Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
Most modern passenger and military aircraft are powered by gas turbine engines,
which are also called jet engines. The first and simplest type of gas turbine is the turbojet.
Turbojet engines had a significant impact on commercial aviation. Aside from being faster
than piston engines, turbojets had greater reliability. Turbojets are the oldest kind of
general-purpose jet engines and are reaction engines. Turbojet engines operate on Newton’s
third law of motion i.e. “For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction”. Turbojets
consist of an air inlet, an air compressor, a combustion chamber, a gas turbine (that drives
the air compressor) and a nozzle. The air is compressed into the chamber, heated and
expanded by the fuel combustion and then allowed to expand out through the turbine into
the nozzle where it is accelerated to high speed to provide propulsion.

1.1 HISTORY
The first patent for using a gas turbine to power an aircraft was filed in 1921 by
Frenchman Maxime Guillaume. His engine was to be an axial-flow turbojet, but was never
constructed, as it would have required considerable advances over the state of the art in
compressors. On 27 August 1939 the Henkel He 178 became the world's first aircraft to fly
under turbojet power with test-pilot Erich Wrists at the controls, thus becoming the first
practical jet plane. The first two operational turbojet aircraft, the Messerschmitt Me 262 and
then the Gloster Meteor entered service towards the end of World War II in 1944. Early
generation jet engines were pure turbojets, designed initially to use a centrifugal compressor
(as in the Henkel HeS 3), and very shortly afterwards began to use Axial compressors (as in
the Junkers Jumo 004) for a smaller diameter to the overall engine housing. They were used
because they were able to achieve very high altitudes and speeds, much higher than propeller
engines, because of a better compression ratio and because of their high exhaust speed.
However they were not very fuel efficient.

One of the most recent uses of turbojet engines was the Olympus 593 on Concorde.
Concorde used turbojet engines because it turns out that the small cross-section and high
exhaust speed is ideal for operation at Mach 2. Concorde's engine burnt less fuel to produce
a given thrust for a mile at Mach 2.0 than a modern high-bypass turbofan.

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 Chapter 2
VARIOUS PART OF ENGINE

1. AIR INTAKE

2. COMPRESSOR

3. AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR

4. COMBUSTION CHAMBER

5. TURBINES

6. REDUCTION GEAR BOX

7. NOZZLE

Fig.2.1 Various Parts of Engine

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2.1 AIR INTAKE

Preceding the compressor is the air intake (or inlet). It is designed to be as

efficient as possible at recovering the ram pressure of the air stream tube approaching the
intake. The air leaving the intake then enters the compressor. The stators (stationary
blades) guide the airflow of the compressed gases.
2.2 COMPRESSOR
The compressor is driven by the turbine. The compressor rotates at very high speed,
adding energy to the airflow and at the same time squeezing (compressing) it into a smaller
space. Compressing the air increases its pressure and temperature.
The compressors used in turbojet engines are classified as:
 Axial flow compressors.
 Centrifugal compressors.
Compression of inlet air is achieved in a centrifugal flow engine by accelerating air
outward perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the machine. The axial-flow engine
compresses air by a series of rotating and stationary airfoils moving the air parallel to the
longitudinal axis as shown in Fig 3.3. The centrifugal axial flow design uses both kinds of
compressors to achieve the desired compression.
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
A simple centrifugal compressor has four components: inlet, impeller/rotor,
diffuser, and collector. Figure 2.1 shows each of the components of the flow path, with the
flow (working gas) entering the centrifugal impeller axially from right to left. As a result of
the impeller rotating clockwise when looking downstream into the compressor, the flow will
pass through the volute's discharge cone moving away from the figure's viewer.

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 Fig. 2.2 centrifugal compressor
Centrifugal impeller

The key component that makes a compressor centrifugal is the centrifugal impeller,
Figure 01. It is the impeller's rotating set of vanes (or blades) that gradually raises the energy
of the working gas. This is identical to an axial compressor with the exception that the gases
can reach higher velocities and energy levels through the impeller's increasing radius. In
many modern high-efficiency centrifugal compressors the gas exiting the impeller is
traveling near the speed of sound. Impellers are designed in many configurations including
"open" (visible blades), "covered or shrouded", "with splitters" (every other inducer
removed) and "w/o splitters" (all full blades). Both Figures 0.1 and 3.1 show open impellers
with splitters. Most modern high efficiency impellers use "back sweep" in the blade shape.

