Lecture 10 February 25, 2010 Physics 504,

Spring 2010
Electricity
and
Last time we discussed a small scatterer at origin. Magnetism

Interesting effects come from many small scatterers Shapiro

occupying a region of size d large compared to λ. The

scatterer j at position ~xj has an E ~
inc with an extra factor
of e ikn̂i ·~
x j , and in the scattered wave, ~r needs to be
replaced by ~r − ~xj . Assuming
we are observing from far away, r r xj
|~r|  d, the variations of the r
in the denominator or the r̂’s are
not important, but the effect in xj
the oscillating exponential is, and r xj
ni
we should approximate
eik|~r−~xj | ≈ eikr e−ikr̂·~xj
So the amplitude for the scattered wave due to j has an
extra factor of
eikn̂i ·~xj −ikr̂·~xj = ei~q·~xj , with ~q = k(n̂i − r̂).
 Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Electricity
The amplitudes for all the scatterers need to be added and
Magnetism
before squaring to find the flux, so we have
Shapiro
 2
k4
 
dσ X ∗ ∗ q ·~
i~ xj 

= 2
 [~ · p~j + (r̂ × ~ ) · m
~ j /c] e  .
dΩ (4π0 Ei ) 
j 

If all the scatterers react the same way, pj and mj can be

factored out of the sum, and we appear to have a single
scatterer with a structure factor
 2
 
X XX
q ·~
i~ xj 
ei~q·(~xj −~xj 0 ) .
 
F(~q) = 
 e  =
 j  j j0

The nature of F(~q) depends on how the scatterers are

distributed.
Structure Factor Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Electricity
I Large number of randomly positioned scatterers: and
Magnetism
phases random — superposition incoherent.
Shapiro
Only the terms with i = j contribute, F(~q) = N ,
except for ~q = 0. Coherent scattering ≈ N 2 , so
incoherent scattering is very faint.
I Crystaline structure: with a regular array we can get
even less scattering.
Consider a one dimensional array of N scatterers
each displaced by ~a from the previous.
 2
N −1
 X ij~q·~a   1 − eiN q~·~a 2 2
  
F(~q) = 
 e  =   = N 2 sin (N ~q · ~a/2) .
  1 − ei~q·~a  (N sin(~q · ~a/2))2
 j=0 

For lattice spacings a  λ but total extent N a  λ,

the fraction is (sin x/x)2 for x = N ~q · ~a/2. x  1 and
(sin x/x)2  1 unless ~q · ~a is comparable or smaller
than 1/N .
 Physics 504,
Spring 2010
So except for forward scattering, we have destructive Electricity
and
interference. Magnetism
In three dimensions, the same thing happens unless the Shapiro
Bragg condition holds for some pair of scatterers,
~q · d~ = 2nπ for some d~ the separation between two
scatterers, not too far apart. In that case there will be
some fraction of N interfering constructively, and the
structure factor will be proportional to N 2 . But if the
lattice spacing is much less than λ, this will happen only
for forward scattering.
So a perfect crystal with a  λ is ≈ uniform material with
permittivity ¯ and permeability µ̄, without scattering.
But suppose small fluctuations,

 = ¯ + δ(~x),
µ = µ̄ + δµ(~x).
Applying Maxwell Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Electricity
Maxwell in medium but without sources applies: and
~ ·D
As ∇ ~ = 0, Magnetism

    Shapiro

∇2 D~ = = ∇2 D ~ −∇~ ∇ ~ ·D
~ = −∇ ~ × ∇ ~ ×D ~
   
= −∇ ~ × ∇~ × (D~ − ¯E − ¯∇
~ × ∇ ~ ×E ~ .
| {z }
∂B~
−
∂t

~
∂B ∂ ~ ~ ~ + ¯µ̄ ∂ ∇

~ ×
last term: ¯ ∇ = ¯ ∇ × B − µ̄H ~ ×H ~
∂t ∂t ∂t | {z }
~
∂D
∂t

So altogether,
~
∂2D   ∂  
~ µ̄
∇2 D−¯ = − ~
∇× ~ × (D
∇ ~ − ¯E +¯
 ~
∇× ~ − µ̄H
B ~ .
∂t2 ∂t
(1)
 Physics 504,
This equation is exact. Good approximations: δ, δµ Spring 2010
Electricity
small, treat to first order, as sources. Can treat full field and
Magnetism
~ as harmonic, ∝ e−iωt so D
D ~ satisfies inhomogeneous
Helmholtz equation with k 2 := µ̄¯ ω 2 , and all fields Shapiro

perturbations on an incident plane wave

~ i eik~ni ·~x
~ (~x) = D
D inc r
~ (~x) = µ̄ ~ (~x),
B inc ~ni × D inc
¯
the fields in the source term, to first order in the
variations, will be

