Determination of the acceleration due to gravity using the oscillation time of a

simple pendulum.
➢ Theory
• The motion of a particle under a periodic force around a point is a simple harmonic motion, and the
pendulum bob attached to the string performs a similar motion. Accordingly, its period of oscillation is
given by 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑙⁄𝑔 and since the period of oscillation depends on the gravitational acceleration, the
relation of the period of oscillation can be used to determine the gravitational acceleration at any point
on the Earth.

➢ Materials and apparatus

• A simple pendulum, a meter ruler, a stopwatch, a locating pin, a cork cut vertically in the middle.

➢ Method
• At the beginning, the length of the string is maintained at 40 𝑐𝑚 and fix a locating pin to take the
number of oscillations when oscillating. The string is then oscillated by maintaining a vertical inclination
of less than 10°. (About 5° or 6°)
• Time is measured to a number of oscillations (about 25 oscillations) that can maintain a percentage
error less than 1% in time measurement. The time per oscillation is then calculated by dividing the
relevant time by the number of oscillations. Repeat the experiment by increasing the length of the string
by 10 𝑐𝑚 and obtain readings for 6 instances. The gravitational acceleration is then determined by
plotting the graph of square of period of oscillation against the length of the string and calculating the
gradient of it. The radius of the pendulum bob can be determined by the intercept of the graph.
(Distance from the point where the string is attached to the pendulum to the center of gravity of
pendulum bob). Here, 𝑙 is the distance from the point where the string is attached, to the center of the
pendulum bob.

 Accordingly, the gravitational acceleration can be calculated using the gradient of the graph and the radius of
the pendulum bob can be calculated using the intercept of the graph.

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 ➢ Important points
• Here, the distance to the center of the
pendulum bob is taken as 𝑙, the calculation and
graph are as follows.

𝑙
• To apply the equation 2𝜋√ to the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum, the simple pendulum
𝑔
must oscillate under the following conditions.
o The oscillation angle should be small.
o The air resistance affecting the sphere must be incalculably small.
o The pendulum bob should not rotate.
• It is not advisable to attach the top of the string to something like a hook. This is
because when the pendulum bob oscillates, it moves around the hook on both
sides. Therefore, a cork is cracked through the middle and moves the string through
it and oscillate the pendulum bob perpendicular to the crack. Then the error caused
by the variation in length of the string when the pendulum oscillates can be
avoided.
• Here the percentage error of the time measurement increases as time is measured
for one oscillation. The lab uses a stopwatch to measure time. Use of time measuring instruments can
cause errors and inconsistencies in the reaction time of the person measuring the time at the beginning
and end of the measurement, as well as on the reaction time of the instrument.
• The same instrument should be used to obtain the readings by varying the length of the pendulum
relative to the oscillation time, and the measurements should be taken by the same person. (This allows
individual errors to be equal in all cases.)
• Instead of measuring the time per oscillation to
minimize the percentage error of the time
measurement, time is measured to a suitable
number of oscillations so that the percentage
error is less than 1%. In practice, when using a
stopwatch, time is measured at about 25
oscillations. Below is the nature of the two types
of stopwatches. There are 3 buttons on one
stopwatch and the other one has only one
button on it. Accordingly, the left button on the 3 buttoned stopwatch is used as the reset button and
the right end button is used as the start button and is stopped by the large middle button. The
stopwatch with one button performs all three of the above processes with its single button.

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 • Twisted strings are not suitable for the string in this test. Then the oscillating pendulum bob rotates.
Therefore, strings with parallel fibres should be used.
• By extending this experiment, the floor-to-ceiling height of a room can also be calculated. Here the
height from the ground to the ceiling is 𝐻 and the height from the ground to the center of gravity of the
pendulum bob is ℎ.

o 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑙⁄𝑔
𝐻−ℎ
o 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔
4𝜋2
o 𝑇2 = 𝑔
(𝐻 − ℎ)
4𝜋2 4𝜋2 𝐻
o 𝑇2 = − ( 𝑔 ) ℎ + ( 𝑔 )
4𝜋2 4𝜋2
o 𝑚=( 𝑔 ) 𝑐= ( 𝑔
)𝐻
𝑐
o 𝑐 = 𝑚. 𝐻 𝐻= 𝑚

