Stress, Health and Coping 3 definitions of stress 4. Stimulus a. Defined in terms of things causing it (stressors) *I have so much stress in my life. My car died, | have an interview, | lost my phone!” 2. Response a. Reaction that may include cagnitive, physical, behavioural aspects *'m so stressed! | cant concentrate! | have a headache" 3. Interaction (Transaction) a. Person makes cognitive appraisals, and has psychological/behavioural responses, in reaction to environmental demands (stressors) i. Think about event in a particular way, causing one's self stress © Event not itself stressful, just the way one interprets it b. Specifically, feel stress when we perceive demands as being greater than our abilities or resources to cope with them ("it’s too much for me") i. [Greater the imbalance >> Greater the stress] c. Ability to cape with stresses = less pressure of demands Stressor: An eliciting stimulus that places demand on us, to adapt in some way (change from normal, causes us to adapt) © Microstressors; daily hassles and annoyances © Long line at Tim Hortons © Major Negative Event; happens on a more personal level. Affects a small group (one family) © Victim of abuse/crime, death of loved one, majar loss. © Catastrophic Event; unexpected catastrophe that usually affects many people © War, famine, natural disaster © Stressors differ nat only in terms af intensity or severity, also differ in © Predictability = Sudden, unpredictable Duration = long-lasting Controllability m= No control over it Chronicity = Happens repeatedly/ continuouslyCategories of stressors e Acute Stressors; short term, finite stressors © Studying for finals, athletic competition © Chronic Stressors; long-term stresses with no definitive end © Ambient stress; chronic, negative conditions (more about environment) = Excessive noise, pollution, having a dead-end job, living in poverty © Anticipatory stressors; upcoming or future events perceived to be threatening © Ominous sounding meeting with boss (in a week) Stress influenced by culture © Culture sets context in which people experience (and appraise) stress © Differences in types of stressors experienced by specific cultural groups © Racial discrimination © Acculturation; adapting to a new culture can be a major source of stress Stress Response © Starts with cognitive appraisal © Response dependent on one’s perception of situation © Feel stress when demands are greater than our available resources © 4 major aspects of cognitive appraisal 1. Appraise the Demands (Primary Appraisal) a. Whatis the situation? Benign or threatening? b. How badly do you want it (jab, good grade.) 2. Appraise your available Resources (Secondary Appraisal) a. Essentially “Can | deal with this, and how?" i. Look at ane's level of knowledge, verbal/sacial skills, social support system ii, To help us meet demands of situation 3. Appraise Consequences of not coping 2. "How serious are the consequences? How likely would they be? i. Consequences are more serious, more likely >> more stress 4. Appraise the Personal Meaning a. Ifyou fail, what does that say about you as a person? b. self-worth might depend an success for certain situations = feel worthless i fail Each appraisal depends on one's perceptions © May over- or under-estimate demands, resources >> inappropriate stress response © May account for variation between people© After cagnitive appraisal, psychological response ©. Determine that demands > resources = psychological stress response = Blood pressure, skin conductance, heart rate © Although cognitive appraisal starts the process, Physiol. Appraisal can be changed too (re-appraisal of event) Major Sources of Stress © Frustration © Occurs when pursuit of goal is thwarted a= Traffic, tech difficulties [everyday events causing frsutration] © Common culprit of ambient stress at work = Noisy or crowded (at work or library) frustrates us because if want peace and quiet © Conflict © Occurs when two or more (incompatible) motivations ar behavioral impulses compete ©. Internal Conflict m= When something is attractive, you Approach it © Closer you get to the the goal, desirbailty increases = strong “pull” towards it = When something is undesirable, Avoid it © Closer you get to the negative outcome, more repellent it becomes (stronger avoidance) © Avoidance increases faster than Approach © 3 Forms of major internal conflict (plus one) 1. Approach-Approach conflict; must choose between 2 attractive options. *Fly to Hawaii or Maldives? a. Minimal stress; moving toward one aption makes it more desirable, so it quickly dominates 