Onion

Entry prepared by Katherine White 08 and Jonathan Zellner '08

in College Seminar 235 Food for Thought: The Science, Culture, & Politics of Food
Spring, 2008

Scientific Classification and Etymology

The onion is a subspecies and primary member of the Scientific Classification

genus Allium. Because many Allium species share the Kingdom Plantae
common name onion, the “garden onion”—also known as Phylum Magnoliophyta
the “bulb onion” and “shallot”—is referred to as Allium Class Liliopsida
cepa.1 The plant’s name comes from the Latin unio, or Order Asparagales
annianus, and is associated with the Welsh einion, Family Alliaceae
meaning “anvil.”2 Genus Allium
Species A. cepa
Historical Origins

Onions were originally native to central Asia, but

today have a worldwide geographic range. They
made their way to Egypt via trade, where they
became a crucial food plant in the ancient world.
Because onions were a cheap source of food,
Egyptian slave laborers, those who constructed the
pyramids, consumed them on a daily basis.3 In
addition, they were depicted in the funerary
paintings in tombs and even placed on and around
mummies.4 Ancient Sumerians widely grew and
cooked onions 4,000 years ago, and the plant has
been discovered at the royal palace at Knossos in
Crete.5 Additionally, the ancient Greek physician
Hippocrates wrote in the fifth and fourth centuries
B.C. that a broad variety of onions were eaten
regularly in Greece.6 In ancient India, however,
there was a fair amount of revulsion to onions.
Orthodox Brahmins, Hindu widows, Buddhists,
and Jains regarded onions as forbidden vegetables An illustration of a chive and onion
because of their strong odor and stimulating Flora von Deutschland by Dr. Otto
action.7 Wilhelm, 1885 (http://en. wikipedia.
org/wiki/Chives).
During the fourth century B.C., Alexander the Great transported onions from Egypt to
Greece, where they spread to other parts of Europe following Alexander’s conquests.8
For centuries thereafter, Europeans cultivated onions, which became especially popular in
cooking in places such as present-day Germany at the start of the Middle Ages.9 By the

1
fifteenth century, Europeans began introducing different cultivars and landraces to parts
of the New World. Christopher Columbus’ crews planted onions in Hispaniola as early as
1494, and the vegetable was mentioned as cultivated in the present-day United States as
early as 1629. By the nineteenth century, various types of onion were growing all across
the U.S.10

Generally speaking, those varieties of onion adapted to northern Europe were introduced
to New England and the mid-Atlantic region, and those grown in southern Europe were
brought to southern states. Some of the northern landraces include Red Wethersfield,
bred in the Connecticut River Valley around 1800, and Southport Yellow Globe,
developed prior to 1835 in and around Southport, Connecticut.11 Southern varieties
include White Portugal (or Silverskin), an old European variety grown in North America
before 1800, and Bermuda, a variety that originated in Italy and was first grown in
southern Texas in the late-1800’s.12

The list of major producers of dry onion effectively illustrates the expansive geographic
distribution of onions. In 1996, China led the world with more than 9.6 million tons of
dry onion produced, followed by India (4.3 million), the U.S. (2.7 million), Turkey (1.9
million), Japan and Iran (1.2 million apiece), Pakistan (1.1. million), and Spain (1
million).13

Horticulture and Plant Specifics

The common onion no longer grows in the wild, and so is known only in cultivation.
Onion leaves are characterized as the thickened bases of the plant’s normal leaves from
the previous season.14 The outermost leaf bases, rather than swelling, thin, dry out, and
become discolored, and thus form a covering for bulbs. The visible portion of the plant
generally flowers in the spring.15

Bulbs consist of the fleshy, enlarged leaf bases of onions, and form in response to
specific day lengths and temperatures (activity called “photoperiodic response”).
Photoperiodic response includes long day and short day. Long-day plants require a day
length of more than fourteen hours in order to initiate bulb formation, while short-day
varieties need between twelve and fourteen hours of daylight in order to form bulbs.16
Short-day onions are generally grown in warmer climates, including the Middle East and
southern Europe. For these varieties, bulb formation occurs in spring and bulb harvest is
performed in early-summer. Long-day onions, cultivated in northern Europe for hundreds
of years and subsequently taken to New England, have adapted to northern latitudes.
Bulb formation for these varieties takes place during the summer months, with bulb
harvest in late-summer and early-autumn.17

Cultivated Allium cepa is placed into one of two horticultural groups: the Common Onion
group and the Aggregatum group. The former contains the typical bulb onion as well as
the majority of existing cultivars. Onions in this group show dramatic variation in color
and shape, photoperiodic response, storage quality and pungency, and many other

2
characteristics. Their bulbs are usually large and single.18 Species assigned to the
Aggregatum group have active lateral bulbs, and thus form clusters of smaller bulbs. One
subdivision of this group, multiplier onions, consists of varieties that can contain as many
as twenty small, short and wide bulbs.19

Cultivation

Despite their broad geographical distribution, onions are very sensitive to climate and
soil. (In Europe, for example, onions had to be selectively adapted to local growing
conditions.20) As a result, onions require a number of specific conditions in order to
achieve optimal growth. These include bountiful sunshine; stone-free, loamy, well-
irrigated soil; and excellent drainage.21 Onions will not grow well in a clay soil or in a
soil with a high salinity. Furthermore, because they have relatively shallow (yet thick)
roots, onions require significant amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium for
maximum yield. The concentration of these elements in soil, as well as high temperature,
high light intensity, and soil moisture, will affect flavor and bulb development.22

