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DESIGN OF EX-OR GATE USING DIODE CIRCUIT

INTRODUCTION:
An XOR gate (also known as an EOR, or EXOR gate) – pronounced as
Exclusive OR gate – is a digital logic gate that gives a true (i.e. a HIGH or 1)
output when the number of true inputs is odd. An XOR gate implements an
exclusive OR, i.e., a true output result occurs if one – and only one – of the gate’s
inputs is true. If both inputs are false (i.e. LOW or 0) or both inputs are true, the
output is false.XOR represents the inequality function, i.e. the output is true if the
inputs are not alike; otherwise, the output is false. A common way to remember
the XOR is “must have one or the other, but not both”.

AIM:
To design the circuit of EX-OR gate using Diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO COMPONENT NAME SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

1. Battery 9V 1
2. Zener Diode IN4148 4
3. Resistor 10 KΩ 1
4. Connecting wires Single Strand 2m
5. Bread Board -- 1
6. Light Emitting Diode 3V 1
7. Transistor 2N3906 1
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect terminals of Zener diode in the form of a bridge as shown in figure.
2. Logic inputs are given to two terminal ends of diodes.
3. End terminal of the resistor is connected to the emitter of the transistor.
4. Output indicator i.e LED is connected from the collector of the transistor to the
Ground.
5. Ground is connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
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DESCRIPTION OF MATERIAL USED:

ELECTRIC WIRES:

A wire is a flexible strand of metal.Wire is commonly formed

by drawing the metal through a hole in a die or draw plate. Wire
gauges come in various standard sizes, as expressed in terms of a gauge
number.Electrical wires are usually covered with insulating materials,
such as plastic, rubber-like polymers, or varnish. Insulating and
jacketing of wires and cables is nowadays done by passing them
through an extruder. Formerly, materials used for insulation included
treated cloth or paper and various oil-based products.

FORMS

SOLID

Solid wire, also called solid-core or single-strand wire, consists of one

piece of metal wire. Solid wire is useful for wiring breadboards. Solid wire is
cheaper to manufacture than stranded wire and is used where there is little need
for flexibility in the wire. Solid wire also provides mechanical ruggedness; and,
because it has relatively less surface area which is exposed to attack by
corrosives, protection against the environment.

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STRANDED

Stranded wire is composed of a number of small wires bundled or wrapped

together to form a larger conductor. Stranded wire is more flexible than solid
wire of the same total cross-sectional area. Stranded wire is used when higher
resistance to metal fatigue is required. Such situations include connections
between circuit boards in multi-printed-circuit-board devices, where the rigidity
of solid wire would produce too much stress as a result of movement during
assembly or servicing; A.C. line cords for appliances; musical instrument cables;
computer mouse cables; welding electrode cables; control cables connecting
moving machine parts; mining machine cables; trailing machine cables; and
numerous others. At high frequencies, current travels near the surface of the wire
because of the skin effect, resulting in increased power loss in the wire.

Stranded wire might seem to reduce this effect, since the total surface area
of the strands is greater than the surface area of the equivalent solid wire, but
ordinary stranded wire does not reduce the skin effect because all the strands are
short-circuited together and behave as a single conductor. A stranded wire will
have higher resistance than a solid wire of the same diameter because the cross-
section of the stranded wire is not all copper; there are unavoidable gaps between
the strands (this is the circle packing problem for circles within a circle).

A stranded wire with the same cross-section of conductor as a solid wire is

said to have the same equivalent gauge and is always a larger diameter. However,
for many high-frequency applications, proximity effect is more severe than skin
effect, and in some limited cases, simple stranded wire can reduce proximity
effect. For better performance at high frequencies, litz wire, which has the
individual strands insulated and twisted in special patterns, may be used.