• Accordingly, using the distance ℎ from the ground level

to the center of gravity of the pendulum bob as an
independent variable, we can create a graph of ℎ against
the square of oscillation time 𝑇 2 and calculate the height
from the ground to the ceiling in terms of the gradient
and the intercept of the graph.
• In this test, the pendulum bob is made of metal. It can be
made of a low-density material such as wood, but then
the oscillations are quickly damped because its inertia is
less.
• The pendulum bob is spherical because the minimum field area for a given
volume is spherical, so the damping is small because the air resistance is
minimal.
• Consider the pendulum bob is a hollow sphere and it is filled with a liquid. If
the liquid leaks out of a hole in the sphere when it is oscillating, its period
of oscillation will change as follows due to the variation in the center of
gravity of the sphere.
• After measuring the time for a certain number of oscillations, the time must
be measured for the same number of oscillations, and if the difference between those times is more
than 0.5 seconds, the test is performed again.
• Instead of taking the number of oscillations as 1, 2, 3 immediately at the start of the
oscillation, the pendulum should start oscillating and shortly after, start counting
number of oscillations by mentioning as 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3.
• Hold the locating pin vertically on a support, at the nearest lowest point of the
trajectory of the pendulum as shown in the figure. At that point, the speed of the
pendulum is maximized so that the time measurement error is minimized. This is not
done vertically below a point on the trajectory of the pendulum, such as A, as the
velocity of the pendulum at that point is low and the time measurement error is high.
• Pendulum bob measurement is an unavoidable error in testing.

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Verification of the relationship between the mass of a body suspended from helix spring and
its period of oscillation.
➢ Theory
𝑚
• Connecting a mass 𝑚 to a helix spring and oscillating gives the period of oscillation 𝑇, where 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ .
𝑘
Accordingly, a relationship between mass and period of oscillation time can be obtained by using this
relationship. The peculiarity here is that the period of oscillation is independent of gravitational
acceleration.
➢ Materials and apparatus
• A helix spring, a set of 50 g weights, a locating pin, a stopwatch, a stand
➢ Method
• Suspend helix spring vertically from a stand and lower end of the spring hang initial weight of the set of
weights. Attach an indicator horizontally to the end of the spring. When the spring is at rest and close to
its path of oscillation connect the locating pin to the stand in line with the indicator. Pull down the
suspended weight slightly and release it to make it oscillate in a vertical plane. Measure the time taken
for 50 oscillations using the stopwatch. Obtain this measurement again. Repeat the experiment by
increasing m for about six values of m and record the values.

➢ Important points
• When measuring the period of oscillation, the percentage error of the measurement can be minimized
by measuring the time for a greater number of oscillations. Accordingly, time is measured for about 50
oscillations.
• No matter how successful the test is performed, you will not get a straight-line graph that goes through
the origin. This is because about 1/3 of the mass attached to the helix spring is corresponding to the

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 mass of the spring, and that mass is also participating to this oscillation process. Accordingly, the
equation for period of oscillation should be as follows.

𝑀′
√(𝑀 + 3)
𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝑘
𝑀′ = Mass of the helix spring.
4𝜋 2 𝑀′
𝑇2 = ( ) (𝑀 + )
𝑘 3 𝑀 = Mass of the weights and
the mass of the weight holder.
2
4𝜋 2 4𝜋 2 ′
𝑇 =( )𝑀 + ( 𝑀)
𝑘 3𝑘

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
4𝜋2
𝑚=( 𝑘
)
4𝜋 𝑀 ′
2
𝑐= 𝑘 3
𝑚𝑀 ′
𝑐= 3
Thus, the spring constant of the spring can be calculated by the gradient of
′
3𝑐
∴𝑀 =( ) the graph and the mass of the spring can be calculated by the intercept of the
𝑚
graph.