Onions can be grown from dry sets as well as by seed. The United States grows most of
its onions by the first of these methods, as it offers growers a much better chance at
obtaining a crop than does direct seeding.23 Dry sets are generally planted as early in the
spring as possible—usually when the soil temperature is about 40°F—so as to produce an
early crop. Sets are often placed close together—about 2.5 to 3.5 inches apart in rows 12
to 16 inches apart—as a means of encouraging large bulb growth.24 Compost and other
organic matter are sometimes added to further enhance bulb size.25

Growing onions from seed requires a different series of steps. The eighteenth-century
farmer and journalist William Cobbett discusses in The American Gardener three ways
by which to produce crops from seed. The first approach suggests that growers plant seed
thinly to depths of two inches and
in rows one foot apart. The seed is
raked over and the plants are
thinned to four to eight inches
once they reach a height of three
inches. When the leaf tips turn
brown, the necks of the leaves are
bent to the ground. The onions are
pulled up when the leaves are
nearly dead, and are thereafter
dried and stored. The second
approach involves each of the
aforementioned steps, but instead
of planting seeds one foot apart,
growers are encouraged to sow a
handful every six to seven inches.
This approach does not allow for
the development of large onions,
“Harvested onions” (Egyptian “Walking” variety), from
http://www.flickr.com/photos/ejchang/1479672268/.

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but it does produce a great quantity of onions that ripen at an earlier date. The final
method of cultivation calls for sowing seed six inches apart between April and mid-June
and pulling the onions up when their stems turn yellow. The plants are dried on a board
and, once their leaves become withered, are placed in a bag and stored in a dry location
until spring. The onions are then planted about six to eight inches from each other in rows
one foot apart, but are not covered over with earth, and are harvested in the late-summer
or early-fall.26

Growers frequently harvest onions once the leaves of the plants have fallen over. Curing
is necessary after harvest, unless the crop is to go to market immediately. It serves to dry
the skins and tops of onions as a means of safeguarding the vegetables against microbial
attack and bulb weight loss. An onion is said to be cured when its neck is tight, its outer
scales are dry, and no more than 3 to 5 percent of its original bulb weight has been lost.27
Following curing, onions are stored, frequently for upwards of six months. Cold storage
at temperatures around 32°F, with a humidity of 70 to 75 percent, produces the best
results, though onions stored in the tropics need to be kept warmer. In these cases, studies
have shown that some bulbs can be stored at temperatures of 75° to 85°F or higher for a
period of five to six months without sprouting.28

Pathogens and Pests

Onions are vulnerable to a handful of diseases and disorders courtesy of fungi, bacteria,
viruses, and insects, among other sources. These include:

Downy Mildew (Peronospora farinosa): First reported in

England in 1841, this fungus spreads rapidly in wet and humid
conditions. When attacked, bulb tissue softens and shrivels,
and the outer scales become amber-colored, watery, and
wrinkled. Early infection can kill younger plants. Surviving
species can appear dwarfed, pale, and distorted. The seeds
from infected plants can affect entire crops if sowed.
Treatment with 2 percent of the pesticide Zineb in sprays and
dusts has been shown to control the spread of mildew.29

Onion Smut (Urocystis cepulae and Urocystis colchici): This

fungus likely originated in the United States and was first Downy mildew on
reported in England in 1918. Infection usually occurs two to onion stems (http://
three weeks after sowing and is characterized by elongated mtvernon.wsu.edu/path
streaks that discolor scales and growing leaves, which may _team/Disease%20Gall
ery/dg94L.jpg).
become thickened and malformed. Measures to control smut
include avoiding affected areas, applying hexachlorobenzene fungicide pellets to infected
plants, and dusting with thiram—a general use pesticide.30

Onion Smudge (Colletotrichum circinans): Onion smudge was first reported in England
in 1851 and is common in Europe and the central and northeastern United States. The
fungus primarily attacks white species of onion, is mostly confined to the neck and scales

4
of the bulb, and rarely attacks active parts of the plant. Symptoms include tiny green and
black dots, often arranged concentrically, on outer scales and, on colored varieties of
onion, sunken yellowish splotches on fleshy scales. Onion smudge tends to form in
warm, moist conditions, and its threat can thus
be minimized by thoroughly drying plants after
harvest.31

White Rot (Phanerochaete chyrsosporium):

First observed in England in the mid-1800’s,
white rot tends to form in dry soil exposed to
cool temperatures. The disease spreads rapidly
when it attacks young plants. External signs of
infection include yellowing and necrosis of
leaf tips. Bulb scales may become spongy, become covered with white mycelium (the
vegetative part of the white rot fungus), and Garlic bulbs infected with the white rot
develop black sclerotia (a compact mass of fungus (http://www. garlicworld.co.uk/
hardened sclerotia). Treatment with chemical images/rot.gif).
agents such as mercuric chloride, lime, and 2,6-dichloro-4-nitroaniline has proven
effective.32

Neck Rot (Botrytis allii): This disorder is caused by three different species of the fungus
Botrylis and is probably the most widely distributed and most destructive disease of
storage onions. The illness was documented in Germany in 1876, the United States in
1890, and England in 1894. Though infection occurs in the field, it is usually not noticed
until after harvest. Symptoms include softening of bulb scales and the development of
sunken brown lesions, with an observable boundary between fresh and tainted tissue.
Over time, the bulb desiccates and collapses. White cultivars tend to be more vulnerable
to the ailment than do colored varieties. Neck rot can be controlled through careful
handling during harvest and providing sufficiently cool and dry storage conditions.
Spraying with Zineb or carbamate can help combat infection after it has occurred.33

