Iran

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Coordinates: 32°N 53°E

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Iran (disambiguation).
"Persia" redirects here. Not to be confused with Persis. For other uses, see Persia
(disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Iraq.

Islamic Republic of Iran

‫( جمهوری اسالمی ایران‬Persian)
Jomhuri-ye Eslâmi-ye Irân

Flag
 Emblem

Motto: ‫ جمهوری اسالمی‬،‫ آزادی‬،‫استقالل‬

Esteqlâl, Âzâdi, Jomhuri-ye Eslâmi
"Independence, freedom, the Islamic Republic"
(de facto)[1]

Anthem: ‫سرود ملی جمهوری اسالمی ایران‬

Sorud-e Melli-ye Jomhuri-ye Eslâmi-ye Irân
"National Anthem of the Islamic Republic of Iran"

0:58

Capital Tehran
35°41′N 51°25′E
and largest city

Official languages Persian[2]

Recognised show
regional languages
List of languages:[4]

Ethnic groups show

All
 Religion Shia Islam (official)

Demonym(s) Iranian

Government Unitary theocratic presidential Islamic

republic

• Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei

• President Ebrahim Raisi

• Vice President Mohammad Mokhber

• Speaker of the Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf

Parliament

• Chief Justice Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Eje'i

Legislature Islamic Consultative Assembly

Establishment history

• Median Empire c. 678 BC

• Achaemenid Empire 550 BC

• Parthian Empire 247 BC

• Sasanian Empire 224 AD

• Buyid dynasty 934

• Safavid Iran 1501

• Afsharid Iran 1736

• Zand dynasty 1751

• Qajar Iran 1796

• Pahlavi Iran 15 December 1925

• Islamic Revolution 11 February 1979

• Current constitution 3 December 1979

• Latest amendment 28 July 1989

Area

• Total 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi) (17th)

• Water (%) 1.63 (as of 2015)[5]

Population

• 2023 estimate 87,590,873[6] (17th)

• Density 48/km2 (124.3/sq mi) (162nd)

GDP (PPP) 2023 estimate

• Total $1.692 trillion[7] (22nd)

• Per capita $19,548[7] (80th)

GDP (nominal) 2023 estimate

• Total $367.968 billion[7] (43rd)

• Per capita $4,252[7] (120th)

Gini (2019) 40.9[8]

medium

HDI (2021) 0.783[9]

high · 70th

Currency Iranian rial (‫( )لایر‬IRR)

Time zone UTC+3:30 (IRST)

Date format yyyy/mm/dd (SH)

Driving side right

 Calling code +98

ISO 3166 code IR

 .ir
Internet TLD
 .‫ای ران‬

You may need rendering support to display the Persian text in this article correctly.

Iran,[a] also known as Persia[b][11] and officially as the Islamic Republic of Iran,[c] is a
country located in West Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west,
by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian
Sea and Turkmenistan to the north, by Afghanistan and Pakistan to the east, and by
the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf to the south. It covers an area of 1.64 million
square kilometres (0.63 million square miles), making it the 17th-largest country.
With an estimated population of 86.8 million, Iran is the 17th-most populous
country in the world, and the second largest in the Middle East. Its largest city is the
capital Tehran, followed by Mashhad, Isfahan, Karaj, Shiraz, and Tabriz.
Iran is home to one of the world's oldest civilizations, beginning with the formation of
the Elamite kingdoms in the fourth millennium BC. It was first unified by the Medes in
the seventh century BC and reached its territorial height in the sixth century BC,
when Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire, one of the largest empires
in history. Alexander the Great conquered the realm in the fourth century BC and it
was subsequently divided into several Hellenistic states. An Iranian rebellion
established the Parthian Empire in the third century BC, which was succeeded in the
third century AD by the Sassanid Empire, a major world power for the next four
centuries. Arab Muslims conquered the empire in the seventh century AD, leading to
its Islamization; Iran thereafter became a major center of Islamic culture and
learning, with its art, literature, philosophy, and architecture spreading across
the Muslim world and beyond during the Islamic Golden Age. Over the next two
centuries, a series of native Iranian Muslim dynasties emerged before the Seljuk
Turks and the Mongols conquered the region.
In the 16th century, the native Safavids re-established a unified Iranian state and
national identity, and converted the country to Shia Islam. Under the reign of Nader
Shah in the 18th century, Iran presided over the most powerful military in the world,
though by the 19th century, a series of conflicts with the Russian Empire led to
significant territorial losses. The early 20th century saw the Persian Constitutional
Revolution. Efforts to nationalize its fossil fuel supply from Western companies led to
an Anglo-American coup in 1953, which resulted in greater autocratic rule
under Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and growing Western political influence, as well
as far-reaching socioeconomic reforms. After the Iranian Revolution, the
current Islamic Republic was established in 1979 by Ruhollah Khomeini, who
became the country's first supreme leader.
The government of Iran is an Islamic theocracy with elements of a presidential
system, though ultimate authority is vested in an autocratic "Supreme Leader"; the
position has been held by Ali Khamenei since Khomeini's death in 1989. Iranian
government is authoritarian, and has attracted widespread criticism for its significant
constraints and abuses against human rights and civil liberties, including several
violent suppressions of mass protests, unfair elections, limited rights for
women and children as well as for second highest number of mass-executions in the
world. It is also a focal point for Shia Islam within the Middle East, challenging the
long-existing Arab and Sunni hegemony in the region. Since the Iranian Revolution,
the country is widely considered to be the most determined adversary of
Israel and Saudi Arabia. Iran is also considered to be one of the biggest players
within Middle Eastern affairs, with its government being involved both directly and
indirectly in the majority of modern Middle Eastern conflicts. Its aggressive foreign
policy in the region, marked by sponsorship of numerous Khomeinist militant groups,
has been widely condemned.
Iran is a regional and middle power and occupies a strategic location in the Asian
continent. It is a founding member of the United Nations, the ECO, the OIC, and
the OPEC. It is expected to join BRICS on the 1st of January 2024.[12] It has large
reserves of fossil fuels—including the second largest natural gas supply and
the third-largest proven oil reserves. The country's rich cultural legacy is reflected in
part by its 26 UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Historically a multi-ethnic country, Iran
remains a pluralistic society comprising numerous ethnic, linguistic, and religious
groups, with the largest of these being Persians, Azeris, Kurds, Mazanderanis,
and Lurs.