• The amplitude of the spring must be very small. Or else the contraction of the spring causes the loops to
collide with each other.
• Most of the experimental errors can be minimized by placing the
locating pinpointing towards the midpoint of the motion. The
errors are minimized since,
o Maximum velocity of the object at the center.
o Always pass the center, even when scaled.
• When the mass 𝑀 is moving, the position of the reference pin
must also be changed accordingly.
• Measurements should be taken by the same person using the
same stopwatch throughout the experiment.
• To minimize the individual graft error, the number of oscillations
should be calculated as 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3...... and the stopwatch
should be activated at the moment when counting is 0.

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 Demonstration of properties of waves using the ripple tank.
➢ Ripple tank

In the laboratory, the ripple tank is used to monitor

the factors such as wave reflection, refraction, diffraction,
and interference. Here water is filled to a height of 1cm -
2cm in the ripple tank, and when the waves form in the
surface of water, the light from the flashlight creates bright
lines on the lower screen. These are corresponding to the
crests of the waves, so that the behavior of the wave fronts
can be studied. The manner in which those lines are occur
is as follows.

To study characteristics of the waves, the waves must be kept stationary, and
observing under normal conditions, the flow of waves are observed. In a
laboratory, a gyroscope or a flashlight is used to see these flowing waves
stationary. In order to study the properties of waves such as wavelength in the
laboratory ripple tank, the wave fronts on the screen must be seen as
stationary. This is done by using a gyroscope or a flashlight. Holes are drilled in
a circular disk in the gyroscope so that the object on the opposite side can be
observed through the hole. When looking at point A through the hole in the gyroscope it can be very well observed if the
gyroscope is stationary. If the gyroscope rotates, it can be observed once in a while. In the
meantime, if point A also rotates, we can observe that point A remains in the same position as
the rotational frequency of point A is equal to the rotational frequency of the axis or its
integer multiplication. This type of manual gyroscope can be used to observe the water waves
on the screen of the ripple tank as stationary. In that case, when the frequency of the
gyroscope goes to a higher value, the eye is not sensitive to the hole leaving the eye.

A similar tactic is used in the flashlight. It observes waves with its extinguishing incandescent bulb, and when there is
simple interaction between the frequency of the bulb and the frequency of the water waves, we observe wave fronts as
stationary. When using a point light source (filament bulb) in ripple tank tests, there is a
difference between the two wavelengths seen on the screen, the difference between the visible
wavelength and the actual wavelength. It can be represented as follows and the wavelength of
the water waves on the ripple tank (λ) can be calculated by the visible wavelength (λ′ ) measured
in the screen. Considering equiangular triangles,
λ 𝑥
′
=
λ 𝑥+𝑦
λ′ 𝑥
λ=
𝑥+𝑦
The linear vibrators in the ripple tank can generate straight linear waves by attaching a long metal plate to an electrically
activated tooth. (The tooth of an electric bell or the tooth that vibrates with a small electric motor.)
Spherical vibrators create circular waves by attaching a tip to an electrically activated tooth. When the vibrating tip is
struck on the surface of water, the turbulence near the tip spreads at the same speed as the radial surface.

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 Demonstration of wave reflection, refraction, diffraction, and interference.
➢ Reflection of waves
Plain and circular waves can be created using spherical and linear vibrators and made to collide with various
obstacles (plain, convex, concave) placed in the ripple tank. Hence, wave reflection can be replaced as follows.
Barriers rising above the water surface of the ripple tank should be used.

Reflection of circular wave fronts Reflection of plain wave fronts

➢ Refraction of waves
The wave refraction phenomenon is caused by the change in
velocity of the wave in different media. The velocity of water is
expressed as 𝑣 = √𝑔ℎ , where ℎ is the depth. Therefore, a glass
sheet can be inserted into the ripple tank to reduce the depth of
a certain area and create two different velocities and two
mediums.
➢ Diffraction of waves
When an obstacle is encountered in a flowing wave, part of that wave does not move
forward, and the moving wave tries to bend / move towards the barrier. This is called
wave diffraction. Diffraction can be modeled using barriers raised above the water surface
in such a way that it collides with a flowing wave in the corrugated tank. When exposed to
a wave through a hole, the diffraction patterns of the wave vary with the wavelength as
follows.