Soft Rot (Erwina carotovora): This bacterial rot does most of its damage to onions and
other alliums during storage. It usually begins at the neck of the bulb and affects one or
more scales, though does not spread rapidly from one to another. External symptoms
include a lack of firmness and a foul-smelling discharge from the neck when the affected
vegetable is squeezed. Soft rot tends to form in humid weather, and so growers in tropical
climates must take care to rapidly and thoroughly dry bulbs at harvest.34

Aster Yellows: Aster yellow is a virus spread by the six-spotted leafhopper that can affect
carrots, celery, and lettuce in addition to onions. The leaves of infected plants appear
light-yellow, though in many cases only one part of the plant will display symptoms.
Shoots may also become discolored, and roots often become short and twisted.
Controlling the virus typically involves eradicating the leafhopper population.35

Onion Thrips (Thrips tabaci): Among insects that can attack onions and other allium
plants, the onion thrip can do some of the most significant damage. The thrip punctures

5
leaves and sucks the sap that exudes, leaving
whitish areas on the leaves. Infestation is
worse in seasons of drought and can sometimes
lead to the destruction of entire crops.
Effective chemicals can control the pest;
results have indicated that affected crops
treated with chemicals have a considerably
higher bulb-yield than affected crops not
sprayed or dusted.36

Nutrition
Depending on the variety, growing conditions
and climate, the nutritional value of onions can
vary. They are very low in calories, only about
30 per one half cup serving, and fat, sodium and cholesterol free while still being very
flavorful. Onions are also a good source of Onion thrips on an onion stalk (http://
vitamin C (5mg or 9% of daily value), B6 www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/inter/inmi
(0.1mg or 5% of daily value), potassium ne/inimage/onionthrips.jpg).
(126mg or 4% of daily value) and the
flavonoid quercitin and trace mineral chromium.37

Medicinal Uses
Onions have been used in many medicinal practices. Similar to garlic, they contain
sulfur-compounds such as allyl propyl disulphide that contribute to onions pungent odor.
Onions have been shown to improve cardiovascular health. Studies in China which
compared the health of two similar villages, one who grew onions and the other who did
not, showed that the village who grew and consumed onions had a lower death rate due to
cardiovascular disease in comparison to the village who did not consume onions.38
Current research has shown that the more pungent the onion, the stronger the anti-platelet
activity effect is. 39 This is due to the sulfur compounds, chromium and vitamin B6, all of
which are known to decrease the homocysteine levels which is a known factor in heart
attack, stroke and heart disease patients. Similarly atherosclerosis, cardiovascular disease,
heart attack and stroke are all associated with platelet aggregation and the clogging of
arteries and veins that these compounds can help mitigate. Due to the presence of these
compounds, onions have been shown to control hyperglycemia and hyperlipemia as
well.40

At the University of Wisconsin, current research is investigating how onion consumption

and specific onion compounds affect the in vivo aggregation of blood platelets.41 "Using
an in vivo model, we are beginning to investigate and, in some cases, confirm the potency
of the onion as a blood thinner and platelet inhibitor. Onions may be among the
vegetables that will be prized not only for their addition to our cuisine, but for their

6
value-added health characteristics," said Irwin Goldman, Associate Professor of
Horticulture, University of Wisconsin-Madison.42

Onions are also known for their blood sugar lowering abilities. Studies have shown that
individuals that ingest onion have lower levels of glucose in their bloods. This is due to
the allyl propyl disulfide which increases the amount of free insulin available by
competing with insulin for binding sites in the liver, thus more insulin is available in
blood stream to lower blood sugar levels.43 In addition to sulfur compounds, onions also
contain 20% of an individual’s daily amount of chromium, a trace mineral, involved in
the body’s response to insulin. Chromium has been shown to decrease fasting blood
glucose levels, improve glucose tolerance, lower insulin levels, and help lower
triglyceride and cholesterol levels in the blood stream.44

Onions are also very beneficial to gastrointestinal health. By ingesting onions, especially
the yellow varieties, at least twice a week, an individual’s chance of contracting colon
cancer can be greatly reduced.45 Similar to other Allium species, onions have very high
levels of flavonoids, specifically quercitin, which in laboratory studies on animals,
quercitin protected colon cells from cancer causing agents.46 In addition to colon cancer,
onions, like garlic, are protective against many other types of cancer. (See garlic)

Bone health can also be improved by ingesting onions on a regular basis. In a recent
study published in the Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, the compound
gamma-L-glutamyl-trans-S-1-propenyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide (GPCS), has shown to
inhibit osteoclasts, or the cells that degrade bone, thus mitigating bone loss.47 This
research is especially important and beneficial to women with osteoporosis. GPCS acts in
the same manner as the common osteoporosis drug Fosamax, but onions do not produced
the same negative side effects.48

Culinary
Onions are the third largest fresh vegetable industry in the United States, leading to 20
pounds consumed per person in 2007. Used in the form of fresh, dehydrated, powdered,
oil, juice, salt or pickled, onions are used ubiquitously in cooking, and most commonly in
stews, soups, pizza and salads. Onions are often seen in restaurants as either an appetizer
in the form of onion soup, onion rings, caramelized or can be used as a side dish to many
main course meals. Their unique flavor is often used to enhance recipes and help bring
out other flavors used.

