1.

1 COCRETE AND REINFORCED CONCRETE COMPONENTS

CONCRETE – is a mixture of sand, gravel crushed rock, or other aggregates held together in a rocklike mass
with a paste of cement and water. Sometimes one or more admixtures are added to change certain
characteristics of concrete such as its workability, durability, and time of hardening.

REINFORCED CONCRETE – is a combination of concrete and steel wherein the steel reinforcement provides
the tensile strength lacking in the concrete.

AGGREGATES – the aggregates used in concrete occupy about three-fourths of the concrete volume. Since
they are less expensive than the cement, it is desirable to use as much of them as possible. Both fine
aggregates (usually sand) coarse aggregates (usually gravel or crushed stone) are used.

WATER – water used in mixing concrete shall be clean and free from injurious amount amounts of oils,
acids, alkalis, salts, organic materials, or other substances that may be deleterious to concrete or
reinforcement.

REINFORCING STEEL BARS – reinforcement used for concrete structures maybe in the form of bars or
welded wire fabric. Reinforcing bars are referred to as plane or deformed bars. The deformed bars ribbed
projections rolled into their surfaces to provide better bonding between the concrete and steel.

1.2 ADVANTAGES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

Reinforced concrete may be a dominant structural material available for construction in every country. It is
used in one form or another for almost all structures such as buildings, bridges, dams and so on.

Some of the numerous advantages or reinforced concrete are the following:

1. Concrete is strong in compression compared with most other material.

2. Concrete buildings has a great resistance to the actions of fire and water.
3. Reinforced concrete structures are very rigid.
4. It requires less maintenance than a structural steel or timber.
5. It has a very long service life as compared to other materials. Under proper conditions, reinforced
concrete structures can be used indefinitely without reduction of their load-carrying abilities.
6. Concrete material is very widely available, and the reinforcing steel can be transported easily to
the construction site than a structural steel. In most remote areas, reinforced concrete is the
preferred construction materials.
7. Concrete has its ability to be cast into any variety of shapes and dimensions of desired structures.

1.3 DISADVANTAGES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

Some of the factors that may cause to select a material other than reinforced concrete are the following:

a. Concrete has a very low tensile strength requiring the use of tension steel reinforcement.
b. The construction of cast-in-place structures requires forms and shoring to hold the concrete in
place and support its weight until it hardens and until its strength is adequate.
c. It has a relatively low strength per unit weight or volume. It means concrete members require a
larger volume and a greater weight of materials which has a great effect on bending moments.
d. The properties of concrete vary widely because of variations in its proportioning and mixing.
1.4 DESIGN CODES AND SPECIFICATION – THE NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES 2025

1.5 CONCRETE DESIGN PROPERTIES (NSCP 2015 SECTION 419.2)

➢ 1.5.1 SPECIFIED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (NSCP 2015 SECTION 419.2.1)
▪ 419.2.1.1 The value of f’c shall be specified in construction documents and shall be in
accordance with (a) through (c):

a. Limits in Table 419.2.1.1;

b. Durability requirements in Table 419.3.2.1;
c. Structural strength requirements

Table 419.2.1.1 Limits for f’c

Application Concrete Minimum f’c, MPa Maximum f’c, MPa

general Normal weight and light 17 None
weight
Special moment frames Normalweight 21 None
and structural walls Lightweight 21 35(1)
[1]
The limit is permitted to be exceeded where demonstrated by experimental evidence that members
made with lightweight concrete provide strength and toughness equal to or exceeding those of comparable
members made with normalweight concrete of the same strength.

➢ 1.5.2 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (NSCP 2015 SECTION 419.2.2)

It is the ratio of the normal stress to corresponding strain for tensile or compressive stresses below
the proportional limit of the material. concrete has a modulus of elasticity which varies with the
different concrete strength, concrete age, type of loading and the proportions of cement and
aggregates.

▪ 419.2.2.1 Modulus of Elasticity, Ec , for concrete shall be permitted to be calculated as (α)

or (b):

a. For values of wc between 1440 and 2560 kg/m3

𝑬𝒄 = 𝒘𝒄 𝟏.𝟓 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟑√𝒇′𝒄 (in MPa)

b. For normal weight concrete

𝑬𝑐 = 𝟒𝟕𝟎𝟎√𝒇′𝒄 (in MPa)

➢ 1.5.3 MINIMUM SPACINGOF REINFORMENT (NSCP 2015 SECTION 425.2)

▪ 425.2.1 For parallel non-prestressed reinforcement in a horizontal layer, clear spacing shall
be at least the greatest of 25mm, db, and (4/3)dagg.
▪ 425.2.2 For parallel non-prestressed reinforcement placed in two or more horizontal layers
shall be placed directly above reinforcement in the bottom layer with a clear spacing
between layers of at least 25mm.
▪ 425.2.3 For longitudinal reinforcement in columns, pedestals, struts, and boundary
element in walls, clear spacing between bars shall be at least the greatest of 40mm, 1.5db,
and (4.3)dagg.