The more individual wire strands in a wire bundle, the more flexible, kink-
resistant, break-resistant, and stronger the wire becomes. However, more strands
increases manufacturing complexity and cost. For geometrical reasons, the
lowest number of strands usually seen is 7: one in the middle, with 6 surrounding
it in close contact. The next level up is 19, which is another layer of 12 strands on
top of the 7. After that the number varies, but 37 and 49 are common, then in the
70 to 100 range (the number is no longer exact). Larger numbers than that are
typically found only in very large cables. For application where the wire moves,
19 is the lowest that should be used (7 should only be used in applications where
the wire is placed and then does not move), and 49 is much better. For
applications with constant repeated movement, such as assembly robots
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and headphone wires, 70 to 100 is mandatory[citation needed]. For applications
that need even more flexibility, even more strands are used (welding cables are
the usual example, but also any application that needs to move wire in tight
areas). One example is a 2/0 wire made from 5,292 strands of No. 36 gauge wire.

The strands are organized by first creating a bundle of 7 strands. Then 7 of

these bundles are put together into super bundles. Finally 108 super bundles are
used to make the final cable. Each group of wires is wound in a helix so that
when the wire is flexed, the part of a bundle that is stretched moves around the
helix to a part that is compressed to allow the wire to have less stress.

Prefused wire is stranded wire made up of strands that are heavily tinned,
then fused together. Prefused wire has many of the properties of solid wire,
except it is less likely to break.

BRAIDED
A braided wire consists of a number of small strands of wire braided
together. Braided wires do not break easily when flexed. Braided wires are often
suitable as an electromagnetic shield in noise-reduction cables.

CARBON RESISTORS:

Carbon resistors are one of the most common types of electronics used.
They are made from a solid cylindrical resistor element with embedded wire

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leads or metal end caps. Carbon resistors come in different physical sizes with
power dissipation limits, commonly from 1 watt down to 1/8 watt.

There are many materials used to produce resistance, particularly metals

and alloys like nichrome, brass, platinum and tungsten alloys. However, most of
these metals have low electrical resistivity, unlike carbon resistors, which makes
it difficult to produce high resistance without becoming bulky. We already know
that:
R ∝ 1/A
They may, however, give extremely precise resistance measurements and
are hence commonly used to calibrate and compare resistances.

USES OF CARBON RESISTORS

The carbon resistor contains carbon coated onto a ceramic core. A spiral is
etched on the deposited carbon, which turns it into a wire wound on a ceramic
core.

Depending on the resistance required, pitch, diameter and length of the

carbon spiral vary. Nickel caps are attached to both ends of the core so as to
create good contact between the carbon and lead. The leads are soldered onto the
nickel caps and the entire resistor is coated with lacquer for electrical insulation.

For small resistances required for small currents, the metal caps act as heat
sinks to carry away heat dissipated by the resistor.

For larger current requirements, a metal heat sink is separately attached to

carry away excess heat and to prevent the resistor from burning up.

Carbon resistors are specially colour-coded to identify the resistance.

PARTS OF A CARBON RESISTOR

Resistors can be constructed out of a variety of materials. The different

parts of a carbon resistor are:
 Ceramic Core
 Nickel Cap
 Lead
 Carbon Film
 Protective Lacquer
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The internal structure of a carbon resistor is shown in the image above.

LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE):

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits

light when current flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine
with electron holes, releasing energy in the form of photons. The color of the
light (corresponding to the energy of the photons) is determined by the energy
required for electrons to cross the band gap of the semiconductor. White light is
obtained by using multiple semiconductors or a layer of
lightemitting phosphor on the semiconductor device.

LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources, including

lower power consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller
size, and faster switching. In exchange for these generally favorable attributes,
disadvantages of LEDs include electrical limitations to low voltage and generally
to DC (not AC) power, inability to provide steady illumination from a pulsing
DC or an AC electrical supply source, and lesser maximum operating
temperature and storage temperature.

In contrast to LEDs, incandescent lamps can be made to intrinsically run at

virtually any supply voltage, can utilize either AC or DC current interchangeably,
and will provide steady illumination when powered by AC or pulsing DC even at
a frequency as low as 50 Hz. LEDs usually need electronic support components
to function, while an incandescent bulb can and usually does operate directly
from an unregulated DC or AC power source.