The flavor of the onion is due to sulfur compounds developing throughout the growing
season. There is a long and complex biosynthetic pathway that can vary depending on
environmental factors such as water supply, growing temperature, sulfate fertility in soil,
other environmental factors and length of storage.49 Water supply plays a large role in
determining how pungent and flavorful the onion will be.50 Onions grown under dry
conditions will have an increase in pungent flavors, while well watered onions will have
a milder flavor.51 The temperature onions are grown under also plays and important role
in onion development. The hotter the conditions the more sulfur compounds will be

7
produced, leading to a more pungent flavor.52 Thus there is high variability in flavor
strength depending on where, when and how the onion was grown.

In preparing onion, there are several methods to avoid tearing of the eyes while cutting.
The tearing is caused by the compound allyl sulfate, which is produced when the onion
tissue is cut and exposed to air, leading to the burning and tearing of the eyes.53 Either
chilling the onions can reduce this and hour or more before cutting them thus slowing
then enzymatic activity or glasses or goggles can be worn if necessary.54

Garlic
Scientific Classification and Etymology

Garlic is a species of plant of the genus Allium—which Scientific Classification

includes onions, leeks, and chives, among other species, Kingdom Plantae
and represents one of the largest plant genera on Phylum Magnoliophyta
Earth.55 The name garlic comes from the Anglo-Saxon Class Liliopsida
word “garlec,” meaning “spear,” in reference to its Order Asparagales
spear-shaped leaves.56 Family Alliaceae
Genus Allium
Historical Origins Species A. sativum

While some have maintained that garlic first

originated in southern Europe, most believe that the
plant originated from a wild ancestor (A.
longicuspis) in south central Asia, an area
occasionally referred to as the “garlic crescent.”57
Migrating populations carried it around the
Mediterranean to places such as present-day Egypt,
Greece, and Italy.58 Today, garlic can be found in
eastern Asia, Europe, the Americas, as well as parts
of northern Africa.

Garlic has been cultivated in the Middle East and Far

East for at least 5,000 years and, as such, has been a
valuable source of food and medicine, as well as a
prized component of specific rituals, for many
different societies. In Egypt, tomb art dating from
the Early Dynastic Period (2925-2575 B.C.) depicts
the consumption of garlic. Moreover, an Egyptian
medical text called the Codex Elsers, which dates
from approximately 1500 B.C., describes nearly
two-dozen garlic preparations used to combat Illustration of the garlic plant in
Medical Botany by William
Woodville (1793), from http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Allium_sa
tivum_Woodwill_1793.jpg. 8
ailments ranging from headache to fatigue.59 Like the ancient Egyptians, the ancient
Greeks depended on garlic for a number of medical-related reasons. The Greeks viewed
garlic as a means of staving off aging and illness, and athletes participating in the
Olympic Games would chew on garlic to improve strength and stamina.60

By the start of the first century B.C., garlic had been introduced into China, where its
cultivation gained significant mention in treatises on agriculture beginning in the fifth
century.61 In Western Europe, the cultivation of garlic and fellow alliums is often thought
to have been influenced by the contacts Crusaders made with the East in the eleventh,
twelfth, and thirteenth centuries. Nonetheless, Charlemagne had listed garlic in his
Capitulare de Villis some three centuries prior to the Crusades.62 Garlic was introduced to
the Americas by the Spaniards, and was evidently grown in Mexico by Cortés in the
sixteenth century.63 It was later cultivated by the Choctaw Indians in the present-day
central Gulf Coast region of the United States. By 1800, American writers referred to
garlic as among their garden esculents, even though, as the journalist and gardener
William Cobbett observed, “Almost all nations except the English, the Americans, and
the French, make great and constant use of Garlick.”64

Although garlic was not especially popular in upstate New York at the beginning of the
nineteenth century, the Hamilton College “1812 Garden” will nevertheless feature
varieties of garlic that were presumably grown as esculents in the early-1800’s. These
include Purple Skin Rocambole and
Spanish Red Roja.

Horticulture and Plant

Specifics

Like onions and other alliums, garlic

forms bulbs that develop entirely
underground, and the plant may or
may not flower in the spring. The
bulb consists of bulblets (also known
as cloves) clustered together between
membranous scales and surrounded
by the outermost skin of the bulb,
which can be either white or red in
color.65

Cultivation
The entire garlic plant, garlic bulb, and garlic
flower (http://www.designmom.com/2007/04/
Garlic can develop in a wide assortment thursday-letter-to-nie-nie-by-guest-mom.html).
of different soils, yet it grows best in
rich, deep loams with ample amounts of moisture.66 To achieve optimal growth, it is
recommended that garlic bulbs be dried, treated with a fungicide, such as benomyl, to
reduce the risk of rot, and exposed to cool temperatures—between 0°C and 10°C—for up

9
to eight weeks to ensure bulbing.67 It is also advised that garlic cloves be planted either in
the spring or early in the fall.68

Like onions, garlic bulbs form in dissimilar ways depending on factors including soil
composition (as mentioned above), day length, climate, and altitude. In general, the
longer the amount of time garlic is exposed to daylight and the higher the temperature,
the quicker the bulb will develop and mature. Consequently, garlic grown in warmer
climates, especially when planted in spring, will tend to have larger bulbs than garlic
grown in colder climates. The plant is frost-hardy, however, so it need not be planted
strictly in locations where snow and freezing temperatures are minimal. Garlic is grown
at elevations above 4,000 feet in California, the largest producer of garlic in the U.S., and
is usually well rooted by the first snows if planted between September and November.69

Plant spacing has a significant effect on the size of the bulb. In Italy, for example,
workers prefer a spacing on the order of forty to fifty bulbs per square meter. Doubling
this density increases the yield by 50 percent, though this reduces the size of the bulbs
and renders them more suitable for processing than for sale as fresh produce.70 When the
tops of the garlic plant become dry and bend to the ground—forming a small bulb called
a “scape”—they are removed so that they do not use resources and nutrients that should
go to the bulb.71 The bulbs are then typically harvested by hand and dried for upwards of
ten days at temperatures of 20°C-30°C
followed by a reduction to 0°C for storage.
Application of maleic hydrazide and gamma
irradiation can prolong storage life.72 (Please
note that the caretakers of the 1812 Garden will
not use chemicals for maintenance, but will
instead rely on organic methods of pest and
weed control.)