Diffuser
The next key component to the simple centrifugal compressor is the diffuser.
Downstream of the impeller in the flow path, it is the diffuser's responsibility to convert the
kinetic energy (high velocity) of the gas into pressure by gradually slowing (diffusing) the
gas velocity. Diffusers can be vane less, vanes or an alternating combination. High efficiency
vanes diffusers are also designed over a wide range of solidities from less than 1 to over 4.
Hybrid versions of vanes diffusers include: wedge, channel, and pipe diffusers. There are
turbocharger applications that benefit by incorporating no diffuser.

Collector
The collector of a centrifugal compressor can take many shapes and forms. When the
diffuser discharges into a large empty chamber, the collector may be termed a Plenum. When
the diffuser discharges into a device that looks somewhat like a snail shell, bull's horn or a
French horn, the collector is likely to be termed a volute or scroll. As the name implies, a
collector’s purpose is to gather the flow from the diffuser discharge annulus and deliver
this flow to a downstream pipe. Either the collector or the pipe may also contain valves and
instrumentation to control the compressor.

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 Fig 2.3 Air Suction by Centrifugal Compressor

2.3 AXIAL FLOW COPRESSOR

Axial compressors consist of rotating and stationary components. A shaft drives a

central drum, retained by bearings, which has a number of annular airfoil rows attached
usually in pairs, one rotating and one stationary attached to a stationary tubular casing. A pair
of rotating and stationary airfoils is called a stage. The rotating airfoils, also known as blades
or rotors, accelerate the fluid. The stationary airfoils, also known as stators or vanes, convert
the increased rotational kinetic energy into static pressure through diffusion and redirect the
flow direction of the fluid, preparing it for the rotor blades of the next stage. The cross-
sectional area between rotor drum and casing is reduced in the flow direction to maintain an
optimum Mach number using variable geometry as the fluid is compressed

Fig. 3.4 Pressure and velocity diagram

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 As the fluid enters and leaves in the axial direction, the centrifugal component in the
energy equation does not come into play. Here the compression is fully based on diffusing
action of the passages. The diffusing action in stator converts absolute kinetic head of the
fluid into rise in pressure. The relative kinetic head in the energy equation is a term that exists
only because of the rotation of the rotor. The rotor reduces the relative kinetic head of the
fluid and adds it to the absolute kinetic head of the fluid i.e., the impact of the rotor on the
fluid particles increases its velocity (absolute) and thereby reduces the relative velocity
between the fluid and the rotor. In short, the rotor increases the absolute velocity of the fluid
and the stator converts this into pressure rise. Designing the rotor passage with a diffusing
capability can produce a pressure rise in addition to its normal functioning. This produces
greater pressure rise per stage which constitutes a stator and a rotor together. This is the
reaction principle in turbo machines. If 50% of the pressure rise in a stage is obtained at the
rotor section, it is said to have a 50% reaction.

Fig. 3.5 Axial flow Compressor

Design of axial flow compressor

The increase in pressure produced by a single stage is limited by the relative velocity
between the rotor and the fluid, and the turning and diffusion capabilities of the airfoils. A
typical stage in a commercial compressor will produce a pressure increase of between 15%
and 60% (pressure ratios of 1.15–1.6) at design conditions with a poly tropic efficiency in
the region of 90–95%. To achieve different pressure ratios, axial compressors are designed
with different numbers of stages and rotational speeds. As a general rule-of-thumb we can
assume that each stage in a given compressor has the same temperature rise. Therefore, at the
entry, temperature to each stage must increase progressively through the compressor and the
ratio entry must decrease, thus implying a progressive reduction in stage pressure ratio

6
through the unit. Hence the rear stage develops a significantly lower pressure ratio than the
first stage. Higher stage pressure ratios are also possible if the relative velocity between fluid
and rotors is supersonic, but this is achieved at the expense of efficiency and operability.
Such compressors, with stage pressure ratios of over 2, are only used where minimizing the
compressor size, weight or complexity is critical, such as in military jets. The airfoil profiles
are optimized and matched for specific velocities and turning. Although compressors can be
run at other conditions with different flows, speeds, or pressure ratios, this can result in an
efficiency penalty or even a partial or complete breakdown in flow (known as compressor
stall and pressure surge respectively). Thus, a practical limit on the number of stages, and the
overall pressure ratio, comes from the interaction of the different stages when required to
work away from the design conditions. These “off-design” conditions can be mitigated to a
certain extent by providing some flexibility in the compressor. This is achieved normally
through the use of adjustable stators or with valves that can bleed fluid from the main flow
between stages (inter-stage bleed). Modern jet engines use a series of compressors, running at
different speeds; to supply air at around 40:1 pressure ratio for combustion with sufficient
flexibility for all flight conditions.