2. Avoidance-Avoidance; must chaose between 2 undesirable options. *hate one’s job, but hate being broke too a. Moving tward ane option makes it seem more repellent > avoid > end up back where yau started i. Most peaple try to stay balanced between both negatives for as lang as possible, leading to high stress and unhappiness 3. Approach-Avoidance; being attracted to and repelled by the same option. *Want to ask someone out, but afraid of rejectiona. Most stressful; approach but then avoidance gets super-strong, Back off. Negative aspects seem low Approach again i. Mast people hang around point of maximum conflict 3b. Double Approach-Avoidance; being attracted to and repelled by each of the 2 options *Living in country= fresh air (+) long commute (-) *Living in city= noisy (-), night life (+) © Delay Discounting; incentive (motivation) value decreases with greate delay *ex. Study now to get good grade on exam? Or watch TV? *as exam approaches, incentive to study increases © Change © Noticeable alterations to your living circumstances that require adjustment = Both positive and negatives changes can produce stress *new job, promotion, birth of a child, lottery © Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) = Developed to measure life changes as forms of stress = Higher scores >> more stressful © Experts argue most of these cause frustration > the real source of stress © Pressure © Expectations/demands to behave a certain way © Pressure to Perform; to do samething quickly, successfully *ex. Salespeople, comedians © Pressure to Conform; to fit others’ expectations *ex. Lawn should be mowed. Get gaod grades (parents) ©. Pressure is often from within Stress Response Emotional Response © Emotions; powerful, largely uncontrollable feelings = Often accompanied by psychological response a Stress = negative emotion © Annoyance, anger [often in response to frustration as a source] © Anxiety, Apprehension, Fear [in response to conflict, pressure, change, sometimes frustration] © Sadness, Grief [in response to frustration, change] © Disclosure vs Bottling it upSloan & Marx (2004) = Examined students who experienced traumatic event © Before study, measured stress, depression and # of reported sick days © Expiremental group asked to write about traumatic event, Controls was not. © Measured everything again, month later = Diclosure; less stress, depression, illness = Stress= sometimes a positive emotion © Gratitude, increased love for family, optimism © Optimism; associated with better adjustment to negative life events, and fewer feelings of helplessness © Linked to better immune functioning, health © Among cancer patients, pessimists die sooner = Regardless of inital severity being the same Pessimism at age 25 predicts poorer health beginning in lite = Optimists are more likely than pessimists to engage in healthy behavior (exercise, nutrition) © Emotional Arousal; how anxios or “amped up" you feel © Strength of emotional response = Yerkes-Dodson Law; inverted-U function; an intermediate level of arousal is best for overall performance © Like the goldilocks principle © Optimal level also depends on task © More complex task > lower arousal = best © Simple task > higher arousal = best © Lowstress & high stress= weak performance © Physiological Response © Automatic Nervous System; controls glands & smooth (involuntary [automatic bady function]) muscles = Digestion, breathing, heart beating, hormones = Pupil dilation/contraction, heart rate, blood pressure increase/decrease © Comprised of sympathetic & parasympathetic Nervous systems = Sympathetic; fight or flight response, reaction to stress © Increased breathing rate, dilated pupils, restricts blood flow for digestion and sends it to muscles© Prepares the body for stress ©. Tends to act as one big unit = Parasympathetic; slows everything down back ta normal levels © happens after sympathetic system © Acts more specifically, slawing 1-2 argans at a time © Breathing returns to narmal fairly quickly; heart rate might take longer = Sympathetic and Parasympathetic systems work together to maintain homeostasis (neutral point the body needs to be in {balanced)) © Work in opposition to one another = Polygraphs (lie detectors) work on assumption that © lying > anxiety > sympathetic nervous system o Heart rate increase, sweat increase © Lots of false alarms ©. Detects anxiety and stress = Aperson could be anxious about investigators nat believing them despite telling the truth © Most modern stresses are chronic or anticipatory stresses. = Linger for a lang time, leaving one in state of high emotional