Semantics

Semantics
A Cognitive Account of Linguistic Meaning

Zeki Hamawand
Published by Equinox Publishing Ltd.
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First published 2015

© Zeki Hamawand 2015

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN-13 978 1 78179 248 3 (hardback)

978 1 78179 249 0 (paperback)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hamawand, Zeki, author.
Semantics: a cognitive account of linguistic meaning / Zeki Hamawand.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-78179-248-3 (hb) – ISBN 978-1-78179-249-0 (pb)
1. Semantics–Psychological aspects. 2. Cognitive grammar. 3. Meaning
(Psychology) 4. Psycholinguistics. I. Title.
P325.5.P78H363 2015
401'.43–dc23
2015010608

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Printed and bound in Great Britain by
Contents

Preface vii
Acknowledgements xi

Part I Fundamentals 1
1 The nature of meaning 5
2 Lexical semantics 23
3 Sentential semantics 39

Part II Underpinnings 59
4 Guiding assumptions 61
5 Conceptual structures 83
6 Cognitive mechanisms 103

Part III Operations 121

7 Categorization 125
8 Configuration 141
9 Conceptualization 159

Glossary 187
Further Reading 207
Answer Key 213
Index 248
Preface

Approach
Semantics: A Cognitive Account of Linguistic Meaning is a textbook which
provides an in-depth analysis of English semantics, a branch of linguis-
tics which specializes in the study of meaning. The approach adopted is
Cognitive Semantics, the study of the cognitive aspects of meaning. It pro-
vides the basic techniques of determining the meanings of lexical and sen-
tential expressions in a systematic way. It attempts to unify the two spheres
of how language conveys meaning and how language relates to context.
It tries to demonstrate the ways the mind processes language to organize
experience, and vice-versa. It aims to explain the relationship between expe-
rience, the conceptual structure and the semantic structure encoded by lan-
guage. Experience is knowledge gained from seeing, feeling or doing things.
Conceptual structure is knowledge representation, including concepts orga-
nized in the human conceptual system. Semantic structure is the linguistic
form that conceptual structure takes in language. Cognitive semanticists
employ language as the lens through which cognitive phenomena can be
investigated. Thus, it represents the newest development within the field of
Cognitive Linguistics.

Goals
The textbook introduces the topic of semantics, taking a step-by-step
approach. To that end, it links theory with practice in the study of meaning.
It has, therefore, two goals: theoretical and practical. The theoretical goal
is to acquaint students with the theories of meaning, introduce the key con-
cepts used in the study of meaning, and elaborate on the two essential units
of meaning: word and sentence. In categorization, linguistic expressions are
shown to have multiple meanings, which gather around prototypical exam-
ples, and so display minimal differences in meaning. In configuration, lin-
guistic expressions denoting the same concept are shown to form domains,
in which they represent discrete facets, and so have different roles in the
language. In conceptualization, linguistic expressions which look similar
are shown to be distinguishable in meaning, and so distinctive in use. The
practical goal is to develop the skills of the students in analysing linguis-
tic expressions, familiarize them with the mechanisms used in constructing
viii Semantics

meaning, and inform them of the techniques employed to account for their
interpretation.

Contents
The textbook is divided into three parts. Part I is entitled ‘Fundamentals’,
which serves to introduce the major terms involved in the field of seman-
tics. It consists of three chapters. Chapter 1 relates to the nature of mean-
ing. Chapter 2 deals with lexical semantics. Chapter 3 pertains to sentential
semantics. Part II sheds light on the cognitive framework in which the study
of meaning is carried out. It offers a synthesis of the leading tenets of the
cognitive framework. It consists of three chapters. Chapter 4 introduces the
cognitive assumptions. Chapter 5 touches upon the conceptual structures.
Chapter 6 addresses the cognitive mechanisms. Part III addresses the cogni-
tive processes involved in the construction of meaning. It consists of three
chapters. Chapter 7 copes with categorization. Chapter 8 grapples with con-
figuration. Chapter 9 tackles conceptualization. Each chapter begins with
an overview, where the subject matter, the objective and the procedures are
stated. The overview aims to help the student to understand the content of the
chapter before delving into the details. Each chapter is divided into sections.
Each section closes with an exercise. The exercises are meant to reinforce the
material presented or introduce new material for investigation.

Audiences
To achieve its mission, the textbook uses an approachable style and sums
up the information in figures and tables. It uses actual data, offers numerous
examples and gives vivid explanations. As a textbook, it targets two classes
of audience. Primarily, it targets undergraduate students taking degree
courses in linguistics. It provides them with a thorough discussion of the
pivotal issues involved in the study of linguistic semantics. It informs them
more fully about such areas in semantics as word meaning and sentence
meaning. Secondarily, it targets students at English departments. It helps
them to understand the meanings of expressions and grasp the conditions
under which they are used. As a guidebook, it targets two classes of audience.
First, it targets linguists. Of central significance for them are the cognitive
tools employed to account for semantic data. Second, it targets scholars from
neighbouring disciplines. Of special interest for them is the description of an
area in language study from a new perspective.
 Preface ix

Notes
To teachers
To make maximum use of the textbook and achieve the goals of the course,
teachers should consider two points. Concerning lesson plans, the textbook
is organized in such a way that it allows teachers flexibility in designing a
semantic course to meet teaching requirements. The textbook is ideal for
a one-semester course of 12–14 teaching weeks. In this case, teachers are
recommended to cover one chapter per week. However, the recommenda-
tions made here can be adjusted to meet different requirements. Therefore,
teachers are free to use the textbook in a way that suits the level of the course
they teach and/or the time available. Concerning the data, it is taken exclu-
sively from English. The main source for the choice and analysis of the data
is the British National Corpus. The corpus provides example sentences and
collocation patterns. However, the general principles discussed here can be
extended to apply to other languages. Therefore, teachers are free to use
cross-linguistic data in their lessons. Just for convenience, the following is a
possible format of a one-semester course.

Week Topic Reading Week Topic Reading

1 Linguistics 8 Cognitive mechanisms Ch. 6
2 Nature of meaning Ch. 1 9 Review/Exam
3 Lexical Semantics Ch. 2 10 Categorization Ch. 7
4 Sentential Semantics Ch. 3 11 Configuration Ch. 8
5 Review/Exam 12 Conceptualization Ch. 9
6 Guiding assumptions Ch. 4 13 Review/Exam
7 Conceptual structures Ch. 5 14 General Review

To students
The textbook, which is couched within the theory of Cognitive Linguistics,
is meant to give students an insight into the nature of linguistic meaning
and the principles which govern its mechanism. It does not necessarily pre-
suppose any foreknowledge of the topic. The definitions which it presents
and the distinctions which it suggests should not be taken as a hard-and-fast
criterion, but rather as a rule of thumb. To get a grasp of any section or sub-
section, the students are advised to study its content carefully, make a brief
summary of it, and then tackle the exercise which it contains. The purpose of
x Semantics

this is twofold. First, it attracts attention to the core of the section. Second,
it tests comprehension of the material presented. Finally, further reading and
bibliographical sources are included at the end of the textbook. The purpose
of this is twofold. First, it provides guidance on further reading on the topics
covered in the analysis. Second, it acknowledges work which contributed in
one way or another to the present discussion.

Conventions
● Bold face is used to introduce technical terms at their first occurrence,
and thereafter ordinary type face is used unless particular emphasis
justifies its repetition.
● Italics are used to cite a word or a sentence as a linguistic example to
illustrate the terms.
● Asterisks are used to indicate that a word or an expression is semanti-
cally unacceptable.
● Single quotation marks are used to enclose a phrase to indicate the
definition of a morpheme or word.
● The mark = is used to indicate that two words or phrases have the
same value as each other.
● The mark [ ] is used to represent schemas and semantic structures of
derivational morphemes.
● The mark / / is used to represent phonological structures of deriva-
tional morphemes.
● The mark () is used to enclose words.
● The mark { } is used to enclose alternatives.
Acknowledgements

In writing this textbook, I have accumulated many debts to people who con-
tributed in one way or another to its completion, none of whom has responsi-
bility for any flaws. First, I owe Struan Robertson a deep debt of gratitude for
reading the manuscript in its entirety, making acute observations and giving
useful feedback. Second, I would like to express my deepest appreciation
to Ronald Langacker, Dirk Geeraerts and Paul Chilton for devoting their
time to reading parts of the work. In fact, their crucial questions, construc-
tive comments and valuable suggestions produced noticeable improvements
in the work. I am particularly indebted to Karin Guth whose words have
boosted my morale while working on the project in difficult circumstances.
I would also like to acknowledge the support of Janet Joyce and Valerie Hall
at Equinox for their patience during the long gestation period of the manu-
script. Finally, my greatest debt of all is to Suhad. I thank her for her courtesy,
patience and support. The book is dedicated to her.

Zeki Hamawand
Part I

Fundamentals
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language, a set of vocal sounds
or written marks used in communication. Within linguistics, there are
two main fields that study meaning. Semantics is the study of context-
independent meanings of linguistic expressions. It defines the literal mean-
ings which linguistic expressions have and identifies the relations which
they hold. Pragmatics is the study of the context-dependent meanings of
linguistic expressions. It defines the non-literal meanings which linguistic
expressions have and identifies the relations which they hold. Semantics and
pragmatics are then two sides of the same coin. Semantics deals with mean-
ing which an expression has independently of context. For example, There is
a car coming signals a statement meaning out of context that a car is coming.
Pragmatics deals with the meaning which an expression has in a particular
context. For example, There is a car coming signals a warning on a specific
occasion against stepping onto a road. In a cognitive analysis of language, the
two fields form a continuum and study the meanings of linguistic expressions
in and out of context.
As a lexical word, semantics comes from the Greek adjective semantikos
meaning ‘related to signs’, based on the noun sēmeion meaning ‘sign’. As a
linguistic term, semantics is the study of the linguistic meaning of words and
sentences. The linguist who is interested in the study of meaning is called a
semanticist. Semantics is an essential branch in linguistics. Its general goal
is to study the ways in which meaning can be analysed in language. Meaning
is the idea that a piece of language represents. It is the thing that the speaker
wishes to communicate to the hearer by language. Its specific goal is two-
fold. The first is to mark the common semantic relations which exist between
words. The study of word meanings and the relations among them is the
concern of Lexical Semantics. The second is to define the common seman-
tic relations which exist between sentences. The study of sentence meanings
and the relations among them is the concern of Sentential Semantics. In
cognitive terms, semantics aims to explain how factors inside and outside
language contribute to the meanings of linguistic expressions.
Outline
1 The nature of meaning
1.1 Meaning
1.1.1 Levels
1.1.2 Aspects
1.2 Types of meaning
1.2.1 Descriptive
1.2.2 Expressive
1.2.3 Social
1.3 Conceptions of meaning
1.3.1 Referential
1.3.2 Relational
1.3.3 Decompositional
1.3.3.1 Componential
1.3.3.2 Conceptual
1.3.3.3 Primitive
1.3.4 Representational
1.4 Comparison
1.5 Summary
2 Lexical Semantics
2.1 Word meaning
2.2 Paradigmatic relations
2.2.1 Antonymy
2.2.2 Polysemy
2.2.3 Synonymy
2.2.4 Taxonomy
2.2.4.1 Hyponymy
2.2.4.2 Meronymy
2.3 Syntagmatic relations
2.3.1 Anomaly
2.3.2 Collocation
2.3.3 Colligation
2.3.4 Idiomaticity
2.4 Paradigmatic-syntagmatic relations
2.5 Summary
3 Sentential Semantics
3.1 Sentence meaning
3.2 Sentential relations
3.2.1 Paraphrase
3.2.2 Contradiction
3.2.3 Entailment
3.2.4 Presupposition
3.2.5 Implicature
3.3 Inference
3.3.1 Ambiguity
3.3.1.1 Lexical ambiguity
3.3.1.2 Sentential ambiguity
3.3.2 Deixis
3.3.3 Speech acts
3.4 Semantic roles
3.5 Summary
 1

The Nature of Meaning

Chapter 1 introduces the notion of meaning in language, identifies its levels,
aspects and types, and reviews different approaches to its definition. The aim
is to introduce the basic terminology used in the study of meaning. The chap-
ter is organized as follows. Section 1.1 explains what the notion of mean-
ing is. It consists of two subsections. The first deals with levels of meaning.
The second revolves around aspects of meaning. Section 1.2 sheds light on
the different types of meaning: descriptive, expressive and social. Section
1.3 addresses the different conceptions of meaning: referential, relational,
decompositional which includes componential, conceptual and primitive,
and representational. In all the sections, I pursue three steps. First, I introduce
the meaning conception. Second, I explain its assumption. Third, I give an
example to test its application. Section 1.4 draws a comparison between the
two mainstream paradigms of meaning: formalist and cognitive. Section 1.5
summarizes the main points of the chapter.

1.1 Meaning
Language is conveyed in terms of expressions. An expression is a meaning-
ful unit of language such as an affix, word, phrase or sentence. A unit is any
simple or complex expression that carries a lexical or grammatical pattern
and serves a particular purpose. A linguistic expression has two aspects. One
is substance, which consists of two facades: form and meaning. Form is the
orthographic representation associated with a linguistic expression. Meaning
is the semantic content associated with a linguistic expression. The form
serves to indicate meaning. The other is use, the purpose for or way in which
a linguistic expression is employed. The use of a linguistic expression is
determined by the way the language user describes a situation, which differs
relative to the demands of discourse. The substance of a linguistic expression
is activated as a response to language use. Meaning is the characteristic of
a linguistic form which is used to pick out some aspect of the non-linguistic
world. Meaning is what the speaker communicates or conveys in a message
and what the receiver decodes or infers from its use in a context. In essence,
meaning is the heart of language. Meaning is what language is for.
6 Semantics

1.1.1 Levels
A linguistic expression has two levels of meaning. The first is expression
meaning, the meaning of a linguistic expression, word or sentence, taken
out of context. Word meaning is the literal meaning of a word taken out of
context, which is derived from the morphemes it consists of. The meaning
of the word unanswerable, for example, is built up out of the meanings of
the morphemes it contains, which are un + answer + able meaning ‘cannot
be answered’. Sentence meaning is the literal meaning of a sentence taken
out of context, which is built up from the meanings of the words it contains.
The meaning of the sentence The argument is unanswerable, for example,
is that the argument cannot be answered. The second is utterance mean-
ing, the non-literal meaning of an expression, word or sentence, which is
derived from the context in which it is used. The meaning of the utterance
The argument is unanswerable, for example, is that the argument cannot be
proved wrong and must therefore be accepted. The distinction drawn above
between sentence meaning and utterance meaning is linked to the distinction
between semantics and pragmatics. In the approach adopted in this study, the
distinction is not recognized. The central aim of semantics is, therefore, to
uncover the meanings of linguistic expressions when they are used both in
and out of context.

Exercise 1.1
State what the utterance meaning of each of the following sentences is.
1. That is just what I needed!
2. You have been a great help!
3. That will be extremely useful!
4. You are a very tidy cook, I see!
5. You have been working hard!

1.1.2 Aspects
Linguists distinguish different aspects of meaning. These include reference,
sense, denotation and connotation. These aspects set important contrasts
within the meaning of a linguistic expression. Reference contrasts with
sense, whereas denotation contrasts with connotation.
 The nature of meaning 7

Reference vs. sense

Reference is the meaning of an expression which is tied to an actual object in
the world. It is the specific entity, called referent, which an expression stands
for on any occasion of use. Sense, by contrast, is the concept represented by
the meaning of an expression. It is the meaning of an expression that is basic
to its individual identity. It is derived from the position it occupies within
the language system or its semantic relationships with other expressions in
the vocabulary of the language. For example, the reference of the expression
reader points to an entity that is capable of reading. However, it can be used
in different senses. One sense is ‘someone who reads something’. Another
sense is ‘a book designed for reading’. A further sense is ‘a device that reads
very small writing’. Unlike reference which changes each time an expression
is applied to a different referent, sense does not change when the expression
takes on a different referent. For example, regardless of whether the referent
of the expression newsreader is Jack or John, its sense remains the same: ‘a
person who reads the news on television or radio’.

Denotation vs. connotation

Denotation is the literal, constant and basic meaning of an expression. It is
the relationship between an expression and the kind of thing it refers to in the
world. It is the core meaning which an expression has, as described in a dic-
tionary. Connotation, by contrast, is the figural, cultural or emotional mean-
ing associated with an expression. For example, the denotation of the word
dog is ‘an animal with four legs and a tail, often kept as a pet or trained for
work’, while its connotation is often positive, meaning ‘friend’ or ‘helper’.
Unlike denotation, the connotation of an expression depends on emotional
values. A parallel distinction is made between extension and intension. The
set of things an expression applies to is known as its extension. For example,
the extension of the word dog covers all dogs like guide dog, lapdog, sheep-
dog, sniffer dog, tracker dog, etc. The set of properties an expression has is
known as its intension. For example, the intension of the word dog includes
its properties like assisting, accompanying, guarding, etc.
Reference differs from denotation in two ways. First, reference is the act
of picking out an entity in the real world. Denotation, by contrast, is the
relationship between an entity and its property. For example, in A wasp had
flown in through the window the noun phrases a wasp and the window refer
to things in the world. The nouns wasp and window denote certain classes of
things. Accordingly, the meaning of a word denotes properties of things. A
8 Semantics

proper noun denotes an individual. A common noun denotes a set of individ-

uals. A verb denotes an action. An adjective denotes a property of the individ-
ual. An adverb denotes a property of the action. The meaning of a sentence
denotes a situation or event. Second, reference is a momentary relationship.
Denotation is a stable relationship. For example, the referent of the word
musician changes according to context, which could be Mozart, Beethoven,
and the like, whereas its denotation remains the same, which is a person who
writes music or plays a musical instrument, especially professionally.

Exercise 1.2
The following words denote animals but connote disapproving traits
of persons. Give the connotation of each.
1. pig
2. fox
3. mule
4. sheep
5. snake

1.2 Types of meaning

As the study of the meanings of linguistic expressions, semantics discusses
not only what words and sentences in the human language explicitly mean
but also what they implicitly convey. An accurate semantic analysis of a lin-
guistic expression should then consider all aspects of what it means. The
semantic aspects of a linguistic expression can be classified under three main
headings: descriptive, expressive and social meaning. The descriptive mean-
ing of a linguistic expression conveys factual information about a particular
state of affairs. The expressive meaning of a linguistic expression reflects
the subjective reactions of the speaker uttering it. The social meaning of a
linguistic expression maintains social relations among participants in talk
exchanges.

1.2.1 Descriptive
The descriptive meaning of a word, or its propositional meaning, refers to
that part of its meaning which bears on reference and truth. It includes the
act of both referring to something and stating its truth. It is the definition that
 The nature of meaning 9

is given in a dictionary. For example, the descriptive meaning of the word

hawk includes both reference to it as a bird, and truth of it as a living creature.
Its meaning might be extended to include some of its characteristics like the
ability to hunt and kill other creatures for food. The descriptive meaning of a
sentence is a concept for a certain kind of situation. Content words contribute
to the descriptive meaning of sentence meaning. The descriptive meaning
of a noun is a concept for a certain kind of entity. The descriptive meaning
of a verb is a concept for a certain kind of event. The descriptive meaning
of an adjective is a concept for a certain kind of quality. For example, the
descriptive meaning of the sentence She writes a letter includes both its ref-
erence and truth. The reference of the sentence is a kind of situation. The
references of the components it contains are: objects which are represented
by the pronoun she and the noun letter, and event which is represented by the
verb write. The truth of the sentence is the conditions under which it is true.
The sentence is true because each of its components is linked to a particular
referent.

Exercise 1.3
Define the descriptive meaning of each of the following expressions.
Then, identify the type of referent of each.
1. relax
2. ring
3. blue
4. linguist
5. I am sick

1.2.2 Expressive
The expressive meaning of an expression refers to its semantic quality inde-
pendently of the context in which it is used. Expressive words or phrases
serve to reflect personal attitudes, feelings or opinions. Their use is just a
matter of personal emotion, judgement or sensation. The expressive meaning
of a word neither contributes to its propositional content nor influences its
truth value. For example, the descriptive meaning of the word idiot is a per-
son, whereas its expressive meaning is that of contempt. Expressive meaning
is exemplified by certain phrases whose functions are the showing of strong
feelings: (a) interjections, a short sound, word or phrase spoken suddenly
10 Semantics

to express an emotion, as in ow! which expresses a sudden pain; and (b)

exclamations, a clause or sentence structure beginning with what or how, as
in What bloody awful weather! and How lovely she looks! There are, in addi-
tion, other expressions which produce personal reactions to a situation. as in
Thank God you’re safe! conveying happiness, My goodness, you have spent a
lot! conveying surprise, Good heavens, what a mess! conveying annoyance,
and Damn, I’ve spilt coffee down my blouse! conveying anger. There exist
some words, which have descriptive as well as expressive meanings, as in Hi,
honey, I’m home! and Happy birthday, sweetheart!
The term expressive overlaps with other terms like connotative, affec-
tive and emotive. The connotative meaning of an expression refers to the
additional meanings that a word has which goes beyond its denotative mean-
ing. The denotative meaning of the word child is what it literally means: a
young human being. The connotative meaning of the word child includes the
other general concepts associated with it: affection or nuisance. The affec-
tive meaning of an expression refers to the speaker’s feelings vis-à-vis an
expression, which differs from one person to another. For example, the affec-
tive meaning of the word child differs from one person to another. A person
enjoying the company of a child would associate positive emotions with it,
whereas a person not enjoying the company of a child would associate neg-
ative emotions with it. The emotive meaning of an expression refers to the
strong feelings, especially of anger, which a subject, statement or use of lan-
guage has on the people like child abuse.