COMBUTION CHAMBER

The combustion process increases the internal energy of a gas, which translates into an
increase in temperature, pressure, or volume depending on the configuration. In an enclosure,
for example the cylinder of a reciprocating engine, the volume is controlled and the
combustion creates an increase in pressure. In a continuous flow system, for example a jet
engine combustor, the pressure is controlled and the combustion creates an increase in
volume.This increase in pressure or volume can be used to do work, for example, to move
a piston on a crankshaft or a turbine disc in a gas turbine. If the gas velocity changes, thrust
is produced, such as in the nozzle of a rocket engine. Various shapes of combustion chamber
have been used, such as L-head (or flathead) for side-valve engines;"bathtub",
"hemispherical" and "wedge" for overhead valve engines; and "pent-roof" for engines having
3, 4 or 5 valves per cylinder. The shape of the chamber has a marked effect on power output,
efficiency and emissions; the designer's objectives are to burn all of the mixture as
completely as possible while avoiding excessive temperatures (which create NOx). This is
best achieved with a compact rather than elongated chamber.

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 Fig. 3.6 Combustion Chamber

Swirl
The intake valve/port is usually placed to give the mixture a pronounced "swirl" (the
term is preferred to turbulence which implies movement without overall pattern) above the
rising piston, improving mixing and combustion. The shape of the piston top also affects the
amount of swirl.
Flame front
Finally, the spark plug must be situated in a position from which the flame front can
reach all parts of the chamber at the desired point, usually around 15 degrees after top dead
centre. It is strongly desirable to avoid narrow crevices where stagnant "end gas" can
become trapped, as this tends to detonate violently after the main charge, adding little useful
work and potentially damaging the engine. Also, the residual gases displace room for fresh
air/fuel mixture and will thus reduce the power potential of each firing stroke.

Gas turbine

The combustor is fed with high pressure air by the compression system, adds fuel
and burns the mix and feeds the hot, high pressure exhaust into the turbine components of
the engine or out the exhaust nozzle.

Different types of combustors exist, mainly:

 Can type: Can combustors are self-contained cylindrical combustion chambers. Each
"can" has its own fuel injector, liner, interconnectors, casing. Each "can" get an air

8
 source from individual opening.
 Cannular type: Like the can type combustor, can annular combustors have discrete
combustion zones contained in separate liners with their own fuel injectors. Unlike
the can combustor, all the combustion zones share a common air casing.
 Annular type: Annular combustors do away with the separate combustion zones and
simply have a continuous liner and casing in a ring (the annulus).

Micro combustion chambers are the devices in which combustion happens at a very small
volume, due to which surface to volume ratio increases which plays a vital role in stabilizing
the flame.