Name
Main article: Name of Iran

Inscription of Ardeshir Babakan (r. 224–242)

in Naqsh-e Rostam: "This is the figure of Mazdaworshipper, the lord Ardashir,

Shahanshah of Iran ..."[13] An Ashrafi Coin of Nader

Shah (r. 1736–1747), reverse: "Coined on gold the word of kingdom in the world,
Nader of Greater Iran and the world-conqueror king."[14]
The term Iran derives directly from Middle Persian Ērān, first attested in a third-
century inscription at Naqsh-e Rostam, with the accompanying Parthian inscription
using the term Aryān, in reference to the Iranians.[15] The Middle
Iranian ērān and aryān are oblique plural forms of gentilic nouns ēr- (Middle Persian)
and ary- (Parthian), both deriving from Proto-Iranian language *arya- (meaning
"Aryan", i.e. "of the Iranians"),[15][16] recognized as a derivative of Proto-Indo-European
language *ar-yo-, meaning "one who assembles (skilfully)".[17] In the Iranian
languages, the gentilic is attested as a self-identifier, included in ancient inscriptions
and the literature of the Avesta,[18][d] and remains also in other Iranian ethnic
names Alan (Ossetian: Ир Ir) and Iron (Ирон).[16] According to the Iranian mythology,
the country's name comes from the name of Iraj, a legendary prince and shah who
was killed by his brothers.[19]
Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West,[11][20] due mainly to the
writings of Greek historians who referred to all of Iran as Persís (Ancient Greek:
Περσίς; from Old Persian ���� Pârsa),[21] meaning "land of the Persians",
while Persis itself was one of the provinces of ancient Iran that is today known
as Fars.[22]
In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by
its native name, Iran, on Nowruz, falling on 21 March 1935 (Esfand 30, 1313), 4:43
pm Tehran time; effective 22 March (the Iranian New Year on Farvardin 1, 1314) that
year.[23][24] Opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision in 1959,
and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move
to use Persia and Iran interchangeably.[25] Today, both Iran and Persia are used in
cultural contexts, while Iran remains mandatory in official state contexts.[26]
Historical and cultural usage of the word Iran is not restricted to the modern state
proper.[27][28][29] "Greater Iran" (Irānzamīn or Irān e Bozorg)[30] refers to territories of the
Iranian cultural and linguistic zones. In addition to modern Iran, it includes portions of
the Caucasus, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, and Central Asia.[31][page needed]
Pronunciation
The Persian pronunciation of Iran is [ʔiːˈɾɒːn]. Common Commonwealth
English pronunciations of Iran are listed in the Oxford English
Dictionary as /ɪˈrɑːn/ and /ɪˈræn/,[32] while American English dictionaries such
as Merriam-Webster's provide pronunciations which map to /ɪˈrɑːn, -
ˈræn, aɪˈræn/,[33] or likewise in Random House Webster's Unabridged
Dictionary as /ɪˈræn, ɪˈrɑːn, aɪˈræn/. The Cambridge Dictionary lists /ɪˈrɑːn/ as the
British pronunciation and /ɪˈræn/ as the American pronunciation. Similarly, Glasgow-
based Collins English Dictionary provides both English English and American
English pronunciations. The pronunciation guide from Voice of America also
provides /ɪˈrɑːn/.[34] The American English pronunciation /aɪˈræn/ may be heard in
U.S. media. Max Fisher in The Washington Post prescribed /iːˈrɑːn/ for Iran, while
proscribing /aɪˈræn/.[35]

History
Main article: History of Iran
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Iranian history.
Prehistory
Further information: Prehistory of Iran and Archaeological sites in Iran
 A cave painting in Doushe cave, Lorestan from the
2nd millennium BC. [36]

The earliest attested archaeological artifacts in Iran, like those excavated

at Kashafrud and Ganj Par in northern Iran, confirm a human presence in Iran since
the Lower Paleolithic.[37] Iran's Neanderthal artifacts from the Middle Paleolithic have
been found mainly in the Zagros region, at sites such
as Warwasi and Yafteh.[38][39][page needed] From the tenth to the seventh millennium BC,
early agricultural communities began to flourish in and around the Zagros region in
western Iran, including Chogha Golan,[40][41] Chogha Bonut,[42][43] and Chogha
Mish.[44][45][page needed][46]
The occupation of grouped hamlets in the area of Susa, as determined
by radiocarbon dating, ranges from 4395–3955 to 3680–3490 BC.[47] There are
dozens of prehistoric sites across the Iranian Plateau, pointing to the existence of
ancient cultures and urban settlements in the fourth millennium BC.[46][48][49] During
the Bronze Age, the territory of present-day Iran was home to several
civilizations,[50][51] including Elam, Jiroft, and Zayanderud. Elam, the most prominent of
these civilizations, developed in the southwest alongside those in Mesopotamia, and
continued its existence until the emergence of the Iranian empires. The advent of
writing in Elam was paralleled to Sumer, and the Elamite cuneiform was developed
since the third millennium BC.[52]
From the 34th to the 20th century BC, northwestern Iran was part of the Kura-Araxes
culture, which stretched into the neighboring Caucasus and Anatolia. Since the
earliest second millennium BC, Assyrians settled in swaths of western Iran and
incorporated the region into their territories.
Classical antiquity
Main articles: Median Empire, Achaemenid Empire, Seleucid Empire, Parthian
Empire, and Sasanian Empire
See also: Indo-European migrations

