9. Linear Algebra: Focuses on vector spaces, linear transformations, and matrices. It
has applications in various fields, including physics, computer graphics, and
engineering.
10. Abstract Algebra: Studies algebraic structures like groups, rings, and fields, often
focusing on properties that hold regardless of specific numbers.
11. Differential Equations: Deals with equations involving derivatives. It's used to
model many physical and real-world phenomena.
12. Topology: Focuses on the properties of space that are preserved under
continuous deformations. It deals with concepts like continuity, convergence, and
compactness.
13. Mathematical Logic: Studies formal systems and the principles of reasoning. It's
used in foundational studies of mathematics and computer science.
14. Discrete Mathematics: Covers topics with distinct, separate values, including
graph theory, combinatorics, and discrete structures.
15. Numerical Analysis: Involves developing algorithms and methods for solving
mathematical problems using numerical approximations.
16. Mathematical Physics: Applies mathematical techniques to problems in physics,
often involving complex mathematical modeling.
17. Applied Mathematics: Involves using mathematical methods and techniques to
solve real-world problems in various scientific, engineering, and practical
domains.

These are just a few of the many branches of mathematics. Many of these
branches have further subfields, and mathematics as a whole continues to evolve
and expand with new areas of study and interdisciplinary applications.

9 what is newtonian polynomial

ChatGPT
A Newtonian polynomial, also known as a Newton polynomial, is a type of interpolation
polynomial used in numerical analysis and approximation. It's named after Sir Isaac Newton,
who developed the interpolation method upon which these polynomials are based.
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The Newtonian polynomial is used to approximate a function or a set of data points with a
polynomial that passes through those points. It's particularly useful when you have a set of
data points and you want to find a polynomial that closely fits those points, allowing you to
estimate the function's values at other points within the data range.

The general form of a Newtonian polynomial is given by:

P(x) = f[x₀] + f[x₀, x₁](x - x₀) + f[x₀, x₁, x₂](x - x₀)(x - x₁) + ... + f[x₀, x₁, ..., x ₙ](x - x₀)(x - x₁)...(x -
xₙ₋₁)

Here:

 "P(x)" is the Newtonian polynomial.

 "x₀, x₁, ..., xₙ" are the data points at which the function's values are known.
 "f[x₀], f[x₀, x₁], ..., f[x₀, x₁, ..., xₙ]" are divided difference coefficients, which are calculated
recursively based on the given data points and function values.

The divided differences are defined recursively as follows:

 f[xᵢ] = f(xᵢ) (the function values at the data points)

 f[xᵢ, xᵢ₊₁] = (f[xᵢ₊₁] - f[xᵢ]) / (xᵢ₊₁ - xᵢ)
 f[xᵢ, xᵢ₊₁, ..., xⱼ] = (f[xᵢ₊₁, xᵢ₊₂, ..., xⱼ] - f[xᵢ, xᵢ₊₁, ..., x ⱼ₋₁]) / (x ⱼ - xᵢ)

Newtonian polynomials are a flexible way to approximate functions using polynomial

interpolation, and they have applications in areas such as numerical analysis, numerical
integration, and solving differential equations numerically. However, they can suffer from
issues like Runge's phenomenon, where higher-degree Newtonian polynomials can exhibit
oscillatory behavior between data points, leading to poor approximation in some cases.

10 what is langrage polynomial

ChatGPT
A Lagrange polynomial, also known as a Lagrange interpolating polynomial, is a specific type
of interpolation polynomial used to approximate a function based on a set of data points.
Like the Newtonian polynomial, the Lagrange polynomial is used for interpolation, which
involves finding a polynomial that passes through a given set of data points. The Lagrange
polynomial is named after the French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange.

The Lagrange polynomial is particularly useful for constructing a single polynomial that fits a
set of data points without the need for complex divided difference calculations. It's defined
as a weighted sum of basis polynomials, where each basis polynomial is designed to be 1 at
a specific data point and 0 at all other data points.

Given a set of "n + 1" distinct data points (x₀, y₀), (x₁, y₁), ..., (x ₙ, y ₙ), the Lagrange polynomial
"P(x)" is defined as:
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P(x) = Σ [ yᵢ * ℓᵢ(x) ]

Where "ℓᵢ(x)" is the "i"-th Lagrange basis polynomial:

ℓᵢ(x) = Π [(x - xⱼ) / (xᵢ - xⱼ)], for j ≠ i

In this formula:

 "x" is the variable for which you want to compute the value of the polynomial.
 "yᵢ" are the function values at the data points.
 "xᵢ" are the x-coordinates of the data points.