2.4 TURBINE

The turbo propeller engine consists of a gas turbine engine driving a propeller.Most of
the energy of the gas flow (air and burned fuel) is used to drive the propeller and compressor.
The remaining energy, in the form of differential velocity of the airflow exiting the turbine,
provides a small amount of residual thrust (effectively, a small amount of jet pro pulsion).
Additional information on the specifics of the gas turbine cycle is provided elsewhere in this
training package.
There are two basic types of turboprop engines:
1. Single shaft
2. Free turbine
The main difference between single shaft and free turbines is in the transmission of the power
to the propeller. In the majority of turboprops, the fuel pump is driven by the engine. This is
known as "direct drive.” In some older types of engines, the fuel pump is driven by the
propeller, which can affect proper response to an engine failure. Refer to type-specific
procedures. Single Shaft. In a single-shaft engine, the propeller is driven by the same shaft
(spool) that drives the compressor. Because the propeller needs to rotate at a lower RPM
than the turbine, a reduction gearbox reduces the engine shaft rotational speed to
accommodate the propeller through the propeller drive shaft. Free Turbine. In a free-turbine
engine, the propeller is driven by a dedicated turbine. A different turbine drives the
compressor; this turbine and its compressor run at near-constant RPM regardless of the
propeller pitch and speed. Because the propeller needs to rotate at lower RPM than the
turbine, a reduction gearbox converts the turbine RPM to an appropriate level for the
propeller. The chief advantage of the free turbine is that it reduces torque loads during
9
engine start, since the start mechanism does not have to rotate the propeller and reduction
gear, but only the compressor and its turbine. In a single-shaft engine, the starter must rotate
not only the engine basic components, but the reduction gear and a propeller as well. An
important requirement of the single-shaft engine is that the propeller must be able to move to
a very fine pitch setting (8° to 12°) before startup of the engine, so that the power required to
turn the propeller while the engine is idling is kept to a minimum. Propellers may be in a
high-pitch or feather condition during the start of free-turbine engines.
The total work of the turboprop gas turbine engine is taken out as shaft horsepower
(S.H.P.) to drive the propeller rather than as the equal-and-opposite kinetic energy of the
accelerated air expelled out the exhaust of a turbojet. However, not all the energy of the air
in a turboprop engine has been used to drive the compressor and propeller; there remains a
small residual amount of energy from the accelerated air. This provides some additional
thrust in the form of jet exhaust. The proportion of total thrust between the propeller and the
jet force is about 90% propeller to 10% jet. It is often useful and sometimes necessary for
the pilot to know the S.H.P. output of a turboprop engine. Since the torque (that is, the
reaction of the complete engine to the power output) is directly proportional to the S.H.P.,
measurement of the torque gives the desired information. Torque meters can be calibrated to
read either torque (ft.-lb.) or S.H.P. The weight of a turboprop engine is about half that of a
comparable piston engine. The propulsive efficiency of the turboprop is at its maximum at
speeds below about 450 knots; above this speed, propeller efficiency falls off.
2.5 REDUCTION GEAR BOX
A reduction drive is a mechanical device to shift rotational speed. A planetary
reduction drive is a small-scale version using bearings in an epicyclical arrangement instead
of toothed gears. Reduction drives are used in engines of all kinds, to increase the amount of
torque per revolution of a shaft: the gearbox of any car is a ubiquitous example of a reduction
drive. Common household uses are washing machines, food blenders and window-winders.

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 Fig 3.7 Reduction Gear Box

Planetary reduction drives are typically attached between the shaft of the variable
capacitor and the tuning knob of any radio, to allow fine adjustments of the tuning capacitor
with smooth movements of the knob. Planetary drives are used in this situation to avoid
"backlash", which makes tuning easier. If the capacitor drive has backlash, when one
attempts to tune in a station, the tuning knob will feel sloppy and it will be hard to perform
small adjustments. Gear-drives can be made to have no backlash by using split gears and
spring tension but the shaft bearings have to be very precise.

Reduction gear box used in small aircraft

Piston-engine light aircraft may have direct-drive to the propeller or may use a
reduction drive. The advantages of direct-drive are simplicity, lightness and reliability, but a
direct-drive engine may never achieve full output, as the propeller might exceed its
maximum permissible rpm. For instance, a direct-drive aero engine (such as the Jabirus
2200) has a nominal maximum output of 64 kW (85 bhp) at 3,300 RPM, but if the propeller
cannot exceed 2,600 rpm, the maximum output would be only about 70 bhp. By contrast,
a Rotax 912 has an engine capacity of only 56% of the Jabiru 2200, but its reduction gear (of
1 : 2.273 or 1 : 2.43) allows the full output of 80 bhp to be exploited. The Midwest twin-
rotor Winkle engine has an eccentric shaft that spins up to 7,800 rpm, so a 2.96:1 reduction
gear is used. Aero-engine reduction gears are typically of the gear type, but smaller two-
stroke engines such as the Rotax 582 use belt drive with toothed belts, which is a cheap and
lightweight option with built-in damping of power surg

Fig. 3.8 Parts of Gear Box

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2.6 NOZZLE
After the turbine, the gases are allowed to expand through the exhaust nozzle to
atmospheric pressure, producing a high velocity jet in the exhaust plume. In a convergent
nozzle, the ducting narrows progressively to a throat. The nozzle pressure ratio on a turbojet
is usually high enough for the expanding gases to reach Mach 1.0 and choke the throat.
Normally, the flow will go supersonic in the exhaust plume outside the engine.
AFTERBURNER
An afterburner or "reheat jet pipe" is a device added to the rear of the jet engine. It
provides a means of spraying fuel directly into the hot exhaust, where it ignites and boosts
available thrust significantly; a drawback is its very high fuel consumption rate. Afterburners
are used mostly on military aircraft, but the two supersonic civilian transports, Concorde and
the TU-144, also utilized afterburners.