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 ➢ Interference of waves
It focuses on the resultant wavelength of the waves when they fall one on top of the other. This is based on the
principle of wave superposition.
Principle of superposition
When several waves pass through a point at the same time, the resultant displacement at that point is the
vector sum of the displacements caused by each wave at that point. Based on this, it focuses on creative
interference and destructive interference.
1. Creative interference
Its amplitude increases when two identical waves are superimposed without any phase change.
2. Destructive interference
Elimination of wave properties when two identical waves are superimposed with a 180° phase
difference.

The ripple tank can be used to study wave interference. There are two tips attached to the blade of the electric motor.
The frequency, amplitude, etc. of the two circular waves generated by the vibration of the two nodes are equal and their
vibrations are synchronous. The pattern formed by these two waves is shown in the figure below. Here the circles with
continuous lines represent the wave crests and the circles with dotted lines represent the wave troughs.

Creative interference occurs along the 𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ line, with very high brightness at the crest-crest superposition and high
darkness at the trough-trough superposition. Destructive interference occurs along the 𝑋𝐷 ,𝑋𝐵 lines and low brightness
from the crest-trough overlap.

Sonometer.
When using a sonometer, a stretched string in it must be vibrated at a known frequency. This is called tuning the
stretched string.

➢ Tuning by hearing
Anyone with an ear accustomed to musical tones can tell by what
frequency it sounds by listening to the sound of a vibrating string.
Accordingly, a certain distance is maintained between the bridges,
and it vibrates in the middle and hears the relevant sound. The
spacing between the bridges varies until it corresponds to musical
tone, causing the string to vibrate at a known frequency.
➢ Tuning from the beats
Keeps a certain distance between the bridges of the sonometer and vibrates in the
middle of it with a tuning fork that knows the frequency vibrates and places it near
the sonometer. The gap between the bridges is then varied until the beats are
heard, and the gap between the bridge is varied until the frequency of the beats
gradually decreases and the beats disappear. This can cause the string to vibrate at
the frequency of the stroke. But these two methods can only be used by someone
who is trained in music.

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 ➢ Tuning by resonance
When a vibrating tuning fork is placed on a sonometer, all the
components in the sonometer forced oscillates at the frequency of
the tuning fork. Accordingly, the string parts we are considering can
resonate with the frequency of the tuning fork. But here, there must
be a methodology to find the resonance. Something that forced
oscillate moves towards the maximum amplitude when it resonates.
You can use this to select the resonance instance. To do this, install a
paper mount on the sonometer wire. Then the paper lifter also
vibrates when the wire is subjected to forced oscillation, and the
reaction that affects the paper lift can be removed at or near the
resonance. Through this the instance of the resonance can be found.

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

𝑚𝑔 − 𝑅 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴

𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴
As 𝐴 gradually increases and reach the
resonance state, 𝑅 = 0.

Finding the frequency of the tuning fork using the sonometer.

➢ Materials and apparatus
• A sonometer, a tuning fork of unknown frequency, a meter ruler, a
triple beam balance, a set of 0.5 kg weights, a piece of
the sonometer wire, a light paper rider.

➢ Method
• Suspend an initial load of 0.5 kg from the sonometer wire that passes over the pulley. Arrange the bridges to
have a small gap between them and place the light paper rider in the middle of the wire over the bridges.
Vibrate the given tuning fork and place it on the sonometer. Pull the two bridges apart to increase the gap

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 until the rider is instantly thrown out of the wire. Obtain the fundamental resonance situation in this
manner and note down the value 𝑀 of the suspended mass and also the length 𝑙 of the sonometer wire
between the bridges. Increasing the value of 𝑀 by 0.5 kg each time and repeating the experiment obtain 6
ore relevant values of 𝑙. In order to determine the value of 𝑚 (the mass per unit length of the wire) measure
the length of the piece of sonometer wire by the meter ruler and its mass by the triple beam balance.