A bas-relief at Persepolis, depicting the

united Medes and Persians
By the second millennium BC, the ancient Iranian peoples arrived in what is now Iran
from the Eurasian Steppe,[53] rivaling the native settlers of the region.[54][55] As
the Iranians dispersed into the wider area of Greater Iran and beyond, the
boundaries of modern-day Iran were dominated by Median, Persian,
and Parthian tribes.
From the late tenth to the late seventh century BC, the Iranian peoples, together with
the "pre-Iranian" kingdoms, fell under the domination of the Assyrian Empire, based
in northern Mesopotamia.[56][page needed] Under king Cyaxares, the Medes and Persians
entered into an alliance with Babylonian ruler Nabopolassar, as well as the fellow
Iranian Scythians and Cimmerians, and together they attacked the Assyrian Empire.
The civil war ravaged the Assyrian Empire between 616 and 605 BC, thus freeing
their respective peoples from three centuries of Assyrian rule.[56] The unification of the
Median tribes under king Deioces in 728 BC led to the foundation of the Median
Empire which, by 612 BC, controlled almost the entire territory of present-day Iran
and eastern Anatolia.[57] This marked the end of the Kingdom of Urartu as well, which
was subsequently conquered and dissolved.[58][59]

Tomb of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid

Empire, in Pasargadae
In 550 BC, Cyrus the Great, the son of Mandane and Cambyses I, took over the
Median Empire, and founded the Achaemenid Empire by unifying other city-states.
The conquest of Media was a result of what is called the Persian Revolt.
The brouhaha was initially triggered by the actions of the Median ruler Astyages, and
was quickly spread to other provinces as they allied with the Persians. Later
conquests under Cyrus and his successors expanded the empire to
include Lydia, Babylon, Egypt, parts of the Balkans and Eastern Europe proper, as
well as the lands to the west of the Indus and Oxus rivers.
539 BC was the year in which Persian forces defeated the Babylonian army at Opis,
and marked the end of around four centuries of Mesopotamian domination of the
region by conquering the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Cyrus entered Babylon and
presented himself as a traditional Mesopotamian monarch. Subsequent Achaemenid
art and iconography reflect the influence of the new political reality in
Mesopotamia.[60][61][62]
 The Achaemenid Empire (550 BC–330 BC) around

the time of Darius the Great and Xerxes I

The Parthian Empire (247 BC–224 AD) in 94 BC at its greatest extent, during the
reign of Mithridates II
At its greatest extent, the Achaemenid Empire included territories of modern-day
Iran, Republic of Azerbaijan (Arran and Shirvan), Armenia, Georgia, Turkey
(Anatolia), much of the Black Sea coastal regions, northeastern Greece and
southern Bulgaria (Thrace), northern Greece and North
Macedonia (Paeonia and Macedon), Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel and
the Palestinian territories, all significant population centers of ancient Egypt as far
west as Libya, Kuwait, northern Saudi Arabia, parts of the United Arab
Emirates and Oman, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and much of Central Asia, making it the
largest empire the world had yet seen.[61]
It is estimated that in 480 BC, 50 million people lived in the Achaemenid
Empire.[63][64] The empire at its peak ruled over 44% of the world's population, the
highest such figure for any empire in history.[65]
The Achaemenid Empire is noted for the release of the Jewish exiles in
Babylon,[66] building infrastructures such as the Royal Road and the Chapar (postal
service), and the use of an official language, Imperial Aramaic, throughout its
territories.[61] The empire had a centralized, bureaucratic administration under the
emperor, a large professional army, and civil services, inspiring similar developments
in later empires.[67][68]
Eventual conflict on the western borders began with the Ionian Revolt, which erupted
into the Greco-Persian Wars and continued through the first half of the fifth century
BC and ended with the withdrawal of the Achaemenids from all of the territories in
the Balkans and Eastern Europe proper.[69]
In 334 BC, Alexander the Great invaded the Achaemenid Empire, defeating the last
Achaemenid emperor, Darius III, at the Battle of Issus. Following the premature
death of Alexander, Iran came under the control of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire.
In the middle of the second century BC, the Parthian Empire rose to become the
main power in Iran, and the century-long geopolitical arch-rivalry between the
Romans and the Parthians began, culminating in the Roman–Parthian Wars. The
Parthian Empire continued as a feudal monarchy for nearly five centuries, until
224 CE, when it was succeeded by the Sasanian Empire.[70] Together with their
neighboring arch-rival, the Roman-Byzantines, they made up the world's two most
dominant powers at the time, for over four centuries.[71][72]
The Sasanians established an empire within the frontiers achieved by the
Achaemenids, with their capital at Ctesiphon. Late antiquity is considered one of
Iran's most influential periods, as under the Sasanians,[73] their influence reached
the culture of ancient Rome (and through that as far as Western
Europe),[74][75] Africa,[76] China, and India,[77] and played a prominent role in the
formation of the medieval art of both Europe and Asia.[71][72]
Medieval period
Main articles: Muslim conquest of Persia and Medieval Iran
The prolonged Byzantine–Sasanian wars, most importantly the climactic war of 602–
628, as well as the social conflict within the Sasanian Empire, opened the way for an
Arab invasion of Iran in the seventh century.[78][79] The empire was initially defeated by
the Rashidun Caliphate, which was succeeded by the Umayyad Caliphate, followed
by the Abbasid Caliphate. A prolonged and gradual process of state-
imposed Islamization followed, which targeted Iran's then Zoroastrian majority and
included religious persecution,[80][81][82] demolition of libraries[83] and fire temples,[84] a
special tax penalty ("jizya"),[85][86] and language shift.[87][88]
In 750, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads.[89] Arabs Muslims and Persians of all
strata made up the rebel army, which was united by the converted Persian
Muslim, Abu Muslim.[90][91][92] In their struggle for power, the society in their times
gradually became cosmopolitan and the old Arab simplicity and aristocratic dignity,
bearing and prestige were lost. Persians and Turks began to replace the Arabs in
most fields. The fusion of the Arab nobility with the subject races, the practice of
polygamy and concubinage, made for a social amalgam wherein loyalties became
uncertain, and a hierarchy of officials emerged, a bureaucracy at first Persian and
later Turkish which decreased Abbasid prestige and power for good.[93]
After two centuries of Arab rule, semi-independent and independent Iranian
kingdoms—including the Tahirids, Saffarids, Samanids, and Buyids—began to
appear on the fringes of the declining Abbasid Caliphate.[94]