Garlic does not produce seed. Consequently,

plant breeders have not been able to develop
many types of garlic cultivars. Growers must
usually set aside at least one-tenth of their
spring crop to be broken into cloves for
planting in the fall.73 If breeders consistently
“Wild garlic” (http://www.flickr.com/photos/
plant garlic in the same location for an mcdnry/478916722/).
extended period of time, the particular strain
will develop specific characteristics, such as a
particular external color, a certain number of cloves, or a certain bulb size.74 Of course,
because garlic responds dissimilarly to differences in soil composition, day lengths,
climates, and altitudes, local growing conditions can alter the strain and produce varieties
with new features.75

Pathogens and Pests

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Garlic plants are susceptible to the same pathogens and pests discussed in the section on
onions.

Medicinal Role and Properties

Ancient Times

Garlic has long been known for its medicinal properties. The use of garlic in multiple
forms was very prominent in ancient medicine as well as in modern homeopathic and
alternative remedies today. Garlic was a prominent remedy for many ailments ranging
from the common cough and cold to stomach problems.76 Dating back to the beginning of
civilization, garlic has been documented as a remedy in China, India, Egypt, Greece and
Rome. Additionally, garlic was found in Egyptian tombs and Greek Temples.77 Whether
this means garlic had religious or ritualistic significance for these ancient cultures,
however, remains unclear. Nutritionist Richard S. Rivlin notes that the presence of garlic
in tombs “is strong evidence that the vegetable was in use” in these societies, yet
acknowledges that “we do not know” whether garlic
was employed in religious customs and rituals.78

For thousands of years societies have used garlic in

medicine for scores of different reasons. The
Mesopotamians prescribed garlic for toothaches, painful
urination and placed it inside amulets to prevent disease.
Traditional Chinese medicine also linked garlic with the
spleen, kidneys, and stomach. In ancient Greece the
father of medicine, Hippocrates, used garlic frequently
and included it into his arsenal of remedies.79

First-century testimonial by Dioscorides, an herbalist

and a physician, and Pliny the Elder, an encyclopedist,
dictated the next several centuries' beliefs concerning
the medicinal powers of garlic. They believed that garlic
expelled intestinal worms and skin parasites, protected
against venomous animals, neutralized internal and 15th century illustration of a garlic
external inflammations, relieved toothaches harvest from Tacuinum sanitatis, the
80 Medieval handbook of wellness from
and coughs, and reduced hemorrhoids. In the
Materia Medica, Dioscorides believed that garlic’s Arab medicine (http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Image:Tacuinum_sanitatis-
most important function was to remove excess fluid garlic.jpg).
from the body by dilating blood vessels and
stimulating kidney function.81 Together, Dioscorides and Pliny the Elder controlled the
knowledge and therapeutic usage of garlic for centuries.

Scientific Revolution and Beyond

Later in the seventeenth century, Discorides and Pliny the Elder’s theories about garlic
still held a high position in the field of medicine, but its ability to protect against diseases

11
such as respiratory disease was becoming widely accepted.82 Garlic became a major
ingredient in more that 50 prescription medicines that were recommended by London
physician Thomas Willis for treating diseases, specifically respiratory disease. In addition
to respiratory disease, the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh identified that garlic was also an
effective treatment for malaria, smallpox and in the form of an ointment for whooping
cough as well. Later, during the Scientific Revolution in the early 1800’s, Jacob Bigelow,
a professor of medicine at Harvard, believed garlic as a medicine was most powerful in
the form of an oil and that ingestion would quicken circulation, excite the nervous system
and increase expectoration from the lungs.83

Garlic has been used for centuries in medicine and continues to be studied in modern
times. The compound allicin, which is responsible for the distinctive odor of alliums, is
the garlic's natural defense from insects, fungi and infection. The compound is produced
by plant enzymes when the plant is
injured or crushed and provides the plant
with anti-fungal protection.84 Allicin has
been shown to reduce plasma
concentrations of cholesterol,
triglycerides, and low-density
lipoproteins in the blood, and has also
Allicin or C6H10OS2 chemical structure
inhibited an enzyme necessary for (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:R-
cholesterol synthesis.85 In 1858, Louis allicin-2D-skeletal.png).
Pasteur discovered that garlic has
antimicrobial properties as well. Pasteur showed that diluted solutions of its juice can
inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria such as Staphlyococcus, Streptococcus,
Bacillus, and Vibrio cholera sp., as well as yeasts and other fungi. But due to allicin’s
instability in the body, no further drug research was pursued.86

Scientific Studies

In addition to its anti-microbial properties, garlic is thought to be an anti-carcinogen. In

China, where rates of stomach cancer are high, a study featuring 564 patients diagnosed
with stomach cancer and 1,131 controls showed that there was a significant reduction in
stomach cancer risk when participants ate allium vegetables such as garlic.87 Garlic has
also contributed to reductions in tumors in mice.88 Isolated epidermal cells applied with
5g per milliliter of garlic oil led to an increase in glutathione peroxidase activity and
inhibited ornithine decarboxylase induction when the cells were exposed to nonphorbol
ester tumor causing agents.89 Garlic oil has also led to reductions in tumor sizes and
tumor formation from the 12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate compound, which is a
known carcinogen.90 Garlic’s anti cancer properties are thought to be due to garlic’s
enhancement of glutathione-dependent antioxidants in the epidermal cells.91

