6.

HYDROLOGICAL FLOW MEASUREMENT

6. Introduction
In this chapter, the different methods of measuring flow in open channels, streams and
rivers using measuring devices such as flumes and weirs will be discussed.

Outcomes

At the end of this chapter the student should be able to:

• Differentiate between the flow measuring devices.

• Be able to apply calculations to determine the flow for different kinds of flow
measuring devices.
Background of open channel flow measuring
Uniform and reliable water measurement data are needed in order to identify the water
resource capacities, quality of water and determine the results of conservation efforts.
Numerous methods are available to measure flow in open channels. Open channel
flow refers to flow in rivers, streams, canals, partially filled pipes and irrigation ditches.
The type of method that is chosen for a given situation is chosen based on the budget,
the accuracy needs and the reporting requirements (Yoder et al., 2015).If inaccurate
flow measurement data is fed to the hydrologist, costly mistakes can be made, e.g.
the construction of a dam that might eventually never supply the expected amount of
water, because of the underestimation of flow at the measurement structure in the
river under consideration. The design of flow measuring structure is done by the
Department of Water and Sanitation in South Africa.

Measurements of open channel flow are done using standard flow measuring devices
such as weirs and flumes (Yoder et al., 2015). A flow measuring device is a restriction
that is placed in an open channel and that has a known depth-to-flowrate relationship.
After a weir or flume has been installed, a measurement of the depth of the water is
used to calculate flowrate. Charts are available that correlate various water depths
with flowrates, taking into account different types and sizes of weirs and flumes.
6.1 FLOW MEASURING DEVICES
6.1.1 WEIRS
Weirs are overflow structures built across an open channel to measure the flow rate
of water. A weir of a specific size and shape with free-flow steady-state conditions and
proper weir-to-pool relationships, only has one depth of water in the upstream pool for
a given discharge. The discharge rates are determined by measuring the vertical
distance from the crest of the overflow portion of the weir to the water surface in the
pool upstream from the crest and referring to computations or tables which apply to
the size and shape of the weir.

Before designing flow measurement structures/devices, the following knowledge

should be available:

• Where the flow measurement structure will be positioned in the stream, river or
channel.
• What the practical height of the crest above the channel bottom is.
• What the length of the crest is.
• Submergence conditions should be known, if the downstream depth increases.
• Equations to be applied for different flow conditions. (e.g. free flow,
submergence flow)
https://usbr.gov/tsc/techreferences/mands/wmm/chap07_03.html (access this link to
view the different type of weirs and gain more insight on behaviour of flow over weirs).

Weirs are named after the shape of their opening. You get the following range of weirs;
rectangular, broad crested, crump, v-notch, etc. Illustrations of different types of weirs
are shown below:

A. Rectangular Weir
In a rectangular weir the bottom edge of the opening is called the crest and the
side edges are called sides. The sheet of water leaving the crest is referred to
as the nappe. (see Figure 1 & 2)

Weirs get exposed to different flow conditions; it is important to note the

following:
 • When the water depth downstream does not allow for free aeration
around the nappe, the discharge rate increases because of the low
pressure under the nappe.
• In cases where the water level at the nappe is above the weir’s crest
elevation, the flow is considered submerged (The weir will be drowned
in the water).
• To calculate flow/discharge rate under submerge conditions, both the
upstream and downstream elevations should be gauged and then
reference made to the submerged flow tables.
• When the weir is submerged the under-nappe airspace has to be
ventilated in order to maintain near atmospheric pressure.
• When the water level downstream is sufficiently below the crest, free
access of air is allowed to the area beneath the nappe. The flow under
this condition is labelled as being FREE.
• Free flow/discharge is a standard condition and the rate of free flow or
discharge can be calculated from the upstream elevation, weir size and
shape.
• Its important to know that submerged and non-ventilated flows are not
favourable and should be avoided. This is because under if the weir in
your system is exposed to submergence, the readings taken by your
operators will show that the flow rate is much higher than it is in reality.
Calculations can be applied to correct for submergence. However, this
means that your operators will need to understand the proper method
for submergence correction.
For a simpler explanation of the submergence and free flow conditions, please access
this link : https://tracomfrp.com/differences-submerged-free-weir-flow/