arousal = Hans Selye; effects of long-term stress or constant emotional arousal = GAS syndrome © General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS); physiological response pattern to strong and prolonged stressors 4. Alarm Reaction; rapid increase in physiological arousal a. Sympathetic NS activates stress hormones b. Major stress hormone; cortisol i. Hypothal > Pituitary > Adrenal Glands (HPA) ii. Increases sugar, oxygen to muscles iii. Suppresses immune system (swelling) tance; if stressor continues, bady stays on “red alert” a. Resistance can last a while, continues to deplete body's resources 3. Exhaustion; stressor is so strong ar continues so long that bady’s storage become dangerously low a. Inextreme cases, may result in collapse, illness, or death i. Ex. get through exams, only to get sick 2. Resii. Seyle argued a person's weakest system will be Ist to be affected © Weak cardiovascular system = heart attack © Behavioural Response ©. Largely relate to different kind of coping mechanismsibehaviours = Ex. how do | deal with stress? Vulnerability & Protective Factors © Protective Factors; Environmental/personal factors that help one cope more effectively with stressful events © Ex. social support network, coping skills, personality factors (optimism, “Type B’) © Vulnerability Factors; Increase susceptibility to stressful events © Ex. lack of social support, poor coping skills, tendencies to became anxious/pessimistic Social Support © Knowledge that we can rely an athers for help in a time of crisis © Major environmental protective factor = Conversely, social isolation = vulnerability factor = Ex. studies tracked 37k people in Finland, Sweden, USA for 12 yrs © Controlled age, smoking, blood pressure, cholesterol, obesity, exercise, diet, diet. Found those with weak social ties (but same an all else) were 2x as likely to die during the study © Isolation especially bad for men's health © Baron et al. studied spauses of cancer patients = Injected them with antigen to trigger an immune response = Immune response > greater for spouses with high self-ratings of social support = Especially big differences with higher concentration injections = Marriage is often a primary social relationship © Married individuals have better mental/physical health than same-age unmarried people © Also, tend to have better health habits/behaviours = Unmarried women are more likely to die from heart diseases, cirrhosis of liver, forms of cancer and other preventable diseasesSocial support as a protective factor against stress; © Greater sense of identity & meaning of their lives > greater psychological welkbeing Reduce exposure to other risk factors = Social isolation, loneliness a= Increases feelings of control over stressor Friends apply pressure to avoid maladaptive coping strategies = Ex. use of drugs, alcohol to “deal with’ stress Neuroscience & social support © Social support affecting stress; People with social support may find less situations stressful = Few stressful situations > less stress over lifetime = Suggests differences in amygdala activation when faced with stress Amygdala > Hypothal > Pituitary > Adrenal glands Social support helps people recover faster after (or during) an initial stress response = May find same situations stressful, but with lower stress response or faster recovery process = Suggests differences in prefrontal cortex (PFC) ¢ Emotion regulation; shut dawn stress hormone system © Eisenberger study; = Paged students randomly (aver 10 days) about most recent social interactions © Measure of social support = Later, students do Trier Social Stress Task © Smin speech, videotaped, in front of 2 other non-response students © Told it would later be evaluated by experts © Then, count backward from 2028 by 13s again in front of non-responsive students o If any errors, must start again © Play Cyperball (ex. Play catch an computer) with 2 ather “players[bots}’ while in fMRI [brain imaging technology] © Game 1: 50% of throws go to participants Game 2: receive 7 throws early; then computer stops throwing ta human = Exclusion causes social distress, frustration anxiety, irritation Measured Cortisol levels and brain activity under the stress conditions= Results; ©. Trier Social Stress Task: © Mare social suppart > less cortisol (stress response) = Negative correlation fMRI Cyberball Task © More social support > less activity in Anterior Cingulate Cortex (including Amygdala) = Those who felt more social distress had greater ACC (amygdala) response = No correlations between support and prefrontal cortex © Social support > decreased sensitivity and decreased response to potential stressors Neuroscience & Hand-Holding © Coan et al (2006) © 16 highly satisfied married couples © Wife goes into fMRI, watches screen; = Red X > 20% chance of shock in 10 seconds = Blue O > 0% chance of shock in 10 seconds © Within subjects-design, 3 phases; 1. Wife holds husband's hand 2. Wife holds male stranger's hand 3. No hand-holding © Results; © Spouse’s hand > decreased subjective stress rating & physiological stress response © Stranger’s hand > not as effective = Partially effective; decrease in physiological response & less brain activity in stress regions > less effective © Marital satisfaction = negatively correlated with brain activation when halding spouse's hand (but not strangers) = High satisfaction > less hypothal activityHardiness; characteristics that help one cope with stress © 3C’s= Control, Commitment, Challenge © Control (most important) © Believe they have control over outcomes (power to influence events) © Commitment © Hardy > committed to work, families, and other pursuits. Believe what they are doing is important * Challenge © See demands as challenge/opportunity, not threat Resilience; unexpectedly good recovery after stressar/adversity © Includes positive personal growth often = Ex. grew up in poverty, or abused as kid > grew up to be successful = Ex. tragic loss of child > start charitable foundation for others ©. Resilient people use humor, positive emotions, social support, aptimism, “power of positive thinking © Not as rare as believed to be- especially after traumalloss Coping Self-Efficacy; Belief that we are able to perform the behaviors necessary to cope successfully [related to secondary appraisal] © Very important protective factor © Specific to particular situation's demands [Can 1 handle these demands?) © Bandura’s regular self-efficacy, influenced by: = Previous success/failure in similar situations = Observational learning = Persuasion = Emotional Arousal Personality Factors © TypeA Personality; impatient, short-tempered, competitive, highly motivated © Rapid talking/walking/eating Exaggerated sense of time urgency Agaressive or irritated by delays, obstacles Overreact to anger, physiologically 2x the risk of coronary heart disease; due to negative emotions = Time pressures, anger at obstacles to a goal > hostility = Hostility alienates others, praduces conflict, reduces averall social support © Type B Personality; more laid-back, patient, easy-going, relaxedSpiritual Beliefs © Often helps in coping with stress © Goad for losses, illnesses, setbacks © Ex. loss of infant, or close family member, © Those able to find “higher meaning’ in losses shaw higher well-being, less distress 18months later © Can Increase stress sometimes © Especially for marital problems, abuse = May add guilt, pressure to stay in bad relationship © Sometimes, depends simply on perceptions = Iilelderly; some angry at Gad/church, felt it was God’s punishment = Or demonic possessions > worse physical/psychological adjustment Coping Behaviors Coping; active efforts to master, reduce, tolerate demands created by stress © Coping strategies can be adaptive or maladaptive © Adaptive; [healthy] actively trying to solve a problem by seeking help or generating solutions © Maladaptive; [unhealthy] ignoring problems, indulging in alcohol, excessive eating © Constructive coping strategies; © Confronting problem directly © Effort to change it © Realistic appraisal of stressors and resources © Recognizing and managing aaa disruptive emotional reactions a © Learning to exert control over potentially destructive behaviors Appraisal Based Coping © Ellis’'s A-B-C model; focuses on altering irrational thought process to reduce maladaptive response. **You feel the way you think” © Activating Event: the stressor © Belief System: my appraisals of the situation = Negative appraisals > exaggerate our problems = Positive appraisal > constructive coping © Consequences: results from my thought processCommon View Ellis’ View, © Commonsense view: Activating event >> Consequences © Ellis’s view: Activating Event >> Belief System >> Consequences © Unrealistic, negative appraisals stem from irrational assumptionsithoughts * must be loved and adored by certain (ar all) people” must do well in all endeavors” Events should always go the way | like” © Negative appraisals (and resulting) “catastrophic thinking” can be reduced by: © Learning to detect it when it occurs © Learning to dispute irrational assumptions ©. Reinterpreting stressful situations in positive light ©. Defusing stressful