Tomb of Hafez, a medieval Persian poet whose

works are regarded as a pinnacle in Persian literature and have left a considerable
mark on later Western writers, most notably Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Henry
David Thoreau, and Ralph Waldo Emerson.[95][96][97]
The blossoming literature, philosophy, mathematics, medicine, astronomy and art of
Iran became major elements in the formation of a new age for the Iranian civilization,
during a period known as the Islamic Golden Age.[98][99] The Islamic Golden Age
reached its peak by the 10th and 11th centuries, during which Iran was the main
theater of scientific activities.[100]
The tenth century saw a mass migration of Turkic tribes from Central Asia into the
Iranian Plateau.[101] Turkic tribesmen were first used in the Abbasid army
as mamluks (slave-warriors), replacing Iranian and Arab elements within the
army.[90] As a result, the Mamluks gained significant political power. In 999, large
portions of Iran came briefly under the rule of the Ghaznavids, whose rulers were of
mamluk Turkic origin, and longer subsequently under
the Seljuk and Khwarezmian empires.[101] The Seljuks subsequently gave rise to
the Sultanate of Rum in Anatolia, while taking their thoroughly Persianized identity
with them.[102][103] The result of the adoption and patronage of Persian culture by
Turkish rulers was the development of a distinct Turco-Persian tradition.
From 1219 to 1221, under the Khwarazmian Empire, Iran suffered a devastating
invasion by the Mongol Empire army of Genghis Khan. According to Steven R.
Ward, "Mongol violence and depredations killed up to three-fourths of the population
of the Iranian Plateau, possibly 10 to 15 million people. Some historians have
estimated that Iran's population did not again reach its pre-Mongol levels until the
mid-20th century."[104] Most modern historians either outright dismiss or are highly
skeptical of such statistics of colossal magnitude pertaining the Mongol onslaught on
the Khwarazmian empire, mainland Iran and other Muslim regions and deem them to
be exaggerations by Muslim chroniclers of that era (whose recordings were naturally
of an anti-Mongol bent). Indeed, as far as the Iranian plateau was concerned, the
bulk of the Mongol onslaught and battles were in the northeast of what is modern-
day Iran, such as in the cities of Nishapur and Tus.[105][106][107]
Following the fracture of the Mongol Empire in 1256, Hulagu Khan, grandson of
Genghis Khan, established the Ilkhanate in Iran. In 1357, the capital Tabriz was
occupied by the Golden Horde khan Jani Beg and the centralized power collapsed,
resulting in the emergence of rivaling dynasties. In 1370, yet another
conqueror, Timur from Transoxiana, took control over Persia, establishing
the Timurid Empire which lasted for another 156 years. In 1387, Timur ordered the
complete massacre of Isfahan, reportedly killing 70,000 citizens.[108] The Ilkhans and
the Timurids soon came to adopt the ways and customs of the Iranians, surrounding
themselves with a culture that was distinctively Iranian.[109]
Early modern period
Safavids
Main article: Safavid Iran
Venetian portrait, kept at the Uffizi, of Ismail I, the founder of the Safavid Empire
By the 1500s, Ismail I of Ardabil established the Safavid Empire,[110][111] with his capital
at Tabriz.[101] Beginning with Azerbaijan, he subsequently extended his authority over
all of the Iranian territories, and established an intermittent Iranian hegemony over
the vast relative regions, reasserting the Iranian identity within large parts of Greater
Iran.[112] Iran was predominantly Sunni,[113] but Ismail instigated a forced conversion to
the Shia branch of Islam,[114][111][115][116] spreading throughout the Safavid territories in
the Caucasus, Iran, Anatolia, and Mesopotamia. As a result, modern-day Iran is the
only official Shia nation of the world, with it holding an absolute majority in Iran and
the Republic of Azerbaijan, having there the first and the second highest number of
Shia inhabitants by population percentage in the world.[117][118] Meanwhile, the
centuries-long geopolitical and ideological rivalry between Safavid Iran and the
neighboring Ottoman Empire led to numerous Ottoman–Iranian wars.[104]
 A portrait of Abbas I, the powerful, pragmatic Safavid ruler
who reinforced Iran's military, political, and economic power
The Safavid era peaked in the reign of Abbas I (1587–1629),[104][119] surpassing their
Turkish archrivals in strength and making Iran a leading science and art hub in
western Eurasia. The Safavid era saw the start of mass integration from Caucasian
populations into new layers of the society of Iran, as well as mass resettlement of
them within the heartlands of Iran, playing a pivotal role in the history of Iran for
centuries onwards. Following a gradual decline in the late 1600s and the early
1700s, which was caused by internal conflicts, the continuous wars with the
Ottomans, and the foreign interference (most notably the Russian interference), the
Safavid rule was ended by the Pashtun rebels who besieged Isfahan and
defeated Sultan Husayn in 1722.
Afsharids
Main article: Afsharid dynasty
In 1729, Nader Shah, a chieftain and military genius from Khorasan, successfully
drove out and conquered the Pashtun invaders. He subsequently took back the
annexed Caucasian territories which were divided among the Ottoman
and Russian authorities by the ongoing chaos in Iran. During the reign of Nader
Shah, Iran reached its greatest extent since the Sasanian Empire, reestablishing the
Iranian hegemony all over the Caucasus, as well as other major parts of
the west and central Asia, and briefly possessing what was arguably the most
powerful empire at the time.[120][121][122][120]