The Lagrange polynomial passes through all the data points and is designed to produce the
value "yᵢ" when evaluated at "xᵢ," making it a perfect fit for the given data.

While the Lagrange polynomial is conceptually straightforward and doesn't require complex
calculations, it can still be susceptible to numerical issues, especially when dealing with a
large number of data points or high-degree polynomials. Despite its limitations, the
Lagrange polynomial remains a valuable tool for polynomial interpolation and can be a good
choice in simpler cases.

11 define mathematics

ChatGPT
Mathematics is a systematic and abstract field of knowledge that involves the study of
numbers, quantities, structures, patterns, and relationships. It encompasses a wide range of
concepts, techniques, and methods for understanding and exploring the fundamental
properties of the universe through logical reasoning and deductive processes.

At its core, mathematics seeks to describe and explain the patterns and relationships that
exist in various natural, abstract, and social phenomena. It involves precise definitions,
axioms, and rules of logic that form the foundation for constructing logical arguments and
proofs.

Key aspects of mathematics include:

1. Number Theory: The study of the properties and relationships of numbers, including
integers, fractions, real numbers, and complex numbers.
2. Algebra: Involves using symbols and letters to represent numbers and quantities,
manipulating equations, and solving mathematical problems.
3. Geometry: Explores the properties of shapes, sizes, angles, and spatial relationships.
4. Calculus: Focuses on rates of change and accumulation, used for modeling and analyzing
continuous processes.
5. Statistics: Involves collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting data to make informed
decisions and draw conclusions.
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6. Probability: Studies uncertainty and randomness, providing a framework to model and

analyze uncertain events.
7. Logic: Examines the principles of valid reasoning, inference, and argumentation.
8. Applied Mathematics: Involves using mathematical tools and techniques to solve real-world
problems in various scientific, engineering, and practical domains.
9. Abstract Mathematics: Focuses on studying mathematical structures and concepts without
necessarily tying them to specific applications.

Mathematics has a profound impact on nearly every aspect of human life, from science and
engineering to economics, technology, and even art. It provides a universal language for
expressing ideas and relationships that is consistent across cultures and disciplines.
Mathematics plays a crucial role in advancing our understanding of the physical world,
developing new technologies, and solving complex problems.

12 difference between trigonometry and geometry

ChatGPT
Trigonometry and geometry are both branches of mathematics that deal with different
aspects of shapes, angles, and spatial relationships. However, they focus on distinct concepts
and have different areas of emphasis. Here are the key differences between trigonometry and
geometry:

Trigonometry:

1. Focus:
 Trigonometry primarily deals with the relationships between angles and sides of
triangles.
 It's concerned with the study of trigonometric functions like sine, cosine, tangent, and
their inverses.
2. Angles and Ratios:
 Trigonometry heavily relies on the measurement of angles and the ratios of sides in
right triangles.
 It's often used to calculate distances, heights, angles of elevation and depression, and
other applications involving triangles.
3. Circular Functions:
 Trigonometric functions have applications in circular motion, waves, and periodic
phenomena.
 They describe oscillatory behaviors and are used in physics, engineering, and other
fields.
4. Trigonometric Identities:
 Trigonometry involves proving and using trigonometric identities to simplify
expressions and solve equations.

Geometry:

1. Focus:
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 Geometry studies the properties, shapes, and spatial relationships of points, lines,
angles, and figures.
 It includes concepts related to lengths, areas, volumes, and transformations.
2. Figures and Proofs:
 Geometry deals with various types of shapes, including polygons, circles, lines, and
solids.
 It emphasizes proofs and logical deductions to establish theorems and properties.
3. Geometric Constructions:
 Geometry involves geometric constructions using tools like compass and
straightedge to create specific shapes or angles.
4. Parallel and Perpendicular Lines:
 Geometry explores concepts related to parallel lines, perpendicular lines, and their
intersections, leading to the study of angles and transversals.
5. Coordinate Geometry:
 Geometry can be extended to coordinate geometry, where algebraic methods are
combined with geometric concepts to analyze figures and relationships.