Exercise 1.4
Below is a list of some interjections in English. Write what each of
them expresses.
1. ah!
2. alas!
3. hey!
4. ugh!
5. wow!
 The nature of meaning 11

1.2.3 Social
The social meaning of a word refers to that part of its meaning whose use is
governed by the social rules of interaction. It refers to the use of a particular
expression in language which indicates the social relationship between the
speaker and the addressee. Unlike an expression with descriptive meaning
which is governed by rules of factual adequacy, an expression with social
meaning is governed by the social rules of conduct. This is found particularly
in social rituals such as acknowledging, apologizing, addressing, blessing,
greeting or sympathizing. For each ritual, there is a social rule that defines
the circumstances under which a certain linguistic expression fits, usually
having a positive effect. In English, social differentiation is reflected by the
two levels of formality, formal indicating distance, and informal indicating
familiarity. To express social relationship, English provides two linguistic
devices. The first relates to forms of address. In addressing a person, the
speaker can choose between two ways: either a surname with title for a for-
mal relationship as in Mr. John/Professor John/Sir John, or just a first name
for an informal relationship, as in John.

Exercise 1.5
Name the social ritual of each of the following utterances and then
indicate the level of formality each represents.
1. a. Hi
b. Good morning.
2. a. How’s it going?
b. How are you?
3. a. Thanks.
b. I am grateful to you.
4. a. What?
b. I beg your pardon?
5. a. What’s the time?
b. Could you tell me the time, please?

The second device pertains to the choice of vocabulary, which is influ-

enced by a phenomenon in language called euphemism, the phenomenon in
which a word or phrase is used instead of another to avoid being unpleasant,
indecent or offensive. The word or phrase that is unpleasant, indecent or
offensive is described as being politically incorrect. The word or phrase that
12 Semantics

avoids being unpleasant, indecent or offensive is described as being politi-

cally correct. As an example of a word, some people prefer to use the polit-
ically correct word firefighter instead of fireman which can be construed as
sexist. Linguistically expressed, the word firefighter is a euphemism for the
word fireman. As an example of a phrase, some people prefer to use the polit-
ically correct phrase senior citizen instead of old person. Euphemism is used
in many areas within language including sexual activity (go to bed instead
of intercourse), bodily functions (use the toilet instead of defecate), military
(campaign instead of war), death (pass away instead of die), politics (user
fees instead of taxes), religion (heck instead of hell), and so on.

Exercise 1.6
The following are politically incorrect words. Avoid using them by
choosing a euphemism for each.
1. sick
2. skinny
3. miserly
4. crippled
5. inquisitive

1.3 Conceptions of meaning

The meaning of a linguistic expression, word or sentence, is so important that
it has received attention in many theories of language, but with differences in
stance. The stances of the theories follow from differences in their underlying
assumptions. These theories seek to provide different answers to the ques-
tion: what is meaning? The first conception deems meaning referential. This
is a characteristic of Traditional Semantics. The second conception considers
meaning relational. This is a feature of Structural Semantics. The third con-
ception considers meaning decompositional. Within this, three conceptions
have been proposed: componential which is a mark of Structural Semantics,
conceptual and primitive which are signs of Generative Semantics. The
fourth conception regards meaning representational. This is a hallmark of
Cognitive Semantics.
 The nature of meaning 13

1.3.1 Referential
In view of this conception, the meaning of an expression derives from its
reference to an actual object in the external world. This stance stems from the
objectivist theory of meaning, which views meaning in terms of correlation
between what is said and what is seen. For example, the meaning of the word
Susan is just the person it refers to in the outside world. The act of picking
out an entity in the outside world with a word is called referring. Thus, one
can use the word library to refer to a building. The entity referred to, in this
example the building, is called the referent. The meaning of a sentence is
reduced to the observable features of a situation. There are, however, a num-
ber of problems with this view. First, it ignores abstract items like bravery. It
is impossible to find a referent in the physical world to which it corresponds.
Second, it fails to show that the meaning of a word is influenced by extra-
linguistic information. This is the case when it fails to account for a word that
is ambiguous. For example, it is unable to distinguish between the two inter-
pretations of a word like pointer: a device used for pointing or a helpful piece
of information. Third, it neglects the difference in meaning between words
which share the same referent. For example, in British English the words
pupil and student do not have the same meaning. A pupil is a child who learns
in a school, whereas a student is a person who studies at a university. Yet, this
conception claims they have the same referent, a person who attends school.

Exercise 1.7
According to the referential conception of meaning, the following
nouns share the same referent: a watcher. Despite that, there exist
meaning differences which are neglected. Can you identify them?
1. viewer
2. sightseer
3. observer
4. onlooker
5. spectator

1.3.2 Relational
In virtue of this conception, the meaning of an expression is determined by
its position in a network in which it is related to other expressions. That is,
14 Semantics

the semantic value of an expression is the sum total of its sense relations with
other expressions in the same lexical field, a coherent subset of the vocabulary
whose members are interlinked by paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations of
sense. The field is partitioned among its members, each of which represents
a different semantic value. Knowing any member of a field requires knowing
the other members. For example, the verbs rob, steal, pilfer, filch and pur-
loin are placed in a field denoting theft. Yet, each has a different value. Rob
means ‘stealing money or property from a person or place’, as in rob a bank.
Steal means ‘taking objects from a person or shop’, as in steal jewels. Pilfer
means ‘stealing things of little value or in small quantities, especially from
the place where you work’, as in pilfer stamps from work. Filch means ‘steal-
ing something small or not very valuable quickly and secretly’, as in filch an
apple from the tray. Purloin means ‘stealing something or using it without
permission’, as in purloin a pen from office. This is indeed a valid technique
of semantic enquiry, but it is not the whole story. It is true that one aspect of
knowing a word is to know how that word is used in relation to other words.
In this way, however, the semantic structure of a language becomes a vast
calculus of internal relations, with no contact at all with the way speakers
conceptualize the world.

Exercise 1.8
Following the relational conception of meaning, the following adjec-
tives express the concept of weakness, and so are placed in a set.
Nevertheless, there exist meaning differences which are overlooked.
Can you pinpoint them?
1. frail
2. weak
3. feeble
4. fragile
5. decrepit

1.3.3 Decompositional
Decomposition refers to the analysis of an expression in terms of semantic
components. An expression is built up of smaller components of meaning.
 The nature of meaning 15

Accordingly, the meaning of a linguistic expression can be defined in terms

of truth conditions, the conditions of objective external reality against which
an expression can be judged true or false. This theory of meaning considers
language as corresponding to the world in a literal sense. For example, the
sentence Snow is white is true if and only if snow is white. This theory can
only account for propositions. For example, the sentences He built a sand
castle and The sand castle was built by him mean the same. They stand in a
meaning relation of paraphrase. In this regard, the conception of the mean-
ing proposed is atomistic, a conception which is founded on the assumption
that the meaning of a word can be determined in isolation by its semantic
components, and not by its relations with the other words in the language as
assumed by holistic theories. Words are translated into mathematical-type
formulae and then subjected to rigorous truth tests. Within the technique of
decomposition, there are three models of analysis: componential, conceptual
and primitive.

1.3.3.1 Componential
In terms of this conception, known as Componential Analysis, the meaning
of an expression can be decomposed into a finite set of semantic compo-
nents, defined as features of meaning which combine to form a complex
meaning. It analyses meaning in terms of binary features, with only two pos-
sible values of + and −. It is on the basis of these that speakers can describe
their experiences in the world. An example is the word spinster. This word
has a complex meaning which is built up out of the components [female] +
[adult] + [human] + [unmarried]. This technique describes only the denota-
tive meaning of the word, and not its connotative meaning which is negative
here. This method of analysis is appropriate when dealing with limited areas
of phonology or syntax. However, it has two limitations. The first concerns
the identification of the semantic components. The question posed is: Do
the components cover all the examples of a chair, for example, or just some
of them? In addition, it seems very difficult to validate the proposed set of
components and decide which ones apply and which ones do not. The second
concerns its ability to cover all kinds of relations. The question posed is: Can
it capture meaning relations such as synonymy or antonymy, for example?
As the data show, it is applicable to a limited range of expressions. It cannot
account for the meaning of verbs, for example.
16 Semantics

Exercise 1.9
Depending on the componential conception of meaning, the following
nouns share the semantic components: [human] + [adult] + [+/− male].
Nonetheless, there exist meaning differences which are ignored. Can
you diagnose them?
1. juror
2. referee
3. reviewer
4. surveyor
5. arbitrator

1.3.3.2 Conceptual
In the light of this conception, known as Conceptual Semantics, the mean-
ing of an expression is a concept in the speaker’s mind. The expression is
defined by embedding conceptual elements into its arguments. An expression
has a conceptual structure with argument slots, which are filled by the syn-
tactic complements of the expression. For example, the sentence Sara went
to school would be analysed as [Event GO([Thing SARA], [Path TO([Place
SCHOOL])])]. Each pair of square brackets represents a concept. The con-
cept of event is represented by go, denoting the movement of an object along
a path. Go has two arguments to be filled: an object argument and a path
argument. Sara fills the argument position of object, whereas to school fills
the argument position of path. The concept of thing is represented by Sara,
denoting a person. The concept of path is represented by to, denoting a path
to a goal. To has an argument which is represented by school. The concept
of place is represented by school, denoting location. Although this theory
of meaning is non-objectivist and non-truth-conditional, it suffers from
two insufficiencies. First, it carries out linguistic analyses in logical terms
or mathematical rules. In doing so, it neglects minute distinctions between
seemingly similar expressions. Second, it is unable to account for the mean-
ing of other word classes than verbs.
 The nature of meaning 17

Exercise 1.10
In conformity with the conceptual conception of meaning, the follow-
ing verbs share the conceptual element of event, meaning ‘to keep
away from something’. In spite of that, there exist meaning differences
which are unnoticed. Can you establish them?
1. shun
2. avoid
3. evade
4. escape
5. eschew

1.3.3.3 Primitive
As regards this conception, known as Natural Semantic Metalanguage, the
meaning of an expression can be defined in terms of a small set of semantic
primes or primitives, indivisible atoms of meaning which combine to form a
more complex meaning. These primes are expressed linguistically and com-
bined into sentences following syntactic rules. For example, the semantic
definition of the word sky contains the semantic primes above and far. The
definition goes like this: something is very big, people can see it, it is a place,
it is above all other objects, it is far from people. Although this approach is
not restricted to the analysis of certain word classes, it has its drawbacks, too.
First, the approach is unable to offer precise descriptions of words because
the primes are very general and the definitions are therefore rather vague. For
example, the definition given for sky is not precise because it can also apply
to sun. Second, the approach is unable to explain meaning relations that hold
between primitives denoting synonymy such as ill and sick, or antonymy
such as big and small, and so on. On the basis of this, the explanations offered
in this approach regarding the relations between lexical items cannot be fully
accurate.
18 Semantics

Exercise 1.11
As reported by the Natural Semantic Metalanguage conception of
meaning, the following nouns which describe a ‘container’ have the
same semantic primes. However, there exist meaning differences
which are missed. Can you determine them?
1. bag
2. box
3. sack
4. packet
5. wallet

1.3.4 Representational
In connection with this conception, known as Cognitive Semantics, the
meaning of an expression is linked to a particular mental representation,
termed a concept. Concepts, in turn, derive from percepts. The link between
an expression and its referent is therefore indirect in the mind of the speaker.
The meaning of an expression reflects not only the content of a conceived
situation, but also how that content is construed by the speaker. In this view,
a speaker can view the same situation in different ways. This stance origi-
nates as a result of the subjectivist theory of meaning, which emphasizes the
importance of world experience to the representation of linguistic expres-
sions and recognizes the speaker’s capacity to construe a situation in alterna-
tive ways. For example, the speaker can view the situation of a sleeping baby
either as an activity as in The baby is sleeping, or as a state as in The baby is
asleep. This conception attaches importance to the conceptual processes and
embodied experience in the study of meaning. From its perspective, linguis-
tic expressions such as words do not carry meaning(s), but they contribute
to the process of meaning construction which takes place at the conceptual
level.
When the speaker experiences a thing, the thing experienced activates the
conceptual system. In the conceptual system, the thing takes a conceptual
structure, which is encoded in language by means of a semantic structure.
The conceptual system represents our knowledge of the world. It is the
repository of the concepts available to a human being. Each concept in the
 The nature of meaning 19

conceptual system can, in principle, be encoded via language. The concep-

tual structure is the concept in the conceptual system which stands for the
thing experienced. The semantic structure is the meaning which stands for
the conceptual structure. The semantic structure is expressed by a linguistic
form in language. So, the semantic structure reflects the conceptual structure.
The semantic structure subsumes both the open-class system which includes
nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc., and the closed-class system which includes
idioms and grammatical elements. Accordingly, meaning is derived from
conceptual structures which reflect the world human beings experience, not
within the linguistic system. Language serves as the lens through which the
nature of the conceptual structure is investigated.
To make this clear, let us take an example. In expressing admiration for
an entity for having good qualities, the speaker looks for the appropriate
concept in the conceptual system. The concept, which is the consequence of
the embodied experience, takes the conceptual structure respect. This con-
ceptual structure is linguistically expressed by means of semantic structure,
which is encoded in language by the two adjectives respectable and respect-
ful. The semantic structure of each adjective has its distinct value. In She is a
respectable woman from a good family, the semantic structure of the adjec-
tive respectable means ‘socially acceptable because of her good appearance,
character, or manner’. A respectable woman deserves respect by reason of
good qualities. In He taught his children to be respectful of other people, the
semantic structure of the adjective respectful means ‘showing respect for or
marked by deference to others’. A respectful child is deferential towards or
shows respect for other people.

Exercise 1.12
According to pre-cognitive conceptions of meaning, the following
pairs of words are freely interchangeable. According to the cognitive
conception, they are semantically distinctive. Can you show how?
1. forcible forceful
2. displace misplace
3. triumphal triumphant
4. observance observation
5. international intranational
20 Semantics

1.4 Comparison
The different conceptions of meaning can be subsumed under two main-
stream paradigms. The first paradigm is labelled formalist because it focuses
on the formal aspects of language. This paradigm includes the decomposi-
tional conceptions of meaning: componential, conceptual and primitive. It
considers language a system which should be studied in isolation, both from
its users and its cognitive processes. Language is described separately from
cognitive faculties and abstracted away from actual use, and so its principles
of combination make no reference to system-external factors. For adherents
of this paradigm, language faculty is divorced from cognitive influence.
Consequently, they exclude the role of the speaker in shaping language. This
is due to the theoretical position that divides language into distinct modules,
and so its explanation is entirely internal. From the exercises tackled so far,
one concludes that the formalist theories are not able to meet the complexi-
ties of semantic phenomena in natural language.
The second paradigm is labelled cognitive because it underlines the
functional aspects of language. This paradigm includes the representational
conception of meaning. It considers language as a tool of communication,
where language structure reflects what people use language for. The func-
tion of conveying meaning has so affected linguistic form that it is senseless
to divide it. The way one speaks (semantic structure) is influenced by the
way one thinks (conceptual structure). This is to say semantic structure is a
reflection of conceptual structure. For proponents of this paradigm, language
faculty is influenced by cognitive processes. Consequently, it focuses on the
role of the speaker in shaping language. A speaker can choose to view the
same situation in different ways. This is due to the theoretical assumption
that draws no boundaries between language components, and so its explana-
tion is considerably external.
In addition to the major difference identified above, there are some minor
differences between the two paradigms.
1. The formalist conceptions of meaning consider meaning as being
derived from correspondence to a given state of affairs in the world.
They rely on the technique of decomposition in the definition of a lin-
guistic expression. By contrast, the cognitive conception of meaning
considers meaning as being derived from conceptual representations
in the mind of the speaker. The meaning of an expression is connected
to a concept rather than directly to a physical object in the external
 The nature of meaning 21

world. It rejects the technique of decomposition in the definition of a

linguistic expression.
2. The formalist conception adopts an objectivist approach of meaning,
and so sees human thought as disembodied. This is so because lin-
guistic meaning is conceived in terms of states of affairs in the world.
By contrast, the cognitive conception of meaning adopts an experien-
tialist or empiricist approach of meaning, and so sees human thought
as embodied. This is so because linguistic meaning is conceived in
terms of human construal of reality.
3. The formalist conception of meaning assumes a dictionary view
of meaning, which aims to provide precise definitions of linguis-
tic expressions. Accordingly, linguistic knowledge is separate from
world knowledge. By contrast, the cognitive conception of meaning
assumes an encyclopaedic view of meaning, which aims to provide
both semantic and pragmatic aspects of the meanings of linguistic
expressions.
4. The formalist conception of meaning separates semantics from prag-
matics, which is a consequence of the strict separation of linguistic
knowledge from world knowledge. This is so because it holds that
only semantic meaning, which is purely linguistic, belongs to the lex-
icon. By contrast, the cognitive conception of meaning rejects this
sharp separation between semantics and pragmatics. Both semantic
and pragmatic knowledge interact to give an utterance its meaning.
5. The formalist conception of meaning assumes compositionality of
meaning. The meaning of a linguistic expression is determined by the
lexical meanings of its components. This view implies that non-com-
positional expressions are the exception rather than the norm. By
contrast, the cognitive conception of meaning assumes both compo-
sitionality and non-compositionality of meaning. The latter is demon-
strated by the use of idioms, for example.

1.5 Summary
In this chapter, I have done three things. First, I addressed the issue of mean-
ing and its aspects and levels. Second, I identified types of meaning. Third,
I surveyed the status meaning has within different conceptions. Each con-
ception defines the notion of meaning differently and uses different tools to
represent it. In Traditional Semantics, the meaning of a linguistic expression
resides in the linkage between its meaning and the object in the real world,
22 Semantics

a theory referred to as referential. In Structural Semantics, the meaning of

a linguistic expression is shown in two ways: the relations it has with the
other expressions in the language, a theory referred to as relational, or the
analysis of its components, a theory referred to as Componential Analysis.
In Generative Semantics, the meaning of a linguistic expression resides in
its truth conditions, namely its objective meaning, neglecting the subjec-
tive, connotative or emotional ones. Two theories have been introduced:
Conceptual Semantics and Semantic Primes. In Cognitive Semantics, the
meaning of a linguistic expression refers to a mental representation of the
world, a theory referred to as representational or cognitive. The conceptual
structure, which the linguistic expression conjures up, is equated in language
with the semantic structure, the conventional meaning which it has.

Table 1.1 Types of meaning

Type Function Governing rules
Descriptive Saying what an entity, event or Factuality: based on facts
situation is like
Expressive Showing personal attitudes, Subjectivity: based on opinions
feelings or sensations
Social Indicating social relations Appropriateness: based on
between people circumstances

Table 1.2 Conceptions of meaning

Conception Premise
Referential The meaning of a linguistic expression derives from its reference
to an actual object in the external world.
Relational The meaning of a linguistic expression derives from its relation to
other linguistic expressions in the same lexical field.
Componential The meaning of a linguistic expression derives from the semantic
components which it comprises.
Conceptual The meaning of a linguistic expression derives from the concep-
tual components which fill its arguments.
Primitive The meaning of a linguistic expression derives from the semantic
primes which it evokes.
Representational The meaning of a linguistic expression derives from its men-
(Cognitive) tal representation of the external world which is subjectively
experienced.
 2

Lexical Semantics
Chapter 2 explores lexical semantics, the branch of semantics which deals
with the meanings of words. The aim is to show how the lexicon is organized,
how the words of a language are interrelated and how their meanings are con-
sequently interpreted. The chapter addresses two concerns. One relates to ter-
minology. It introduces the terms used in the study of lexical semantics and
defines them in a way that is both concise and precise. The other pertains to
relation. It introduces the meaning relations which exist between words. The
chapter is organized as follows. Section 2.1 focuses on the issue of what the
term word is and what word meaning is. Section 2.2 centres on the types of
paradigmatic relations which exist between words. Section 2.3 concentrates
on the types of syntagmatic relations which exist between words. Section
2.4 combines both paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations in the description
of words. In all the sections, I pursue three steps. First, I introduce the term.
Second, I explain its meaning. Third, I devise an exercise to test its applica-
tion. Section 2.5 summarizes the main points of the chapter.