Garlic has also been shown to reduce hypertension. A 1990 study performed in China,
which involved 47 participants with mild hypertension, treated patients with
a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. The patients had a diastolic range of
95-104 mm Hg blood pressure at the beginning of the study. Each patient took either a

12
preparation of garlic powder or a placebo for 12 weeks. Blood pressure was then checked
at week 8 and week 12. Results showed significant differences between the garlic and
placebo groups. Those taking garlic supplements showed an average of 102 to 92 mm Hg
in blood pressure within the first 8 weeks and then fell to 89 mm Hg after week 12.92
Triglyceride and cholesterol levels were also significantly reduced. Overall, garlic has
played and will continue to play a large role in therapeutic and homeopathic remedies.

With the advent of new technology and advancements in medicine, research involving
garlic and its potential uses could be expanded greatly in the future, leading to new
treatments and cures for diseases.

Culinary and Nutritional Significance

Culinary Usage

Because of its potency, the result of the presence of sulfurous compounds, garlic was
previously regarded with disdain in a handful of Western societies, particularly England
and the United States in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Some in England saw
garlic as a “strong class barrier” suitable only for
laborers and other lower-class individuals.
Amelia Simmons, author of the first American
cookbook, remarked that garlic was more
appropriate for medicinal purposes than for
culinary usage.93

Of course, the image of garlic as a “stinking

rose” in England and the U.S. has largely
subsided, particularly in the latter case. In 1924
“Garlic” (http://www.flickr.com/
the caesar salad was introduced in Tijuana, photos/christing/150532387/sizes/s/).
Mexico for American diners. The dish was
prepared by rubbing a salad bowl with a clove of garlic to enhance the flavor of the
lettuce, and almost immediately gained acceptance in the States as “American” food.94
Thirty years later the food writer James Beard wrote about an old Provençal recipe that
called for cooking chicken with forty cloves of garlic. Thousands of readers tried the
recipe and enjoyed it. Evidently, garlic usage and consumption has increased fourfold
since the early-1970’s.95

Garlic is frequently used in combination with other foods as a means of bringing out
distinctive flavors and aromas. Italian cuisine often combines garlic with tomatoes, as
revealed in dishes such as cioppino, a tomato-based seafood stew. When combined with
scallions and ginger, garlic helps form the background flavor present in most Chinese
American dishes.96 In addition, many foods are prepared using dehydrated garlic or garlic
powder, the former of which can contain five times the flavor of fresh garlic. Spiced
sausages and other assorted processed foods make use of garlic in these forms.97

Nutritional Aspects

13
Garlic is not a particularly nutritious food. Most varieties feature roughly 60 percent
moisture, 30 percent carbohydrate, and small to trace quantities of protein, vitamins, and
minerals.98 The protein content of garlic, however, may be three to six times higher than
that of other allium vegetables. Nevertheless, its caloric value is considerably greater than
that of the 35 calories per 100 grams present in onions and leeks.99

Leek

Scientific Classification and Etymology

The leek is a species of the genus Allium, the Scientific Classification

family of plants that includes onion and garlic. Kingdom Plantae
The specific scientific name of leek is A. Phylum Magnoliophyta
ampeloprasum var. porrum, and the plant belongs Class Liliopsida
to the larger species A. ampeloprasum, which Order Asparagales
includes individual subgroups for species Family Alliaceae
including kurrat and great-headed garlic.100 The Genus Allium
name is derived from the Old English word Species A. ampeloprasum
“laec,” or “leac.”101 Subspecies A. ampeloprasum
var. porrum
Historical Origins

A native of the Mediterranean region, most likely

the eastern Mediterranean, leek is a variable
species that can be found in many, if not most,
regions of the globe. The plant was found in
Europe during the Middle Ages, and early
European settlers almost certainly brought it to
the Americas. Today it also exists in northern
Africa, the Middle East, and parts of southern and
western Russia.102

The culture and use of leek can be traced back

some 3,000 to 4,000 years to the early
civilizations of the Middle East.103 Ancient
Egyptians had a fondness for leek. In fact, during
the Early Dynastic Period (c. 2925 B.C.-2575
B.C.), they adorned their pyramid tombs with

drawings and designs of the plant.104 The ancient Garden leek with overlapping leaves
Greeks enjoyed leek as a source of food, as did the forming the pseudostem (http://en.
Romans, who preferred it to garlic and onions. wikipedia.org/wiki/Leek).

14
(The Roman emperor Nero apparently consumed leeks on a regular basis.) Roman traders
helped transport leek to much of the rest of Europe, and the vegetable became especially
popular during the Middle Ages, when they were additionally believed to be an erotic
stimulant that increased sperm count and stimulated desire.105

Leek is most commonly grown and

used in Europe, and thus most
appreciated in Europe. In northern
England, leek growing has been and
continues to be a competitive
business, and parents have been
known to pass secrets of cultivation
along to their children.106

Horticulture and Plant

Specifics

Leek is characterized by the

formation of a pseudostem, which
in some cases can exceed lengths of “Leeks” (http://www.flickr.com/photos/calliope/
54833240/).
one meter, as well as a poorly
developed bulb. Pseudostem is the
term for the overlapping leaf bases of the leak, which tend to be flat and slender, and fold
over each other to create a stemlike structure. Botanically, however, the edible part of the
plant is not the stem, but rather the elongated leaf bases.107