In summary, trigonometry is more focused on angles and the relationships between sides
and angles of triangles, while geometry encompasses a broader range of spatial concepts,
including shapes, figures, angles, and their properties. Despite their differences, both
trigonometry and geometry play essential roles in various scientific, engineering, and
practical applications.

13 existance of ALLAH by mathematics

ChatGPT
The question of the existence of Allah, or God, is a matter of faith, philosophy, and belief that
goes beyond the scope of mathematical analysis. Mathematics is a formal system of logic
and reasoning that deals with abstract concepts, quantities, and relationships. It is a tool for
understanding and describing the physical world and various phenomena, but it is not
equipped to provide answers to questions of spirituality, metaphysics, or the existence of a
divine being.

Belief in the existence of Allah is often a deeply personal and subjective matter, influenced by
religious, cultural, philosophical, and experiential factors. It falls within the realm of theology,
philosophy, and individual conviction, rather than mathematical proof.

Mathematics can help us analyze certain logical arguments and philosophical ideas, but it
cannot definitively prove or disprove the existence of a higher power. Different individuals
and belief systems approach the question of the existence of Allah through a variety of
lenses, and these perspectives are often deeply rooted in the context of religious teachings,
cultural backgrounds, and personal experiences.

14 what are vectors in mathematics ?

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In mathematics, vectors are fundamental objects used to represent quantities

that have both magnitude and direction. Vectors are an essential concept in
various mathematical disciplines, as well as in physics, engineering, computer
graphics, and many other fields where quantities such as displacement, velocity,
force, and more need to be described with both size and direction.

Here are the key characteristics and properties of vectors:

1. Magnitude: The magnitude of a vector represents its length or size. It is a non-

negative scalar value that quantifies the extent of the quantity being measured.
2. Direction: The direction of a vector indicates the orientation or angle at which
the quantity is pointed or aligned. Direction is often represented using angles or
unit vectors.
3. Representation: Vectors can be represented in various ways, including
geometrically using arrows, algebraically using coordinates, or symbolically using
variables with appropriate subscripts.
4. Components: In three-dimensional space, vectors can be described by their
components along the coordinate axes. For example, in a 3D Cartesian
coordinate system, a vector "v" can be represented as "v = (vₓ, vᵧ, vₓ)".
5. Operations: Vector operations include addition, subtraction, scalar multiplication
(multiplying a vector by a scalar), and the dot product (also known as the scalar
product) and cross product. These operations obey specific rules and properties.
6. Unit Vector: A unit vector has a magnitude of 1 and is often used to represent
the direction of a vector without changing its scale.
7. Normalization: Normalizing a vector involves dividing it by its magnitude to
obtain a unit vector pointing in the same direction.
8. Vector Space: Vectors form a vector space, which is a mathematical structure
where vectors can be added together and multiplied by scalars, satisfying specific
axioms.
9. Linear Independence: Vectors are linearly independent if none of them can be
represented as a linear combination of the others. Linear dependence occurs
when one vector can be expressed as a linear combination of the others.
10. Applications: Vectors have applications in physics (describing forces, velocities,
accelerations), engineering (modeling quantities like electrical currents, forces in
structures), computer graphics (representing positions, orientations), and more.

Vectors play a critical role in describing and analyzing various physical and
mathematical phenomena, enabling us to understand and manipulate quantities
that possess both magnitude and direction.
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15 applications of different shapes in mathematics

ChatGPT
Shapes in mathematics have a wide range of applications across various fields. Different
shapes serve different purposes and are utilized for specific applications based on their
properties. Here are some applications of different shapes in mathematics:

1. Circles:
 Geometry: Circles are foundational shapes in geometry and trigonometry. They have
applications in calculating areas, circumferences, and angles in circular arcs.
 Engineering: Circles are used in the design of gears, wheels, pulleys, and other
rotating mechanical components.
 Physics: Circular motion is a fundamental concept in physics, with applications in
describing orbits of planets, satellites, and other celestial bodies.
2. Triangles:
 Trigonometry: Triangles are central to trigonometry, which deals with the
relationships between angles and sides. Trigonometric functions are applied in
diverse fields, including physics, engineering, and astronomy.
 Surveying: Triangles are used in land surveying to measure distances and angles
between points.
3. Rectangles and Squares:
 Geometry: These shapes are used in geometry to calculate areas, perimeters, and
volumes.
 Computer Graphics: Rectangles and squares are used as the basis for image
representation, computer screens, and pixel arrangement.
4. Polygons:
 Architecture and Engineering: Polygons are utilized in architectural design for
constructing buildings with specific shapes and angles.
 Geography: Polygons are employed to define geographical regions and study the
properties of land areas.
5. Cylinders:
 Engineering: Cylinders are important for designing pipes, containers, and pressure
vessels in various industries.
 Physics: Cylindrical coordinates are used to describe certain physical systems, such as
those with cylindrical symmetry.
6. Spheres:
 Astronomy: Spherical geometry is used in astronomy to describe the celestial
sphere, constellations, and celestial coordinates.
 Geography: Spheres are relevant for modeling the Earth's surface and its properties.
7. Cones:
 Geometry: Cones are used in geometry to calculate surface areas, volumes, and
angles.
 Physics: Conical shapes are found in objects like cones and megaphones, where
sound waves are focused.
8. Pyramids:
 Architecture: Pyramids are iconic architectural structures and have applications in
design and engineering.
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 Geometry: Pyramids are used in geometry to calculate surface areas, volumes, and
angles.
9. Ellipses:
 Astronomy: Elliptical orbits are common in celestial mechanics, describing the paths
of planets, comets, and other objects in space.
 Engineering: Ellipses are used in antenna design for signal reception and
transmission.

These applications showcase how different shapes are not only abstract concepts in
mathematics but also practical tools for solving real-world problems in various disciplines.
Shapes provide a means of modeling and understanding the physical world and its
properties.

16 how to introduce ourself in interview

ChatGPT
Introducing yourself in a job interview is crucial, as it sets the tone for the conversation and
provides the interviewer with initial information about you. Here's a step-by-step guide on
how to effectively introduce yourself in an interview:

1. Greet and Smile: Begin with a friendly greeting and a genuine smile. This helps create a
positive first impression.
2. State Your Full Name: Start by stating your full name clearly and confidently.
3. Mention Your Background: Briefly mention your educational background and any relevant
qualifications or degrees you hold.
4. Professional Tagline: If you have a professional tagline or a concise summary of your
expertise, you can include it. For example, "I'm a marketing professional with a focus on
digital strategy."
5. Work Experience: Highlight your relevant work experience, especially if it aligns with the
position you're applying for. Mention the number of years you've been working in your field.
6. Key Skills: Share a few key skills or strengths that are relevant to the job. This helps the
interviewer understand how you can contribute to the organization.
7. Achievements: Mention any notable achievements or projects that showcase your
capabilities. This can help you stand out from other candidates.
8. Passion and Motivation: Briefly explain why you're interested in the company and the role.
Highlight what excites you about the opportunity.
9. Personality Traits: Mention a couple of positive personality traits that make you a good fit
for the company culture and the role.
10. Thank Them: Express gratitude for the opportunity to interview and convey your enthusiasm
for the discussion.

Here's an example of how you might introduce yourself:

"Good [morning/afternoon], my name is [Your Name]. I hold a [Your Degree] in [Your Major]
from [University Name]. I have over [Number of Years] years of experience in [Your Field],
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where I've developed a strong expertise in [Key Skill 1], [Key Skill 2], and [Key Skill 3]. I'm
particularly proud of [mention a specific achievement or project]. I'm excited about the
opportunity to join [Company Name] and contribute my skills to [specific aspect of the
company]. With my [positive personality trait] and [another positive personality trait], I
believe I'll be a great fit for the team. Thank you for considering me for this interview."

Remember to adapt your introduction to the specific job and company you're interviewing
with. Keep it concise, confident, and positive while showcasing your relevant qualifications
and enthusiasm for the role.

What is geometry ?
Geometry is a branch of mathematics that focuses on the study of shapes, sizes, properties,
and spatial relationships of objects in space. It deals with the properties and dimensions of
points, lines, angles, surfaces, and solids. Geometry plays a fundamental role in
understanding the physical world, as it helps us describe and analyze the relationships
between objects and their positions.