➢ 1.5.4 BUNDLED REINFORCEMENT (NSCP 2015 SECTION 425.6)

 ▪ 425.6.1 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement
▪ 425.6.1.1 Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact to act as a unit shall be
limited to four in any one bundle.
▪ 425.6.1.2 Bundled bars shall be enclosed within transverse reinforcement. Bundled bars in
compression members hall be enclosed by transverse reinforcement at least 12mm φ in
size.
▪ 425.6.1.3 Bars larger than a 36mm φ shall not be bundled in beams.
▪ 425.6.1.4 Individual bars within a bundle terminated within the sap of flexural members
shall terminate at different points with at least 40db stagger.
▪ 425.6.1.5 Development length for individual bars within a bundle, in tension or
compression, shall be that of the individual bar, increased 20 percent for a three-bar
bundle, and 33 percent for a four-bar bundle.
▪ 425.6.1.6 A nit bundled bars shall be treated as a single bar with an area equivalent to that
of the bundle and a centroid coinciding with that of the bundle. The diameter of equivalent
bar shall be used for db in (a) through (e):

a. Spacing limitations based on db;

b. Cover requirements based on db;
c. Spacing and cover values in Section 425.4.2.2;
d. Confinement term in Section 425.4.2.3;
e. Ψe factor in Section 425.4.4.

➢ 1.5.5 SPECIFIED CONCRETE COVER REQUIREMENTS (NSCP 2015 SECTION 420.6.1.3)

▪ 420.6.1.3.1 Non-prestressed cast-in-place concrete members shall have specified concrete

cover for reinforcement at least that given in Table 420.6.1.3.1.

Table 420.6.1.3.1

Specified Concrete Cover for Cast-In-Place

Non-Prestressed Concrete Cover

Concrete Exposure Member Reinforcement Specified Cover, mm

Cast against and
permanently in contact All All 75
with ground
20mmφ through 50
Exposed to weather or 58mmφ bars
in contact with ground All 16mmφ bar, MW200 or
MD200 wire, and 40
smaller
Not exposed to weather Slabs, joists, and walls 40mmφ and 58mmφ 40
or in contact with bars
ground 36mmφ bar and smaller 20
Beams columns, Primary reinforcement,
pedestals, and tension stirrups, ties, spirals, 40
ties and hoops

▪ 420.6.1.3.2 Cast-in-place prestressed concrete members shall have specified concrete

cover for reinforcement, ducts and ends fittings at least that given in Table 420.6.1.3.2.
 Table 420.6.1.3.2

Specified Concrete Cover for Cast-in-Place

Prestressed Concrete Members

Concrete Exposure Member Reinforcement Specified Cover, mm

Cast against and
permanently in contact All All 75
with ground
Exposed to weather or Slabs, joists, and walls All 25
in contact with ground All others All 40
Not exposed to weather Slabs, joists, and walls All 20
or in contact with Beams, columns, and Primary reinforcement 40
ground tension ties Stirrups, ties, spirals, 25
and hoops

▪ 420.6.1.3.4 For bundled bars, specified concrete over shall be at least the smaller of (a) and
(b):

a. The equivalent diameter of the bundle

b. 50mm and for concrete cast against and permanently I contact with ground, the
specified cover shall be 75mm.

➢ 1.5.6 STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS (NSCP 2015 SECTION 421.2)

▪ 421.2.1 Strength reduction factor φ shall be in accordance with Table 421.2.1 except as
modified by Sections 421.2.2, 421.2.3, 421.2.4.

Table 421.2.1

Strength Reduction Factor φ

Action or Structural Element φ Exceptions

(a) Moment, axial force, or combined 0.65 to 0.90 in Near ends of pretensioned
moment and axial force accordance with members where strands are
Section 421.2.2 not fully developed, φ shall be
in accordance with Section
421.2.3
(b) Additional requirements are
Shear 0.75 given in Section 421.2.4 for
structures designed to resist
earthquake effects
(c) Torsion 0.75 -
(d) Bearing 0.65 -
(e) Post-tension anchorage zones 0.85 -
(f) Brackets and Corbels 0.75 -
(g) Struts, ties, nodal zones, and bearing
areas designed in accordance with 0.75 -
strut-and-tie method Section 423
(h) Components of connections of
precast members controlled by 0.75 -
yielding of steel elements in tension
(i) Plain concrete elements 0.90 -
(j) 0.45 to 0.75 in
Anchors in concrete elements accordance with -
Section417
 ▪ 421.2.2 Strength reduction factor for moment, axial force, or combined moment and axial
force shall be in accordance with Table 421.2.2.