situations through humor = Lessens negative impact of stress on mood = Created more positive appraisals and ss motions sg = Facilitate positive social interactions reducing stress = Except for self-deprecating humor (worse outcome) © Good humor > greater social support, less threatening appraisals of stressors, increased positive emotions3 Types of Coping Strategies 4. Appraisal-Focused Coping © Changing irrational thoughts © Positive reinterpretation 2. Problem-Focused Coping © Attempt to confront the situation directly (ar change it) * Stressing about exam >> study more = Includes seeking social support & assertive confrontation = Includes planing, time management © Suppressing competing activities = Systematic Problem Solving: 4. Clarify the Problem a. Not vague ‘my life isn’t going anywhere" > be Specific b. Dont focus an feeling, the actual problem instead i. Not “i always feel anxious" but“! have too many responsibilities in my life” 2. Generate Alternative Actions a. Not direct “solutions” but things that may improve b. Generate lots of possibilities, not just one (brainstorm) 3. Evalulate Alternatives and Choose Action a. Be realistic, avoid excessive aptimism/pessimism b. Consider pros and cons of each alternative action c. Consider the most likely outcome, Is it favorable? 4, Take Action a. Follow the plan, monitor results b. Revise strategy if results not going well i. Don't label it failure”. Instead, what could have caused it to not work. Learn from errors ii. Try another altemative from the list 3. Emotion-Focused Coping © Try managing emotional response (venting, releasing that response) * Stressing an exam > Netflix = Includes “suboptimal” strategies > avoidance, denial, aggression = Includes many limited-value strategies *Aggression (catharsis), self-indulgence, fantasy, wishful thinking, apathy (giving up) = Can also Include adaptive strategies of managing emotions *Exercise, Meditation, Relaxation techniques = Especially helpful when prablem can not be solved © Emotional Intelligence; ability to perceive, express, regulate emotions= Using emotions to facilitate thought, behavior = Involves knowing how emotions shape thoughts = Involves understanding contradictory emotions = Involves regulating negative emotions = High emotional intelligence >> better social support, mental, physical health, leadership skills Personal Competence: Self-awareness>> Self-management Social Competence: Social Awareness >> Relationship management Expressing Emotions; = Suppressing emotions >> increased stress, autonomic arousal, risk of heart disease = Expressing emotions = important [only healthy/appropriate form] Expression in forms of aggression = exception = Disclosure vs bottling up = lower stress! depression Exercise; = Increases emotional control, decreases emotional distress = Multiple coping-related benefits; © Outlet for frustration © Distraction from stressor © Beneficial for physical, psychological health = Aerobic exercise jogging, swimming] = best for stress Meditation; = Combo of mental exercises with attempts to focus attention in non-analytical way = Benefits © Physical; decrease heart rate, respiration, lower cortisol, oxygen consumption © Psychological; lower anxiety/depression/stress, increased mood and happiness Mindfulness (3 components) 1. Full awareness of one’s emotions, thoughts, actions, environment 2. Focus attention on present (not past future) 3. Experience each moment as itis, without bias & judgement based on expectations, wishes, fears © Training helps reduce stress, regulate emotions, improve health/well-being Mindfulness & Teachers Roeser et al. (2013) © 4 teachers get mindfulness training program = 59 teachers assigned to control groups© Before study, groups were of same age, teaching experience, stress © After training (3 mon. later) experimental group [teachers with training] had: = Less self-reported job stress = Fewer symptoms of anxiety, depression, burnout Comparing Coping Strategies © Most effective strategy Appraisal- and problem-facused = linked to goad adjustment to stress = Some emotion-focused strategies involve avoiding or distorting reality > poor adjustment, depression *Avoidance, denial, wishful thinking *Taking anger out on others = Some emotion-focused strategies are good [mindfulness] © Learning relaxation/meditation, physical exercise In some cases, emotion-focused may be the best = When we can't change situation, prablem-focused is ineffective >> cause more frustration, stress *person with cancer All three can be effective, depends partially on situation, appropriateness of technique = Depends on skills with which strategy is applied © Worst strategies ©. Self-medication; using unprescribed drugs [alcohol] to regulate negative stress-related emotions = Depressant effects of alcohal does lessen emotional impact of stress, PTSD = Alcoholism >> negative reinforcement cycle ©. Self-injury; deliberately harming oneself without suicidal intention = More common in teens; often associated with history of abuse *cutting, burning, scratching, hair pulling Gender, Culture, Coping © Sex differences in coping strategies © Men use problem-focused as 1st strategy = Due to socialization of male independence © Women tend to seek social support as ‘st strategy = Slightly more likely to use emotion-focused coping than men © Cultural differences; © N.Americans, Europeans >> Problem-focused © Asian, Hispanic >> social support, emotion focused= Asian > avoid interpersonal stressors more (due to cultural emphasis on interpersonal harmony) Limited-Value Strategies 1. Aggression; [acting out] behaviour intended to hurt someone (physically/mentally) © Ex. insults, swearing © Displacement; often act aggressively to someane who is not at fault = Ex. cant yell at boss, so yell at sibling = Common outcome of frustration. Cause of Road Rage © Gatharsis; Freud’s idea that we should release pent-up aggression = Advice to “blow off steam’ = Research showed aggression does NOT lead to decrease in anger. Increases aggressive tendencies instead © True for even cathartic activities (ex. vialent video games) 2. Self-Indulgence; when things going poorly in one area of life, we develop “altemative rewards’ for ourselves © Come up with “substitutes” to make us feel better = Ex. shopping, eating, gambling, drugs = Ex. Internet Addiction © inordinate amount of time anline, inability to control tech usage © anxiety/depressed when nat online © Interferes with daily functioning © Not always a bad strategy, becomes bad when used constantly m= Ex. constant ice cream = fine = Ex. Chronic overeating / drug use = bad = Often feel regret, guilt after usage = Drug use endangers health, work, relationships 3. Self-Blame; being highly critical of oneself during stress © Also known as Catastrophic Thinking = Ex. Failures = result of personal shortcomings = Focus on negative feedback, ignore positive = Pessimistic about future © Especially problematic for people who experience traumatic events = Ex. victims of sexual assault suffer from PTSD if blaming themselves = Ex. health issues, depression, anxiety 4. Defence Mechanisms; distorting/denying reality © Rooted in Freud’s Psychoanalytic TheoryInclude trying to disguise our own desires Denial; refuse to acknowledge unpleasant reality Fantasy; deluding onself Overcompensation; make up for real (or imagined) deficiencies by focusing extra-hard on other (desirable) characteristics © Common, but not good caping strategies m= Increase risk of depression, suicide = Avoiding problems and “wishful thinking" [both of which rarely work] = Defense mechanisms associated with higher anxiety it stressor is anticipated 5. Giving Up; yield control or surrender © Learned Helplessness; passive behavior due to exposure to unavoidable, aversive events © We believe we can nat control unpleasant events, so we do not try = Beliefs not always accurate, but by thinking nothing will change, we ultimately do nothing [self-fulfilling prophecy] © Ex.‘i'm bad at math’ tums into a belief that "no amount of effort will change it.” Associated with increased depression, anxiety © Martin Seligman expirement; © Dogs given unavoidable shacks © Later, placed in a room where they had a chance to avoid shicks © Results; the dogs did not even try to avoid the shocks. Activity Joe has one elective course to choose. He wants to take Art History, but at the time itis to be given, a course in Psychology is being offered, taught by a professor who was highly recommended = 2+ choices= Approach Approach Conflict Joe is required to take a course in mathematics. He can choose a Survey course that he considers dull or an/algebra course that he anticipates will be quite difficult = 2-choices= Avoidance Avoidance Conflict Joe wants to take the Cognitive Psychology course next year but it's taught by a professor he thinks is obnoxious = 1+ choice, 1 - choice= Approach Avoidance Conflict© Joe is required to take a course in physics or biolagy. He feels physics is more interesting, but he is afraid his poor background in mathematics would keep him from doing well in it. Biology is dull, but he could manage it = Each choice; + and -= Double Appraoch Avoidance Conflict