Fig.4.1 Afterburner

THRUST REVERSER
A thrust reverser is, essentially, a pair of clamshell doors mounted at the rear of the
engine which, when deployed, divert thrust normal to the jet engine flow to help slow an
aircraft upon landing. They are often used in conjunction with spoilers. The accidental
deployment of a thrust reverser during flight is a dangerous event that can lead to loss of
control and destruction of the aircraft. Thrust reversers are more convenient than drogue
parachute, though mechanically more complex and expensive. thrust reverser.

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Fig.5.1 Thrust Reverser

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 Chapter 3
INTRODUCTION OF GENERAL ELECTRIC J85-GE-17A

A turbojet is a type of gas turbine engine that was originally developed for military
fighters during World War II. A turbojet is the simplest of all aircraft gas turbines. It
consists of a compressor to draw air in and compress it, a combustion section where fuel is
added and ignited, one or more turbines that extract power from the expanding exhaust gases
to drive the compressor, and an exhaust nozzle that accelerates the exhaust gases out the
back of the engine to create thrust. When turbojets were introduced, the top speed of fighter
aircraft equipped with them was at least 100 miles per hour faster than competing piston-
driven aircraft. In the years after the war, the drawbacks of the turbojet gradually became
apparent. Below about Mach 2, turbojets are very fuel inefficient and create tremendous
amounts of noise. Early designs also respond very slowly to power changes, a fact that killed
many experienced pilots when they attempted the transition to jets. These drawbacks
eventually led to the downfall of the pure turbojet, and only a handful of types are still in
production. The last airliner that used turbojets was the Concorde, whose Mach 2 airspeed
permitted the engine to be highly efficient.

Fig. 6.1 J85-17A Jet Engine

14
 The General Electric J85 is a small single-shaft turbojet engine. Military versions
produce up to 2,950 lbf (13.1 kN) of thrust dry, afterburning variants can reach up
to 5,000 lbf (22 kN). The engine, depending upon additional equipment and specific model,
weighs from 300 to 500 pounds (140 to 230 kg). It is one of GE's most successful and
longest in service military jet engines, the civilian versions having logged over 16.5 million
hours of operation. The United States Air Force plans to continue using the J85 in aircraft
through 2040. Civilian models, known as the CJ610, are similar but supplied without an
afterburner, while the CF700adds a rear-mounted fan for improved fuel economy.

specifications
General characteristics

 Type: Turbojet engine (with or without afterburner)

 Length: 45.4–51.1 in (115–130 cm) (depending on accessory equipment installed)
 Diameter: 17.7 in (45 cm)
 Dry weight: 396–421 lb (180–191 kg) (depending on accessory equipment installed)

Components

 Compressor: 8 stages (9 in J85-21) axial

 Combustors: annular
 Turbine: 2 stages
 Fuel type: jet fuel

Performance

 Maximum thrust: 2,850–3,100 lbf (12.7–13.8 kN) (dry)

 Overall pressure ratio: 8.3
 Air mass flow: 45 lb (20 kg) per second
 Turbine inlet temperature: 977C
 Specific fuel consumption: 0.96 - 0.97 lb/(lbf·h) (27 g/kN·s)
 Thrust-to-weight ratio: 7.5 (-21), 6.6 (-5), 6.8 (-13), 7 (-15)

15
Design and development

The J85 was originally designed to power a large decoy missile, the McDonnell
ADM-20 Quail. The Quail was designed to be released from a B-52 Stratofortress in-flight
and fly for long distances in formation with the launch aircraft, multiplying the number of
targets facing the SA-2 surface-to-air missile operators on the ground. This mission
demanded a small engine that could nevertheless provide enough power to keep up with the
jet bomber. Like the similar Armstrong Siddeley Viper being built in England, the engine on
a Quail drone had no need to last for extended periods of time, so therefore could be built of
low-quality materials. The fit was a success on the Quail, but again like the Viper it was later
built with normal grade materials and subsequently used to power small jet aircraft, including
the Northrop T- 38 Talon, Northrop F-5, Canadair CT-114 Tutor, and Cessna A-37
Dragonfly light attack aircraft. More recently, J85s have powered the Scaled Composites
White Knight aircraft, the carrier for the Scaled Composites SpaceShipOne spacecraft, and
the Me 262 Project.