There are different branches of geometry, each with its own focus:

1. Euclidean Geometry: This is the most familiar form of geometry, often referred to as "flat" or
"classical" geometry. It deals with the properties of objects in two-dimensional and three-
dimensional space according to the principles established by the ancient Greek
mathematician Euclid.
2. Analytic Geometry: Also known as coordinate geometry, this branch combines algebra and
geometry. It involves representing geometric objects using algebraic equations and
coordinates, making it possible to study their properties using algebraic techniques.
3. Differential Geometry: This branch involves the study of curves, surfaces, and other objects
using techniques from calculus. It explores concepts like curvature, tangent spaces, and
differentiable functions on smooth manifolds.
4. Topology: Topology is concerned with the properties of space that are preserved under
continuous deformations, such as stretching and bending, but not tearing or gluing. It
focuses on the study of concepts like continuity, convergence, and connectivity.
5. Non-Euclidean Geometry: This branch explores geometries that deviate from the traditional
Euclidean principles. Examples include hyperbolic and elliptic geometries, where the parallel
postulate of Euclid does not hold true, leading to different geometric properties.
6. Projective Geometry: Projective geometry studies properties that are invariant under
perspective transformations. It deals with properties that remain the same regardless of the
way objects are projected onto a flat surface.

Geometry has practical applications in various fields, including architecture, engineering,

computer graphics, computer-aided design (CAD), physics, and more. It's also a fundamental
part of mathematical education, helping to develop spatial reasoning skills and logical
thinking.

father of geometry
 16

The ancient Greek mathematician Euclid is often referred to as the "father of geometry." He is
famous for his work "Elements," a comprehensive compilation of the knowledge and theories
of geometry available in his time. Euclid's "Elements" consists of thirteen books and covers a
wide range of geometric topics, from basic concepts of points, lines, and angles to more
complex theorems about polygons, circles, and solids.

Euclid's systematic approach to presenting geometry as a series of logical propositions and

proofs had a profound impact on the development of mathematics and education. His work
laid the foundation for Euclidean geometry, which remained the primary system of geometry
for many centuries.

It's important to note that while Euclid is often credited with formalizing many geometric
concepts, the ideas and principles he presented were likely built upon the contributions of
earlier mathematicians from various cultures, including ancient Egyptians and Babylonians.

What is algebra
Algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with symbols and the rules for manipulating
these symbols to solve equations and study relationships between variables. It's a powerful
tool for solving mathematical problems and describing real-world situations.

In algebra, numbers are often represented using letters (variables), and equations are used to
express relationships between these variables. These equations can involve various
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponentiation.

Algebraic concepts include:

1. Expressions: These are combinations of numbers, variables, and operations. For example, "2x
+ 3y" is an algebraic expression where "x" and "y" are variables.
2. Equations: Equations are statements that two expressions are equal. They often involve
solving for a variable. For instance, "3x + 5 = 11" is an equation that can be solved to find the
value of "x."
3. Inequalities: These are statements that indicate a relationship between two expressions that
might not be equal. For example, "2x > 8" is an inequality.
4. Polynomials: These are expressions that involve variables raised to non-negative integer
powers, combined using operations. "3x^2 - 2x + 7" is an example of a polynomial.
5. Systems of Equations: These are sets of equations that share variables and need to be
solved simultaneously. They often represent real-world situations where multiple variables
are related.
6. Functions: Functions describe relationships between variables. Each input value (domain) is
associated with a unique output value (range). Functions are often represented using
equations.

Algebra is fundamental in various fields such as physics, engineering, economics, computer

science, and more. It provides a way to model and analyze complex situations, solve
problems, and make predictions. As you progress in algebra, you'll encounter more advanced
 17

topics such as quadratic equations, matrices, linear transformations, and abstract algebra,
which deal with more complex structures and mathematical systems.

Father of algebra
The title of the "father of algebra" is often attributed to the Persian mathematician
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, who lived during the 9th century. Al-Khwarizmi was a
scholar in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, an intellectual center of the Islamic world during
the Abbasid Caliphate.

Al-Khwarizmi's most significant contribution to algebra was his book "Kitab al-Mukhtasar fi
Hisab al-Jabr wal-Muqabala," which translates to "The Compendious Book on Calculation by
Completion and Balancing." In this work, he presented systematic methods for solving linear
and quadratic equations, laying the foundation for what we now call algebra.