For additional reading, please go through Chapter 6 & 7 only by clicking on the link :
https://usbr.gov/tsc/techreferences/mands/wmm/
Figure 1: Downstream view of the rectangular weir

Figure 2: Section through weir

B. Broad Crested Weir

A broad crested weir has an obstruction of a raised, flat upper bed portion in the
direction of flow, allowing the water surface to be parallel to the crest of the weir. The
upstream edges can either be rounded or sharp edged to avoid separation losses (See
figure 3). Weirs with rounded upstream edge are called rounded edge broad crested
weirs and the weirs with upstream edge that are sharp edge are called square edged
broad crested weirs.

Figure 3: Illustration of a broad-crested weir

The following flow conditions over a broad crested weir should be noted:

• When flow velocity upstream is very slow and the flow conditions downstream
allow free flow over the weir, the flow over the weir will pass through a critical
depth (dc) (See figure 3).
• See figure 4. For a rectangular channel, you apply the following equation to
determine the critical depth:
dc =(Q2/gB2)1/3
where B= the width of the channel (meters)
g= gravitational acceleration constant (9.81 m/s2)
Q= flow rate (m3/s)
• The critical depth formula can be re-arranged as following, to make Q the
subject of the formula:
Q = B(g.dc3)1/2
Where dc= 2/3(E)
E is the total energy height measured from the crest of the weir and can
determined by:
 E= H+ V2/2g
Where H= height of the upstream water (meters)
V= flow velocity in the upstream pool of water (meters per second)
Q can therefore be expressed as Q = 1.705 B(E)1.5
In flow conditions where the upstream depth is larger than the depth over the
weir, V2/2g is negligible.

Figure 4: Section through a rounded edge broad-crested weir

Example

The figure below shows the flow in a rectangular channel with a rounded-edge broad-
crested weir as measurement structure. The channel upstream width is 11.5 m.
Determine the actual discharge by the step-by step method.
Solution

In the step-by-step method the following procedure is to be followed;

Step 1:

Determining the upstream flow velocity (V) in the channel by the continuity equation

(V = Q/A). Assume, for a first approximation that Q = O.

Step 2:

Calculate the V2/2g - component of the energy-height at the upstream position where
H was measured.

Step 3:

Add this to H to get the total energy-height (E) on the crest of the broad-crested weir
as shown in figure 4

Step 4:

Calculate the discharge (Q)

Step 5:

Rework through the procedure by using the Q obtained in Step (4) in Step (1), as
shown below:

Step 1:

V =Q/A

where the area is where H is measured.

The area (A) = 11,5 (1,4 + 0,4)

= 20,700 m2
But Q is to be taken as zero, so V = 0.

Step 2:

V2/2g= 0/2g = 0

Step 3:

E = H + V2/2

= 0,4 + 0 = 0,4 m

Step 4:

Q = 1,705 B (E) 1,5

= 1,705 (11,5) (0,4) 1,5

= 4,960 m3/s

By reworking through the process, we get

V = 4,960 / 20,7 = 0,2396 m/s

and

V2/2g = (0,2396)2/ 2(9,81) = 0,0029 m

E = 0,4+0,0029 = 0,4029

then

Q = 1,705 (11,5) (0,4029)1,5

= 5,0144 m3/s.

From here onwards, Q does not change much as shown below:

Steps Third Iteration Fourth Iteration

V (m/s) 0,2422 0,2423
V2/2g (m) 0,0030 0,0030
E (m) 0,4030 0,4030
Q (m3/s) 5,0161 5,016
The flow measured by the weir, is then 5,016m3/s. By iterating many times Q will stay
the same and can then be taken as the final answer.

C. Crump Weir
Crump weir was developed in England by E.S. Crump, and his research was published
in 1952. Today the crump structure is widely used in South Africa in open channels
and in rivers, mainly because of the advantages that it is not greatly affected by:

• The high approach velocities

• Submergence
Crump weir is also referred to as triangular weir because of its geometric shape
(triangular crest with upstream slope of 1:2 and downstream slope of 1:5) See figure
5.