2.1 Word meaning

The meaning-bearing unit in language with which lexical semantics is con-
cerned is the word. A word is a lexical item which is a combination of mean-
ing and form. A word like car, for example, has two aspects which cannot be
separated: the acoustic image /ka:/ and the concept [CAR]. It refers to a type
of vehicle. Words may be simple, composite or compound. A simple word,
also known as monomorphemic, is composed of only one lexical compo-
nent, which is morphologically indivisible. The word use, for example, con-
sists of just one lexical constituent. It is the minimum free form which can
stand by itself and act as a meaningful word. A complex word, also known
as composite or polymorphemic, is composed of two or more components
which is morphologically divisible, one of which is a word. The word use-
ful, for example, is a derivation from the lexical components use and -ful. A
compound word is composed of two components, namely words, which is
morphologically divisible. The word birthday, for example, is a combination
of the lexical components birth and day.
24 Semantics

A word may then consist of a morpheme or string of morphemes put

together by the morphological rules of a language Word meaning is the
meaning which a word has by virtue of the morphemes it contains and their
successive integration, which is calculated independent of context. The
meaning of a composite word is the compositional. It is constructed out of
the meanings of its component morphemes. For example, the meaning of
the word useful is the outcome of the meanings of the morphemes use and
-ful, meaning ‘full of use’. When a word is used in a context, it functions as
a one-word utterance. Utterance is a particular piece of language, be it a
word, phrase or sentence, which is spoken by a specific speaker on a specific
occasion. Utterance meaning, alternatively called speaker meaning, is the
meaning which a word conveys when it is used in a specific context on a
specific occasion. For example, the word meaning of loud in loud music is
‘noisy’, but its utterance meaning in loud colour is ‘too bright’.
In order to establish the meanings of words, we need to look at the dif-
ferent types of lexical relation which exist between them. A lexical relation,
commonly known as a sense relation, is a pattern of association that exists
between words in a language. Words exhibit two types of lexical relation.
The first is paradigmatic, which occurs along a vertical axis. Representatives
of such relations are antonymy, polysemy, synonymy and taxonomy. The
second is syntagmatic, which occurs along a horizontal axis. Representatives
of such relations are anomaly, collocation, colligation and idiomaticity. The
two types of relation are important in shedding light on the dynamic nature of
vocabulary. At the simple word level, they facilitate our understanding of the
links that words have with each other within a language on the basis of their
meanings. At the complex word level, they uncover how the morphemes
integrate with each other, and how they interact to give a word its identity.

2.2 Paradigmatic relations

One way of establishing word meaning is through a paradigmatic rela-
tion, a pattern of relation between words which occupy the same position
in a linguistic structure. It is based on the criterion of substitution, the
ability of words to replace each other vertically within a particular context.
Paradigmatic relations operate at all levels of language. In the sound system,
for example, the phonemes /p/, /l/ and /s/ can all be substituted for /n/ in the
context of /-et/. The occurrence of the words of a linguistic structure on a
vertical level has some consequences. On the lexical level, a paradigmatic
relation uncovers the speech part or the word class which the selected words
 Lexical semantics 25

belong to. For example, in It is a small/medium/large size, the words small,

medium and large are all adjectives. On the semantic level, a paradigmatic
relation allows words denoting a common concept to be grouped together.
For example, the words fit, match and suit can be used with clothes. Yet, each
word has a use of its own. Fit is used with size. Match is used with thing. Suit
is used with colour.

Exercise 2.1
The verbs banish, discharge, dismiss, expel and evict mean ‘send a
way’ or ‘get rid of’, but they are used in different ways. Use each verb
in the correct form to complete the appropriate sentence.
1. She was – – – – - from school for setting fire to the library.
2. He was – – – – from hospital after recovering from illness.
3. They were – – – – – from the flat for not paying their rent.
4. He was – – – – – from New Zealand for political reasons.
5. She was – – – – – from the firm for calling her boss a liar.

The most important paradigmatic relations are antonymy, polysemy, syn-

onymy, and taxonomy. These sense relations are the different ways in which
the meanings of words can be defined. They can be identified in almost all
areas of the lexicon.

2.2.1 Antonymy
Antonymy is a lexical relation between two words in which one is the oppo-
site of the other. The word antonymy is derived from the Greek root anti
which means ‘opposite’ and denotes opposition in meaning. Representative
examples are short × long, asleep × awake and husband × wife. Antonyms
are often divided into primary and marginal types. Primary antonyms are
subdivided into in three types: gradable, non-gradable and relational.
The first type is gradable antonyms. It is a lexical relation between two
words in which the degree of opposition is not absolute. Gradable antonyms
normally have a contrary relation. Semantically, the quality denoted is pres-
ent in varying degrees. Linguistically, it can be modified by adverbs like
very, and used in comparative constructions. Examples of gradable antonyms
are big × little, clever × stupid, brave × cowardly, hot × cold, beautiful ×
ugly, wide × narrow, and so on. The denial of one word does not imply the
26 Semantics

assertion of the other, i.e., its antonym. For example, to say the house is not
big does not mean it is little.
The second type is non-gradable antonyms, also called complementa-
ries or binary antonyms. It is a lexical relation between two words in which
the degree of opposition is absolute. Non-gradable antonyms normally have
a contradictory relation. Semantically, the quality denoted admits of no
middle ground. Linguistically, it cannot be modified by adverbs like very, or
used in comparative constructions. Examples of non-gradable antonyms are
open × closed, dead × alive, married × single, pass × fail, hit × miss, and so
on. The denial of one implies the assertion of the other. For example, to say
something is dead means it is not alive.
The third type is relational antonyms. It is a lexical relation between
two words which, unlike the gradable ones, are not susceptible to degrees
of opposition, and, unlike the non-gradable ones, they are not an either-or
matter in character. Examples of relational antonyms are mother × daughter,
parent × offspring, plaintiff × defendant, murderer × victim, father × son, and
so on. Relational antonyms exhibit conversibility and reversibility. Converse
antonyms exhibit a relation in which the existence of one implies the exis-
tence of the other. Examples of converse antonyms are follow × precede,
give × take, buy × sell, borrow × lend, push × pull, and so on. Reversive ant-
onyms exhibit a relation which involves opposition in direction. Examples
of reversive antonyms are up × down, left × right, in × out, forwards × back-
wards, in front of × behind, above × below, and so on.

Exercise 2.2
For each pair of the antonyms below, specify the type of relation which
it exhibits: gradable, non-gradable or relational.
1. odd × even
2. polite × rude
3. parent × child
4. hit × miss
5. arrive × depart

Marginal antonyms are subdivided into two types: auto-antonyms and

anti-antonyms. Auto-antonyms are homographs which mean the opposite
of each other. For example, the word shell has two meanings. As a noun, it
refers to the hard outer part that covers something like eggs, nuts or peas, as
 Lexical semantics 27

in I found a small piece of egg shell in my cake. As a verb, it refers to the act
of removing the shell from something like eggs, nuts or peas, as in She was
shelling peas in the kitchen. Anti-antonyms are pairs of words which mean
the same thing although they look the opposite of each other. For example,
both bone and debone refer to the act of taking the bones out of fish or meat,
as in Ask the fishmonger to bone/debone the fish for you. In such examples,
the prefix reiterates the idea of removal, and so serves as an intensifier. A list
of other examples includes deflesh, dehair, dehull, delouse, denude, descale,
deworm, etc.

2.2.2 Polysemy
Polysemy, also called polysemia, is a language feature in which a word
has several meanings. The name comes from Greek poly ‘many’ and semy
‘meaning’. A word, also called a polyseme, which has more than one distinct
but related meaning, is said to be polysemous or polysemic. For example,
the word head displays a number of meanings. In She nodded her head, it
refers to an object: part of the body above the neck. In She sat at the head of
the table, it refers to location: the beginning or end of something. In She is a
good head taller than her sister, it refers to a measure: using a person’s head
as a unit to measure size. In The thought never entered my head, it refers to
an abstract entity: the mind. In She resigned as head of department, it refers
to rank: a person who is in charge of a group of people or an organization.
In Their head office is in New York, it refers to importance: the main office
of a company. As can be seen, the multiple senses which the word head has
are related in some way: the first three are concrete while the last three are
abstract.
Polysemy should be distinguished from the other term homonymy, the
relation between two words which sound alike but differ in meaning, or the
relation between two words which have the same spelling but different mean-
ing. Homonyms then are of two types.
Homophony is the relation between two or more words which are pro-
nounced alike but have different spellings and meanings, as in some/sum
/sʌm/, meat/meet /mi:t/, pale/pail /peil/, right/write /rait/, sew/so /səu/, flour/
flower /flauə/, bare/bear /beə/, and so on. In a dictionary, homophones are
listed as separate entries.
Homography is the relation between two or more words which are spelt
alike but have different meanings and different pronunciations, as in bow (to
move your head forwards and downwards) /bau/ vs. bow (a weapon used for
28 Semantics

shooting arrows) /bəu/. Other examples include wind (air blowing) /wind/
vs. wind (make a clock work) /waind/, bass (tone) /beis/ vs. bass (fish) /bas/,
tear (rip) /teə/ vs. tear (liquid from the eye) /tiə/, refuse (reject) /ri’fju:z/ vs.
refuse (waste material) /’refju:s/, and so on. In a dictionary, homographs are
listed as separate entries.
Both polysemy and homonymy deal with multiple meanings of the same
phonological form, but with polysemy one form bears two or more related
meanings, whereas with homonymy one form bears two or more unrelated
meanings. An example of homonymy is the word coach. It refers either to a
person who trains an athlete or a team in sport or to a vehicle for transporting
passengers. In a dictionary, polysemes are listed under one entry, whereas
homonyms are listed under different entries.

Exercise 2.3
The following are polysemous words. For each one, give at least three
meanings which each displays.
1. plain
2. over
3. foot
4. run
5. mouth

2.2.3 Synonymy
Synonymy is a lexical relation between two words in which the meaning of
one is similar, but not identical, to the meaning of the other. A word is said to
be a synonym of another word when one of its senses is the same or nearly
the same as the other. The word collect is a synonym of the word pick up
when talking about going somewhere by car in order to take somebody or
something away, as in I’ll collect you/pick you up from the station. However,
they differ in other senses. When talking about collecting things, the word
collect is used as in She is collecting coins. When talking about lifting some-
one or something from the ground, the word pick up is used as in She picked
up the coin lying on the floor. This amounts to saying that total synonymy
is hard to find. Total synonymy means that words can be substituted one for
the other in all contexts without signalling a difference in meaning. Pairs of
 Lexical semantics 29

similar-looking words may share the same conceptual sense but they tend to
differ along one or more of the following parameters.
• dialect. For example, autumn is used in Britain, whereas fall is used
in the United States.
• style. For example, begin is used in informal language, whereas com-
mence is used in formal language.
• connotation. For example, both hide and conceal mean ‘to keep
something secret’, but they are connotatively different. Hide may or
may not suggest intent as in He hid the presents in the cupboard,
whereas conceal usually implies intent and a refusal to divulge some-
thing as in He concealed the painting in the suitcase.
• collocation. For example, the words high and tall mean ‘above the
average in height’, but they take different collocations. High collo-
cates mostly with things which rise from a base, as in fence, moun-
tain, wall, and so on. Tall collocates mostly with things which grow
high as in grass, people, trees, and so on. At other times, two collo-
cates co-occur with the same word, but the meaning is different. For
example, little house, for instance, has a different meaning from small
house. Little carries connotations of affection that are absent in the
more neutral word small.
• grammatical property. For example, feed is used intransitively and
transitively, as in Our kids feed three times a day, and Let’s feed the
kids, while nourish is used only transitively as in Fresh food nour-
ishes children.

Exercise 2.4
No two words have exactly the same meaning. Apply this tenet to the
following pairs and show how different they are in meaning.
1. thankful grateful
2. accurate exact
3. repair fix
4. quick prompt
5. steal rob
30 Semantics

2.2.4 Taxonomy
Taxonomy, or lexical hierarchy, is a systematic way of classifying words
by arranging them into categories. A category of a thing is structured in such
a way that the general term at the superordinate (higher) level includes the
specific terms at the subordinate (lower) level. The superordinate term dis-
plays a high degree of generality, whereas the subordinate terms display a
high degree of specificity. Members of the subordinate level provide detailed
information and distinctive properties of the category. Two main sorts of lex-
ical hierarchy exist: hyponymy and meronymy. They differ with respect to
the nature of the sense relations which exist between the words.

2.2.4.1 Hyponymy
Hyponymy is a lexical relation between two words in which the meaning of
one is included in the meaning of the other. The superordinate word which has
a general meaning is called a hyperonym. The subordinate word which has
a specific meaning is called a hyponym. The subordinate word is included
in the superordinate word. For example, fruit is a hyperonym of apple. Fruit
is general. Therefore, it is superordinate. Apple is a hyponym of or a kind of
fruit. Apple is specific. Therefore, it is subordinate. Fruit is general because it
denotes a particular set in which apple is a kind. The set of words which share
the same superordinate term are referred to as co-hyponyms. For example,
apple, banana and orange are co-hyponyms of fruit.

Exercise 2.5
Write three hyponyms for each of the following hyperonyms to indi-
cate the relation of inclusion.
1. cutlery
2. crockery
3. vehicle
4. fish
5. bird
 Lexical semantics 31

2.2.4.2 Meronymy
Meronymy, also called partonymy, is a lexical relation between two words
in which the meaning of one names a part of the meaning of the other. This is
a part-whole relation between the senses of words. The word naming the part
is referred to as meronym, and the word naming the whole is referred to as
holonym. For example, nose is a meronym or a part of face. Conversely, face
is a holonym of nose. Words naming the parts of the same whole are referred
to as co-meronyms. For example, eye, mouth and nose are co-meronyms of
face. Each meronym serves a different function in the language.

Exercise 2.6
Write three meronyms for each of the following holonyms to indicate
the part-whole relation.
1. camera
2. computer
3. car
4. room
5. house

2.3 Syntagmatic relations

Another way of establishing word meaning is through a syntagmatic rela-
tion, a pattern of relation between the words of a linguistic structure in a
linear order. It is based on the criterion of juxtaposition, the ability of words
to combine horizontally. Syntagmatic relations operate at all levels of lan-
guage. In the sound system, the phonemes in the word net, for example, are
so arranged as to make sense. The occurrence of the words of a linguistic
structure in sequence has some consequences. On the lexical level, a syn-
tagmatic relation between words helps one to understand their combinatorial
compatibility. For example, one can say heavy rain, but not strong rain. On
the semantic level, a syntagmatic relation between words helps one to sepa-
rate words that are otherwise considered synonymous. For example, both of
the words gain and win can occur with the word approval. However, only
gain is used with advantage and only win is used with game.
32 Semantics

Exercise 2.7
Not every word matches a neighbouring word. Choose the correct
word that occurs with the word next to it.
1. burning occurs with blazing occurs with
2. broad occurs with wide occurs with
3. make occurs with do occurs with
4. profound occurs with deep occurs with
5. powerful occurs with strong occurs with

The most important syntagmatic relations are anomaly, collocation, col-

ligation, and idiomaticity. These sense relations are the different ways in
which the meanings of sentences can be defined.

2.3.1 Anomaly
Anomaly is a lexical relation in which a word does not match the context in
which it is used. The word is not in agreement with the surrounding words
which it accompanies. For example, in *a sane chair the expression is gram-
matically acceptable because it follows the rules of grammar: determiner +
adjective + noun. Yet, it is semantically anomalous because it violates the
rules of usage. It is anomalous because the meanings of the words sane
and chair do not go together normally. The expression simply violates the
rules of conventional meaning, and so is intuitively rejected by competent
speakers of English. As such, anomaly involves the violation of the concept
of selection restrictions, syntactic-semantic restrictions which govern the
co-occurrence of words. It is the tendency of a word to select another word
with which it can co-occur. For example, the restriction of the word sane to
humans as in a sane person, and not to non-humans as in *a sane chair is a
selection restriction.
A word can be anomalous, i.e., different from what is normal or expected,
in two ways: pleonasm and zeugma. Pleonasm is the use of a word to empha-
size what is clear without it. For example, in see with eyes the words with
eyes are redundant because they contribute no extra meaning to the word
see. Other examples of pleonasm include a new innovation, female actress,
dental toothache, return back, end result, invited guest, and so on. Zeugma
is the use of a word which has to be interpreted in two different ways at the
same time in order to make sense. In The bread was baking, and so was I, the
 Lexical semantics 33

word baking could refer either to bread being cooked in the oven, or to the
person getting fed up with waiting. Other examples of zeugma include She
always pays him the money and compliments, He carried the injured and the
responsibility for their lives, He was wearing a puzzled look on his face and
a new coat, She could well expire before her club membership does, She held
her breath and her father’s hand tightly, and so on.

Exercise 2.8
The examples below are grammatically acceptable but semantically
anomalous. Show how they violate selection restrictions.
1. Mutton is meat from cow.
2. I heard a lion barking.
3. The plant passed away.
4. A stallion is a female horse.
5. The engine needs food.

2.3.2 Collocation
Collocation is the lexical pattern within which a word is found. It is a lex-
ical relation in which two words occur next to each other in spoken or
written language. It is very helpful in establishing the meanings of words
in communication. For example, the collocations of sensual describe things
that relate to the body as in They were moved by the sensual movements
of the dancer, whereas the collocations of sensuous describe things that
relate to the mind as in They appreciated the sensuous music of the concert.
Thus, one can say that sensual is a normal collocate of movement, whereas
sensuous is a normal collocate of music. This means that words combine
normally with some words and less normally with others. The combination
is influenced by what is referred to as the principle of compatibility, the
tendency of words to co-occur in certain positions due to sharing specific
syntactic-semantic features. For instance, the verb do is compatible with
exercise as a direct object, and not with cake, which normally takes make.
The adjective thick is compatible with both fog and soup, but only dense is
compatible with fog.
Constructions are of two types: head-complement and head-modifier. The
head is that element in the construction which is central because it deter-
mines the semantic character of the whole construction. A complement is an
34 Semantics

autonomous element that fills a gap in the semantic structure of the depen-
dent head. It adds intrinsic conceptual substance to the head. Therefore, a
complement like the door in close the door cannot be omitted. A modifier,
by contrast, is a dependent element that has a gap in its semantic structure
which is filled by the head. It adds non-intrinsic specifications to the head.
Therefore, a modifier like dangerous in a dangerous road can be omitted
without making the construction ungrammatical. The distinction between
complements and modifiers has consequences for lexical selections in that
heads select their complements, whereas modifiers select their heads. For
example, the head verb boil selects complements naming liquids or veg-
etables such as beans, carrots, potatoes, and so on. The modifier utterly
selects heads of negative connotation such as appalling, exhausted, miser-
able, nonsensical, and so on.
The potential of lexical items to collocate with each other is known
as their collocability or collocational range. A related term is semantic
prosody, a term used in corpus-based lexicology to describe a word which
typically co-occurs with other words that belong to a particular semantic
set. Collocations are, therefore, semantically based. In a collocation, mean-
ing usually extends from one word to another. That is, complements that
follow heads must fall within a particular semantic field. For example, the
word cause usually collocates with words denoting unpleasant things like
difficulty, distress, pain, trouble, and so on. Therefore, the word cause is
said to have a negative prosody. Conversely, the word bring about collo-
cates with words denoting pleasant things like cure, improvement, solu-
tion, success, and so on. Therefore, the word bring about is said to have a
positive prosody. Thus, one can say a problem is caused, and a solution is
brought about.

Exercise 2.9
For each of the following patterns of collocation, write two examples
to demonstrate the collocability of the words.
1. verb + noun
2. adverb + adjective
3. adverb + verb
4. verb + adjective
5. verb + adverb
 Lexical semantics 35

2.3.3 Colligation
Colligation is the grammatical patterning within which a word is found. It is
a pattern which shows the position of a word in a sentence and/or delimits
the types of its complements. In English, adjectives can be used either attrib-
utively or predicatively. An attributive adjective is one which occurs before
a noun. For example, the adjective main can only be used attributively, as
in the main road. A predicative adjective is one which occurs after a verb.
For example, the adjective afraid can only be used predicatively, as in the
child is afraid. Some adjectives can be used both attributively and predica-
tively. For example, in my old friend the adjective old is used attributively.
It describes friendship. In my friend is old the adjective old is used predica-
tively. It describes age. The same applies to the position of English nouns
when they function as modifiers. For example, the noun paper can be used
attributively as in a paper cup, and predicatively as in a cup made of paper.
As for verbs, they can take, relative to their semantics, different types of
complements. For example, the verb let takes the bare infinitive, as in Let him
relax on the beach. The verb want takes the to-infinitive, as in He wants to
relax on the beach. The verb enjoy takes the gerund, as in He enjoys relaxing
on the beach. Verbs take particular prepositions. For example, the verb acquit
is in a colligational relation with the preposition of, and together they form
the phrase acquit of, as in The jury acquitted him of murder. The same applies
to adjectives. For example, the adjective clever takes the preposition at as in
She’s clever at getting what she wants. Some adjectives take two prepositions
but with a difference in use. For example, the adjective anxious takes about
with things as in He seemed anxious about the exam, and for with people as
in Parents are naturally anxious for their children.