The modern leek is not known in the wild—though a separate species does exist in the
Allium genus called “wild leek.”
Interestingly, leek bears a striking
resemblance to wild A.
ampeloprasum, not only in flowers
and foliage, but also in clove
production. Like its wild relative,
leek frequently produces a small
number of large cloves and small
exterior cloves. These cloves serve as
defining features of A.
ampeloprasum.108

Cultivation

Leek is a relatively hardy species

Wild leeks in upstate New York (David Gapp).
that, unlike onion (and to a lesser
extent garlic), does not have specific photoperiodic requirements for pseudostem
formation. (Photoperiodic response refers to the amount of time the pseudostem must be

15
exposed to light in order for development to occur.) Accordingly, the plant can be grown
in a broad range of latitudes.109 But while leek can grow well under most soil conditions,
it tends to do best in deep loams and peat with good drainage and a pH value around
7.0.110

Because leek does not form bulbs, does not enter a rest period, and does not have strict
photoperiodic requirements, it is not only adaptable but can be harvested over longer
periods of time than onions.111 Like onions, though, leek will bolt (that is, develop an
elongated stalk with flowers grown from within its main stem) if subject to low winter
temperatures. If leek is exposed to prolonged periods of low temperatures, it becomes
undesirable for market and cultivators must adjust planting and production dates.112

Leek starts from seed and require a rather long growing season to reach an optimal
marketable size—usually at least two feet in height or about an inch in diameter.113 In
cool climates, leeks are often planted as early as
possible in the spring, and are typically
transplanted from hotbeds or cold frames into the
open once the soil warms. Early plantings are
generally ready by late summer, though leek can
be harvested in any season. Production tends to
be greatest, however, in late autumn, winter, and
early spring, and lightest in summer.114

Leeks take up minimal horizontal space and thus

require only about six inches of space between
Wild leek flowers (David Gapp).
one another and two feet between rows.115
Experiments with spacing have found that increasing the distance between leeks enables
the individual plants to grow in size, but this contributes to a reduction in yield per unit
area.

Harvesting leek can be challenging because the vegetable is planted deeper and has a
more extensive and complex network of roots at harvest than other alliums.116 Leek is
thus easier to harvest by hand, though it can be harvested mechanically. Once the plant is
harvested, it is trimmed and bunched for market. It is thereafter stored, usually for one to
three months at 0° C with 90 to 95 percent relative humidity.117

Pathogens and Pests

Leek is vulnerable to the same pathogens and pests as other alliums, including smut,
downy mildew, pink root, neck rot, and thrips.

Nutritional Aspects

Leeks provide all of the essential amino acids for humans, and are also a good source of
vitamin C. Approximately one-half cup of leeks contains 9 percent of one’s daily

16
recommended calcium intake, 14.8 percent of recommended iron intake, 31.3 percent of
vitamin C intake, and 32 percent of folacin intake.118 Leeks are also low in sodium, high
in potassium, and rich in flavonoids, organic compounds that are not directly involved in
an organism’s normal growth processes.119

Medicinal Uses

Recent research published in The International Journal of Cancer in November of 2007

discussed flavonoid intake for women. The results showed that women with a diet
abundant in leeks and other flavonoid-rich foods have a significantly lower chance of
developing ovarian cancers. This prospective study performed by the Brigham and
Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School in Boston used flavonoids, which are
compounds rich in anti-oxidants most commonly found in plants, fruits and teas. Their
research was based on the intake of five different flavanoids: myricetin, kaempferol,
quercetin, luteolin and apigenin. Women eating a diet specifically rich in kaempferol,
which is found in high concentrations in the leaves of leek to protect the plant from
ultraviolet radiation, exhibited a 40 percent reduction in the risk of developing ovarian
cancer.120 This research is still in the prospective stages, but it is leading the way and
opening new doors in the study of cancer.121

Leeks are also very dense in oxalates, which are naturally occurring compounds found in
plants, animals, and humans. Oxalates are an organic acid which, when in high
concentrations in bodily fluids, have the potential to form crystals leading to health
problems such as kidney stones. Thus individuals with a history of digestive tract,
gallbladder, or kidney problems should watch their oxalate consumption and avoid eating
leeks.122

Culinary Uses

Sometimes referred to as “green onions on steroids,” leeks

are available year round and are the mildest in flavor of the
Allium family.123 Depending on time of harvest, their flavor
will change and in the spring and fall they will become
increasingly sweet.124 Most often paired with potatoes, they
are used to make vichyssoise and can be used raw in salads.
Both the stalk and the white onion base can be eaten, but the
base can become woody and or unusable as the leak ages.125

A popular Scottish equivalent to the French vichyssoise is

cock-a-leekie. This particular soup, like vichyssoise, “Leek harvest” (http://
www.flickr.com/photos/p
contains leeks and potatoes, though chicken stock is also
aulhardy/57641328/).
added. The original recipe featured prunes, and some cooks
will garnish the soup with julienned prunes. Leeks are also included in stews such as the
French pot-au-feu, which consists of low-cost cuts of beef and is slow-cooked, and are
occasionally employed for use in vegetable and meat stocks.126

17
 Cultural Significance

Leeks play an integral role in Welsh culture. They are one of the national emblems of
Wales, and have been featured on the one pound Welsh coin—those minted in 1985.127 In
addition, leeks play an important cultural role in the Welsh national holiday, St. David’s
Day (March 1), named after St. David, the patron saint of Wales.128 Sixty years after St.
David’s death (approximately 640 AD), the British King Cadwallader was attacked by
the invading Saxons. According to legend, the Welsh, to distinguish themselves from the
enemy, wore leeks in their helmets. This battle, known as the Battle of Heathfield, was
won by the British. To honor this victory in the name of St. David, it is customary for
residents of Wales to wear a leek or a daffodil in their pockets or hats on March 1.129

18th-century English artist William Hogarth produced a series of eight paintings titled “A Rake’s Progress”
(1732). The fourth painting, titled “The Arrest,” illustrates the customary Welsh tradition of wearing a leek
in ones hat on St. David’s Day (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:William_Hogarth_026.jpg).

