‘Three types of variables defined by the context within which the variable is discussed ~ Independent and dependent variables Extraneous and confounding variables ~ Continuous and categorical variables 1. Independent and dependent (i.e., cause and effet) — Independent variables act as the “cause” in that they preeede, influence, and predict the dependent variable Dependent variables act as the effect in that they change as a result of being influenced by an independent variable — Examples & The effect of two instructional approaches (independent variable) on student achievement (dependent variable) % The use of SAT scores (independent variable) to predict freshman grade point averages (dependent variable) 2. Extraneous and confounding variables Extrancous variables are those that affect the dependent variable but are not controlled adequately by the researcher Not controlling for the key-boarding skills of students in a study of computer- assisted instruction Confounding variables are those that vary systematically with the independent variable and exert influence of the dependent variable 4 Not using counselors with similar levels of experience in a study comparing the effectiveness of two counseling approaches 3. Continuous and categorical variables Continuous variables are measured on a scale that theoretically can take on an infinite number of values Test scores range from a low of 0 to a high of 100 % Attitude scales that range from very negative at 0 to very positive at § & Students’ ages Categorical variables are measured and assigned to groups on the basis of specific characteristics Examples + Gender: male and female 1When using inferential statistics, provide the descriptive statistics, confidence imervals, and sample sizes for each variable as well as the value of the test statistic, its direction, the degrees of freedom, and the significance level [report the actual p value} Avoid inferring causality, particularly in nonrandomized designs or without further ‘experimentation. Use tables to provide exact values; use figures to convey global effects. Keep figures small in size; include graphic representations of confidence intervals whenever possible, Always tell the reader what to look for in tables and figures. /RENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES. ‘Quantitative method Quantitative data are pieces of information that can be counted and which are usually gathered by surveys from large numbers of respondents randomly selected for inclusion. Secondary data such as census data, government statistics, health system metrics, ete, are often included in quantitative research. Quantitative data is analyzed using statistical methods. Quantitative approaches are best used to answer what, when and who questions and are not well suited to how and why questions. Strengths Weaknesses Findings can be generalized ifselection process Related secondary data is sometimes not is well-designed and sample is representative of available or accessing available data is study population difficulvimpossible Relatively easy to analyze Difficult. to understand context. of a phenomenon Data can be very consistent, precise and reliable Data may not be robust enough to explain complex issues IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH More reliable and objective More reliable and objective Can use statisties to generalize a finding Often reduces and restructures a complex problem to a lijooks at relationships between variables and can establish cause and effect in highly controlled circumstances . Tests theories or hypotheses . Subjectivity of researcher in methodology is recognized less 6 7. Assumes sample is representative of the population 8. 9. Less detailed than qualitative data and may miss a desired response from the participant ——-> LESSON ‘THE NATURE OF VARIABLES All experiments examine some kind of variable(s). A variable is not only something that we measure, but also something that we can manipulate and something we can control for. To understand the characteristics of variables and how we use them in research, this guide is divided into three main sections. First, we illustrate the role of dependent and independent variables. Second, we discuss the difference between experimental and non-experimental research. Finally, we explain how variables can be characterized as either categorical or continuous. VARIABLES: — A variable is label of name that represents a concept or characteristic that varies (c.g., gender, weight, achievement, attitudes toward inclusion, ete.) Conceptual and operational definitions of variables Conceptual and operational definitions of variables ~ Conceptual (i.¢., constitutive) definition: the use of words or concepts to define a variable Achievement: what one has learned from formal instruction % Aptitude: one’s capability for performing a particular task or ski — Operational definition: an indication of the meaning of a variable through the specification of the manner by which it is measured, categorized, or controlled & Attest score % Income levels above and below $45,000 per year 4% The use of holistic or phonetic language instructionOrdinal variables are variables that have two or more categories just like nominal variables only the categories can also be ordered or ranked. So if you asked someone if they liked the policies of the Democratic Party and they could answer either "Not very much”, "They are OK" or "Yes, a lot” then you have an ordinal variable. Why? Because you have 3 categories, namely "Not very much”, "They are OK" and "Yes, a lot" and you can rank them from the ‘most positive (Yes, a lot), to the middle response (They are OK), to the least positive (Not very much). However, whilst we can rank the levels, we cannot place a "value" to them; we cannot say that "They are OK" is twice as positive as "Not very much” for example. Continuous variables are also known as quantitative variables. Continuous variables can be further categorized as cither interval or ratio variables, Interval variables are variables for which their central characteristic is that they can be measured along a continuum and they have a numerical value (for example, temperature measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit), So the difference between 20C and 30C is the same as 30C to 40C, However, temperature measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit is NOT a ratio variable. Ratio variables are interval variables, but with the added condition that 0 (zero) of the measurement indicates that there is none of that variable. So, temperature measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit is not a ratio variable because OC does not mean there is no temperature, However, temperature measured in Kelvin is a ratio variable as 0 Kelvin (often called absolute zero) indicates that there is no temperature whatsoever. Other examples of ratio variables include height, mass, distance and many more. The name “ratio” reflects the fact that you can use the ratio of measurements. So, for example, a distance of ten meters is twice the distance of $ meters, Ambiguities in classifying a type of variable In some cases, the measurement scale for data is ordinal, but the variable is treated as continuous. For example, a Likert scale that contains five values - strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, and strongly disagree - is ordinal. However, where a Likert scale contains seven or more value - strongly agree, moderately agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, moderately disagree, and strongly disagree - the underlying scale is sometimes treated as continuous (although where you should do this is a cause of great dispute). 