The term "algebra" itself is derived from the Arabic word "al-jabr," which appears in the title
of al-Khwarizmi's book. "Al-jabr" refers to the process of moving terms from one side of an
equation to the other to solve for an unknown variable. This method of algebraic
manipulation and problem-solving has since become a fundamental part of algebraic
mathematics.

Al-Khwarizmi's contributions to mathematics extended beyond algebra. He also worked on

astronomy, geography, and trigonometry. His work was instrumental in preserving and
transmitting the mathematical knowledge of ancient civilizations while adding new insights
and techniques.

It's worth noting that while al-Khwarizmi is often referred to as the "father of algebra," the
development of algebraic ideas and techniques occurred over time and across cultures, with
contributions from mathematicians in ancient Greece, India, and other regions. Al-
Khwarizmi's work, however, played a pivotal role in shaping the algebraic foundation that is
widely recognized today.

Q. Which awards is best for mathematics internationally

Ans: The
Fields Medal is the most prestigious award for
mathematicians and has been awarded every four years since
1936 at the International Mathematical Congress to at least two
young mathematicians for their outstanding achievements.
 18

Q. Pakistan neighbouring countries ?

Pakistan shares its borders with four neighboring countries
– People's Republic of China, Afghanistan, India, and Iran while
Tajikistan is separated by the thin Wakhan Corridor– adding up
to about 7,307 km (4,540.4 mi) in length (excluding the coastal
areas).

Q Pakistan and china border name ?

The Khunjerab Pass

The Khunjerab Pass is the only modern day border crossing
between China and Pakistan, accessed via the Karakorum
Highway.

Q Who installed hajir aswad in khana kaba?

ANS:The Black Stone was given to Ibrahim from Jannah to be

placed on the corner of the Holy Kaaba. Abd Allah Ibn Abbas – a
cousin of Prophet Muhammad narrated that the Prophet said:
“The Black Stone came down from Paradise and it was whiter
than milk, but the sins of the sons of Adam turned it black

The list of the seven (actually, eight) wonders of the world includes the
following marvels:
 The Great Pyramid of Giza - Egypt (Given honorary status)
 The Great Wall of China - China.
 Petra - Jordan.
 Christ the Redeemer - Brazil.
 Machu Picchu - Peru.
 Chichen Itza - Mexico.
 Colosseum - Italy.
 19

 Taj Mahal - India.

Top Ten Most Populated Countries of the World

 India. 1,422,750,470. 18.09 %
 China. 1,425,830,081. 17.61 %
 United States. 335,903,903. 4.18 %
 Indonesia. 280,829,472. 3.50 %
 Pakistan. 231,731,196. 2.88 %
 Nigeria. 216,375,148. 2.72 %
 Brazil. 216,375,148. 2.73 %
 Bangladesh. 216,375,148. 2.11 %

Top 10 Largest Countries in the World (by total

area km²):
1. Russia — 17,098,250 km²
2. Canada — 9,879,750 km²
3. China — 9,600,013 km²
4. United States — 9,525,067 - 9,831,510 km²
5. Brazil — 8,515,770 km²
6. Australia — 7,741,220 km²
7. India — 3,287,260 km²
8. Argentina — 2,780,400 km²
9. Kazakhstan — 2,724,902 km²
10. Algeria — 2,381,741 km²

Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers,

formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are
contained, and quantities and their changes

Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers,

formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are
contained, and quantities and their changes

Archimedes Biography
 20

Father of Mathematics: Archimedes Biography
The famous Greek mathematician and
philosopher Archimedes is known as the Father of Mathematics.
The Archimedes' Principle, which bears the name of the famous
philosopher, is a topic of much study in physics, and you may
have heard of it previously.

The Size of the Kaba

The current height of the Kaba is 39 feet, 6 inches and total size comes to 627
square feet.

The inside room of the Kaba is 13X9 meters. The Kaba's walls are one meter
wide. The floor inside is 2.2 meters higher than the place where people perform
Tawaf.

The ceiling and roof are two levels made out of wood. They were reconstructed
with teak which is capped with stainless steel.

The walls are all made of stone. The stones inside are unpolished, while the ones
outside are polished.

This small building has been constructed and reconstructed by Prophets Adam,
Ibrahim, Ismail and Muhammad (peace be upon them all). No other building has
had this honor.

Yet, not very much is known about the details of this small but significant
building.