➢ Important points
• By embedding an air column in the sonometer, it is possible to absorb the energy from the tuning fork and
delay the damping by the absorption of more energy from the air column when involved in forced
oscillation.
• When placing the vibrated tuning fork on the sonometer, it should be placed on the sonometer so that the
wire does not contact with it. It is easy to obtain resonating lengths by placing the sonometer close to the
center between the two bridges pf the vibrating tuning fork so that the energy transmission is good.
• The reason why light paper riders are used for lifters is because the inertia of the paper riders is less.
• Leaving the paper riders cannot be considered as a resonance instance. There is an uncertainty error.
Accordingly, several resonance instances related to the same tuning fork are obtained to minimize the
uncertainty error. Then the resonance point can be taken by its mean value. The uncertainty error can be
calculated by obtaining the difference between the minimum and the maximum by writing the resonances
obtained in the same tuning fork in ascending order. To minimize this error, several paper riders can be
placed on the sonometer wire to perform the same test as above to obtain the highest number of riders
lifts.

Showing that the vibrational frequency of a stretched string is inversely proportional to the
resonating length.

➢ Materials and apparatus

• A sonometer, a set of tuning forks with known frequencies, a meter scale, light paper riders, a set of
weights.
➢ Method
• Select the tuning fork with highest frequency and arrange
the bridges to have a small gap between them and place
the paper rider on the middle of the wire between the
bridges. Place the vibrated tuning fork on the sonometer.
The gap between the bridges is then gradually increased
1 𝑇
and the resonance is confirmed when the paper rider is 𝑓0 = √
2𝑙 𝑀
removed. This is done several times and the mean of the
resonance lengths is obtained.
• As above, the basic resonating lengths for each tuning fork is obtained and plotted the graph of the
contrast of the vibrational frequency against the resonating length. Then if it is a straight-line graph
which passes through the origin then it appears to be the
vibrational frequency is inversely proportional to the
resonating length.
1 𝑇
𝑓= √
2𝑙 𝑚

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 1 𝑇 1
𝑙=[ √ ]
2 𝑚 𝑓

➢ Important points
• By embedding an air column in the sonometer, it is possible to absorb the energy from the tuning fork and
delay the damping by the absorption of more energy from the air column when involved in forced
oscillation.
• When placing the vibrated tuning fork on the sonometer, it should be placed on the sonometer so that the
wire does not contact with it. It is easy to obtain resonating lengths by placing the sonometer close to the
center between the two bridges pf the vibrating tuning fork so that the energy transmission is good.
• When using a set of tuning forks that know the frequency, the short-pronged tuning fork has a higher
frequency, and it is easier to start the test with the highest frequency tuning fork. The test can then be
continued as the minimum resonance length is obtained using the tuning fork with higher frequency and the
resonant length increases from the lowest value, respectively.
• But in such a test there is a problem with whether the resonance length can be obtained for all tuning forks.
To avoid this, the fundamental resonance length relative to the lowest frequency is obtained at the
beginning. This will ensure that the test can be performed on all tuning forks. If the resonant length of the
tuning fork with the lowest frequency is not possible, the tension of the wire should be reduced, and tests
should be started.
• The reason why light paper riders are used for lifters is because the inertia of the paper riders is less.
• Leaving the paper riders cannot be considered as a resonance instance. There is an uncertainty error.
Accordingly, several resonance instances related to the same tuning fork are obtained to minimize the
uncertainty error. Then the resonance point can be taken by its mean value. The uncertainty error can be
calculated by obtaining the difference between the minimum and the maximum by writing the resonances
obtained in the same tuning fork in ascending order. To minimize this error, several paper riders can be
placed on the sonometer wire to perform the same test as above to obtain the highest number of riders
lifts.
• The relevant length should be maintained at a value greater than 10 cm in order to obtain the tuning fork
with highest frequency and basic resonance lengths. This is done to keep the percentage error of the length
measurement less than 1%.

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 Determination of the velocity of sound using a closed resonance tube and a tuning fork and
also determination of the end correction of the tube.