9Furthermore, according to Badke cited by Baraceros, solving a problem, especially social issues, does not only involved yourself but other members of the society too. Whatever knowledge you have about world bears the influence of your cultural, sociological, institutional, or ideological understanding of the world. (Badke 2012) THE NATURE OF RESEARCH The research process is, for many of us, just the way we do things, We research the best buys in cars and appliances, we research book reviews before shopping for books, we research the best schools for our children and ourselves, and we probably perform some kind of research in our jobs. Our search for information may lead us to interview friends or other knowledgeable people; read articles in magazines, journals, or newspapers; listen to the radio; search an encyclopedia on CD-ROM; and even explore the Internet and World Wide Web for information, We use our local public libraries and our school libraries. Research can be a way of life; itis the basis for many of the important decisions in our lives. Without it, we are deluged with information, subjected to the claims of advertisers, or influenced by hearsay in making sense of the world around us. This informal, experiential research helps us decipher the flood of information we encounter daily. Formal academic research differs from experiential research and may be more investigative in nature, For example, it may require us to learn about an area in which we have little knowledge or inclination to learn. It may be library-oriented or field-oriented, depending on the nature of the research, CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Your goal in conducting quantitative research study is to determine the relationship between fone thing (an independent variable) and another (a dependent or outcome variable) within a population, Quantitative research designs are either descriptive (subjects usually measured once) or experimental (subjects measured before and after a treatment). A descriptive study establishes only associations between variables; an experimental study establishes causality ‘Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance. Quantitative research focuses on numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent reasoning rather than divergentreasoning (i.e., the generation of a variety of ideas about a research problem in a spontaneous, free flowing manner). Its main characteristics are: «The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments. The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population, .. The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability, Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought. |. All. aspects of the study are earefully designed before data is collected. Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other non-textual forms. Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate ‘causal relationships. Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical data, ‘The overarching aim of a quantitative research study is to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed. ‘Things to keep in mind when reporting the results of a study using Quantitative methods: Explain the data collected and their statistical treatment as well as all relevant results in relation to the research problem you are investigating. Interpretation of results is not appropriate in this section. Report unanticipated events that occurred during your data collection. Explain how the actual analysis differs from the planned analysis. Explain your handling of missing data and why any missing data does not undermine the validity of your analysis. Explain the techniques you used to "clean" your data set. Choose # minimally sufficient statistical procedure; provide a rationale for its use and a reference for it. Specify any computer programs used. Deseribe the assumptions for cach procedure and the steps you took to ensure that they were not violated.Socio-economic status: low middle, and high The term fevel is used to discuss the groups or categories © Gender has two levels ~ male and femal * Socio-economic status has three levels - low, middle, and high. Continuous variables can be converted to categorical variables, but categorical variables cannot be converted to continuous variables 1Q is a continuous variable, but the researcher can choose to group students imo three levels based on IQ scores - low is below a score of 84, middle is between 85 and 115, and high is above 116 ‘Test scores are continuous, but teachers typically assign letter grades on a ten point scale (ie., at or below 59 is an F, 60 to 69 is a D, 70 to 79 is aC, 80-89 is a B, and 90 to 100 is an A Categorical and Continuous Variables Categorical variables are also known as discrete or qualitative variables. Categorical variables can be further categorized as nominal, ordinal or dichotomous. Nominal variables are variables that have two or more categories, but which do not have an intrinsic order. For example, a real estate agent could classify their types of property into distinet categories such as houses, condos, co-ops or bungalows. So "type of property” is a nominal variable with 4 categories called houses, condos, co-ops and bungalows. OF note, the different categories of a nominal variable can also be referred to as groups or levels of the nominal variable, Another example of a nominal variable would be classifying where people live in the USA by state, In this case there will be many more levels of the nominal variable (50 in fact) Dichotomous variables are nominal variables which have only two categories or levels. For example, if we were looking at gender, we would most probably categorize somebody as “female”. This is an example of a dichotomous variable (and also a nominal variable). Another example might be if we asked a person if they owned a mobile phone. Here, we may categorize mobile phone ownership as either "Yes" or "No". In the real estate agent example, if type of property had been classified as either residential or commercial then "type of property” would be a dichotomous variable.TYPES OF VARIABLE Dependent and Independent Variables ‘An independent variable, sometimes called an experimental or predictor variable, is a variable that is being manipulated in an experiment in order to observe the effect on a dependent variable, sometimes called an outcome variable. Imagine that a tutor asks 100 students to complete a math test. The tutor wants to know why some students perform better than others. Whilst the tutor does not know the answer to this, she thinks that it might be because of two reasons: (1) some students spend more time revising for their test; and (2) some students are naturally more intelligent than others, As such, the tutor decides to investigate the effect of revision time and intelligence on the test performance of the 100 students, The dependent and independent variables for the study are: Dependent Variable: Test Mark (measured from 0 to 100) Independent Variables: Revision time (measured in hours) Intelligence (measured using IQ score) ‘The dependent variable is simply that, a variable that is dependent on an independent variable(s). For example, in our case the test mark that a student achieves is dependent on revision time and intelligence. Whilst revision time and intelligence (the independent variables) may (or may not) cause a change in the test mark (the dependent variable), the reverse is implausible; in other words, whilst the number of hours a student spends revising and the higher a student's 1Q score may (or may not) change the test mark that a student achieves, a change in a student's test mark has no bearing on whether a student revises more or is more intelligent (this simply doesn’t make sense). Therefore, the aim of the tutor’s investigation is to examine whether these independent variables - revision time and IQ - result in a change in the dependent variable, the students’ test scores. However, it is also worth noting that whilst this is the main aim of the experiment, the tutor may also be interested to know if the independent variables - revision time and IQ - are also connected in some way. In the seetion on experimental and non-experimental research that follows, we find out a little more about the nature of independent and dependent variables.