Exercise 2.10
Write the complement each verb below takes: bare infinitive, to-in-
finitive or -ing gerund. Then write a sentence containing the verb and
complement. Some verbs may take two complements.
1. recall
2. intend
3. make
4. pledge
5. like
36 Semantics

2.3.4 Idiomaticity
Idiomaticity is a lexical relation that deals with a group of words whose
meaning is different from the meanings of the individual words. For exam-
ple, let the cat out of the bag is an idiom that means ‘to tell a secret by mis-
take’. An idiom then is a group of words having a particular meaning which
is different from the meanings of each word understood on its own. Unlike
the meaning of a collocational phrase which is mainly compositional, the
meaning of an idiom is non-compositional. It is non-compositional in the
sense that its meaning cannot be derived from the conjoined meanings of
the words making it up. Idioms are thus stored in the mental lexicon as
ready-made forms. For example, it is not possible to construct the mean-
ing of the idiom to pull someone’s leg on the basis of the meanings of the
words pull and leg. Idiomatically, it means ‘to tell someone something that
is not true as a way of joking with them’. Unlike a collocational phrase
which is subject to grammatical changes, idioms are grammatically and
lexically fixed. No modification or pluralization of any of its words is pos-
sible. Idioms often get their meanings from metaphorical interpretations.
For example, in get/have a handle on something the original meaning is
that of ‘putting a handle on a physical object which helps to open or carry
it’, but the metaphorical meaning is that of ‘being able to understand some-
body or something so that you can deal with it or them later’, as in I can’t
get a handle on these sales figures.

Exercise 2.11
The following expressions are considered idioms in English. Can you
figure out what each means?
1. keep an eye on
2. bite the bullet
3. ring a bell
4. keep your nose clean
5. by word of mouth
 Lexical semantics 37

2.4 Paradigmatic-syntagmatic relations

The two types of relation can be simultaneously present in lexical fields. A
lexical field is a network which subsumes words that are related in meaning,
each of which represents a special feature. On this view, the vocabulary of
a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but it is organized
into fields within which words interrelate and define each other in various
ways. The field is divided up among its members, where the meaning of
any member is marked by the meanings of the other members in the field.
For example, words denoting kinship can only be understood by comparing
them to each other. A lexical field then is a coherent subset of the vocabulary
whose members are interlinked by paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations.
For example, an important part of the meaning of the word close is its para-
digmatic relations with words such as end, conclude, finish, and so on, and
its syntagmatic relations with words such as a debate, a case, a meeting, and
so on. Therefore, to know the meaning of any member of a field cannot be
achieved without also knowing the meanings of the other members. One does
not know fully what close means unless one has a grasp of the other members
of the field of termination.

Exercise 2.12
Give examples of syntagmatic and paradigmatic relation which the
words hire and car tend to hold in the following sentence.
1. How much would it cost to hire a car for a fortnight?
2.
3.
4.
5.

2.5 Summary
In this chapter, I have presented a broad outline of what lexical semantics is
and what it covers. Lexical semantics is the branch of semantics which stud-
ies the meanings of words. In the outline, I did two things. First, I introduced
the notion of word, the meaning-bearing unit with which lexical semantics
is concerned, and defined word meaning as the meaning of a word based on
the morphemes it comprises regardless of context of use. Second, I identified
38 Semantics

the two patterns of lexical relation which words hold and which play a crucial
role in explaining their meanings. One is paradigmatic, a pattern of lan-
guage consisting of words that are arranged in vertical order. This includes
antonymy, polysemy, synonymy and taxonomy. The other is syntagmatic, a
pattern of language consisting of words that are arranged in horizontal order.
This includes anomaly, collocation, colligation and idiomaticity. The tables
below present summaries of the two patterns.

Table 2.1 Paradigmatic relations between words

Lexical relation Definition Example
Antonymy oppositeness in meaning hot × cold
Polysemy multiplicity of meaning foot: of person, bed or mountain
Synonymy sameness in meaning begin = commence
Taxonomy classification into groups hammer, saw, chisel > tool

Table 2.2 Syntagmatic relations between words

Lexical relation Definition Example
Anomaly odd use of words kick *with foot
Collocation lexical co-occurring of words a hard/*strong frost
Colligation grammatical patterning of words busy practising/*to practise
Idiomaticity peculiar meaning of phrases to take the bull by the horns =
to take charge of a situation
 3

Sentential Semantics
Chapter 3 examines sentential semantics, the branch of semantics which
deals with the meanings of phrases and sentences. The aim is to show how
the lexicon is organized, how the sentences of a language are interrelated
and how their meanings are consequently interpreted. The chapter addresses
two concerns. One concern relates to terminology. It introduces the terms
used in the study of sentential semantics and defines them in a way that is
both simple and clear. The other concern pertains to relation. It introduces
the meaning relations which exist between sentences. The chapter is orga-
nized as follows. Section 3.1 lays emphasis on the issue of what the term
sentence is and what sentence meaning is. Section 3.2 centres on the types
of relations which exist between sentences. Section 3.3 concentrates on utter-
ances which require pragmatic inferences. Section 3.4 is concerned with the
semantic roles which participants in a sentence fulfil. In all the sections, I
pursue three steps. First, I introduce the term. Second, I explain its meaning.
Third, I devise an exercise to test its application. Section 3.5 summarizes the
main points of the chapter.

3.1 Sentence meaning

The meaning-bearing unit in language with which sentential semantics is
concerned is the sentence. A sentence is a well-formed string of words put
together by the grammatical rules of a language. For example, a string of
words like He won a trophy is a sentence in English because it conforms to
the rule of grammar: subject+verb+object. By contrast, a string of words like
He a trophy won is not a sentence in English because it consists of subject+-
object+verb which is a violation of the above rule of grammar. Sentences
may be simple, complex or compound. A simple sentence is a sentence
which consists of only one clause, as in He was watching a programme on
TV. A complex sentence is a sentence which consists of a main clause and at
least one subordinate clause linked by a subordinator, as in He was watching
a programme on TV when the bell rang. A compound sentence is a sentence
which consists of two or more main clauses linked by a coordinator, as in He
was watching a programme on TV and eating popcorn. A clause is a major
40 Semantics

unit of grammar which may contain a subject, verb phrase, object, comple-
ment and adverbial, as in He found the programme on TV very interesting.
A sentence then is a unit of speech constructed according to the rules of
grammar. Sentence meaning is the literal meaning a sentence has by virtue
of the words it contains and their grammatical arrangement, regardless of the
context in which it is used. It is the compositional meaning of a sentence as
constructed out of the meanings of its component words. For example, the
meaning of the sentence He won a trophy is the outcome of the meanings
of the words he, win and trophy. When a sentence is used in a context, it
becomes an utterance. Utterance is a particular piece of language, be it a
word, phrase or sentence, spoken by a specific speaker on a specific occasion.
For example, the word trophy, the phrase a major trophy, and the sentence
He won a major trophy are all utterances in English. Utterance meaning,
alternatively called speaker meaning, is the non-literal meaning a sentence
has when it is used in a specific context on a specific occasion. For example,
the sentence meaning of I am tied up is ‘I cannot move because my arms and
legs are fastened’, but its utterance meaning is ‘I am busy’, which arises out
of context.
Context is the physical environment in which a linguistic expression is
used. It refers to the location where the discussion takes place. For example,
the context for The book is now overdue is a library, and for We are fully
booked is a hotel. Co-text is the linguistic environment in which a linguistic
expression is used. It refers to that which precedes or follows the linguistic
expression, and so determines its actual meaning. For example, the word
plain has several meanings, but to know which meaning is being used we
need to take into account the meaning of the word next to it. In a plain dress,
it means ‘simple and undecorated’, whereas in a plain fact it means ‘honest
and direct’. The meaning a linguistic expression has in a context is called
contextual meaning. Every sentence expresses a proposition, the semantic
content of an expression which describes a state of affairs in the world. This
notion helps to understand the fact that some sentences may have the same
propositional content but differ in semantic respects. For example, the active
voice in He won a trophy and the passive voice in A trophy was won by him
have the same propositional content. The difference between them relates to
what is in focus in the mind of the speaker. In the active the action is in focus,
whereas in the passive the result is in focus.
 Sentential semantics 41

3.2 Sentential relations

One common way of establishing the meanings of sentences is through exam-
ining the different types of sentential relation which exist between them. A
sentential relation is a pattern of association that exists between sentences
in a language. Sentences exhibit a number of meaning relations, namely
paraphrase, contradiction, entailment, presupposition and implicature. These
relations are important in shaping the identity of a sentence within the lin-
guistic system and consequently underlining the dynamic nature of the lan-
guage as a whole. At the level of a simple sentence, the sentential relations
facilitate our understanding of the relations that words hold with each other
within a sentence on the basis of their meanings. At the level of a complex
sentence, the sentential relations uncover how the clauses in a sentence inte-
grate with each other and how they give a sentence its overall meaning.

3.2.1 Paraphrase
Paraphrase is a semantic relation between a pair of sentences in which the
second is an alternative version of the first without changing its proposi-
tional meaning. It is the process of expressing something written or spoken
using different words or different word order, especially in order to make it
easier to understand or bring into focus some parts of it. For example, the
sentence Tom bought a car from Jack is a paraphrase of Jack sold a car to
Tom. The two sentences share a common proposition or a single semantic
content despite the fact that they differ with respect to focus. In paraphrasing,
the semantic roles of the nouns are the same even though their grammatical
functions may be different. For example, in Nancy skimmed the newspaper
the noun Nancy is the agent/subject while the noun newspaper is the patient/
object. In its paraphrase The newspaper was skimmed by Nancy, the noun
newspaper is the patient/subject while the noun Nancy is the agent/object of
preposition. Paraphrases play useful roles in communication. They provide
a variety of stylistic choices, with each choice encoding a different commu-
nicative strategy.
A communicative strategy is a plan adopted by the speaker to achieve a
particular purpose. One such strategy pertains to foregrounding, the act of
highlighting a part of a sentence, i.e., by making it the main point of atten-
tion and consequently emphasizing its importance. The remaining parts of
the sentence, which are not the main point of attention, are backgrounded.
Backgrounding is the act of paying less attention and so less importance
42 Semantics

to a part of a sentence. There are various linguistic devices for highlighting

parts of a sentence. This is illustrated in the sentence Frank sent the flowers
yesterday and its paraphrases It was Frank who sent the flowers yesterday, It
was the flowers that Frank sent yesterday, and It was yesterday that Frank
sent the flowers. The different structures in these examples are called focus-
ing devices, methods used to produce a particular result or a wanted effect.
The foregrounded part of a sentence is called the focus, the central point of
a sentence in which speakers are most interested and to which they pay a
special attention.

Exercise 3.1
Finish each of the following sentences in such a way that it means
exactly the same as the sentence printed before it.
1. She was not only clever but also honest.
Apart from
2. Staying indoors all the time is unhealthy.
It
3. It is believed that they knew the answer.
They
4. I will not leave under any circumstances.
Under
5. It is a pity they live so far away.
I wish

3.2.2 Contradiction
Contradiction is a semantic relation between a pair of sentences in which the
second is a complete opposite of the first, thus triggering a change in mean-
ing. The two sentences cannot both be true or false at the same time. If one
is true, the other must be false. For example, Cows are mammals and Cows
are not mammals are contradictory sentences. The second sentence is not true
by virtue of its meaning. On the basis of truth, sentences can be classified
into contradictory, analytic and synthetic. A contradictory sentence is one
which is necessarily false because of the meanings of certain words in it. A
contradictory sentence is usually contrasted with both analytic and synthetic
sentences. An analytic sentence is one which is necessarily true because of
the meanings of the words in it. It is a sentence whose truth is verified by its
 Sentential semantics 43

grammatical form and lexical meaning. For example, My brother is male is

an analytic sentence because it is true without reference to real world knowl-
edge. A synthetic sentence is one which is neither contradictory nor analytic.
It is a sentence which may be true or false depending on the way the world
is. It is a sentence whose status is determined not by its meaning alone, but
rather by the relation between its meaning and the way the world is. For
example, My cousin is female is a synthetic sentence because its truth can
only be confirmed with reference to real world knowledge. This is so because
the word cousin can be male or female.

Exercise 3.2
Identify each of the following sentences as analytic, synthetic or con-
tradictory. Then, correct the contradictory ones.
1. Cats are fish.
2. Spinsters are unmarried women.
3. A man is a butterfly.
4. A blind person has impaired sight.
5. The spokesperson denied the rumours.

3.2.3 Entailment
Entailment is a semantic relation between a pair of sentences in which the
second is the implicit consequence of the first. It is a relation between two
propositions in which the second logically follows from the first. For exam-
ple, Kim bought pens entails Kim bought stationery. The entailment here is
a consequence of the semantic relation between pens and stationery. This
shows that an important part of the meaning of pens is contained within the
meaning of stationery. Accordingly, if the first sentence is true, the second
must also be true. If the first sentence is false, the second must also be false.
The relation, however, is not reversible. A change of a word in the sentence
influences the entailment. Kim bought stationery does not entail Kim bought
pens. The thing bought could be clips, files or folders. Unlike presupposition,
entailment behaves differently under negation. Negating the first sentence
causes the entailment in the second sentence to fail. Thus, Kim didn’t buy
pens does not entail Kim bought stationery. In presupposition, by contrast, the
situation is different. Even if the first sentence is negated, the presupposition
44 Semantics

holds. For example, both Kim has stopped working and Kim has not stopped
working presuppose Kim has been working.

Exercise 3.3
Write in the space provided what entailment each of the following sen-
tences makes.
1. The hunter killed the fox.
2. The man snores so loudly.
3. She decided to take a rest.
4. She bought a nightingale.
5. They were selling tulips.

3.2.4 Presupposition
Presupposition is a semantic relation between a pair of sentences in which the
second is the implicit presumption of the first. It is a relation between what
the speaker states in saying a particular sentence and what the hearer already
knows. For example, when a speaker utters a statement like David quit his
job, the hearer takes it for granted that David had been working although
this is not explicitly stated. The presupposition is that the speaker and the
hearer know that David had been working. Unlike entailment, presupposi-
tion behaves differently under negation. Negating the first sentence does not
cause the presupposition in the second sentence to fail. The negative version
David did not quit his job carries the same presupposition as the affirmative
version David quit his job. In both statements, the presupposition is David
has had a job. This property of a presupposition remaining true even when it
is negated is referred to as constancy under negation. Presuppositions are
of two types: lexical and structural. They give language users the chance to
make their thoughts implicit, and consequently make communication less
tedious.
In lexical presuppositions, certain words in the first sentence, called lex-
ical triggers, presuppose the truth of the information stated in the second
sentence.
• Factive verbs like admit, realize or regret. For example, Ann regrets
breaking the glass presupposes Ann broke the glass. One regrets
something one did in the past.
 Sentential semantics 45

• Non-factive verbs like dream, imagine or pretend. For example, She

pretends to be happy presupposes She is not happy. One pretends
something one does not have.
• Aspectual verbs like start, continue or stop. For example, She stopped
nagging presupposes She used to nag. One stops something one is
doing.
• Implicative verbs like manage, bother or happen. For example, He
managed to persuade her presupposes He persuaded her. When one
manages something, one succeeds in doing it.
In certain cases, presuppositions depend on the speaker’s knowledge of
the world. For example, She finally signed the contract presupposes She hesi-
tated before signing the contract. When one finally does something, one does
it after a long time.
In structural presuppositions, certain sentence structures, namely
wh-words, presuppose the truth of the stated information. For example, the
interrogative sentence in When did he resign? presupposes the sentence He
resigned.

Exercise 3.4
Write what presupposition each of the following sentences gives rise
to.
1. The furniture was covered in dust.
2. The children are complaining again.
3. If I weren’t ill, I would have come.
4. The board of inquiry is continuing its investigation.
5. She admitted having driven the car without insurance.

3.2.5 Implicature
Implicature is a semantic relation between a pair of sentences in which the
second is the implied meaning of the first. It is a relationship between two
propositions in which the first is said but the second is meant. For example,
the implicature from The tree branches are getting long is The tree needs
pruning. Implicatures result from the process of implication, suggesting
something without saying it directly, on which speakers and hearers agree in
the course of communication. Two basic sorts of implicature can be distin-
guished in language.
46 Semantics

One is conventional implicature, where the message is expressed explic-

itly in the first sentence. It is usually made irrespective of context. It is asso-
ciated with discourse markers which help to arrive at the additional meanings
such as after all, actually, all in all, and, besides, but, even, furthermore,
like, so, still, too, yet, well, and so on. For example, the use of and carries
the conventional implicature of addition when it joins static information as
in He was genial and affable, and of sequence when it joins dynamic infor-
mation as in She came in and took her coat off. The use of but in the utter-
ance The student worked hard, but he failed is normally taken to convey the
conventional implicature of contrast. The use of even in the utterance Even
a child can understand it carries the conventional implicature of contrary
to expectation. The use of so in the utterance It was still painful, so I went
to see a doctor carries the conventional implicature of result. The use of yet
in the utterance Bill hasn’t come yet carries the conventional implicature of
expected to happen at a later time.
The other is conversational implicature, where the message is expressed
implicitly in the first sentence. It is usually made with respect to context. In
some conversational implicatures, the additional meaning is deduced from
particular knowledge where the implicature is entirely context dependent.
For example, the answer A relative is coming for a visit to the question Do
you want to go out tonight? is definitely no. The answer Is the earth round?
to the question Do you like ice-cream? is clearly yes. In other conversational
implicatures, the additional meaning is inferred from general knowledge
where the implicature is more predictable and less context dependent. For
example, in I was sitting in a car the indefinite article a shows that the car
is not the speaker’s. In further conversational implicatures, the additional
meaning is derived from scalar knowledge where the implicature is scale
dependent. For example, the utterance Some players are injured is inter-
preted as implicating not all. The utterance You should see a consultant is
interpreted as implicating not must.
Finally, there exists a kind of expression in which you repeat the same
word twice. This is called tautology. A tautology is analytically and logically
true. The expression conveys an additional meaning which goes beyond what
the words mean. For example, in the expression Business is business the
implicature conveyed is that in business it is financial and commercial con-
siderations which matter, and not friendship. Examples of other tautologies
include A hamburger is a hamburger, Boys will be boys, War is war, When
you are dead, you are dead, and so on.
 Sentential semantics 47

Exercise 3.5
Each of the following situations gives rise to a conversational implica-
ture. Say what the implicature would be?
1. Do you love me? I am fond of you.
2. The campaigners went to the school.
3. The talk show we saw on TV was okay.
4. Some of my friends like playing dominos.
5. Can I speak to Frank? He is in the shower.

Implicatures are then implicit messages that are inferable in a particular

or general context. In order to make them work, speakers and hearers have
to comply with a basic co-operative principle. This principle demands that
participants should make an important contribution to the success of the con-
versation. Compliance with this principle helps to reduce misunderstanding
in conversation and achieve rational interaction in communication. This prin-
ciple is divided into four sub-principles, referred to as maxims, basic rules
which participants should adhere to in any ordinary conversation.
1. Maxim of quantity. Speakers should be economical and informative;
should say neither too little nor too much. For example, when asked
about one’s age, one should simply give the years. It is a violation of
the maxim of quantity to give further details like the months, days or
minutes. The reason is that the answer is too much.
2. Maxim of quality. Speakers should be truthful; they should not say
what they believe to be false or for which they lack adequate evidence.
For example, when asked about one’s financial state, one should tell
the truth and say penniless. It is a violation of the maxim of quality to
say millionaire. The reason is that the answer is untrue.
3. Maxim of relevance. Speakers should be relevant; what they say must
connect suitably with the rest of the conversation. For example, when
asked about somebody’s hairstyle, one’s response should be on it. It
is a violation of the maxim of relevance to say What is on TV tonight?
The reason is that the answer is irrelevant.
4. Maxim of manner. Speakers should be brief, clear and orderly. For
example, it is a violation of the maxim of manner to utter the sentence
He left her in tears. The reason is that the sentence is not clear. It
means either ‘He was in tears when he left her’, or ‘She was in tears
when he left her’.
48 Semantics

Exercise 3.6
In the following conversations, the answers violate the co-operative
principle. Decide which maxim is violated, and then explain why.
1. What should I do to get rid of this headache, Doctor? Take some
medicine.
2. When am I going to get back the money I lent you? Boy, it’s very hot
here!
3. Mr. Murphy got his Ph.D. in 1986, his BA in 1982, and his MA in
1980.
4. How many hours do you work a week? 80 with no vacation.