Statue of Nader Shah, the first Afsharid ruler of Iran,

at his Tomb
Nader Shah invaded India and sacked far off Delhi by the late 1730s. His territorial
expansion, as well as his military successes, went into a decline following the
final campaigns in the Northern Caucasus against then revolting Lezgins. The
assassination of Nader Shah sparked a brief period of civil war and turmoil, after
which Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty came to power in 1750, bringing a period of
relative peace and prosperity.[104]
Zands
Main article: Zand dynasty
Compared to its preceding dynasties, the geopolitical reach of the Zand dynasty was
limited. Many of the Iranian territories in the Caucasus gained de facto autonomy
and were locally ruled through various Caucasian khanates. However, despite the
self-ruling, they all remained subjects and vassals to the Zand king.[123] Another civil
war ensued after the death of Karim Khan in 1779, out of which Agha Mohammad
Khan emerged, founding the Qajar dynasty in 1794.
Qajars
Main article: Qajar Iran

A map showing the 19th-century northwestern

borders of Iran, comprising modern-day eastern Georgia, Dagestan, Armenia, and
the Republic of Azerbaijan, before being ceded to the neighboring Russian
Empire by the Russo-Iranian wars
In 1795, following the disobedience of the Georgian subjects and their alliance with
the Russians, the Qajars captured Tbilisi by the Battle of Krtsanisi, and drove the
Russians out of the entire Caucasus, reestablishing the Iranian suzerainty over the
region. The Russo-Iranian wars of 1804–1813 and 1826–1828 resulted in large
irrevocable territorial losses for Iran in the Caucasus, comprising all of the South
Caucasus and Dagestan, which made part of the very concept of Iran for
centuries,[121] and thus substantial gains for the neighboring Russian Empire.
As a result of the 19th-century Russo-Iranian wars, the Russians took over the
Caucasus, and Iran irrevocably lost control over its integral territories in the region
(comprising modern-day Dagestan, Georgia, Armenia, and Republic of Azerbaijan),
which got confirmed per the treaties of Gulistan and Turkmenchay.[122][124] The area to
the north of Aras River, among which the contemporary Republic of Azerbaijan,
eastern Georgia, Dagestan, and Armenia are located, were Iranian territory until they
were occupied by Russia in the course of the 19th century.[122][125][126][127][128][129][130] The
weakening of Persia made it into a victim of the colonial struggle between Russia
and Britain known as the Great Game.[131] Especially after the treaty of Turkmenchay,
Russia was the dominant force in Iran,[132] while the Qajars would also play a role in
several 'Great Game' battles such as the sieges of Herat in 1837 and 1856.
As Iran shrank, many South Caucasian and North Caucasian Muslims moved
towards Iran,[133][134] especially until the aftermath of the Circassian Genocide,[134] and
the decades afterwards, while Iran's Armenians were encouraged to settle in the
newly incorporated Russian territories,[135][136][137] causing significant demographic shifts.
Around 1.5 million people—20 to 25% of the population of Iran—died as a result of
the Great Famine of 1870–1872.[138]

The first national Iranian Parliament was established

in 1906 during the Persian Constitutional Revolution.
Between 1872 and 1905, a series of protests took place in response to the sale
of concessions to foreigners by Qajar monarchs Naser-ed-Din and Mozaffar-ed-Din,
and led to the Constitutional Revolution in 1905. The first Iranian constitution and the
first national parliament of Iran were founded in 1906, through the ongoing
revolution. The Constitution included the official recognition of Iran's three religious
minorities, namely Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians,[139] which has remained a basis
in the legislation of Iran since then. The struggle related to the constitutional
movement was followed by the Triumph of Tehran in 1909, when Mohammad Ali
Shah was defeated and forced to abdicate. In 1907, the Anglo-Russian
Convention divided Qajar Iran into influence zones, formalising many of the
concessions. On the pretext of restoring order, the Russians occupied northern
Iran and the city of Tabriz and maintained a military presence in the region for years
to come. But this did not put an end to the civil uprisings and was soon followed
by Mirza Kuchik Khan's Jungle Movement against both the Qajar monarchy and
foreign invaders.

Reza Shah, the first Pahlavi king of Iran, in military uniform

Despite Iran's neutrality during World War I, the Ottoman, Russian, and British
Empires occupied the territory of western Iran and fought the Persian
campaign before fully withdrawing their forces in 1921. At least 2 million Persian
civilians died either directly in the fighting, the Ottoman perpetrated anti-Christian
genocides or the war-induced famine of 1917–1919. A large number of Iranian
Assyrian and Iranian Armenian Christians, as well as those Muslims who tried to
protect them, were victims of mass murders committed by the invading Ottoman
troops, notably in and around Khoy, Maku, Salmas, and Urmia.[140][141][142][143][144]
Apart from the rule of Agha Mohammad Khan, the Qajar rule is characterized as a
century of misrule.[101] The inability of Qajar Iran's government to maintain the
country's sovereignty during and immediately after World War I led to the British
directed 1921 Persian coup d'état and Reza Shah's establishment of the Pahlavi
dynasty. Reza Shah became the new Prime Minister of Iran and was declared the
new monarch in 1925.
Pahlavis
Main article: Pahlavi Iran
See also: Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran
In the midst of World War II, in June 1941, Nazi Germany broke the Molotov–
Ribbentrop Pact and invaded the Soviet Union, Iran's northern neighbor. The Soviets
quickly allied themselves with the Allied countries and in July and August 1941 the
British demanded that the Iranian government expel all Germans from Iran. Reza
Shah refused to expel the Germans and on 25 August 1941, the British and Soviets
launched a surprise invasion and Reza Shah's government quickly
surrendered.[145] The invasion's strategic purpose was to secure a supply line to the
USSR (later named the Persian Corridor), secure the oil fields and Abadan
Refinery (of the UK-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Company), prevent a German advance
via Turkey or the USSR on Baku's oil fields, and limit German influence in Iran.
Following the invasion, on 16 September 1941 Reza Shah abdicated and was
replaced by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, his 21-year-old son.[146][147][148]