The basic engine design is quite small, about 18 inches (46 cm) in diameter, and 45
inches (110 cm) long. It features an eight-stage axial-flow compressor powered by two
turbine stages, and is capable of generating up to 2,950 lb f (13.1 kN) of dry thrust, or more
with an afterburner. At full throttle at sea level, this engine, without afterburner, consumes
approximately 400 US gallons (1,500 L) of fuel per hour. At cruise altitude and power, it
consumes approximately 100 US gal (380 L) per hour.Several variants were produced. The
J85-21 variant added a stage ahead of the base 8-stage compressor for a total of 9 stages,
improving thrust.More than 12,000 J85 engines had been built by the time production ended
in 1988.[1] Early German turbojets had severe limitations on the amount of running they could
do due to the lack of suitable high temperature materials for the turbines. British engines such
as the Rolls-Royce Welland used better materials giving improved durability. The Welland
was type certificated for 80 hours initially, later extended to 150 hours between overhauls, as
a result of an extended 500 hour run being achieved in tests. [7] A few of the original fighters
still exist with their original engines, but many have been re-engined with more modern
engines with greater fuel efficiency and a

16
longer TBO (such as the reproduction Me-262 powered by General Electric J85s).J85-GE-
17A turbojet engine from General Electric (1970)

General Electric in the United States was in a good position to enter the jet engine
business due to its experience with the high temperature materials used in their turbo
superchargers during World War II. Water injection was a common method used to increase
thrust, usually during takeoff, in early turbojets that were thrust-limited by their allowable
turbine entry temperature. The water, whilst it increased thrust at the temperature limit,
prevented complete combustion often leaving a very visible smoke trail.Allowable turbine
entry temperatures have increased steadily over time both with the introduction of superior
alloys, and coatings, and with the introduction and progressive effectiveness of blade cooling
designs. On early engines the turbine temperature limit had to be monitored, and avoided, by
the pilot, typically during starting and at maximum thrust settings. Automatic temperature
limiting was introduced to reduce pilot workload and reduce the likelihood of turbine damage
due to over temperature.

Fig. 6.2 J85-17B Jet Engine

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 Chapter 4
MERITS AND DEMERITS OF TURBOJET ENGINES

4.1 Merits of Turbojet Engines:

 Very high power-to-weight ratio, compared to reciprocating engines;

 Smaller than most reciprocating engines of the same power rating.
 Moves in one direction only, with far less vibration than a reciprocating engine.
 Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines.
 Low operating pressures.
 High operation speeds.
 Low lubricating oil cost and consumption.

4.2 Demerits of Turbojet Engines:

 Cost.
 Less efficient than reciprocating engines at idle.
 Longer startup than reciprocating engines.
 Less responsive to changes in power demand compared to reciprocating engines.

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 Chapter 5
CONCLUSION

The first two operational turbojet aircraft, the Messerschmitt Me 262 and then the
Gloster Meteor entered service towards the end of World War II in 1944. Early generation jet
engines were pure turbojets, designed initially to use a centrifugal compressor (as in the
Henkel HeS 3), and very shortly afterwards began to use Axial compressors (as in the Junkers
Jumo 004) for a smaller diameter to the overall engine housing. They were used because they
were able to achieve very high altitudes and speeds, much higher than propeller engines,
because of a better compression ratio and because of their high exhaust speed. However they
were not very fuel efficient.

19
 Chapter 6
REFERENCES
 "Turbojet Engine". NASA Glenn Research Center. Retrieved 2009-05-06.
 Maxime Guillaume,"Propulseur par réaction sur l'air," French patent
FR 534801 (filed: 3 May 1921; issued: 13 January 1922)
 Experimental & Prototype US Air Force Jet Fighters, Jenkins & Landis, 2008
 Warsitz, Lutz: THE FIRST JET PILOT - The Story of German Test Pilot Erich
Warsitz (p. 125), Pen and Sword Books Ltd., England, 2009, ISBN 978-1-84415-
818-8
 Larson, George C. (April–May 2010), "Old Faithful", "Air & Space" 25 (1): 80
 Sims, C.T., Chester, A History of Superalloy Metallurgy, Proc. 5th Symp. on
Superalloys, 1984.
 "Rolls-Royce Derwent | 1945". Flight (Flightglobal.com): 448. 1945-
10-25. Retrieved 2013-12-14.
 "Starting Something Big" Robert V. Garvin ISBN1-56347-289-2, p5
 1960 | Flight | Archive
 Cumpsty, Nicholas (2003). "3.1". Jet Propulsion (2nd ed.). Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-54144-1.
"Turbojet Thrust". NASA Glenn Research Center. Retrieved 2009-05-0

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