3.3 Inference
Another common way of establishing the meanings of sentences is through
inference, a conclusion which a hearer draws about something unsaid based
on existing evidence or general knowledge. Inference is crucial to interpre-
tation because a great deal of what speakers communicate is implicit. From
the utterance There is smoke the inference is There is fire. This type of infer-
ence is based on evidence as there can be no smoke without fire. From the
utterance The tourists enjoyed being on the beach the inference is The sun
was shining and the sea was calm. This type of inference is based on general
knowledge as people enjoy the beach when the weather is nice. The word
infer should be distinguished from the word imply. Both words can describe
the same event, but they do so from different points of view. The word imply
means ‘to communicate an idea or feeling without saying it directly’. In She
asked him if he would help her and he nodded, the implication is that he
agreed to help her. The word infer means ‘to arrive at a conclusion by relying
on evidence’. In She is looking pale, the inference is that she is ill.
Inference is required particularly in the analysis of utterances such as
ambiguity, deixis and speech acts.

3.3.1 Ambiguity
Ambiguity is a phenomenon whereby an expression form has more than one
meaning, and may therefore cause confusion. If the ambiguity is in a single
 Sentential semantics 49

word, it is lexical ambiguity. In She could not bear children, the word bear
means either ‘could not give birth to children’, or ‘could not put up with
children’. If the ambiguity is in a sentence, it is sentential ambiguity. In The
host met the guest with a smile, the prepositional phrase with a smile can
be grouped either with the word host or with the word guest. Typically, the
speaker intends just one of the alternative meanings and expects the hearer
to attend to that meaning. The process of establishing a single interpretation
for an ambiguous word or sentence is known as disambiguation. Ambiguity,
which is about one form having two or more meanings, is different from
other phenomena which characterize linguistic expressions, namely vague-
ness and indeterminacy.
Vagueness is about lack of referential clarity, which results from giv-
ing little information about something. This occurs when the referent in the
world is not clear for the hearer. For example, in They have a house near the
flow of water the phrase the flow of water is vague as it is difficult to decide
whether it is a brook, stream or river. A brook is smaller than a stream and a
stream is smaller than a river in size. Likewise, in She walked in an area of
trees, the phrase an area of trees is vague as it is difficult to decide whether
it is a grove, wood or forest. A grove is smaller than a wood and a wood is
smaller than a forest in size. Indeterminacy is about difficulty of referent
identification. This occurs when it is difficult to identify exactly, without ref-
erence to real world knowledge, the referent of an expression. For example,
there is indeterminacy in the use of the word friend in I will bring a friend.
The word friend could be male or female. Likewise, there is indeterminacy
in the expression Alice’s book is interesting. It could refer either to the book
she wrote, or the book she bought.

3.3.1.1 Lexical ambiguity

This type of ambiguity arises when a sentence contains a word which has
more than one meaning. For example, the word organizer in What an excel-
lent organizer! is ambiguous because it may be interpreted as ‘a person who
plans things carefully’, or ‘a device for storing information’.
50 Semantics

Exercise 3.7
Study each of the following sentences carefully and underline the
word that makes the sentence ambiguous. Then, give the two possible
meanings for each.
1. She waited near the bank.
2. The boy looks backward.
3. Jim took me to the court.
4. She broke the glasses.
5. It must be a new record.

3.3.1.2 Sentential ambiguity

This type of ambiguity, alternatively called structural or grammatical,
arises when the structure of a sentence has two or more meanings. Sentential
ambiguity is of two subtypes. The first subtype is called grouping ambigu-
ity. This occurs when a phrase in a sentence can be arranged in two ways, and
so can have two readings, as in She invited young boys and girls. In the first
reading, the word young is grouped with boys and girls, resulting in ‘young
boys and young girls’. In the second reading, the word young is grouped with
boys alone, resulting in ‘young boys and girls’.

Exercise 3.8
Study each of the following utterances carefully and underline the
structure that causes the sentence to be ambiguous. Then, give the two
possible interpretations for each.
1. We talked about the party last night.
2. Small boys and girls are easily frightened.
3. The chicken is ready to eat.
4. That is just a crazy lawyer’s idea.
5. There is a café in the district which I like.

The second subtype is function ambiguity. This occurs when a phrase in

a sentence fulfils two or more grammatical functions, as in the ringing of the
bells. This is a noun phrase which could mean either the bells are ringing or
someone is ringing the bells. In the first reading, the word bell functions as
subject. In the second reading, the word bell functions as object.
 Sentential semantics 51

Exercise 3.9
Study each of the following utterances carefully and underline the
phrase that has double grammatical functions. Then, give the two pos-
sible interpretations for each.
1. Visiting relatives can be boring.
2. The shooting of the hunters was appalling.
3. Flying planes can be dangerous.
4. I like ice-cream and cake.
5. She likes pets more than him.

3.3.2 Deixis
The word deixis is derived from the Greek word meaning ‘to point to’ via
language. Deixis is the mechanism which encodes the personal, spatial and
temporal dimensions of language by means of linguistic forms relative to
the speaker’s standpoint. Like pointers, the linguistic forms are contextually
bound, i.e., they rely on context in order to be correctly interpreted. They are
called deictic expressions, alternatively called indexicals. Deixis is, there-
fore, the process of referring that is tied to the speaker’s location, as the deic-
tic centre, from which a scene is described. In terms of location, deictic forms
can be proximal or distal. A proximal form is one that is near the speaker
like this, here or now. A distal form is one that is away from the speaker like
that, there or then. In Can you pass me that pen?, for example, the referent
pen is relatively distant from the speaker, and so the appropriate deictic form
used to point to it is that. In linguistics, three sub-types of deictic forms exist:
person, space and time.

Person deixis
Person deixis refers to forms used to point to people. It is concerned with
identifying the roles of the participants in an utterance: the current speaker,
the addressee and others. Linguistically, person deixis is expressed by means
of (a) personal pronouns, and (b) vocatives. Personal pronouns comprise three
main forms. The first person singular pronoun, I, points to the speaker. The
plural is expressed by we. The second person singular pronoun, you, points
to the addressee. The plural is expressed by you. The third person singular
pronouns, he/she/it, point to others, neither the speaker nor the addressee.
52 Semantics

The plural is expressed by they. The coding of gender is expressed by he/she,

while neutrality is expressed by it. Vocatives are forms which point to the
social status of the addressee. The choice of one form rather than another is
governed by the status of the person addressed, which is expressed in turn by
the use of politeness markers like please and thank you as in Please sit down
and Would you like some help with that? Oh, thank you, and honorific mark-
ers like Doctor and Sir as in Good morning, Doctor Staples and Are you
ready to order, sir? Such forms of address come under the rubric of social
deixis, the social relationship between speaker and hearer which is encoded
by certain linguistic forms.
Sometimes, the speaker uses a word or phrase, either earlier or later in
the discourse, to enable the hearer to identify an entity. This act is known
as reference, and the word or phrase used is known as a referring expres-
sion. Referring expressions can be nouns like Steve, noun phrases like a/
the man, and pronouns like he/him, etc. When the reference is to a word or
phrase that is mentioned earlier, the relationship is called anaphora, the use
of a word that refers to or replaces another word which comes earlier in the
discourse. The word, typically a pronoun, which maintains reference to an
entity that is mentioned earlier is called anaphor. The word which gives
anaphor its meaning is called antecedent. For example, in He grabbed the
ball and threw it in the air, the anaphor it refers to the word ball, which is
the antecedent. By contrast, when the reference is to a word or phrase that
is mentioned later in the discourse, the relationship is called cataphora, the
use of a word that refers to or replaces another word which comes later in
the discourse. The word, typically a pronoun, which maintains reference to
an entity that is mentioned later is called cataphor. For example, in When he
saw the accident, Steve went into shock, the cataphor he refers to the word
Steve. Anaphoric and cataphoric references are used in discourse to achieve
cohesion, the act of connecting one piece of language to another.

Space deixis
Space deixis refers to forms used to point to location. It is concerned with
specifying the location of an entity relative to the speaker’s location and his/
her distance from it. Generally, there are three frames which express loca-
tion: (a) intrinsic; (b) relative; and (c) absolute. The intrinsic frame is object-
based as in The bank is behind/in front of the station. The relative frame is
viewpoint-based as in The bank is on the right/left of the station. The abso-
lute frame is compass-based as in The bank lies to the north/south of the
station. Linguistically, space deixis is expressed by (a) demonstratives and
 Sentential semantics 53

(b) adverbs of place. The demonstratives this/these and that/those pick out
things according to their proximity to or distance from the speaker. The first
two locate things near the speaker, whereas the last two locate things far
from the speaker. For example, in This book is interesting and That book is
interesting, the demonstratives this/that change relative to the distance of the
book from the speaker. The adverbs of place here and there work in a similar
fashion. The first points to location near the speaker, whereas the second
points to location away from the speaker. For example, in It is quiet here and
It is quiet over there, the adverbs here/there change relative to the speaker’s
location. Finally, some verbs of motion mark things relative to the location of
the speaker, as in come to bed or bring the books with you which mark motion
towards the speaker, and go to bed or take the books with you which mark
motion away from the speaker.

Time deixis
Time deixis refers to forms used to point to time. It is concerned with des-
ignating the time of an event relative to the speaker’s time of speaking.
Linguistically, time deixis is expressed by means of (a) adverbs of time and (b)
tense. Adverbs of time include now, and then. Now designates proximal time
or the time of speaking as in Most people now own a laptop. Then designates
distal time, either in the past or in the future as in I was working in the city
then, and I’ve been invited too, so I’ll see you then. Tense locates an utterance
in the three main temporal points: past, present and future. Linguistically,
tense is expressed by means of verbal inflection and temporal adverbs. The
past simple tense is the distal form used to describe events which are deic-
tically distant from the speaker’s current situation. It is indicated by such
adverbs as yesterday, formerly, ago, last, etc. as in They arrived yesterday. It
also describes events that are extremely unlikely, as in If I had a lot of money,
I would buy a car. The present simple tense is the proximal form used to
describe events which are deictically close to the speaker’s current situation.
It is indicated by such adverbs as today, always, often, usually, etc. as in I
have got a piano lesson today. The future simple tense is the distal form used
to describe events which are deictically distant from the speaker’s current
situation. It is indicated by such adverbs as tomorrow, later, next, soon, etc. as
in She will finish the job tomorrow. Finally, some verbs of motion can be used
temporally to describe events that move towards the speaker from the future
as in The coming week will be really busy at work, or away from the speaker
to the past as in The past week was really busy at work.
54 Semantics

Exercise 3.10
In the following sentences, point out the deictic expressions and indi-
cate their types.
1. He is not here. He is there in the garden.
2. She agreed to visit them next summer.
3. Would you like to see the menu, sir?
4. There’s a car park in front of the hotel.
5. Is Jim coming to tomorrow’s meeting?

3.3.3 Speech acts

A speech act is an act which a speaker performs by using an utterance to
communicate. An utterance usually names three acts. A locutionary act is
the act of simply producing an utterance which follows the grammatical rules
of language. It is the literal meaning of an utterance which is expressed by the
particular words and structures which it contains. An illocutionary act is the
act of producing an utterance which serves to communicate information such
as advising, promising, stating, thanking, warning, and so on. A perlocution-
ary act is the act of producing an utterance which serves to make something
happen such as convincing, deterring, misleading, persuading, surprising,
and so on. Let us take an example. In I am hungry, the locution resides in
the words being uttered in a grammatical sequence. The illocution resides
in what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. It is uttered to
make a statement. The perlocution resides in the effect which the utterance
has on the hearer. It is uttered to make a request for something to eat. Speech
acts are classified into:
1. Assertives. An assertive, or representative, is a speech act which com-
mits the speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition. Paradigm
cases are asserting, claiming, concluding, reporting, stating, and so
on. For example, in He is my colleague the act is that of making a
statement.
2. Directives. A directive is a speech act in which the speaker attempts
to get the hearer to do something. Paradigm cases are advising, com-
manding, ordering, requesting, warning, and so on. For example, in
She implored him to stay the act is that of making a request.
 Sentential semantics 55

3. Commissives. A commissive is a speech act which commits the

speaker to performing some action in the future. Paradigm cases
are offering, pledging, promising, refusing, threatening, and so on.
For example, in I will buy you a present the act is that of making a
promise.
4. Expressives. An expressive is a speech act in which the speaker
expresses feelings or attitudes about something. Paradigm cases are
apologising, blaming, congratulating, praising, thanking, and so on.
For example, Mary thanked her mother for the present the act is that
of expressing gratitude.
5. Declaratives. A declarative is a speech act which causes a change of
some sort in the world. Paradigm cases are appointing, bidding, declar-
ing, nominating, sacking, and so on. For example, in They appointed
him captain of the team the act is that of making an appointment.
The speech acts mentioned so far can be described as direct speech acts,
where an explicit relationship exists between the linguistic form and the
communicative function of an utterance. That is, the form of the utterance
coincides with the meaning which the speaker conveys. This is realized by
the use of saying verbs, as in She warned him not to be late again, I prom-
ise I’ll see you tonight, I invite you to come and see me sometime, and so
on. However, much of what we say is not so direct. This is called indirect
speech acts, where an implicit relationship exists between the linguistic form
and the communicative function of an utterance. The utterance lacks a say-
ing verb, but assumes the presence of one. The use of indirect speech acts
helps the participants to sound more polite in communication, as in Don’t be
late again (indirect warning), I’ll see you tonight (indirect promise), Come
and see me sometime (indirect invitation), and so on. Sometimes, the hearer
can detect from an utterance both direct and indirect meaning. In It is cold
in here, for example, the direct meaning is a statement about the degree of
temperature, whereas the indirect meaning is a request asking the hearer to
close the window.
For an utterance to count as a speech act, it should meet felicity condi-
tions, certain criteria which must be met if the speech act is to achieve its pur-
pose. If these conditions are not met, the speech act misfires, i.e., fails to have
the effect that is intended. Felicity conditions can be grouped under three
headings. The first is the preparatory condition, which obliges the speaker
not to exceed his/her authority in the performance of an act. In making a
promise, the speaker must have the capacity for making the promise. The
56 Semantics

second is the sincerity condition, which requires the speaker to be sincere in

the performance of an act. In making a promise, the speaker must genuinely
intend to perform the act. The third is the essential condition, which compels
the speaker to perform an act. In making a promise, the speaker must know
the promise puts him under an obligation to perform the act.

Exercise 3.11
Study the following utterances and then write the type of speech act
which each represents.
1. They apologized for the late departure of the flight.
2. The police warned the visitors against pickpockets.
3. The house was reported as being in good condition.
4. They were sacked for refusing to work on Sundays.
5. The attackers threatened the passengers with guns.

3.4 Semantic roles

A further common way of establishing the meanings of sentences is through
defining the semantic roles, also called functional roles, thematic roles or
participant roles, of their components or through examining the semantic
relations that link a verb to its arguments, i.e., nouns, in the description of a
situation. For example, in the sentence The boy oiled his bike the entities are
related by the action described by the verb oil: the noun boy is often termed
the agent and the noun bike is the patient. Usually, a particular semantic role
can be represented only once in a sentence, and a particular noun can fulfil
only one role. However, some verbs are so flexible that they can be used in
two different patterns, and so fulfill two semantic roles but only one role at a
time. The verb ripen, for example, can be used grammatically either with or
without an object. In the sentence The summer sunshine ripened the melons,
the verb ripen is transitive and so the word melons takes the role of patient.
In the sentence The melons are ripening nicely, the verb ripen is intransitive
and so the word melons takes the role of agent.
The following are the most common semantic roles, which may generally
be recognized in all languages:
1. agent the entity performing the action expressed by the verb
Bill cleaned the board.
 Sentential semantics 57

2. patient the entity undergoing the action expressed by the verb

Bill cleaned the board.
3. experiencer the entity psychologically affected by an action
Bill was happy.
4. causer the thing that makes something happen The bad
weather caused traffic chaos.
5. benefactive the entity benefiting from an action Bill bought flow-
ers for Kim.
6. location the place where an action happens Bill cleaned the
board in the classroom.
7. time the time when an action happens Bill cleaned the
board in the morning.
8. instrument the means by which something is done Bill cleaned
the board with a duster.
9. goal the entity towards which something moves Bill sent a
postcard to Kim.
10. source the entity from which something moves Kim received
a postcard from Bill.

Exercise 3.12
In the sentence below, try to assign a semantic role to each of the
underlined expressions in relation to the verb.
The boy inflated the ball with a pump for his brother in the garage
yesterday.

3.5 Summary
In this chapter, I have presented a broad outline of what sentential seman-
tics is and what it covers. Sentential semantics is the branch of semantics
which studies the meanings of sentences. In the outline, I did three things.
First, I introduced the notion of sentence, the meaning-bearing unit with
which sentential semantics is concerned, and defined sentence meaning as
the meaning of a sentence based on the words which it contains regardless
of the context in which it is used. Second, I identified the three ways of
establishing the meanings of sentences. The first is through the patterns of
relation which sentences hold. This includes such relations as paraphrase,
58 Semantics

contradiction, entailment, presupposition, and implicature. The last three are

means of expressing implicit meaning: what can be communicated beyond
what is explicitly said. The second is through the use of pragmatic knowl-
edge. This includes such phenomena as ambiguity, deixis and speech acts.
The third is through the semantic roles which participants in an utterance
play. This includes the semantic links which a verb has with its arguments
in the utterance. The table given below presents a summary of the sentential
relations.

Table 3.1 Semantic relation between sentences

Sentential relation Definition Example
Paraphrase restatement She sprayed perfume on her wrists.
She sprayed her wrists with perfume.
Contradiction oppositeness The cat is on the table.
The cat is under the table.
Entailment implication She drives recklessly.
She is prone to accidents.
Presupposition assumption When did you buy the book?
You bought the book.
Implicature suggestion She is complaining again.
She has complained before.
Part Il

Underpinnings
As a reaction to Generative Linguistics, a new approach to the study of lan-
guage known as Cognitive Linguistics began to emerge in the 1970s. A
number of basic tenets underlie this new approach. Cognitive Linguistics
makes a strong case for the pervasiveness of these tenets in language. Non-
modularity implies that there is no autonomous portion of the brain which
is specialized for language. Linguistic abilities are inseparable from other
cognitive abilities. Accordingly, no distinction can be drawn between lin-
guistic meaning and general knowledge. Symbolism means that language is
a set of symbols or conventional means that are available to language users
for representing ideas or communicating thought. Usage based suggests that
language patterns emerge as a result of generalizations made from actual
instances of language use. Meaningfulness reveals that language is a means
of conveying meaning; therefore all its resources serve to carry out this func-
tion. Creativity means that language production represents the capacity
of language users to conceptualize a given situation in multiple ways and
choose the linguistic forms to stand for them in communication.
One essential part of the Cognitive Linguistics movement is Cognitive
Semantics, the study of the cognitive aspects of linguistic meaning. It is
an approach to meaning which is built on five central assumptions. These
assumptions are all-pervasive, applying to all areas of language. They help
to provide a unified account of lexical and grammatical structures rather than
viewing them as distinct subsystems. Embodiment denotes that the meaning
of a linguistic expression is determined in large measure by the nature of
our bodies. Motivation shows that the meaning of a linguistic expression
arises as the outcome of stimulation to achieve a desired goal. Dynamism
demonstrates that the meaning of a linguistic expression is flexible in the
sense of extending its scope to express new experiences. Encyclopaedia
indicates that the meaning of a linguistic expression subsumes vast reposi-
tories of knowledge, both linguistic and non-linguistic. Conceptualization
signifies that the meaning of a linguistic expression serves as a prompt for an
array of mental processes. This shows that the scope of Cognitive Semantics
deals equally with areas related to both semantics and pragmatics. Cognitive
Semantics takes a maximalist approach to meaning, one in which differ-
ences between semantics and pragmatics are not recognized.
Outline

4 Guiding assumptions
4.1 Cognitive Linguistics
4.1.1 Language is non-modular
4.1.2 Language is symbolic
4.1.3 Language is usage based
4.1.4 Language is meaningful
4.1.5 Language is creative
4.2 Cognitive Semantics
4.2.1 Meaning is embodied
4.2.2 Meaning is motivated
4.2.3 Meaning is dynamic
4.2.4 Meaning is encyclopaedic
4.2.5 Meaning is conceptualized
4.3 Summary
5 Conceptual structures
5.1 Conceptual system
5.2 Forms of conceptual structure
5.2.1 Metaphor
5.2.2 Metonymy
5.2.3 Image schemas
5.2.4 Mental spaces
5.2.5 Blending
5.3 Summary
6 Cognitive mechanisms
6.1 Integration
6.1.1 Correspondence
6.1.2 Determinacy
6.1.3 Elaboration
6.1.4 Constituency
6.2 Interpretation
6.2.1 Compositionality
6.2.2 Analysability
6.3 Summary
 4

Guiding Assumptions
Chapter 4 presents the general approach to language study, known as
Cognitive Linguistics, and the specific approach to linguistic meaning,
known as Cognitive Semantics. The chapter begins by outlining the guiding
assumptions that characterize the two approaches to language description.
The aim is to show how adept the assumptions are in analysing linguistic
data and capturing semantic phenomena. The chapter is organized as follows.
Section 4.1 introduces the assumptions of Cognitive Linguistics that char-
acterize language as being non-modular, symbolic, usage based, meaningful
and creative. Section 4.2 presents the assumptions of Cognitive Semantics
that characterize linguistic meaning as being embodied, motivated, dynamic,
encyclopaedic and conceptualized. In all the sections, I pursue three steps.
First, I present the assumption. Second, I elaborate on its essence. Third, I
devise an exercise to validate its application. Section 4.3 summarizes the
main points of the chapter.