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BLUE LED

The first blue-violet LED using magnesium-doped gallium nitride. Today,

magnesium-doping of gallium nitride remains the basis for all commercial blue
LEDs and laser diodes. In the early 1970s, these devices were too dim for
practical use, and research into gallium nitride devices slowed.

In August 1989, Cree introduced the first commercially available blue LED
based on the indirect bandgap semiconductor, silicon carbide (SiC).SiC LEDs
had very low efficiency, no more than about 0.03%, but did emit in the blue
portion of the visible light spectrum.

In the late 1980s, key breakthroughs in GaN epitaxial growth and p-

type doping ushered in the modern era of GaN-based optoelectronic devices.
Building upon this foundation, Theodore Moustakas at Boston University
patented a method for producing high-brightness blue LEDs using a new two-
step process in 1991.

DIODE:

A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electricity

primarily in one direction. It has high resistance on one end and low resistance on
the other end. In this article, let us understand in detail about what is diode and
diode symbol.

Diodes are used to protect circuits by limiting the voltage and to also
transform AC into DC. Semiconductors like silicon and germanium are used to
make the most of the diodes. Even though they transmit current in a single
direction, the way with which they transmit differs. There are different kinds of
diodes and each type has its own applications.

A standard diode symbol is represented as above. In the above diagram, we

can see that there are two terminals that are known as anode and cathode. The
arrowhead is the anode that represents the direction of the conventional current
flow in the forward biased condition. The other end is the cathode.
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DIODE CONSTRUCTION

Diodes can be made of either of the two semiconductor materials, silicon

and germanium. When the anode voltage is more positive than the cathode
voltage, the diode is said to be forward-biased, and it conducts readily with a
relatively low-voltage drop. Likewise, when the cathode voltage is more positive
than the anode, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. The arrow in the diode
symbol represents the direction of conventional current flow when the diode
conducts.

Types of Diodes
 Light Emitting Diode
 Laser diode
 Avalanche diode
 Zener diode
 Schottky diode
 Photodiode
 PN junction diode

DIFFERENT DIODES AND THEIR NOTATION

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

When an electric current between the electrodes passes through this diode,
light is produced. In other words, light is generated when a sufficient amount of
forwarding current passes through it. In many diodes, this light generated is not
visible as there are frequency levels that do not allow visibility. LEDs are
available in different colours. There are tricolour LEDs that can emit three
colours at a time. Light colour depends on the energy gap of the semiconductor
used.
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LASER DIODE

It is a different type of diode as it produces coherent light. It is highly used

in CD drives, DVDs and laser devices. These are costly when compared to LEDs
and are cheaper when compared to other laser generators. Limited life is the only
drawback of these diodes.

AVALANCHE DIODE

This diode belongs to a reverse bias type and operates using the avalanche
effect. When voltage drop is constant and is independent of current, the
breakdown of avalanche takes place. They exhibit high levels of sensitivity
and hence are used for photo detection.

ZENER DIODE

It is the most useful type of diode as it can provide a stable reference

voltage. These are operated in reverse bias and break down on the arrival of a
certain voltage. If current passing through the resistor is limited, a stable voltage
is generated. Zener diodes are widely used in power supplies to provide a
reference voltage.

SCHOTTKY DIODE

It has a lower forward voltage than other silicon PN junction diodes. The
drop will be seen where there is low current and at that stage, voltage ranges
between 0.15 and 0.4 volts. These are constructed differently in order to obtain
that performance. Schottky diodes are highly used in rectifier applications.

PHOTODIODE

A photo-diode can identify even a small amount of current

flow resulting from the light. These are very helpful in the detection of the light.
This is a reverse bias diode and used in solar cells and photometers. They are
even used to generate electricity.