The Allied "Big Three" at the 1943 Tehran

Conference
During the rest of World War II, Iran became a major conduit for British and
American aid to the Soviet Union and an avenue through which over 120,000 Polish
refugees and Polish Armed Forces fled the Axis advance.[149] At the 1943 Tehran
Conference, the Allied "Big Three"—Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt,
and Winston Churchill—issued the Tehran Declaration to guarantee the post-war
independence and boundaries of Iran. However, at the end of the war, Soviet troops
remained in Iran and established two puppet states in north-western Iran, namely
the People's Government of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Mahabad. This led to
the Iran crisis of 1946, one of the first confrontations of the Cold War, which ended
after oil concessions were promised to the USSR and Soviet forces withdrew from
Iran proper in May 1946. The two puppet states were soon overthrown, and the oil
concessions were later revoked.[150][151]
1951–1978: Mosaddegh, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
Main article: 1953 Iranian coup d'état
 Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and the Imperial Family
during the coronation ceremony of the Shah of Iran in 1967
In 1951, Mohammad Mosaddegh was appointed as the Prime Minister of Pahlavi
Iran. After the nationalization of Iran's oil industry, he became enormously popular.
He was deposed in the 1953 Iranian coup d'état, an Anglo-American covert
operation that marked the first time the United States had participated in an
overthrow of a foreign government during the Cold War.[152]
After the coup, the Shah became increasingly autocratic and sultanistic, and Iran
entered a decades-long phase of controversially close relations with the United
States and some other foreign governments.[153] While the Shah increasingly
modernized Iran and claimed to retain it as a fully secular state,[154] arbitrary arrests
and torture by his secret police, the SAVAK, were used for crushing all forms of
political opposition.[155]
Ruhollah Khomeini, a radical Muslim cleric,[156] became an active critic of the Shah's
far-reaching series of reforms known as the White Revolution. Khomeini publicly
denounced the government and was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months. After
his release in 1964, he refused to apologize and was eventually sent into exile.
Due to the 1973 spike in oil prices, the economy of Iran was flooded with foreign
currency, which caused inflation. By 1974, the economy of Iran was experiencing a
double-digit inflation rate, and despite the many large projects to modernize the
country, corruption was rampant and caused large amounts of waste. By 1975 and
1976, an economic recession led to an increased unemployment rate, especially
among millions of youths who had migrated to the cities of Iran looking for
construction jobs during the boom years of the early 1970s. By the late 1970s, many
of these people opposed the Shah's regime and began organizing and joining the
protests against it.[157]
After the 1979 Iranian Revolution
Main article: History of the Islamic Republic of Iran
See also: Iranian Revolution, Iran–Iraq War, and Human rights in the Islamic
Republic of Iran
 Ruhollah Khomeini's return to Iran on 1 February 1979
The 1979 Revolution, later known as the Islamic Revolution,[158][159][160][161][154][162] began in
January 1978 with the first major demonstrations against the Shah. [163] After a year of
strikes and demonstrations paralyzing the country and its economy, Mohammad
Reza Pahlavi fled to the United States, and Ruhollah Khomeini returned from exile to
Tehran in February 1979, forming a new government.[164] After holding a referendum,
Iran officially became an Islamic republic in April 1979.[165] A second referendum in
December 1979 approved a theocratic constitution.[166]
The immediate nationwide uprisings against the new government began with
the 1979 Kurdish rebellion and the Khuzestan uprisings, along with the uprisings
in Sistan and Baluchestan and other areas. Over the next several years, these
uprisings were subdued violently by the new Islamic government. The new
government began purging itself of the non-Islamist political opposition, as well as of
those Islamists who were not considered radical enough. Although both nationalists
and Marxists had initially joined with Islamists to overthrow the Shah, tens of
thousands were executed by the new regime afterward.[167] Following Khomeini's
order to purge the new government of any remaining officials still loyal to the exiled
Shah, many former ministers and officials in the Shah's government, including former
prime minister Amir-Abbas Hoveyda, were executed.
On 4 November 1979, after the United States refusal for the extradition of
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi to the new government, a group of Muslim
students seized the United States Embassy and took the embassy with 52 personnel
and citizens hostage .[168] Attempts by the Jimmy Carter administration to negotiate for
the release of the hostages, and a failed rescue attempt, helped with the falling
popularity of Carter among the US citizens and it pushed him out of the presidential
office and brought Ronald Reagan to power. On Jimmy Carter's final day in office,
the last hostages were finally set free due to the Algiers Accords. Mohammad Reza
Pahlavi left the United States for Egypt, where he died of complications from cancer
only months later, on 27 July 1980.
The Cultural Revolution began in 1980, with an initial closure of universities for three
years, in order to perform an inspection and clean up in the cultural policy of the
education and training system.[citation needed]
 An Iranian soldier wearing a gas mask on the front
line during the Iran–Iraq War
On 22 September 1980, the Iraqi army invaded the western Iranian province of
Khuzestan, initiating the Iran–Iraq War. Although the forces of Saddam
Hussein made several early advances, by mid-1982, the Iranian forces successfully
managed to drive the Iraqi army back into Iraq. In July 1982, with Iraq thrown on the
defensive, the regime of Iran decided to invade Iraq and conducted countless
offensives to conquer Iraqi territory and capture cities, such as Basra. The war
continued until 1988, when the Iraqi army defeated the Iranian forces inside Iraq and
pushed the remaining Iranian troops back across the border. Subsequently,
Khomeini accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations. The total Iranian
casualties in the war were estimated to be 123,220–160,000 KIA, 60,711 MIA, and
11,000–16,000 civilians killed.[169][170]