Figure 5: Section through horizontal crest crump weir

The following flow conditions over a crump weir should be noted:

• When flow rate (Q) increases, the downstream water level (Hd) will rise up to
the point where it influences the reading of the upstream water level (H). This
courses submergence conditions to exist and a different formula should then
be applied.
• The equation for horizontal crest “Crumps” for free flow conditions, becomes
 Q = CD (g)1/2b(E)1.5

Because CD = 0,6327 and g = 9,81 m/s, Q can be said to be Q= 1.982 b(E)1.5

Where: b = upstream width of channel

H = is measured (m) which is the width of the “Crump”

E = total energy height in meter from the crest of the weir by adding V2/2g

Q = discharge in m3/s.

To calculate flow rate for flow conditions over a crest crump weir the Step by Step
Method can be applied.

Example

In an 8 m-wide rectangular channel, a horizontal-crest Crump weir is used to measure

the discharge for irrigation purposes. The crest of the Crump is 0,49 m above the
channel bottom. Determine the discharge by the step-by-step when H was found to be
300mm and free flow conditions existed.

Solution

A= 8(0,49 + 0,3) = 6,320 m2

Then Q= 1,982(8)(E)1.5

Q= 15.856(H + V2/2g)1.5

Below are results of the step by step method tabulated:

Steps First Iteration Second Third Iteration Fourth

Iteration Iteration
V (m/s) 0 0,4122 0,4302 0,4318
V2/2g (m) 0 0,0087 0,0094 0,0095
E (m) 0,3 0,3087 0,3094 0,3095
Q (m3/s) 2,6054 2,7191 2,7293 2,7302

After the fifth iteration Q=2,7303 m3/s staying constant. Therefore Q= 2.730 m3/s
6.1.2 FLUMES
A flume is a specially shaped open channel flow section which may be installed in a
channel, stream or river to measure the rate of flow of water. The following different
types of flumes are used to measure flow.

• Parshall flumes
• H-flumes
• Critical depth flumes
• Palmer Bowlus Flumes
• Cut throat flumes
• San Dimas Flumes
• Venturi flumes
Description of the pharshall flume:

Figure 6: Plan View of Parshall flume

• Parshall flume sizes are designated by the throat width, W (see Figure 6).
• Large flumes are usually constructed on the site, but smaller flumes may be
purchased as prefabricated structures to be installed in one piece.
• The constricted throat of the flume produces a differential head that can be
related to discharge.
• The crest followed by the downwardly sloping floor, gives the Parshall flume its
ability to withstand relatively high degrees of submergence without affecting the
rate of flow.
• The converging upstream portion of the flume accelerates the entering flow,
thereby essentially eliminating the deposition of sediment which would
otherwise reduce measurement accuracy.
• Velocity of approach, which is often a detrimental factor in the operation of
weirs, is usually small and has little effect on the rate of discharge of the flume.
• The approaching flow should, however, be well distributed across the channel
and should be relatively free of turbulence, eddies, and waves if accurate
measurements are expected.
• Discharge through a Parshall flume can occur for two conditions of flow. The
first, free flow, occurs when there is insufficient backwater depth to reduce the
discharge rate.
• The second, submerged flow, occurs when the water surface downstream from
the flume is far enough above the elevation of the flume crest to reduce the
discharge.
• For free flow conditions that following equation is applied:
Q= 0.37 (W)(3.29(H))f

Where

W = throat width in meter

Q = discharge in m3/s

H = upstream flow depth measurement in meter

f = 1,57 (W) 0,026

• For submerged flow conditions:

Q= 0.26 (w)0.902 (3.29(H-Hd))f / -(log)hd/H + 0.0044)) i
Where: i = 1,183 (W)0,076

H = upstream flow depth (m)

Hd = downstream flow depth (m)

W = throat width (m)

f = 1,57 (W)0,026

Q = discharge (m3/s)
To calculate the dimensions of each part of the parshall flume use the following
equations and refer to figure 6:

A=0,4903(W)+1,1955

B=0,610 m

C=0,914 m

E= W+0,4(A)

Example

A parshall flume is to be constructed in a 1m wide rectangular, concrete lined open

channel. The flume should be able to measure up to a maximum of 600 l/s of water
accurately and should fit exactly into the open channel in order to reduce construction
costs.

(a) Calculate the most suitable throat width.