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P-N JUNCTION DIODE

The P-N junction diode is also known as rectifier diodes. These diodes are
used for the rectification process and are made up of semiconductor material. The
P-N junction diode includes two layers of semiconductors. One layer of the
semiconductor material is doped with P-type material and the other layer with N-
type material. The combination of these both P and N-type layers form a junction
known as the P-N junction.Hence, the name P-N junction diode.

P-N junction diode allows the current to flow in the forward direction and
blocks the flow of current in the reverse direction.

BATTERY:

Batteries are a collection of one or more cells whose chemical reactions

create a flow of electrons in a circuit. All batteries are made up of three basic
components: an anode (the '-' side), a cathode (the '+' side),and some kind of
electrolyte (a substance that chemically reacts with the anode and cathode).

When the anode and cathode of a battery is connected to a circuit, a

chemical reaction takes place between the anode and the electrolyte. This
reaction causes electrons to flow through the circuit and back into the cathode
where another chemical reaction takes place. When the material in the cathode or
anode is consumed or no longer able to be used in the reaction, the battery is
unable to produce electricity. At that point, your battery is "dead."

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Batteries that must be thrown away after use are known as primary batteries.
Batteries that can be recharged are called secondary batteries.

Lithium polymer batteries, for example, can be recharged Without batteries,

your quadcopter would have to be tethered to the wall, you would have to hand
crank your car, and your Xbox controller would have to plugged in all the time
(like in the good old days). Batteries offer a way to store electrical potential
energy in a portable container.

Batteries come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and chemistries. The invention

of the modern battery is often attributed to Alessandro Volta. It actually started
with a surprising accident involving the dissection of a frog.

BREADBOARD:

Breadboard which is also known as prototyping board or solderless board is

one of the most fundamental equipment required when learning how to build
circuits and also in Research and development, or in the laboratory. Since
solderless board does not require soldering, it is reusable creating temporary
prototypes and experiments in circuit design. These Breadboards are extremely
popular with students and educational institutions.

Breadboard consists of a perforated block of plastic with numerous nickel

alloy spring clips under the perforations. The clips are often called tie points or
contact points. This breadboard has 840 tie points and multiple breadboards can
be hooked up together making it a larger board with more tie points

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FEATURES

 640 tie points for connections with 5 connected terminals in each row
 200 connections with 5 connected terminals in four columns for power
connections
 Good to prototype DIP IC's, Transistors, Diodes, LED's, Resistors, Capacitors
pots and most other electronic components
 Adhesive sheet on the back side of the board to stick on your working table

SPECIFICATIONS

 Nickel Plated 840 Points Breadboard for Prototyping circuits

 840 Tie Points - 128 groups of 5 connected terminals, 8 bus of 25 connected
terminals
 Useful to build a prototype of an electronic circuits
 Quick connection to transistors, diodes, LEDS, resistors, capacitors and
almost all types of components
 Adhesive sheet on the back side of the board
 Multiple breadboards can be spliced together to make a bigger board

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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TRUTH TABLE:

INPUT OUTPUT
A B A .B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

OBSERVATION:

CASE I:
When A=1 and B=0, The output =1.

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CASE II:
When A=1 and B=1, The output =0.

CASE III:
When A=0 and B=1 ,The output=1.

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CASE IV:
When A=0 and B=0,The output =0.

CONCLUSION:
The Exclusive-OR gate gives an output given by the expression “A or B not
Both”. It means that the output of the Exclusive-OR gate is low when both inputs
“A” and “B” are at the same logic level i.e. both “HIGH” or “LOW”. In the case
of, either “A” or “B” that is “01” or “10” the output of the Exclusive-OR gate
will be “HIGH”.

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BIBILIOGRAPHY:

1.
EX-OR gate - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org › wiki › AND_gate

2.
Textbooks PDF (I-XII) - NCERT
https://ncert.nic.in › textbook

3.
logic gate (AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR and XNOR)
https://www.techtarget.com › whatis › definition › logic-g...

4.
Logic Gates - Tutorialspoint
https://www.tutorialspoint.com › logic_gates

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