The Green Movement's Silent Demonstration during

the 2009–10 Iranian election protests
Following the Iran–Iraq War, in 1989, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and his
administration concentrated on a pragmatic pro-business policy of rebuilding and
strengthening the economy without making any dramatic break with the ideology of
the revolution. In 1997, Rafsanjani was succeeded by
moderate reformist Mohammad Khatami, whose government attempted,
unsuccessfully, to make the country freer and more democratic.[171]
The 2005 presidential election brought conservative populist candidate, Mahmoud
Ahmadinejad, to power.[172] By the time of the 2009 Iranian presidential election,
the Interior Ministry announced incumbent President Ahmadinejad had won 62.63%
of the vote, while Mir-Hossein Mousavi had come in second place with
33.75%.[173][174] The election results were widely disputed,[175][176] and resulted
in widespread protests, both within Iran and in major cities outside the
country,[177][178] and the creation of the Iranian Green Movement.
Hassan Rouhani was elected as the president on 15 June 2013,
defeating Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf and four other candidates.[179][180] The electoral
victory of Rouhani relatively improved the relations of Iran with other countries.[181]
 The 2017–18 Iranian protests were initiated on 31
December 2017 and continued for months.
The 2017–18 Iranian protests swept across the country against the government and
its longtime Supreme Leader in response to the economic and political
situation.[182] The scale of protests throughout the country and the number of people
participating were significant,[183] and it was formally confirmed that thousands of
protesters were arrested.[184] The 2019–20 Iranian protests started on 15 November
in Ahvaz, spreading across the country within hours, after the government
announced increases in the fuel price of up to 300%.[185] A week-long total Internet
shutdown throughout the country marked one of the most severe Internet blackouts
in any country, and in the bloodiest governmental crackdown of the protestors in the
history of Islamic Republic,[186] tens of thousands were arrested and hundreds were
killed within a few days according to multiple international observers,
including Amnesty International.[187]
On 3 January 2020, the revolutionary guard's general, Qasem Soleimani,
was assassinated by the United States in Iraq, which considerably heightened
the existing tensions between the two countries.[188] Three days after, Iran's Islamic
Revolutionary Guard Corps launched a retaliatory attack on US forces in Iraq and by
accident shot down Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752, killing all members on
board the plane and leading to nation-wide protests. An international investigation
led to the government admitting to the shootdown of the plane by a surface-to-air
missile after three days of denial, calling it a "human error".[189][190]
Protests against the government began on 16 September 2022 following the death
of Mahsa Amini after being arrested by the Guidance Patrol.[191][192][193]

Geography
Main article: Geography of Iran
See also: Borders of Iran, Agriculture in Iran, and Environmental issues in Iran

Mount Damavand, the Middle East's highest peak, is

located in Amol, Mazandaran. [194]

Iran has an area of 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi).[4] It is the fourth-largest country
entirely in Asia and the second-largest country in West Asia behind Saudi
Arabia.[195] It lies between latitudes 24° and 40° N, and longitudes 44° and 64° E. It is
bordered to the northwest by Armenia (35 km or 22 mi), the Azeri exclave
of Nakhchivan (179 km or 111 mi),[196] and the Republic of Azerbaijan (611 km or
380 mi); to the north by the Caspian Sea; to the northeast by Turkmenistan (992 km
or 616 mi); to the east by Afghanistan (936 km or 582 mi) and Pakistan (909 km or
565 mi); to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman; and to the west
by Iraq (1,458 km or 906 mi) and Turkey (499 km or 310 mi).
Iran is located in a seismically active area.[197] On average, an earthquake of
magnitude seven on the Richter scale occurs once every ten years.[198] Most
earthquakes are shallow-focus and can be very devastating, such as the tragic 2003
Bam earthquake.
Iran consists of the Iranian Plateau, with the exception of the coasts of the Caspian
Sea and Khuzestan. It is one of the world's most mountainous countries, its
landscape dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate
various basins or plateaus from one another. The populous western part is the most
mountainous, with ranges such as the Caucasus, Zagros, and Alborz, the last
containing Mount Damavand, Iran's highest point at 5,610 m (18,406 ft), which is
also the highest mountain in Asia west of the Hindu Kush.
The northern part of Iran is covered by the lush lowland Caspian Hyrcanian mixed
forests, located near the southern shores of the Caspian Sea. The eastern part
consists mostly of desert basins, such as the Kavir Desert, which is the country's
largest desert, and the Lut Desert, as well as some salt lakes. Iran had a
2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.67/10, ranking it 34th
globally out of 172 countries.[199] The only large plains are found along the coast of the
Caspian Sea and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where the country borders
the mouth of the Arvand river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the
remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Gulf of Oman.
Climate

Climate of Iran (Köppen-Geiger)

Hot desert climate
Cold desert climate
Hot semi-arid climate
Cold semi-arid climate
Hot-summer Mediterranean climate
Continental Mediterranean climate

Iran's climate is diverse, ranging from arid and semi-arid, to subtropical along the
Caspian coast and the northern forests.[200] On the northern edge of the country (the
Caspian coastal plain), temperatures rarely fall below freezing and the area remains
humid for the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 °C
(84.2 °F).[201][202] Annual precipitation is 680 mm (26.8 in) in the eastern part of the
plain and more than 1,700 mm (66.9 in) in the western part. Gary Lewis, the United
Nations Resident Coordinator for Iran, has said that "Water scarcity poses the most
severe human security challenge in Iran today".[203]
To the west, settlements in the Zagros basin experience lower temperatures, severe
winters with below zero average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The eastern
and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (7.9 in) of rain and have
occasional deserts.[204] Average summer temperatures rarely exceed 38 °C
(100.4 °F).[201] The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern
Iran have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation
ranges from 135 to 355 mm (5.3 to 14.0 in).[201]
Iran is by far the largest of the few countries in the world which have not ratified
the Paris Agreement.[205]
Wildlife
See also: Wildlife of Iran