(b) Assume that free flow conditions existed when the maximum flow was
encountered and determine the measured upstream depth of flow through the
Parshall.
Solution (a):

To be able to measure 600 l/s, a group one Parshall flume would be suitable. Because
the dimensions of the Parshall flume should be such that the flume will fit exactly into
the open channel, it follows that E should equal the channel width of 1m. Therefore,
W can be found as shown below:

1 = W+0,4[0,4903(W)+1,1955]

= W+0,1961(W)+0,4782

0,5218= 1,1961 W

W = 0,436 m
Solution (b):

For free flow conditions the following equation is applied:

f = 1,57 (0,436)0,026

= 1,536 478 (note that f is calculated up to the 6th decimal place, because the formula
is very sensitive to rounded off values)

Q = 0.37 (W)(3.29(H))f

0,6/0,161320 = [3,29(H)]f

(3,719316)1/f = 3,29(H)

H = 0,715 m

Advantages of using pharshall flumes are:

• Their ability to operate with relatively small head loss

• Flumes are relatively insensitive to velocity of approach

• Flumes have the capability of making food measurements with no

submergence or even with considerable submergence downstream

• The flume’s velocity of flow is sufficiently high to virtually eliminate sediment

deposition within the structure during operation

Disadvantages of using pharshall flumes:

• they cannot be used in close-coupled combination structures consisting of

turnout, control, and measuring device
• they are usually more expensive than weirs
• they require a solid, watertight foundation
• they require accurate workmanship for satisfactory construction and
performance
Example
Calculate the discharge through a Parshall flume with a throat width of 0,410 m and
a measured upstream height of 0,70 m. Assume that 80% submergence occurred.
Solution
For 80% submergence, the following relationship between the up- and downstream
water levels existed.
Hd/H = 80/100
Therefore
Hd = 0,8 H
= 0,8 (0,70)
= 0,56 m
Then; Q= 0,26 (w)0,902 (3,29(H-Hd))f / -(log)hd/H + 0,0044)) i
Q= 0,26 (0,41)0,902 (3,29(0,70-0,56))f / -((log 0,8) + 0,0044)) i
= 0,166333(0,460600)f/(0,092510)i
and f= 1,57(0,41)0,026 = 1,534024
i= 1,183(0,41)0,076= 1,105 494
After substituting f and I, Q = 0,492 m3/s
Evaluation exercise
1. Mention three reasons why flow measurements are necessary.
2. Discuss six special methods of flow measurements by explaining the method
through which each is conducted and mentioning their advantages and
disadvantages.
3. Make a neat sketch of a section through the following types of measurement
structures, so that the differences would be clear.
(a) Rounded-edge broad-crested weir
(b) Horizontal-crest Crump weir
(c) Sharp-crested weir
(d) Parshall flume
4. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of each of the measurement
structures mentioned in (3).
5. The water depth on the crest of a horizontal-crest Crump was measured as
1,219 m. Upstream of the Crump an average pool width of 15,24 m was
measured, with its bottom 610 mm below the crest of the Crump. By assuming
the upstream pool to be rectangular in shape and that free flow conditions
existed, determine the discharge over the Crump by the step-by-step method.
Take the width of the Crump as 10 m and do a minimum of 6 iterations.
6. The upstream depth measurement (H) in a Parshall flume was measured as
0,952 m. Free flow conditions existed in the 2,220 m - throat Parshall.
Calculate the discharge.
7. Flow measurements at a Parshall flume with a throat width of 1,90 m, showed
that:
H = 0,610 m
Hd = 0,543 m
Flow type = Submerged.
Calculate the discharge through the flume.
References
Ojha, C.S.P. Berndtsson, R. Bhunya, P. 2008. Engineering Hydrology - 1.1.1
Importance of Water. Oxford University Press.

https://app.knovel.com/hotlink/pdf/id:kt00TV9OEO/engineering-
hydrology/importance-of-water

https://tracomfrp.com/differences-submerged-free-weir-flow/

https://usbr.gov/tsc/techreferences/mands/wmm/

https://app.knovel.com/hotlink/pdf/id:kt00U9Z6K3/tao-measurement-
philosophical/open-channel-flowmeters