➢ Materials and apparatus

• A tall jar, a tube of diameter about 2.5 cm and length about 50 cm, half meter ruler, a tuning fork of
known frequency, a thermometer, a stand, sand or cotton, water.
➢ Method
• Immerse the tube in the water contained in the jar and fix it to the stand. Arrange for a short length of
air column in the tube, hold the vibrating tuning fork just about the upper end of the tube and raise the
tube along with the fork until an intense sound is heard for the first time indicating fundamental
resonance. Using the meter ruler measure length 𝑙1 of air column.
• Hold the vibrating tuning fork again above the tube and raise it further to obtain the next state of
resonance (first overtone). Measure the relevant length 𝑙2 of the air column.
𝜆
= (𝑙1 + 𝑒)
4
𝜆 = 4(𝑙1 + 𝑒) → (1)
𝜆
× 3 = 𝑙2 + 𝑒
4
4
𝜆 = (𝑙2 + 𝑒)
3
4
𝜆 = (𝑙2 + 𝑒) → (2)
3
(1) = (2)
4
4(𝑙1 + 𝑒) = (𝑙2 + 𝑒)
3
3𝑙1 + 3𝑒 = 𝑙2 + 𝑒
𝑙2 − 3𝑙1
𝑒=( )
2
𝜆 𝜆
× 3 − = 𝑙2 − 𝑙1
4 4
𝜆
= 𝑙2 − 𝑙1
2
𝜆 = 2(𝑙2 − 𝑙1 )
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
𝑣 = 2𝑓(𝑙2 − 𝑙1 )
➢ Important points
• In this case, a high-liquid container in which the tube can be completely submerged should be used.
• Something like sand or stuffing (cotton) is added to the bottom of the vessel to prevent it from being
reflected back the waves.
• Because temperature affects the velocity of sound in air, it must be checked whether the environmental
temperature remains constant during the test period. If the environmental temperature fluctuates in any
way, the graph becomes curvy.
• Volatile liquids should not be used instead of water. If so, the mean molecular mass variation in the tube will
affect the test.
• Here, too, there is an uncertainty error in the detection of the resonance state.
• As the diameter of the tube increases, the intensity of the sound decreases. This is because the larger the
trunk, the more energy it needs to vibrate.
• The end error depends on the radius of the tube. (𝑒 ≈ 0.6𝑟)

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 Determination of the velocity of sound in air using a closed resonance tube and a set of
tuning forks and also determination of the end error of the tube.

➢ Materials and apparatus

• A tall jar, a tube of diameter about 2.5 cm and length about 50 cm, half meter ruler, a set of tuning forks
of known frequencies, a thermometer, a stand, sand or cotton, water.
➢ Method

𝜆
= (𝑙 + 𝑒)
4
𝜆 = 4(𝑙 + 𝑒)
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
𝑣 = 𝑓 × 4(𝑙 + 𝑒)
𝑣 1
× = 𝑙+𝑒
4 𝑓
𝑣 1
𝑙 =( ) −𝑒
4 𝑓
𝑣
𝑦 =𝑚𝑥−𝑐 𝑚 = 𝑣 =4𝑚 𝑐 =𝑒
4
• Immerse the tube vertically in the water contained in the jar leaving a small length of the air column and
fix the tube on the stand. Select the tuning fork of highest frequency from the set, vibrate it and hold it
just above the open end of the tube. Then raise the tube and the tuning fork together until a louder
sound is heard for the first time indicating fundamental resonance and measure the length. In this way,
the basic resonance lengths for each tuning forks are obtained as the frequency decreases. Then the
graph of the contrast of the frequency against the fundamental resonant length is plotted.
• Using the above test, you can find the frequency of an unknown tuning fork. To do this, find the basic
resonance length relative to the unknown frequency and find the relevant vibrational frequency with
the help of the graph.
➢ Important points
• In this case, a high-liquid container in which the tube can be completely submerged should be used.
• Something like sand or stuffing (cotton) is added to the bottom of the vessel to prevent it from being
reflected back the waves.
• When using a set of tuning forks that know the frequency, it is easier to start the test with the highest
frequency tuning fork. The test can then be continued as the minimum resonance length is obtained using
the tuning fork with higher frequency and the resonant length increases from the lowest value, respectively.
• Because temperature affects the velocity of sound in air, it must be checked whether the environmental
temperature remains constant during the test period. If the environmental temperature fluctuates in any
way, the graph becomes curvy.
• Volatile liquids should not be used instead of water. If so, the mean molecular mass variation in the tube will
affect the test.
• Here, too, there is an uncertainty error in the detection of the resonance state.

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