Did you know the Kaba was reconstructed as recently as close to four years ago?
 21

Did you know that the Kaba has been subjected to danger by natural disasters
like flooding, as well as human attacks?

If you didn't keep reading. You'll find some rarely heard of information discussed
below and discover facts about the Kaba many are unaware of.

The other names of the Kaba

Literally, Kaba in Arabic means a high place with respect and prestige. The word
Kaba may also be derivative of a word meaning a cube.

Some of these other names include:

Bait ul Ateeq-which means, according to one meaning, the earliest and ancient.
According to the second meaning, it means independent and liberating. Both
meanings could be taken

Bait ul Haram-the honorable house

The Kaba has been reconstructed up to 12 times

Scholars and historians say that the Kaba has been reconstructed between five
to 12 times.

The very first construction of the Kaba was done by Prophet Adam (peace be
upon him). Allah says in the Quran that this was the first house that was built for
humanity to worship Allah.

After this, Prophet Ibrahim and Ismail (peace be upon them) rebuilt the Kaba.
The measurements of the Kaba's Ibrahimic foundation are as follows:

-the eastern wall was 48 feet and 6 inches

-the Hateem side wall was 33 feet

-the side between the black stone and the Yemeni corner was 30 feet

-the Western side was 46.5 feet

Following this, there were several constructions before the Prophet Muhammad
(peace and blessings be uponj him) 's time.
 22

Reconstruction of Kaba by Quraish

Prophet Muhammad participated in one of its reconstructions before he became

a Prophet.

After a flash flood, the Kaba was damaged and its walls cracked. It needed
rebuilding.

This responsibility was divided among the Quraish's four tribes. Prophet
Muhammad helped with this reconstruction.

Once the walls were erected, it was time to place the Black Stone, (the Hajar ul
Aswad) on the eastern wall of the Kaba.

Arguments erupted about who would have the honor of putting the Black Stone
in its place. A fight was about to break out over the issue, when Abu Umayyah,
Makkah's oldest man, proposed that the first man to enter the gate of the
mosque the following morning would decide the matter. That man was the
Prophet. The Makkans were ecstatic. "This is the trustworthy one (Al-Ameen),"
they shouted in a chorus. "This is Muhammad".

He came to them and they asked him to decide on the matter. He agreed.

Prophet Muhammad proposed a solution that all agreed to-putting the Black
Stone on a cloak, the elders of each of the clans held on to one edge of the cloak
and carried the stone to its place. The Prophet then picked up the stone and
placed it on the wall of the Kaba.

Since the tribe of Quraish did not have sufficient funds, this reconstruction did
not include the entire foundation of the Kaba as built by Prophet Ibrahim. This is
the first time the Kaba acquired the cubical shape it has now unlike the rectangle
shape which it had earlier. The portion of the Kaba left out is called Hateem now.

Who built the Kaaba? After the Prophet's Time-Abdullah ibn az-Zubayr

The Syrian army destroyed the Kaba in Muharram 64 (Hijri date) and before the
next Hajj Abdullah ibn az-Zubayr, may Allah be pleased with him, reconstructed
the Kaba from the ground up.

Ibn az-Zubayr wanted to make the Kaba how the Prophet Muhammad wanted it,
on the foundation of the Prophet Ibrahim.

Ibn az-Zubayr said, "I heard Aisha (may Allah be pleased with her) say, 'The
Prophet said: "If your people had not quite recently abandoned the Ignorance
(Unbelief), and if I had sufficient provisions to rebuild it [the Kaba], I would have
 23

added five cubits to it from the Hijr. Also, I would make two doors; one for
people to enter therein and the other to exit." (Bukhari). Ibn az-Zubayr said,
"Today, I can afford to do it and I do not fear the people. 

Ibn az-Zubayr built the Kaba on Prophet Ibrahim's foundation. He put the roof
on three pillars with the wood of Aoud (a perfumed wood with aroma which is
traditionally burned to get a good smell out of it in Arabia).

In his construction he put two doors, one facing the east the other facing the
west, as the Prophet wanted but did not do in his lifetime.

He rebuilt the Kaba on the Prophet Ibrahim's foundation, which meant that the
Hateem area was included. The Hateem is the area adjacent to the Kaba
enclosed by a low semi-circular wall.

Abdullah ibn az-Zubayr also made the following additions and modifications:

-put a small window close to the roof of the Kaba to allow for light.