4.1 Cognitive Linguistics

Cognitive Linguistics is a modern school of linguistics which has developed
since the 1970s. It includes a variety of approaches which are, however, uni-
fied by a number of common assumptions. The general aim is to provide
insights into aspects of the human mind and offer glimpses into patterns of
thought. Cognitive Linguistics has emerged as a reaction against some of the
theoretical assumptions developed within Generative Linguistics. One of the
distinctive assumptions of Cognitive Linguistics pertains to the position of
meaning in language analysis. In Generative Linguistics, the structure of lan-
guage is determined by a system of formal rules that is largely independent
of meaning. In Cognitive Linguistics, the structure of language is a direct
reflection of cognition in the sense that the structure of a particular linguis-
tic expression reflects a particular way of conceptualizing a given situation.
This leads to the view that the structure of language is explained not only in
terms of language-internal principles, as assumed in Generative Linguistics,
but also in terms of language-external ones. The meaning associated with
linguistic structures is based on human perception and human cognition.
62 Semantics

Linguistic structures code different ways of perceiving a given scene, and

differ relative to communicative demands.
In order to give an adequate account of linguistic structure, Cognitive
Linguistics is founded on some fundamental assumptions. Below is a discus-
sion of each assumption.

4.1.1 Language is non-modular

Generative Linguistics takes a modular approach to language. It claims that
the human mind consists of a number of different modules, one of which is
language. Each module has its own distinctive property and functions sep-
arately from the others. This has two implications. Externally, language is
treated as an autonomous module. As a result, it is studied without reference
to other modules. Internally, aspects like morphology, phonology, pragmat-
ics, syntax and semantics are treated as sub-modules of the language module.
As a result, they are investigated without reference to each other. Cognitive
Linguistics rejects this claim. Instead, it assumes a non-modular approach
to language. There is an external and internal link between language and
other modules. Externally, linguistic structures embody general mental facul-
ties like attention, memory, reasoning, etc. Internally, linguistic explanation
must cross boundaries between aspects of language. Linguistic structures are
explained by simultaneously taking into account other aspects of language.
Accordingly, language is not a self-contained system that is independent
of other mental faculties and aspects of language do not form independent
modules. This is a reflection of the cognitive commitment of Cognitive
Linguistics, where the characterization of linguistic structures should reflect
principles from other cognitive sciences like philosophy, psychology and
neuroscience. In the same vein, this is a reflection of the generalization com-
mitment of Cognitive Linguistics, where the characterization of linguistic
structures should reflect principles from other aspects of human language
like morphology, phonology, pragmatics, syntax and semantics.
Let us take an example to illuminate this assumption. Semantically, the
adjective-forming suffix -able has a passive interpretation, meaning ‘capable
of undergoing the action stated in the root’. A washable shirt is a shirt that
can be washed. However, the passive interpretation of the suffix does not
always work, and so the suffix needs the help of other language aspects,
namely pragmatics, for its interpretation. Pragmatically, the suffix has addi-
tional meanings which can be understood from the context in which it is used.
 Guiding assumptions 63

In this case, the context is the root to which it is attached. In some forma-
tions, it is the substance trait of the inanimate entity that is focused. Eatable
fungus does not mean fungus that can be eaten, but fungus that is safe to eat.
Presumably, poisonous fungus can be eaten, but it is not eatable. In other
formations, it is the character trait of the animate entity that is focused. For
example, an adorable child does not necessarily mean a child who can be
adored, but a child who is extremely attractive. Presumably, every child can
be adored, but not every one is attractive.
For the nature of meaning, the cognitive assumption of non-modularity
has three significant consequences.
• Cognitive Linguistics rejects the internal distinction between mor-
phology and phonology or morphology and syntax, which are tra-
ditionally deemed as separate modules of language. Let us cite an
example. Under certain conditions of occurrence, the past tense
morpheme -ed has three phonological variants, as in stopped [stopt],
played [pleid] and waited [weitid]. Number contrasts in nouns require
syntactic definition (singular subject requiring a singular verb) and
morphological definition (adding -s for plural).
• Cognitive Linguistics rejects the internal division between syntax and
semantics, which are traditionally treated as independent subsystems
of language. Aspects of both interact in shaping the meaning of an
expression. Let us offer an example. In She wants to buy a house, the
main verb want describes an action that happens later, and so takes
the to-infinitive complement clause to buy a house which refers to an
action that has not yet taken place.
• Cognitive Linguistics rejects the internal separation between seman-
tics and pragmatics, which are traditionally considered as autonomous
components of language. Aspects of both can be incorporated into the
meaning of an expression. Let us consider an example. In She is buzz-
ing around like a honey-bee, the non-literal meaning of the expression
is not the same as the literal meanings of the words. The non-literal
meaning is ‘She is busy’.
64 Semantics

Exercise 4.1
In explaining the meaning of the following expressions, the language
aspects of semantics and pragmatics interact. Show how.
1. loveable child
2. watchable film
3. agreeable deal
4. readable book
5. drinkable water

4.1.2 Language is symbolic

Generative Linguistics claims that there is no direct link between the form
of language and the meaning it expresses. As a consequence, forms of lin-
guistic expressions are studied separately from their meanings. Linguistic
expressions that are seemingly similar have the same deep structure, which
determines their meaning. Since they are related by the same deep structure,
they are semantically equivalent. Cognitive Linguistics rejects this claim.
Instead, it assumes that language is inherently symbolic in nature. Language
is a structured inventory of linguistic units defined as form-meaning pair-
ings. A unit is any simple or composite expression which is frequently used
and thoroughly mastered, thus acquiring the status of a habit. Inventory is
a detailed list of all the linguistic resources which speakers exploit in con-
structing units. Structured means the units are related to one another in orga-
nized ways. A linguistic unit, also called a symbolic structure, consists of
a semantic structure, a phonological structure and a symbolic relationship
between them. The phonological structure refers to form, which can be spo-
ken or written. The semantic structure refers to meaning, which is related
to a concept. A concept is a mental representation which is associated with
a symbol in a person’s mind. It is the abstract meaning which a linguistic
expression represents. There is a direct association between the phonolog-
ical and semantic structures of language. The association is motivated by
the manner in which speakers interact with the world. Accordingly, form
cannot be investigated independently of meaning. This entails that form and
meaning are seen as mutually interdependent. As a symbolic system, lan-
guage provides speakers with the means to communicate the contents of their
thoughts to others, as well as to themselves.
 Guiding assumptions 65

Let us examine an example to illustrate this assumption. The prefixes

de- and un- are symbols used with the intention of symbolizing concepts.
Although they are attached to the same root couple meaning ‘to connect or
combine two things’, each prefix symbolizes a particular meaning and so
gives the derived word a different meaning. In The revenues had been decou-
pled from the sales, the verb to decouple means ‘to disengage one thing from
another’. To decouple two things is to end the relationship between them. The
verb decouple is regarded as an association between the phonological struc-
ture /diːˈkʌpl/ and the semantic structure [DECOUPLE], which is realized
by the graphic symbols. The use of the prefix de- is motivated by the idea of
ending an abstract relationship. In The carriages had been uncoupled from
the train, the verb to uncouple means ‘to disconnect one thing from another’.
To uncouple two things is to separate two things that are joined together, by
undoing a fastening that connects them. The verb uncouple is regarded as an
association between the phonological structure /ʌnˈkʌpl/ and the semantic
structure [UNCOUPLE], which is realized by the graphic symbols. The use
of the prefix un- is motivated by the idea of ending a physical relationship.
For the nature of meaning, the cognitive assumption of symbolism has
three important ramifications.
• Linguistic expressions, be they morphemes, words, phrases or sen-
tences, are bipolar. They have two poles: phonological and semantic.
The act of mating the phonological and semantic poles is referred to
as pairing. The pairing is motivated by discourse demands or com-
municative purposes. The form and meaning equally contribute to the
make-up of an expression. The two poles are thus inseparable. See,
for example, the bound morpheme -ity. It is a symbolic structure link-
ing the phonological structure /iti/ with the semantic structure [ITY],
which expresses a state. In civility, it means the state of being civil.
• Linguistic expressions have semantic values which motivate their
linguistic forms. The semantic value of a linguistic expression is a
reflection of a particular concept. A concept is a mental representation
which is associated with a symbol in the mind of the language user.
Take, for example, the bound morpheme crypto-. It means ‘hidden or
secret’. It is used by the language user to describe an entity as being
not openly avowed or declared. In a crypto-coalition, it means a coa-
lition which is made in secret.
• Linguistic expressions are neither integrated at random nor condi-
tioned by formal rules. The integration of their subparts is governed
66 Semantics

by valence determinants. Valence is the capacity of two structures to

combine to form a composite structure. One significant determinant
resides in the phonological and semantic compatibility between the
subparts of an expression. Consider, for example, a free morpheme
like red. To mean fairly or slightly red in colour, it needs to be com-
bined with the bound morpheme -ish, which denotes approximation.

Exercise 4.2
Identify the phonological and semantic structures of the following der-
ivational morphemes and the ideas that they express.
1. iso-
2. eco-
3. -itis
4. hydro-
5. -ology

4.1.3 Language is usage based

Generative Linguistics draws a distinction between knowledge of language
and use of language. Every human is equipped with a language faculty, an
innate cognitive subsystem, which gives rise to competence, unconscious
knowledge of language. Knowledge of language arises from what is innate
in the mind at birth. According to this view, which is referred to as nativ-
ism, language knowledge (competence) determines language use (perfor-
mance). Cognitive Linguistics rejects this distinction. Instead, it assumes
that language is usage based, the quality of linguistic units being authen-
tic. Knowledge of language is derived from the environment or experience.
Knowledge of language is knowledge of how language is used. According
to this view, which is referred to as empiricism, language use determines
language knowledge. Knowledge of language, i.e., the mental grammar, is
based on and grounded in usage events. A usage event is an actual instance
of language use. It includes an utterance, which can be thought of as a sym-
bolic expression performed on a particular occasion for a particular purpose.
In terms of structure, an utterance may consist of a single word like disbe-
lief, a phrase like utter disbelief, or a sentence like She shook her head in
disbelief. Usage events have a double import. First, the linguistic system is
built up from them. General patterns, often called schemas, arise from their
 Guiding assumptions 67

repeated use. A schema is a cognitive representation with a general mean-

ing, whose full details are reflected in its specific instances of usage. The
instances elaborate the schema in contrasting ways. Second, they are used to
coin and understand novel expressions. Through repeated usage, these novel
expressions become entrenched in the lexicon.
Let us take an example to exemplify this assumption. The words sensual,
sensuous, sensible and sensitive are all derived from sense, but they are con-
nected with different meanings of it as revealed by their actual instances.
The word sensual describes something as appealing to the body, as in They
were impressed by the sensual movements of the dancer. The word sensuous
describes something as appealing to the mind as in They appreciated the sen-
suous music of the concert. The word sensible describes the ability to make
good judgements, as in She adopted a sensible approach to the problem. The
word sensitive describes the ability to understand other people and be aware
of their needs, as in She is very sensitive to other people’s feelings. All this
shows that the actual instances of a linguistic expression help one to make
accurate observations about the real state of language. They can thus help
one to work out meaning differences between lexical expressions.
For the nature of meaning, the cognitive assumption of authenticity has
three crucial effects.
• Linguistic expressions have overt manifestations. They do not con-
ceal deep structures. They embody the conventional means a language
employs for the symbolization of semantic content. A good example
is offered by the utterances The museum was swarming with tour-
ists and Tourists were swarming in the museum. The two utterances
share the same content, but they have different conceptualizations.
In the first, the subject is conceptualized as a container. The content
is marked with the preposition with after the verb. In the second, the
subject is conceptualized as content. The container is marked with the
spatial preposition in.
• Linguistic expressions represent utterances. An utterance is an actual
spoken or written sequence produced in a specific situation. An utter-
ance has substance and use. The substance consists of two parts,
form and meaning. The form is the phonological representation. The
meaning is the idea conventionally associated with it. The use is the
way the language user construes the content. The substance is acti-
vated as a response to language use. A clear example is afforded by
the sentential pair He threw a ball to the boy and He threw a ball at the
68 Semantics

boy. Although they are similar in content, they are dissimilar in use. In
the first, the action of catching is meant. In the second, the action of
hitting is meant.
• Linguistic expressions can be semantically distinguished by analys-
ing their surroundings, which significantly affect their meaning. One
such surrounding is collocation, the case when two or more words go
together and form a common expression. A simple example is sup-
plied by the pair fake and false. The adjective fake describes concrete
entities, and so collocates with words such as passport, gun, painting,
fur, signature, and so on. The adjective false describes abstract enti-
ties, and so collocates with words such as name, identity, evidence,
impression, statement, and so on.

Exercise 4.3
The semantic value of a word can be identified by the collocation that
it takes. Which word collocates best in the following examples?
1. fast/quick ___ meal ___ food
2. dangerous/perilous ___ mission ___ road
3. powerful/strong ___ evidence ___ drug
4. large/big ___ occasion ___ salary
5. right/correct ___ decision ___ answer

4.1.4 Language is meaningful

Generative Linguistics claims that there are elements in language that are
semantically empty. Their presence in linguistic expressions serves only syn-
tactic or morphological functions. Following this claim, an affix is assumed
to be a meaningless element, which is summoned simply to derive a new
word. The presence of rival affixes is a matter of coincidence, and the exis-
tence of the resulting alternatives is an instance of synonymy. Cognitive
Linguistics rejects this claim. Instead, it assumes that all language elements
have semantic values. Linguistic expressions, be they closed-class or open-
class, are inherently meaningful. The meaning of a linguistic expression can
be derived from the context in which it occurs. Context is the environment
in which an expression is used. Context accounts for two phenomena. One
is ambiguity, the case when one and the same expression can be interpreted
in more than one way. The expression killer has two interpretations. It can
 Guiding assumptions 69

refer to a person as in They found the killer, or a thing as in Cancer is a killer.

Another is rivalry, the case when two or more affixes or lexical expressions
occur in the same environment but convey different messages. Both adjecti-
val suffixes -ish and -y attach to the root freak, but each has a different mean-
ing. Freakish describes strange character as in She dislikes freakish visitors,
whereas freaky describes strange appearance as in She dislikes freaky clothes.
Let us analyse an example to demonstrate this assumption. The adjective
sharp displays multiple meanings. Each meaning arises from the particular
context in which sharp is used. In She used a sharp knife, it means having a
thin edge. In There was a sharp drop in prices, it means sudden and rapid. In
This TV gives a very sharp picture, it means clear and definite. In She is a girl
of sharp intelligence, it means quick to notice, understand or react to things.
In He was very sharp with me when I was late, it means critical and severe.
In There was a sharp knock on the door, it means loud and high in tone. In
The cheese has a distinctively sharp taste, it means strong and slightly bitter.
In Tony is a very sharp dresser, it means fashionable and new. In His lawyer
is a sharp operator, it means clever but dishonest. In He had a sharp pain
in his chest, it means strong and sudden. All this shows that any linguistic
expression conveys new meanings or communicates new ideas depending on
the different contexts in which it is employed.
For the nature of meaning, the cognitive assumption of semanticity has
three essential corollaries.
• Linguistic expressions are attributed semantic import. Not only sen-
tences have meanings. Articles, affixes and prepositions, which are
considered by some theories to be empty of information, contribute
something specific to the meanings of utterances in which they occur
and can thus be legitimately considered as having meanings in their
own right. Speakers always speak or write in order to express a mean-
ing of one kind or another. A striking example is the sentential pair I
like fish and I like the fish, in which the article the causes a difference
in meaning. It serves to convert the concept of a general fish into a
concept of a particular fish, identifiable to both the speaker and hearer.
• Linguistic expressions which are ambiguous are analysable in context.
Context is the environment in which an utterance is used. It refers to
the circumstances which determine, specify or clarify the meaning
of an utterance. It is the best evidence available in accounting for
the multiple meanings of an expression. It shows that the meaning
of an expression is not fixed, but changes relative to the demands of
70 Semantics

discourse. A telling example is the expression cleaner, which has two

contextual meanings. In He works as an office cleaner, the expression
cleaner refers to a person whose job is to clean places. In We ran out
of floor cleaner, the expression cleaner refers to a substance used for
cleaning objects.
• Linguistic expressions, be they words or sentences, sharing a com-
mon content are different in meaning. They exhibit rivalry, where
two or more alternatives describe the same situation but profile dis-
tinct aspects of its meaning. The alternatives are phonologically dis-
tinct and semantically dissimilar. Any alternation in form spells an
alternation in meaning. A revealing example is the sentential pair A
tiger hunts by night and The tiger hunts by night. The first denotes a
generic reference. It describes class as a whole. The second denotes
a specific or individuative reference. It describes one single element.
It applies to an instance which is accessible to both the speaker and
hearer.

Exercise 4.4
The adjective clean displays numerous meanings which arise from the
different contexts in which it is used. Can you identify what the mean-
ing of clean in each of the following sentences is?
1. They need clean air
2. The wine has a clean taste.
3. Keep the jokes clean please!
4. The house was extremely clean.
5. The plane made a clean take-off.
6. He has a clean driving record.
7. It was a tough but clean game.
8. She used a clean sheet of paper.
9. A sharp knife makes a clean cut.
10. He is expected to make a clean sweep.
 Guiding assumptions 71

4.1.5 Language is creative

In Generative Linguistics, creativity refers to the ability of humans to gener-
ate and understand an infinite number of sentences in a language by means of
a finite set of rules. The task of the generative linguist then is to explain the
rules which are capable of generating well-formed sentences. In Cognitive
Linguistics, creativity refers to the ability of speakers to coin a novel expres-
sion from a conventional expression, or construe the same situation in alter-
nate ways using different linguistic expressions. The task of the cognitive
linguist then is to describe the mental processes responsible for producing
and understanding such expressions. A conventional expression is a linguis-
tic unit that is established in the lexicon through repeated usage. The use
of a novel expression involves creativity because the speaker has to find an
already existing pattern in the language on the basis of which it can be pro-
duced. The pattern is referred to as schema, a mental representation with a
general meaning, whose specifics are elaborated by its instances in contrast-
ing ways. Traditionally, this is referred to as analogy, the formation of a new
word on the basis of a unique expression or pattern. A schema is extracted
from actual instances, specific units which represent situations or events.
They are regarded as the basis on which schemas are built. The use of a novel
expression involves creativity because the speaker has the capacity to con-
strue the same situation in alternate ways using different linguistic expres-
sions. Meaning reflects not only the content of a situation, but also how the
speaker describes that content in alternative ways.
Let us consider an example to clarify this assumption. On the basis of
such instances as enable, enfeeble, enrich, and so on, the schema [EN-] can
be formed. Once it is formed, the schema acts as a pattern for deriving new
words in the language such as encamp, enforce, engulf, etc. In the first set
of instances, -en is added to adjectival roots to form verbs, whereas in the
second it is added to nominal roots to form verbs. Likewise, on the basis
of such instances as classmate, flatmate, roommate, and so on, the schema
[-MATE], can be formed. Once it is formed, the schema acts as a pattern for
deriving new words in the language such as playmate, team-mate, workmate,
and so on. In the first set of instances, -mate is added to nouns to derive words
which refer to a person you share an accommodation with. In the second set
of instances, -mate is added to nouns to derive words which refer to a person
you share an activity with. Accordingly, knowledge about language derives
from generalizations made over specific instances of use.
72 Semantics

For the nature of meaning, the assumption of creativity has three pivotal
repercussions.
• Linguistic expressions are not grounded in formalism or mathemat-
ical rules, but in cognitive capacities. They are the outcome of cog-
nitive operations, processes which reflect capabilities of the mind or
functions of the brain in producing and interpreting linguistic expres-
sions. Mental abilities include general operations like derivation
and compounding within which particular ones like categorization,
configuration and conceptualization take place. To take a concrete
example, from a word like neo-baroque, in which neo- means ‘new’
or ‘recent’, expressions such as neo-classical, neo-colonialism, neo-
fascist, neo-populism, neo-realist, and so on have been derived.
• Linguistic expressions embody different construals which speakers
employ to describe situations. Construal is the ability to conceive
and express a situation in different ways. Linguistic expressions differ
in meaning depending not only on the entities they designate but also
on the construals employed to describe the scenes. Construal allows
the speaker to describe the same content in different ways. To offer
a concrete example, consider the sentential pair The hungry boy ate
for 15 minutes and The hungry boy ate in 15 minutes. In each sen-
tence, the scene is construed differently. The first sentence construes
an action which continues for the length of the time specified. The
second sentence construes an action which is finished by the time
specified.
• Linguistic expressions are not synonymous even if they share the
same source. Synonymy is the case where two expressions have more
or less the same meaning. Rather than being regarded as substitutes,
linguistic expressions are attributed distinct meanings. Each linguis-
tic expression is a vehicle of a certain message. To give a concrete
example, consider the sentential pair Many people did not attend the
meeting and Not many people attended the meeting. Even though the
sentences share the same proposition, they are different in meaning.
The difference resides in the scope of negation. The first means many
people stayed away, whereas the second means few people came.
 Guiding assumptions 73

Exercise 4.5
The following pairs of sentences are not synonymous. The structure of
each sentence represents a distinct construal. What is it?
1. a. She lives in London.
b. She is living in London.
2. a. She has drunk my coffee.
b. She has been drinking my coffee.
3. a. I have been on the island for a month.
b. I have gone to the island for a month.
4. a. They will attend the film festival.
b. They are going to attend the film festival.
5. a. The saleswoman is very friendly.
b. The saleswoman is being very friendly.