~ − ¯E = δ(~x) ~
D Dinc (~x)
¯
~ − µ̄H = δµ(~x) ~
B Binc (~x)
µ̄
the correction will then be the scattered wave given by Physics 504,
Spring 2010
the Green’s function Electricity
and
1
Z ik|~x−~x 0 | Magnetism
~ −D ~ 3 0e
D inc = d x
4π |~x − ~x 0 | Shapiro
(
1~ 0 ~ 0  
× ∇ × ∇ × δ(~x 0 )D ~ (~x 0 )
inc
¯
)
i¯ω ~ 0  
+ ∇ × δµ(~x 0 )B
~ (~x 0 )
inc
µ̄

Integration by parts: Note1 V ∇ ~ ×A

~ = ~n × A ~ → 0 if A ~
R R
S
vanishes sufficiently at infinity, and therefore
 
~ 0 × A(~
~ x 0 ) ∼ − d3 x0 ∇ ~ 0 f (~x 0 ) × A(~
~ x 0 ).
R 3 0 0 )∇
R
V d x f (~
x V
For the B~ term, f (~x 0 ) is the Green function,
inc
ik|~x 0 −~
x| ikR
~ 0e
∇ ~e
= −R [ikR − 1] , ~ = ~x − ~x 0
with R
|~x 0 − ~x| R3
1
See lecture notes
 ~
For the D inc term, we also need Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Z Electricity
and
d3 x0 f (~x 0 )∇
~ 0×∇ ~ 0 × A(~~ x 0) Magnetism
V Z
 h i  Shapiro

= d3 x0 f (~x 0 ) ∇~0 ∇ ~ 0 · A(~

~ x 0 ) − ∇0 2 A
~
VZ
 
∼− d 3 x0 ∇ ~ 0 f (~x 0 ) ∇ ~ 0 · A(~
~ x 0)
V Z

− d3 x0 A(~
~ x 0 )∇0 2 f (~x 0 )
Z V  
3 0~ 0 ~ 0 ~ 0 0
∼+ d x A(~x ) · ∇ ∇ f (~x )
VZ

− d3 x0 A(~
~ x 0 )∇0 2 f (~x 0 ).
V
0
Again f (~x 0 ) = eik|~x −~x| /|~x 0 − ~x| is the Green’s function for
∇2 + k 2 , so for the second term, outside the region of
scattering (where we can ignore the δ(~x − ~x 0 ) term) we
~ x 0 )eik|~x 0 −~x| /|~x 0 − ~x|.
have k 2 V d3 x0 A(~
R
For large r, we have Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Electricity
ik|~x 0 −~
x| −ikr̂·~x 0
e = eikr e , and
Magnetism
1
≈ 1/r, Shapiro
|~x 0 − ~x|
~ 0 f = − ik r̂eikr e−ikr̂·~x 0 , and
∇
r
   k 2
~0 ∇
~·∇
A ~ 0f ~ ikr e−ikr̂·~x 0 .
= − r̂ · Ar̂e
r
So altogether
~ =D
~ eikr ~
D inc + r Asc ,
where
k2 δ(~x 0 ) 
Z  
~ sc = 3 0 −ikr̂·~x 0 ~ (~x 0 ) × r̂
A d xe r̂ × D inc
4π ¯
¯ω δµ(~x 0 )

~ 0
− r̂ × Binc (~x ) .
k µ̄
 Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Electricity
and
The differential cross section for light with polarization ~ Magnetism

is Shapiro

 ∗ ~ 2
 
dσ ~
 · A sc 
=
dΩ  ~ 2
 
Dinc 
" Z
k2 0
= d3 x0 ei~q·~x
4π
 0) 0)
#2
δ(~ x δµ(~
x
~ ∗ · ~i − (~ ∗ × r̂) · (n̂i × ~i ) ,
¯ µ̄

with ~q = k(n̂i − r̂).