-moved the door of the Kaba to ground level and added a second door to the
Kaba.

-added nine cubits to the height of the Kaba, making it twenty cubits high. 

-its walls were two cubits wide. 

-reduced the pillars inside the House to three instead of six as were earlier built
by Quraish. 

For reconstruction, ibn az-Zubayr put up four pillars around Kaba and hung cloth
over them until the building was completed. People began to do Tawaf around
these pillars at all times, so Tawaf of the Kaba was never abandoned, even
during reconstruction.

During Abdul Malik bin Marwan's time

In 74 Hijri (or 693 according to the Gregorian calendar), Al-Hajjaj bin Yusuf al-
Thaqafi, the known tyrant of that time, with the approval of Umayyad Khalifa
Abdul Malik bin Marwan, demolished what Ibn az-Zubayr had added to it from
the older foundation of Prophet Ibrahim, restore its old structure as the Quraish
had had it.

Some of the changes he made were the following:

-he rebuilt it in the smaller shape which is found today

 24

-took out the Hateem

-walled up the western door (whose signs are still visible today) and left the rest
as it was

-pulled down the wall in the Hateem area.

-removed the wooden ladder Ibn az-Zubayr had put inside the Kaba.

-reduced the door's height by five cubits

When Abdul Malik bin Marwan came for Umra and heard the Hadith that it was
wish of Prophet for the Kaba to be constructed the way Abdullah ibn az-Zubayr
had built it, he regretted his actions.

Imam Malik's advice to the Khalifa Harun al Rasheed

Abbasi Khalifa Harun al Rasheed wanted to rebuild the Kaba the way the Prophet
Muhammad wanted and the way Abdullah ibn az-Zubayr built it.

But when he consulted Imam Malik, the Imam asked the Khalifa to change his
mind because constant demolition and rebuilding is not respectful and would
become a toy in the hands of kings. Each one would want to demolish and
rebuild the Kaba.

Based on this advice, Harun al Rasheed did not reconstruct the Kaba. The
structure remained in the same construction for 966 years, with minor repairs
here and there.

Who built the Kaaba? during Sultan Murad Khan's time

In the year 1039 Hijri, because of heavy rain, flood and hail, two of the Kaba's
walls fell down.

The flood during which this occurred took place on the 19th of Shaban 1039 Hijri
which continued constantly, so the water in the Kaba became almost close to
half of its walls, about 10 feet from the ground level.

On Thursday the 20th of Shaban 1039 Hijri, the eastern and western walls fell
down.

When flood receded on Friday the 21st of Shaban, the cleanup started.

Again, a curtain, the way Abdullah ibn az-Zubayr established on 4 pillars, was put
up, and the reconstruction started on the 26th of Ramadan. The rest of the walls
except for the one near the Black Stone, were demolished.
 25

By the 2nd of Zul-Hijjah 1040 the construction was taking place under the
guidance of Sultan Murad Khan, the Ottoman Khalifa. From the point of the Black
stone and below, the current construction is the same as that done by Abdullah
ibn az-Zubayr.

The construction which was done under the auspices of Murad Khan was exactly
the one done at the time of Abdul Malik ibn Marwan which is the way the
Quraysh had built it before Prophethood.

On Rajab 28 1377, One historian counted the total stones of the Kaba and they
were 1,614. These stones are of different shapes. But the stones which are
inside the outer wall which is visible are not counted in there.

Reconstruction of the Kaba In 1996

A major reconstruction of the Kaba took place between May 1996 and October
1996.

This was after a period of about 400 years (since Sultan Murad Khan's time).

During this reconstruction the only original thing left from the Kaba are the
stones. All other material has been replaced including the ceiling and the roof
and its wood.

What is inside the Kaba?

Dr. Muzammil Siddiqi is the president of the Islamic Society of North America
(ISNA). He had the opportunity to go inside the Kaba in October 1998. In an
interview with Sound Vision, he described the following features:

 there are two pillars inside (others report 3 pillars)

 there is a table on the side to put items like perfume
 there are two lantern-type lamps hanging from the ceiling
 the space can accommodate about 50 people
 there are no electric lights inside
 the walls and floors are of marble
 there are no windows inside
 there is only one door
 the upper inside walls of the Kaba were covered with some kind of curtain
with the Kalima written on it