Persian leopard, listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red

List
The wildlife of Iran includes bears, the Eurasian lynx, foxes, gazelles, gray
wolves, jackals, panthers, and wild pigs.[206][207] Eagles, falcons, partridges, pheasants,
and storks are also native to Iran.
One of the most famous species of animal is the critically endangered Asiatic
cheetah, also known as the Iranian cheetah, whose numbers were greatly reduced
after the 1979 Revolution.[208] The Persian leopard, which is the world's
largest leopard subspecies and lives primarily in northern Iran, is also
endangered.[209] Iran lost all its Asiatic lions and the now extinct Caspian tigers by the
earlier part of the 20th century.[210]
At least 74 species of Iranian wildlife are on the red list of the International Union for
Conservation of Nature, a sign of serious threats against the country's biodiversity.
The Iranian Parliament has been showing disregard for wildlife by passing laws and
regulations such as the act that lets the Ministry of Industries and Mines exploit
mines without the involvement of the Department of Environment, and by approving
large national development projects without demanding comprehensive study of their
impact on wildlife habitats.[211]
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Regions of Iran, Provinces of Iran, and Counties of Iran
See also: List of Iranian cities by population and List of cities in Iran by province
 The 31 provinces of Iran
Iran is divided into five regions with 31 provinces (ostān, ‫)استان‬,[212] each governed by
an appointed governor (ostāndār, ‫)استاندار‬. The provinces are divided
into counties (šahrestān, ‫)شهرستان‬, and subdivided into districts (baxš, ‫ )بخش‬and sub-
districts (dehestān, ‫)دهستان‬.
The country has one of the highest urban growth rates in the world. From 1950 to
2002, the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%. [213] Most
internal migrants have settled around the cities of Tehran, Isfahan, Ahvaz, and Qom.
The listed populations are from the 2006/07 (1385 AP) census.[214][failed verification]
Iran's population is concentrated in its western half, especially in the north, north-
west and west of the country.[215]
Tehran, with a population of around 8.8 million (2016 census), is Iran's capital and
largest city. It is an economical and cultural center and is the hub of the
country's communication and transport network. It is also home to the world's largest
shopping mall, Iran Mall.
The country's second most populous city, Mashhad, has a population of around 3.3
million (2016 census), and is capital of the province of Razavi Khorasan. Being the
site of the Imam Reza shrine, it is a holy city in Shia Islam. About 15 to 20 million
pilgrims visit the shrine every year.[216][217]

Map showing locations for Iran's most populated

cities as of 2010
Isfahan has a population of around 2.2 million (2016 census) and is Iran's third most
populous city. It is the capital of Isfahan province and was also the third capital of
the Safavid Empire. It is home to a wide variety of historical sites, including the
famous Shah Square, Siosepol, and the churches at the Armenian district of New
Julfa. It is also home to one of the world's largest shopping malls, Isfahan City
Center.
The fourth most populous city of Iran, Karaj, has a population of around 1.9 million
(2016 census). It is the capital of Alborz province and is situated 20 km (12 miles)
west of Tehran, at the foot of the Alborz mountain range. It is a major industrial city in
Iran, with large factories producing sugar, textiles, wire, and alcohol.
With a population of around 1.7 million (2016 census), Tabriz is the fifth most
populous city of Iran and had been the second most populous until the late 1960s. It
was the first capital of the Safavid Empire and is now the capital of the province
of East Azerbaijan. It is also considered the country's second major industrial city
(after Tehran).
Shiraz, with a population of around 1.8 million (2016 census), is Iran's sixth most
populous city. It is the capital of the province of Fars and was also the capital of Iran
under the reign of the Zand dynasty. It is located near the ruins
of Persepolis and Pasargadae, two of the four capitals of the Achaemenid Empire.
‹ The template below (Largest cities of Iran) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help
reach a consensus. ›

 v
 t
 e
Largest cities or towns in Iran
2016 census
Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name Province
1 Tehran Tehran 8,693,706 11 Rasht Gilan
2 Mashhad Razavi Khorasan 3,001,184 12 Zahedan Sistan and Baluchest
3 Isfahan Isfahan 1,961,260 13 Hamadan Hamadan
4 Karaj Alborz 1,592,492 14 Kerman Kerman
5 Shiraz Fars 1,565,572 15 Yazd Yazd
Tehran 6 Tabriz East Azarbaijan 1,558,693 16 Ardabil Ardabil
7 Qom Qom 1,201,158 17 Bandar Abbas Hormozgan
8 Ahvaz Khuzestan 1,184,788 18 Arak Markazi
9 Kermanshah Kermanshah 946,651 19 Eslamshahr Tehran

10 Urmia West Azarbaijan 736,224 20 Zanjan Zanjan

Mashhad

Government and politics

Main articles: Politics of Iran and Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran

Iran's syncretic political system combines elements of

an Islamic theocracy with vetted democracy.
The political system of the Islamic Republic is based on the 1979
Constitution.[218] Juan José Linz wrote in 2000 that "it is difficult to fit the Iranian
regime into the existing typology, as it combines the ideological bent
of totalitarianism with the limited pluralism of authoritarianism and holds regular
elections in which candidates advocating differing policies and incumbents are often
defeated".[219] Iran ranked 154th in the 2022 The Economist Democracy Index.[220]
Supreme Leader

Ali Khamenei, the Supreme Leader of Iran, meeting

with his counterpart, China's paramount leader Xi Jinping on 23 January 2016. Iran
and China are strategic partners.[221][222]
The Leader of the Revolution ("Supreme Leader")[223] is the head of state of Iran and
is responsible for delineation and supervision of the policies of the country[224] The
Iranian president has limited power compared to the Supreme Leader
Khamenei.[225] The current longtime Supreme Leader, Ali Khamenei, has been issuing
decrees and making the final decisions on the economy, environment, foreign policy,
education, national planning, and everything else in the
country.[226][227][228] Khamenei also outlines elections guidelines and urges for the
transparency,[229] and has fired and reinstated presidential cabinet
appointments.[230][231] Key ministers are selected with the Supreme Leader Ali
Khamenei's agreement and he has the ultimate say on Iran's foreign policy. [225] The
Supreme Leader is directly involved in ministerial appointments for Defense,
Intelligence and Foreign Affairs, as well as other top ministries after submission of
candidates from the president.[232] Iran's regional policy is directly controlled by the
office of the Supreme Leader with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' task limited to
protocol and ceremonial occasions. All of Iran's ambassadors to Arab countries, for
example, are chosen by the Quds Corps, which directly reports to the Supreme
Leader.[226] The Supreme Leader can also order laws to be amended.[233] Setad,
estimated at $95 billion in 2013 by the Reuters, accounts of which are secret even to
the Iranian parliament,[234][235]