18
Chives

Scientific Classification and Etymology

Chive is the smallest species of Alliaceae, the onion family. Because it grows in clumps
instead of as individual plants, it is referred to as “chives” rather than “chive.” The plant
is classified as Allium schoenoprasum, with the latter name referring to the rush-like
leaves of chives. “Chives” is derived from the Scientific Classification
fourteenth-century French word cive—itself Kingdom Plantae
derived from the Latin term for onion, cepa.130 Subkingdom Tracheobionta
Division Magnoliophyta
Historical Origins Class Liliopsida
Subclass Liliidae
Order Asparagales
Chive is the most widely distributed member of Family Alliaceae
the allium genus, and grows in the wild in North Genus Allium
America and Eurasia. Because the plant is very Species A. schoenoprasum
resistant to cold weather and is winter dormant, it
can grow in latitudes as high as far north as 70°.131
As a result, in North America, chives can be found
from Newfoundland to Alaska, from New York
State to Minnesota and southern Oregon, and in
the Rocky Mountains. The plant has a circumpolar
distribution in Old World. It extends from Japan,
China, northern India, and Iran in Asia and the
Middle East, through the Balkan Mountains,
northern Italy, and to the Pyrenees Mountains in
Europe.132

Chives originated in the north temperate zone in

North America, Europe, and Asia, making it the
only allium species native to both the Old World
and the New World. Although little is known of
the early history of chives as a cultivated species, it
has been established that the plant was known by
the Chinese 5,000 years ago. Chives were also
known and enjoyed by the ancient Greeks.133

It was not until the sixteenth century, however, Chive and onion illustration, 1885
that chives became popular in European gardens. (http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Chives).
At the time, they were used mostly for food,
although the English botanist John Gerard wrote a medical guide in 1597 in which he
described chives as an herbal remedy.134 In the seventeenth century chives was
introduced to Germany by the Italians. During the 1600’s chives came to be regarded as a
peasant food in England, yet it was used periodically as a potherb.

19
Though the English grew chives throughout the 1600’s and 1700’s—it was mentioned as
part of the supplies of seeders in 1726—the vegetable began to lose favor in England in
the latter half of the eighteenth century. Of course, this trend was not universal in the
British Isles. Botanist E. Louis Sturtevant reported in the 1800’s that Scottish families,
which had traditionally consumed chives in heavy amounts, continued to enjoy chives on
a regular basis. At the same time, chives were relatively popular among recreational
gardeners in the U.S. The plant was featured in a list of American esculents in 1806.135

Horticulture and Plant Specifics

Chives is distinguished from other alliums by its flowers, growth in clusters, and its
narrow slender leaves. The flowers of the plant are normally purple, pink, or sometimes
white. As many as thirty flowers will form in a one- to two-inch ball at the end of the
stalk.136 The flowers stand upright, and open first at the top of the umbel (stalk) before
opening gradually toward the direction of the base of the stalk. The leaves of chives
usually stand between one and two feet above ground, with the flower stems reaching
slightly greater heights.137

Cultivation

The most common method of planting involves

seeding chives in single rows with about
fourteen inches of space between them. A gap
of thirty inches appears between every four or
so rows. Because chives is dormant in the
winter, growers will often seed the vegetable
midway through summer, allowing them to
harvest in mid-fall and then again in early- “Chives” (http://www.flickr.com/
spring the following year. Leaves and flowers photos/97775656@N00/153709092/).
typically develop in abundance during the
spring and in early summer, and it is this part of chives that gets consumed. (Bulbs do not
get eaten because they are not well defined.) Growers can even harvest over successive
four- to five-week intervals throughout the summer and autumn, for chives will continue
producing clusters of leaves and flowers well after spring harvest.138

When chives is harvested, it is cut about one-half to one inch above the soil line. An
additional one inch or two inches is removed from the freshly cut leaves. The leaves are
thereafter cooled, washed, cut into pieces about one-eighth of an inch in size, and
packaged and frozen as quickly as possible to maintain freshness.139 Of course, while
chives is often used for culinary purposes, it is most often homegrown and employed in
ornamental designs.140

Pathogens and Pests

20
Like onions, chives is subject to assault from a handful of different diseases and
disorders, including downy mildew, onion smut, and bulb and stem nematode. (These
pests and ailments are described in greater detail in the section on onions.)

Nutrition

For an average male, 100g of chives will provide 30 calories and is very high in calcium
(11.5 percent of daily intake), iron (16 percent), magnesium (12 percent), vitamin A (43
percent), and vitamin C (96.8 percent). 141

Culinary Usage

Chives can be eaten either freshly cut or in the dehydrated form. When frozen, their
flavor can last for several months. They are often used to flavor baked potatoes, soups,
and are often used as a garnish. They can be found year round and are considered a fine
herb in French cuisine.

Medicinal Usage

Similar to other alliums chives exhibit all of the same properties but weaker in
effectiveness. Chives also have similar antibacterial properties to other alliums. See garlic
and onion for medicinal effects.

Chemistry

See garlic and onion.

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