4.2 Cognitive Semantics

Cognitive Semantics, which is part of the Cognitive Linguistics move-
ment, is an approach to meaning which has developed since the 1970s. It
is an approach based on a collection of ideas drawn from other theories like
cognitive psychology, cognitive anthropology, etc. Cognitive Semantics
has emerged as a reaction against some of the assumptions developed by
pre-cognitive accounts of meaning. One of the distinguishing assumptions of
Cognitive Semantics pertains to the role of speaker in characterizing scenes
and determining meanings, employing the conventional means of language.
In pre-cognitive accounts of meaning, the emphasis is laid on objectivism,
the doctrine that the role of language is to describe states of affairs in the
world. The meaning of a linguistic expression is seen as an objective reflec-
tion of the external world. In this view, there is no place for the speaker in
shaping the language. In Cognitive Semantics, the emphasis is laid on sub-
jectivism, the doctrine that language does not refer to an objective reality, but
to concepts in the mind of the speaker. The meaning of a linguistic expression
is seen as relating to a concept derived from bodily experience. In this view,
the emphasis is very much on the role of the speaker in shaping the language.
In order to conduct a fruitful discussion of linguistic meaning, Cognitive
Semantics is founded on fundamental assumptions. Below is a delineation of
each assumption.
74 Semantics

4.2.1 Meaning is embodied

In the pre-cognitive accounts of meaning, there is a correspondence between
language and the state of the world it describes. On the basis of such a cor-
respondence, a statement can be judged as true or false. For example, His
hair is grey is true if and only if his hair is in fact grey. In terms of the cor-
respondence theory, figurative uses of language are seen as anomalous. As
a reaction to this claim, Cognitive Semantics assumes that the structure of
reality, as reflected in language, is a product of the human mind and human
embodiment. People can only talk about what they perceive and conceive,
which in turn is derived from embodied experience. The nature of concepts
and the way they are organized is constrained by the nature of embodied
experience. In terms of the embodiment theory, figurative uses of language
are seen as essential. Accordingly, Cognitive Semantics explores the ways
in which conceptual structure arises from bodily experience, or the ways in
which our species-specific bodies interact with the environment we inhabit.
If language reflects conceptual structure, it follows that language reflects
embodied experience.
An example of the way in which bodily experience gives rise to mean-
ing concepts is the concept of containment, the act of keeping an entity in
an enclosed space and consequently restricting its movement. The concept
arises as a result of the properties of both the enclosed space and the human
body. The concept reflects a physical relationship in which embodied expe-
rience interacts with enclosed spaces. The concept associated with contain-
ment is an instance of what cognitive semanticists call an image schema,
a conceptual representation which emerges from human bodily interaction
with the world. It is a dynamic pattern which is grounded in human bodily
movements through space. The containment schema gives rise to abstract
states conceived as a container, which is shown by the use of the prepositions
in, out of and into, as in He is in debt, He is out of work and He fell into decay.
These bodily experiences give rise to the conceptual structure, or the image
schema, of containment, which in turn projects the conceptual domain of
STATES, to which concepts like debt, work and decay belong. The process
derives the conceptual metaphor STATES ARE CONTAINERS. This topic
will be taken up and discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5.
 Guiding assumptions 75

Exercise 4.6
The FORCE schema emerges when a force acts on an entity. It includes
such related image schemas as ATTRACTION, BLOCKAGE,
COMPULSION, DIVERSION and ENABLEMENT. Match each of
the following sentences with the appropriate related schema.
1. They were coerced into negotiating a settlement.
2. An injury was hindering him from playing his best.
3. The war distracted attention from the economic situation.
4. This ticket does not entitle you to travel first class.
5. The city has magnetized thousands of young people.

4.2.2 Meaning is motivated

In the pre-cognitive accounts of meaning, a linguistic expression has both
form and meaning, but the connection between the two is arbitrary or unmo-
tivated. There is no natural reason why a particular linguistic form should
be associated with a particular meaning. Arbitrariness is the phenomenon
where the form of a sign bears no resemblance to its referent. There is no way
of predicting the meaning of a linguistic expression by relying on its form.
In response to this claim, Cognitive Semantics assumes that the relationship
between the form and meaning of a linguistic expression is often motivated
or inseparable. Motivation is the psychological incentive which influences
the choice of the speaker. The choice of the form of a linguistic expression is
largely motivated by the meaning which the speaker plans to convey, which
in turn is motivated by the communicative purpose. This entails that form is
produced with the intention of symbolizing meaning. The choice between
two linguistic expressions is not random. Linguistic distinctions are moti-
vated by semantic considerations. Every linguistic structure is a vehicle of a
certain semantic structure.
An example of the way in which the form of a linguistic expression is
motivated by meaning is the concept of iconicity, the phenomenon where the
form of a sign bears some resemblance to its meaning, or where the structure
of language bears similarity to conceived reality. According to Generative
Linguistics, the two grammatical sentences He smeared the wall with paint
and He smeared paint on the wall are derived from the same underlying struc-
ture, and so are regarded as syntactic paraphrases. According to Cognitive
76 Semantics

Linguistics, the two grammatical sentences are neither derived from the same
underlying structure nor regarded as syntactic paraphrases. They have differ-
ent syntactic structures, and so are attributed different semantic values. The
two sentences share the same semantic content, but that content is construed
differently by the speaker. In the first sentence, the implication drawn is that
the whole wall is painted. This is reflected by the fact that the wall, being
a direct object, is close to the verb. In the second sentence, the implication
drawn is that only part of the wall is painted. This is reflected by the fact that
the wall is separated from the verb by a preposition.

Exercise 4.7
On the basis of formal criteria, the following pairs of sentences are
freely interchangeable. On the basis of cognitive criteria, they are
semantically distinctive. Point out how.
1. a. He sent his family a letter.
b. He sent a letter to his family.
2. a. He helped her carry the trunk.
b. He helped her to carry the trunk.
3. a. He saved the boy drowning in the canal.
b. He saved the boy from drowning in the canal.
4. a. He arranged to attend the baby.
b. He arranged for a babysitter to attend the baby.
5. a. She pleaded for the offender to confess his offence.
b. She pleaded that the offender should confess his offence.

4.2.3 Meaning is dynamic

In the pre-cognitive accounts of meaning, the meaning of a linguistic expres-
sion is more or less stable or inflexible, namely it cannot be changed to suit
new experiences. It adopts the classical or check-list theory of linguistic
meaning. According to this theory, humans categorize concepts by means
of necessary and sufficient conditions. Contrary to this claim, Cognitive
Semantics assumes that the meaning of a linguistic expression is dynamic
and flexible, namely it is able to change to suit new experiences. One good
reason for this is the expression of new meanings. This has to do with cre-
ativity, the ability of language to permit the expression of new meanings.
Creativity is shown in two ways. One is the ability of language users to create
 Guiding assumptions 77

new forms to express new ideas. Because societies change, there is always
a need to express new meanings in language. The other is the ability of lan-
guage users to extend the existing forms to encompass new meanings. As
a means of expressing needs, language extends to cope with the constant
changes in the circumstances language users live through, and deal with the
new experiences they encounter in life. The semantic structure of any lin-
guistic expression is thus not rigid; it takes on new meanings and is contin-
uously extending.
An example of the way in which a linguistic unit demonstrates flexibility
is manifested by the concept of polysemy, the phenomenon where a linguis-
tic expression acquires multiple meanings. The preposition on is dynamic in
the sense that it can conceive a spatial relation differently. In The camera is
on the table, the two objects are in physical contact, with the camera placed
above the table. In The fly is on the ceiling, the two objects are in physical
contact but the relationship between them is unusual because the fly is placed
beneath the ceiling. In The painting is on the wall, the two objects are in
physical contact, with the wall placed behind the painting. In The leaves are
on the tree, the two objects are in physical contact, with the leaves covering
the tree. In The writing on the paper is clear, the paper is construed as a
background against which the writing is displayed, which is foregrounded. In
all the examples mentioned so far, the relationship between the two objects is
one of physical support. In The house is on fire, the schema metaphorically
extends to an abstract domain, where fire is conceived as a place. I take up
the prototype theory in Chapter 7, where I examine more closely its theses,
advantages and consequences.

Exercise 4.8
The modal auxiliary would is so dynamic that it can express different
meanings in different contexts. Can you identify them?
1. I’d rather have a beer.
2. I wouldn’t worry about it, if I were you.
3. Would you have dinner with me on Friday?
4. I would imagine the job will take about two days.
5. Would you mind leaving us alone for a few minutes?
78 Semantics

4.2.4 Meaning is encyclopaedic

In the pre-cognitive accounts of meaning, the semantic content of a linguistic
expression represents a neatly packaged bundle of meaning, a claim referred
to as definitional or dictionary view. The meanings of linguistic expres-
sions stored in our minds can be defined, much as they appear in a dictio-
nary. In the semantic decomposition approach, which is one version of this
view, meaning is encoded in terms of semantic features or primitives. The
core meaning of a word is the information contained in the word’s definition,
excluding the non-contextual knowledge. Contrary to this claim, Cognitive
Semantics assumes that the semantic content of a linguistic expression is
broad in scope, a claim referred to as encyclopaedic view. The meaning
of a linguistic expression cannot be understood independently of the vast
repository of encyclopaedic knowledge to which it is linked. Encyclopaedic
knowledge refers to the structured body of non-linguistic knowledge to
which a linguistic expression such as a word potentially provides access. In
the description of a word, it is not just the general definition that counts, but
also the actual circumstance in which it is used and the complete information
which it contains. Encyclopaedic knowledge is modelled in terms of a num-
ber of constructs such as the domain, the cognitive model and the idealized
cognitive model.
An example of the way in which linguistic expressions differ relying on
encyclopaedic knowledge is shown by the concept of domain, a coherent
body of conceptual content which serves as an essential background for some
individual concepts. The verbs boo, cheer, groan, scream and sob gather
under the domain of noise, but they manifest specific differences. The verb
boo means ‘to give a loud shout of disapproval’, as in The crowd booed when
the player was sent off the field. The verb cheer means ‘to give a loud shout
of approval’, as in The supporters cheered the president at the end of the
speech. The verb groan means ‘to make a long deep sound showing great
pain or unhappiness’, as in He lay on the floor groaning with pain. The verb
scream means ‘to give a loud high cry showing fear, excitement or anger’,
as in The girl screamed for help when the thief pulled out a knife. Finally,
the verb sob means ‘to cry noisily taking in deep breaths’, as in I found her
sobbing in the bedroom because she’d broken her doll. I take up the domain
theory in Chapter 8, where I examine more closely its premises, advantages
and repercussions.
 Guiding assumptions 79

Exercise 4.9
The nouns listed below are similar in their definitional meaning, but
in their encyclopaedic meaning they are distinct and associated with
specific uses. What are the uses?
1. rim
2. edge
3. fringe
4. frame
5. border

4.2.5 Meaning is conceptualized

In the pre-cognitive accounts of meaning, the meaning of a linguist expres-
sion is equated with truth conditions, whereby the meaning is just an objec-
tive reflection of the outside world. For example, to know the meaning of
a sentence like It is cloudy one has to look at the sky to check whether the
statement is true or not. In that light, if two sentences express the same state
of affairs in the world, or have the same content, they are considered equal.
Contrary to this claim, Cognitive Semantics assumes that the meaning of a
linguistic expression is equated with conceptualization, whereby the mean-
ing is a reflection of concepts, and not directly of things. Conceptualization
refers to the ability to form concepts and explain language structure with ref-
erence to human experience, be they social, linguistic or cultural. Concepts
are basic expressions of mental representation, and mirror the existing prop-
erties of the world. They are not arbitrary creations of language, but con-
stitute part of our understanding of what the world is like. Language is the
product of our interaction with the world around us. Language structure is
an immediate reflection of thought, of the way the mind works. The way
we build discourses and develop linguistic categories are derived from the
way we experience our environment. The semantic structure of a linguistic
expression, therefore, includes both conceptual content and a particular way
of construing that content. Two expressions may invoke the same conceptual
content, yet differ semantically by encoding different conceptualizations of
experience. Making use of the symbolic resources made available by lan-
guage, these conceptualizations are mapped onto different linguistic reali-
zations. Each linguistic realization describes the same scene, but does so in
80 Semantics

its own way. In fact, it is these linguistic realizations that make the mental
experiences of the conceptualizer visible.
An example of the way in which linguistic expressions differ relative to
the ways in which the speaker describes a scene is shown by the concept
of construal, the act of conceiving and expressing experiences in different
ways. In terms of truth conditions, the two linguistic expressions The faculty
agrees, and The faculty agree refer to the same state of affairs in the world
and so they are semantically equal. They share the same truth conditions: they
can both be true of the same state of affairs. In terms of cognitive criteria,
they have distinct semantic values. They convey different conceptualizations
of the same content. In the first expression, the speaker conceptualizes the
faculty as a unified body agreeing with an external proposal. In the second
expression, the speaker conceptualizes the faculty as a collection of individ-
uals agreeing with one another. The linguistic differences between the two
expressions, therefore, reflect conceptual differences which in turn reflect
different experiences. I take up the construal theory in Chapter 9, where I
examine more closely its axioms, advantages and ramifications.

Exercises 4.10
The following pairs are not free alternatives, but rather semantic vari-
ants. The preposition in each represents a different conceptualization
of the speaker. Say what it is.
1. a. He jumped on the table.
b. He jumped over the table.
2. a. He crawled in the garden.
b. He crawled into the garden.
3. a. The guests arrived on time.
b. The guests arrived in time.
4. a. She walked across the grass.
b. She walked through the grass.
5. a. There is a street behind the station.
b. There is a street beyond the station.
 Guiding assumptions 81

4.3 Summary
In this chapter, I have introduced details of the cognitive approach to meaning.
In Generative Linguistics, the word cognitive means language is seen as an
autonomous component of the mind. Knowledge of language is innate. The
mind has a blueprint for language. In Cognitive Linguistics, the word cog-
nitive means language is seen as an integral facet of cognition. Knowledge
of language is based on experience. The mind is initially a blank slate and
cognitive development is a matter of learning. First, I have explained what
Cognitive Linguistics is and what its fundamental assumptions are. A dis-
tinctive feature of the approach is the slogan that linguistic knowledge is part
of general cognition. Language reflects patterns of thought; therefore, the
study of language resides in studying patterns of conceptualization. Second,
I explained what Cognitive Semantics is and what its fundamental assump-
tions are. A defining characteristic of the approach is its focus on the sub-
jectivist basis of meaning. Language is experientially-based; therefore, the
study of meaning is the study of the basic conceptual structures which are
grounded in bodily, physical, social and cultural experiences.

Table 4.1 Guiding assumptions of Cognitive Linguistics

Assumption Gist
Language is non-modular There is no autonomous portion of the brain which is
specialized for language.
Language is symbolic There is a direct association between the form and
meaning of language.
Language is usage based Knowledge of language is derived from actual instances
of language use.
Language is creative Language allows speakers to produce new linguistic
expressions from conventional ones and describe the
same situation in discrete ways.
Language is meaningful All language expressions are attributed semantic values
and assigned significant roles in language.
82 Semantics

Table 4.2 The guiding assumptions of Cognitive Semantics

Assumption Gist
Meaning is embodied The nature of conceptual organization arises from bodily
experience.
Meaning is motivated The choice of a linguistic form is motivated by the meaning
which the speaker intends to convey.
Meaning is dynamic The meaning of any linguistic expression changes or extends
to cope with new experiences speakers encounter in life.
Meaning is The semantic content of a linguistic expression is broad
encyclopaedic in scope, and includes both linguistic and non-linguistic
knowledge.
Meaning is The semantic structure of a linguistic expression includes
conceptualized both conceptual content and a particular way of conceptualiz-
ing that content.
 5

Conceptual Structures
Chapter 5 discuses the central roles in language assigned to conceptual struc-
tures, namely knowledge representations which pertain to the organization of
concepts in the human conceptual system. The chapter includes three sections.
Section 5.1 defines the conceptual system and highlights its role in reflecting
language. Section 2 enumerates forms of conceptual structure. Section 5.2.1
covers metaphor, whereby something is compared to something else which
has the same characteristics. Section 5.2.2 concerns metonymy, whereby
something is substituted by something else which is closely connected with
it. Section 5.2.3 pertains to image schemas, abstract patterns which derive
from our everyday interaction in the world and provide the basis for more
richly detailed lexical concepts. Section 5.2.4 relates to mental spaces,
knowledge patterns containing specific kinds of information and constructed
for interpretive purposes. Section 5.2.5 explains blending, whereby selected
elements from two mental spaces are incorporated in a third space, the blend.
In all the sections, I pursue three steps. First, I elaborate on the essence of
the conceptual structure. Second, I touch upon its properties. Third, I present
its patterns. For each conceptual structure, I devise exercises to validate its
application. Section 5.3 summarizes the main points of the chapter.

5.1 Conceptual system

In Cognitive Semantics, language refers to concepts in the mind of the
speaker rather than, directly, to entities which exist in the external world.
Language reflects the human conceptual system, the repository of concepts
available to a human being. In the conceptual system, a concept takes the
form of a conceptual structure, knowledge representation assembled for
purposes of meaning construction. In order to be encoded in language, a con-
ceptual structure takes the form of a semantic structure, the meaning that
is conventionally associated with linguistic expressions. The meanings asso-
ciated with words are referred to as lexical concepts: the conventional form
which conceptual structure assumes when encoded in language. Accordingly,
one important thesis that characterizes the cognitive approach to semantics is
that semantic structure reflects conceptual structure. Consequently, Cognitive
84 Semantics

Semantics has two tasks. The general task is to employ language as a lens to
investigate the human conceptual system. The specific task is to investigate
the relationship between experience, the conceptual structure and the seman-
tic structure.

5.2 Forms of conceptual structure

Cognitive Semantics studies the relationship between the mind and expe-
rience. It employs language as a tool for uncovering conceptual structure:
knowledge representation of concepts in the human conceptual system. In
Cognitive Semantics, linguistic meaning is seen as a manifestation of con-
ceptual structure. Conceptual structure is modelled in terms of mappings
such as metaphor and metonymy, establishment of image schemas, forma-
tion of mental spaces and blending of spaces. There are some general prop-
erties which the different types of conceptual structure share. (a) Conceptual
structures are aspects of meaning construction in language; they are central
to human thought. (b) They are grounded in experience; they are activated
through human interaction with the socio-physical world. (c) They are inher-
ently meaningful; they reveal fundamental information about the nature of
meaning. (d) They serve to conceptualize the world; they serve to shape the
forms of our linguistic expressions. (e) They are pervasive in everyday lan-
guage; they are aspects of ongoing language processing.
What follows is a description of each conceptual structure, which includes
its architecture, properties and patterns.