Table 421.2.2

Strength Reduction Factors, φ, for Moment, Axial Force, or Combined Moment and Axial Force

Φ
Not Tensile Classification Type of Transverse Reinforcement
Strength Ɛt Spirals conforming to Other
Section 425.7.3
𝜀𝑡 ≤ 𝜀𝑡𝑦 Compression 0.75 (a) 0.75 (b)
controlled
𝜀𝑡𝑦 < 𝜀𝑡 < 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 Transition[1] (𝜀𝑡 − 𝜀𝑡𝑦 ) (c) (𝜀𝑡 − 𝜀𝑡𝑦 ) (d)
0.75 + 0.15 0.65 + 0.25
(0.005 − 𝜀𝑡𝑦 ) (0.005 − 𝜀𝑡𝑦 )
𝜀𝑡 > 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 Tension 0.90 (e) 0.90 (f)
controlled
[1]
For sections classified as transition, it shall be permitted to use φ corresponding to compression-
controlled sections.

▪ 421.2.2.1 For deformed reinforcement, Ɛty shall be fy/Es. For Grade 280 deformed
reinforcement, it shall be permitted to take Ɛty equal to 0.002.

1.6 LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS

Perhaps the most important and most difficult ask face by the structural designer is the accurate estimation
of the load that may be applied to a structure during its life. No loads that may reasonably be expected to
occur may be overlooked. After loads are estimated, the next problem is to decide the worst possible
combinations of these loads that might occur at one time. Loads are classified as being dead, live, or
environmental.

▪ DEAD LOADS – are loads of constant magnitude that remain in one position. They include
the weight of the structure under consideration as well as aby fixtures that are
permanently attached to it. For a reinforced concrete building, some dead loads are
frames, walls, floors, ceilings, stairways, roofs, and plumbing. Unit weight of concrete =
23.54 kN/m3
▪ LIVE LOADS – are loads that can change in magnitude and position. They include occupancy
loads, warehouse materials, construction loads, overhead service cranes, equipment
operating loads, and many others. In general, they are induced by gravity.
▪ ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS – are loads caused by the environment where the structure is
located. For buildings, they are caused by rain, wind, temperature change, and earthquake.
In fact, these are also live loads, but they are the result of environment where the structure
is located. Although they do vary with time, they are not all caused of gravity or operating
conditions, as in typical with other live loads.

1.6.1 LOAD COMBINATION USING STRENGTH DESIGN OR LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN
(NSCP 2015 SECTION 203.3)
 ▪ 203.3.1 Where strength design or load and resistance factor design is used, structures and all
portions thereof shall resist the most critical effects from the following combinations of factored
load:

1.4(D + F) (203-1)

1.2(D + F + T) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(Lr or R) (203-2)

1.2D + 1.6(Lr or R) + (f1L or 0.5W) (203-3)

1.2D + 1.0W + f1L + 0.5(Lr or R) (203-4)

1.2D + 1.0E + f1L (203-5)

0.9D + 1.0W + 1.6H (203-6)

0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H (203-7)

Where;

D = Dead Load

L = Live Load

W = Wind Load

E = Earthquake Load

Lr = Roof Live Load

T = Temperature Load

F = Fluid Load

1.6.2 LOAD COMBINATIONS USING ALLOWABLE STRESS OR ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN (NSCP
2015 SECTION 203.4)

▪ 203.4.1 Where allowable stress or allowable strength design is used, structures and all portions
thereof shall resist the most critical effects from the following combinations of loads:

D+F (203-8)
D+H+F+L+T (203-9)
D + H + F + (Lr or R) (203-10)
D + H + F + 0.75[L + T + (Lr or R)] (203-11)
𝐸 (203-12)
D + H + F + (0.6𝑊 𝑜𝑟 1.4)

The following are the most common load combinations for most applications:

a. 1.4D
b. 1.2D + 1.6L
c. 1.2D + 1.0L + 1.0W
d. 1.2D + 1.0L + 1.0E
e. 0.9D + 1.0W
f. 0.9D + 1.0E

1.7 ARRANGEMENT OF REINFORCING BAS FOR MOST EFFICIENT RECTANGULAR BEAM SECTION
For rectangular beams to be the most efficient, reinforcing bas should be arranged in such a way that the
effective depth of the reinforcement is the maximum. Minimum cover, which for beams not exposed to
weather or in contact with the ground is 40mm, and minimum spacing between parallel bars which is the
greater between 25mm or diameter of bar, must be followed.