Blue Sky Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Electricity
and
Our first application is to consider molecules in a dilute Magnetism

gas as a fluctuation in  from the vacuum at a point. With Shapiro

an induced dipole moment p~j = 0 γmol E(~ ~ xj ) we have
X
δ = 0 γmol δ(~x − ~xj )
j

and we assume no magnetic moments, so δµ = 0. Then

dσ k4
= |γ |2 |~ ∗ · ~i |2 F(~q)
dΩ 16π 2 mol
where for a dilute gas we have an incoherent sum and
F(~q) is the number of scattering molecules, except for
~q = 0, the forward direction.
For the dilute gas as a whole the dielectric constant
r = /0 = 1 + N γmol , where N is the number density of
molecules.
 Physics 504,
The total scattering cross section per molecule is then Spring 2010
Electricity
and
k4 XZ Magnetism
σ= |r − 1|2
dΩ |~ ∗ × ~i |2
16π 2 N 2 Shapiro
~

The
P polarization factor is
∗ ∗
i · ~ ) (~ · ~i ) = 1 − |r̂ · ~i |2 , as ~ ~j~ ∗k + r̂j r̂k = δjk .
P
~ (~

Consider light incident in the z direction with ~i = x̂, so

r̂ · ~ = sin θ cos φ, and the integral
Z Z π Z 2π
∗ 2
dΩ |~ × ~i | = sin θdθ dφ(1−sin2 θ cos2 φ) = 8π/3,
0 0

and
k4 2 k 4  2 2 2k 4
σ= |r − 1| = n − 1  ≈ |n − 1|2
6πN 2 6πN 2 3πN 2
√
where n = r is assumed to deviate only slightly from 1.
 Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Electricity
and
The intensity of the beam I(z) = I(0)e−αz falls Magnetism

exponentially with distance with the attenuation Shapiro

coefficient α due to the scattering. In a slice of width dz,

there are N dz scatterers per unit area, each scattering an
area σ of the beam, so there is a fractional loss of N σdz
in distance dz, and

2k 4
α = Nσ ≈ |n − 1|2 .
3πN
This is Rayleigh scattering. Note that it is a method of
determining the number of molecules, so an approach
which was used historically to determine Avagadro’s
number.
Critical Opalescence Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Electricity
and
Magnetism
In the previous discussion we assumed no corrolation in Shapiro
the positions of the scatterers. This is not a good
approximation in denser fluids. A better approximation is
to consider ¯ to be the mean permittivity of the fluid but
take into account density fluctuations. From the
Clausius-Mossotti relation (J4.70) we have

3 + 2N γmol dr 9γmol (r −1)(r +2)

r = =⇒ = 2
= ,
3 − N γmol dN (3−N γmol ) 3N

so the variation of  in a region of fluid with varying

density is
δ (r − 1)(r + 2)
= δN.
0 3N
How do we evaluate δN ?
 Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Electricity
and
In a fluid in equilibrium with a reservoir at constant Magnetism

pressure and temperature, the probability that a given Shapiro

piece of fluid occupies a volume V is exp −G(V )/kB T ,
where G is the Gibbs free energy and kB is Boltzmann’s
constant.
In terms of the2 isothermal compressibility
−1
∂2G
  
1 ∂V
βT = − = V ,
V ∂p T ∂V 2

the mean square deviation of h(∆V )2 i = kB T hV iβT , and

h(∆N )2 i = kB T hN 2 /V iβT .

2
See Reif, p300
 Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Electricity
and
So the total (for all the particles in the volume) Magnetism
differential cross section is Shapiro
*Z  +
k4 x) 2
 
dσ ∗ 2 
 3 i~ x δ(~
q ·~
NV = |~ · ~i |  d xe
dΩ 16π 2 ¯ 
2
k4

∗ 2  r − 1)(r + 2) 
 
= 2
|~ · ~i | 
16π 3N r 
Z Z
0
× d3 x d3 x0 ei~q·(~x−~x ) hδN (~x)δN (~x 0 )i.

If we assume the correlation length for density

fluctuations is much less than the wavelength, we may
0
take ei~q·(~x−~x ) ≈ 1 and the integrals give
V h(δN )2 i = N 2 kB T βT .
 Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Electricity
As for the blue sky, the attenuation coefficient is just and
Magnetism
α
R =N Pσ and the angular integral is
dΩ ~ |~ ∗ · ~i |2 = 8π/3, so
Shapiro

k 4  (r − 1)(r + 2) 2
 
α =  N kB T βT
6πN  3r
ω 4  (r − 1)(r + 2) 2
 
=  N kB T βT .
6πN c4  3

The most important feature of this is that at the critical

point the compressibility βT blows up, so the fluid
becomes opalescent.

I am going to skip the sections on diffraction. This has

been or is covered in our optics courses.