5.2.1 Metaphor
Metaphor is a form of conceptual structure that involves mapping between
two things from distinct areas of knowledge, where one is compared with the
other. In the mapping, aspects of a more familiar area of knowledge, called
the source, are placed in comparison with aspects of a less familiar area of
knowledge, called the target. Typically, the source is concrete, whereas the
target is abstract. The purpose of the comparison is to portray the target in
a way that makes it more accessible to human understanding. In The ship
ploughs through the sea, the metaphor consists of comparing the act of farm-
ing with the act of sailing which it resembles in some respect. The sentence
means ‘The ship moves through water like a plough through soil’. The target
area being described is sailing, whereas the source area being used for the
comparison is farming. In literary studies, the source area of knowledge is
 Conceptual structures 85

referred to as vehicle, the target area of knowledge as tenor, and the mapping
operation as ground.
A good example of metaphor is LOVE IS A JOURNEY. Here, the abstract
domain of love is understood in terms of the concrete domain of journey.
This metaphor is made up of a number of conventional mappings: journey
is mapped into love, travellers into lovers, vehicle into love relationship, the
distance covered into the progress made, the obstacles encountered into the
difficulties experienced, decisions about which way to go into choices about
what to do, destination of the journey into goals of the relationship, and so
on. Linguistically, this metaphor motivates a wide range of utterances of
which the following are illustrative: Look how far they’ve come, They can’t
turn back now, They are at a crossroads, They may have to go their separate
ways, Their marriage has been a long bumpy road, and so on. As can be seen,
the structure of the source domain is imposed onto the target domain, and so
helps to shape its structure.

5.2.1.1 Properties
1. Metaphor is a tactic used to conceptualize one area of experience in
terms of another. Any given metaphor has, thus, a source domain and
a target domain. The source domain tends to be concrete, whereas the
target domain tends to be abstract. For example, In I see what you
mean, the source domain is the physical act of seeing, while the target
domain is the mental act of understanding. In He has a high reputa-
tion in the department, the source domain is the vertical dimension of
physical space, while the target domain is social status. As the exam-
ples show, metaphor serves to supply a tangible conceptual structure
for abstract concepts. That is, there is a shift from concrete to abstract
areas of experience.
2. Metaphor is a device employed to explain the nature of complex
issues or hard-to-understand ideas. Unlike the classical view which
sees metaphor as a literary feature of language or a figurative use of
language, Cognitive Semantics views it as a process which helps to
conceptualize a particular concept in different ways. For example, the
concept of intimacy can be thought of sometimes in terms of heat, as
in Alan is such a cold person, and sometimes in terms of distance as
in Alan is quite unapproachable. As the examples show, metaphor
serves to highlight individual aspects of the target concept, which are
realized differently in language.
86 Semantics

3. Metaphor is a means applied to create new senses or extend the mean-

ings of the existing ones. It is the key to understanding the phenome-
non of polysemy. An example illustrating the process of metaphorical
extension comes from human body parts, where human characteristics
are mapped onto non-human objects, as in the head of a department/
state/page, the face of a mountain/building/watch, the eye of a needle/
potato/hurricane, the mouth of a hole/tunnel/cave, the lips of a cup/
jug/crater, the nose of an aircraft/tool/gun, the neck of a land/shirt/
bottle, the shoulder of a hill/road/jacket, the arm of a chair/coat/com-
pany, and so on. These metaphors are referred to as conventionalized
because their meanings have been so deeply entrenched in the speech
community through repeated usage that they become automatic.

5.2.1.2 Patterns
Cognitive semanticists have identified three patterns of metaphor. Below is a
description of each pattern.

1. Structural metaphors
In a structural metaphor, an abstract concept is fathomed in terms of a con-
crete concept. It is a metaphor which arises from comparing one thing with
another. This is illustrated by the structural metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR,
which allows us to think and talk about argument in terms of war. Here,
speakers conceptualize the abstract concept of argument, which is the tar-
get domain, in terms of the concrete language of war, which is the source
domain. This is shown by such everyday expressions as He got into an argu-
ment, He defended his argument, He won/lost the argument, He attacked
their argument, He demolished their argument, and so on.
Below is a sample list of structural metaphors with their representative
linguistic expressions.

LIFE IS A JOURNEY
She has embarked on a new career.
He has reached a career crossroads.
He is very talented and should go far.

TIME IS MONEY
You’ll save time if you take the car.
She wasted no time in rejecting the offer.
I spend too much time watching television.
 Conceptual structures 87

IDEAS ARE PLANTS

None of his ideas came to fruition.
She planted bright ideas in their minds.
The benefit scheme withered on the vine.

ARGUMENT IS BUILDING
You must learn how to construct a logical argument.
These arguments are completely without foundation.
Her arguments over the war are a little shaky.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS ARE PLANTS

They have pruned the staff numbers back to 175.
They are reaping the rewards of their hard work.
The bank has branches all over the country.

Exercise 5.1
Give example sentences of ordinary language in English for the struc-
tural metaphors listed below.
1. IDEAS ARE OBJECTS
2. TIME IS MOTION
3. LOVE IS MADNESS
4. BELIEFS ARE POSSESSIONS
5. ARGUMENT IS CONTAINER

2. Orientational metaphors
In an orientational metaphor, an abstract knowledge area is couched in terms
of spatial experience. It is a metaphor that arises from awareness of the ori-
entation of our own bodies in physical space. This is illustrated by the ori-
entational metaphor MORE IS UP, LESS IS DOWN, where speakers relate
the abstract notion of more with the physically UP position and less with
the physically DOWN position. This is illustrated by such everyday expres-
sions as The price of cigarettes keeps going up, Her income rose last year,
Temperatures rarely rise above freezing, The standard of his work has fallen
during the year, The discount applies only to children under 14, Prices have
gone down recently, and so on.
Below is a sample list of orientational metaphors with examples of lin-
guistic expressions relating to each.
88 Semantics

HAPPY IS UP
He is feeling up today.
He has been in high spirits lately.
Her spirits rose as she read the letter.

SAD IS DOWN
He is feeling down today.
He has been in low spirits lately.
Her spirits sank as she read the letter.

HAVING CONTROL OR FORCE IS UP

She is still at the height of her powers.
She has control over the pupils.
A captain ranks above a lieutenant.

BEING SUBJECT TO CONTROL OR FORCE IS DOWN

The party has fallen from power.
A soldier is inferior to an officer.
The disease is now under control.

GOOD IS UP
The situation is looking up at last.
She is at the peak of her career.
They sell high-quality goods.

Exercise 5.2
Identify the orientational metaphor which each of the following every-
day linguistic expressions manifests.
1. He woke up to find himself alone in the house.
2. The patient has once more sunk into a coma.
3. They maintain high standards of patient care.
4. I have rather a low opinion of the head teacher.
5. The children at school are at the peak of health.

3. Ontological metaphors
Ontology is derived from the Greek root onta ‘the things which exist’ and the
suffix logy ‘the science of’. In an ontological metaphor, an abstract concept
 Conceptual structures 89

is figured out in terms of physical objects in the real world. It is a metaphor

in which abstract concepts are conceptualized as though they were physical
entities. Three subtypes of ontological metaphors exist. These allow us to
extend entity status to a wide range of experiences.
• In the entity metaphor, an abstract concept is conceptualized as
though it were a physical entity. This is illustrated by the metaphor
INFLATION IS AN ENTITY, where the abstract notion of inflation is
talked about as though it were a physical entity, as in Inflation is low-
ering our standard of living, Inflation is nibbling away at spending
power, Inflation is the government’s main bugbear, The government is
determined to fight inflation. Inflation is currently running at 3%., and
so on.
• In the container metaphor, a land area is conceptualized as though it
were a physical container with overt boundaries. This is illustrated by
the metaphor VISION IS CONTAINER, where speakers often treat
what they see within their visual field as though it were a kind of
bounded container, as in The lake soon came into view, There was
nobody in view, There was no one in sight, Leave any valuables in
your car out of sight, and so on.
• In the personification metaphor, various kinds of human qualities are
attributed to non-human entities. This is illustrated by the metaphor
IDEAS ARE ANIMATE BEINGS OR PERSONS, in which abstract
non-human entities like ideas are conceived as though they were
human entities, and so attributed human characteristics, as in The
school has decided to adopt the idea, They find it hard to conceive the
idea, They are intent on combating the idea, and so on.

Exercise 5.3
Show how the ontological metaphor in each of the following sentences
treats the abstract concept.
1. They fell in love with each other.
2. Violence is a cancer in our society.
3. The law finally caught up with him.
4. The country was in an economic depression.
5. The government took measures to combat unemployment.
90 Semantics

5.2.2 Metonymy
Metonymy is a form of conceptual structure which involves mapping between
two things within the same area of knowledge, where the name of one is sub-
stituted for the name of the other with which it is connected in some respect.
In the mapping, the thing, called the target, is not called by its own name, but
by the name of the thing, called the source, with which it is intimately associ-
ated. Typically, the source is more salient than the target. The purpose of the
substitution is to depict the target in a way that makes it intelligible to human
understanding. In Hollywood protested against censorship, the metonymy
resides in using the name Hollywood instead of the name American film
industry, with which it is associated. The sentence means ‘The American
film industry protested against censorship’. Clearly, the literal interpretation
of the sentence does not work because a place cannot protest against censor-
ship. Such an interpretation results in anomaly. The metonymic interpretation
works quite well, where the word Hollywood refers to the American film
industry. Normally, we refer to people by the place where they live or work.
A clear example of metonymy is INSTITUTION FOR PEOPLE. Here, the
abstract domain of institution is understood in terms of the concrete domain
of people. Linguistically, this metonymy motivates a wide range of utter-
ances of which the following are illustrative: The Army was called out to
enforce the curfew, The company is unable to absorb such huge losses, The
university can be justifiably proud of its record, The hospital is trying to raise
funds for a new kidney machine, The law has no chance of being passed by
the Senate, and so on. As is clear, the metonymic mapping provides a suitable
context for the interpretation of the examples by linking the entities through
a contiguity relation, where the entities substituted are conceptually close.

5.2.2.1 Properties
Metonymy establishes a connection of association between two entities
within a single domain. By contrast, metaphor establishes a connection of
similarity between two entities in two different domains. In a crocodile hand-
bag, there is an animal domain with the focus being laid on the leather pro-
duced from the animal skin rather than on the animal as a whole. There is a
natural association between the skin and the animal, which belong to a sin-
gle domain. In a crocodile opponent, there is a metaphorical mapping from
the animal domain onto the human domain. There is similarity between the
opponent and crocodile, which belong to two different domains.
 Conceptual structures 91

1. Metonymy is a strategy for establishing reference. Its goal is to refer

to an entity, prototypically a person, denoted by the target domain by
means of the source domain. The referential function is represent-
ed by the stand-for notion. In The land is owned by the Crown, the
word crown is used to refer indirectly to the monarch. This is a part-
whole relationship, in which the part crown serves as a reference point
for accessing the whole monarch. In The Times hasn’t arrived at the
Press Conference yet, the word Times is used to represent the reporter
who works for the newspaper. This is a whole-part relationship, in
which the whole Times serves as a reference point for accessing the
part reporter. The process of using a part of something to represent
the whole or vice versa is often referred to as synecdoche.
2. Metonymy is a medium for linguistic processes. One process is com-
pounding. One metonymy is SALIENT FEATURE FOR PERSON/
OBJECT. A paperback stands for a book, in which the feature paper
stands for the object book. Another metonymy is BODILY FEATURE
FOR SPECIES. A redbreast stands for robin, in which the feature
red breast stands for bird. The other process is conversion, espe-
cially noun-verb. One such general metonymy is PARTICIPANT
FOR ACTION, which takes the following subtypes: AGENT FOR
ACTION as in to tutor a student, to author a book; INSTRUMENT
FOR ACTION as in to hammer the nail, to saw off a branch; OBJECT
FOR ACTION as in to dust the room, to pepper the dish, BODY PART
FOR ACTION as in to tiptoe into the room, to elbow someone out of
the way, and so on.
3. Metonymy is a vehicle for expressing emotions. In emotional expres-
sions, the bodily symptoms are the outcome of the expressed emo-
tions. This type of metonymy is based on cause-effect relationships.
One such general metonymy is THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
OF AN EMOTION STANDS FOR THE EMOTION. In She was par-
alysed with fear, the effect is inability to move, whereas the cause is
fear. In She was shaking with anger, the effect is agitation, whereas
the cause is anger. In He swelled with pride, the effect is erect posture
or chest out, whereas the cause is pride. In He was jumping for joy, the
effect is jumping up and down, whereas the cause is joy.

5.2.2.2 Patterns
Cognitive semanticists have distinguished different patterns of metonymy.
Below is a sample list of the patterns with their linguistic realizations.
92 Semantics

WHOLE FOR PART

France won the tournament.
I filled the car up with petrol.
I have to go to the bathroom.

PART FOR WHOLE

She saw some new faces at the meeting.
At long last George had his own wheels.
They need extra hands for the harvest.

PLACE FOR EVENT

Vietnam witnessed great atrocities.
Watergate involved abuses of office.
Hiroshima changed our view of war.

PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT

They bought a second-hand Ford.
She received a Picasso as a reward.
I got a Parker for a birthday present.

OBJECT FOR USER

The piano is playing a new melody.
The BMW drove off without paying.
The sirloin steak is waiting for the bill.

Exercise 5.4
Discuss the types of metonymic relationships involved in the use of
the italicized words in the examples below.
1 The kettle is boiling.
2. It was two years after the Wall.
3. They enjoy watching Hitchcock.
4. They keep all their glass in a dresser.
5. Rumours are circulating about Westminster.

5.2.3 Image schemas

An image schema is a form of conceptual structure or a conceptual repre-
sentation which arises from repeated instances of embodied experience.
 Conceptual structures 93

Embodiment is the way in which human psychology arises from the body’s
physiology. It explains how our bodies influence the ways we think and
speak. Accordingly, an image schema is a recurring dynamic pattern which
emerges from our interaction with the environment or observation of the
world around us. An image schema is a representation of sensory and per-
ceptual experience and includes such mechanisms as visual (vision), haptic
(touch), auditory (hearing) and vestibular (movement). An image schema is
thus an aspect of general cognition or a mental pattern that helps to advance
our understanding of various experiences. An image schema serves to orga-
nize our experience, and so gives it coherence. In metaphor, in particular, it
is used as a source domain to provide an understanding of the target domain,
which represents experience.
An obvious example of image schema is the CONTAINER. This image
schema is derived from the experience of having something inside something
else or including something as a part of something else, as in The bottle
contains two litres of water. The schema can be applied, however, to other
areas of experience by a process of metaphorical extension from physical
into abstract domains. Conversely, our experience of non-physical phenom-
ena can be described in terms of physical phenomena. To see how this works,
let us look at some examples. In There was a ship in sight, The ship was out
of sight, etc., the visual field is conceived as a container. In The runner was
in the race, The runner was out of the race, etc., activities are viewed as con-
tainers. In The patient was in a coma, The patient came out of a coma, etc.,
states can be viewed as containers.

5.2.3.1 Properties
1. Image schemas are inherently meaningful. They serve as conceptu-
al representations that underpin lexical items. They are grounded in
our socio-physical experiences. To illustrate this point, consider the
image schema for FORCE. This image schema arises from our expe-
rience of acting upon or being acted upon by other entities, resulting
in the transfer of motion energy. The properties of the FORCE image
schema show up in linguistic meaning, as illustrated by the mean-
ings of the English modal auxiliary verbs. In You must be home by
11 o’clock, the basic meaning of the modal must, which is obligation,
derives from the COMPULSION schema. In He can fix the computer,
the basic meaning of the modal can, which is ability, derives from
the ENABLEMENT schema. In You may come in if you wish, the
94 Semantics

basic meaning of the modal may, which is permission, derives from

the REMOVAL OF RESTRAINT schema. As the examples show, the
meanings associated with the modal verbs are grounded in embodied
experience.
2. Image schemas are internally complex. The complexity resides in
the fact that they are made up of numerous components. To clarify
this point, consider the image schema PATH, which derives from our
experience of moving in the world or experiencing the movements of
other entities. The PATH image schema has a beginning (source), a
destination (goal), and a sequence of contiguous locations in between
them. In a concrete context, this is shown in She walked from the
castle through the countryside to the mansion, where the different
components of the path are profiled by the use of different lexical
items. The PATH image schema can be extended from concrete into
abstract domains. We talk, for example, about achieving purposes as
paths. This is illustrated by such examples as He is composing a poem
for his wife, and he is nearly there, and I was supposed to be writing
a letter, but I am afraid I got sidetracked.
3. Image schemas are used in metaphor as source domains for target
domains. Image schemas are important in the sense that they help to
understand new experiences. Consider the image schema OBJECT.
This image schema is based on our everyday interaction with concrete
objects which have physical properties such as colour, weight, shape,
and so on. This image schema can also be mapped onto an abstract
entity like obligation. The metaphoric mapping facilitates understand-
ing the abstract entity in terms of a physical object. This is illustrated
by examples such as the following: He has got a heavy teaching load
this term, The government shouldered the task of restructuring the
entire health service, They have a pressing obligation to protect the
environment, She bore the responsibility for most of the changes, He
was weighed down with family commitments, and so on.

5.2.3.2 Patterns
Cognitive semanticists have identified different patterns of image schemas.
Below is a list of the main image schemas with their sub-schemas.
SPACE UP-DOWN, FRONT-BACK, LEFT-RIGHT, NEAR-
FAR, CENTRE-PERIPHERY
 Conceptual structures 95

CONTAINMENT CONTAINER, IN-OUT, SURFACE, FULL-EMPTY,

CONTENT
LOCOMOTION MOMENTUM, SOURCE-PATH-GOAL
BALANCE AXIS BALANCE, TWIN-PAN BALANCE, POINT
BALANCE, EQUILIBRIUM
FORCE COMPULSION, BLOCKAGE, COUNTERFORCE,
DIVERSION, REMOVAL OF CONSTRAINT,
ENABLEMENT, ATTRACTION, RESISTENCE
MULTIPLICITY MERGING, COLLECTION, SPLITTING, ITERA-
TION, PART-WHOLE, COUNT-MASS, LINK
IDENTITY MATCHING, SUPERIMPOSITION
EXISTENCE REMOVAL, BOUNDED SPACE, CYCLE, OBJECT,
PROCESS

Exercise 5.5
Identify the image schemas that serve as source domains to describe
abstract entities in the following sentences.
1. He is at a crossroads in his life.
2. The boy is close to the girl in age.
3. The price of cigarettes is going up.
4. Both parties are hungry for power.
5. They reached the end of the project.

5.2.4 Mental spaces

A mental space is a form of conceptual structure in which a particular mental
construct is set up on the basis of a general scenario to understand a message.
It is a temporary package of knowledge structure, which is built up through
ongoing discourse for interpretive purposes. Its construction in communi-
cation involves two spaces. The first is the base space: the real space that
serves as the starting point for a particular stage in discourse. The second is
the space builders: the linguistic elements that serve as triggers for opening
new mental spaces or shifting focus to existing ones. The word maybe in
Maybe she is in love with him, for example, is a space builder; it sets up a
possibility space relative to the discourse base space at that point. The inter-
pretation of mental spaces draws not only on the hints given by the linguistic
expression but also on the speech situation and encyclopaedic knowledge of
96 Semantics

the discourse participants. As talk unfolds and thought proceeds, new mental
spaces are formed relative to others. This gives rise to a mental spaces lattice.
An often-cited example of mental spaces is the sentence The girl with
green eyes has blue eyes. In terms of its compositional meaning, the sentence
expresses a contradiction. Yet, we can easily make sense of the sentence by
assuming two mental spaces. Each mental space contains three entities: the
girl, the eyes and the eye colour. In the mental space of reality, the girl has
green eyes. In the mental space of the portrait, the girl has blue eyes. The
girl in the two mental spaces is identical. The eyes in the two mental spaces
are identical. The colours of the eyes in the two mental spaces do not corre-
spond. Neither the mental spaces nor the correspondence relations between
the spaces are overtly encoded in the linguistic expression. These aspects of
the interpretation are beyond the scope of strict compositionality. That is,
the meaning of a linguistic expression can go beyond the meanings that are
contributed by its component parts.

5.2.4.1 Properties
1. Mental spaces serve to show that the interpretation of a complex
expression cannot be attributed to the contributions of its component
parts, but to different space-connecting strategies. Mental spaces
serve to account for ambiguities that arise from the use of space build-
ers. In the expression In 1966, my wife was a model, the prepositional
phrase in 1966 is a space builder denoting time. It triggers two spaces:
the now space of the speaker and the time space of 1966. The nominal
my wife is open to two interpretations. The first is that the wife estab-
lished in the 1966 time space is either the same wife in the now space
or not. The second is that the wife established in the now space was
not his wife in 1966, but is referred to as my wife by a shift linking the
mental spaces.
2. Mental spaces are evoked by certain linguistic expressions called
space builders, which motivate the hearer to set up a scenario to
understand the intended message. Expressions like I think, may, etc.
build a potentiality space. Expressions like last week, recently, etc.
open a time space. Expressions like If you were here create a coun-
terfactual space. Expressions like just imagine set up an imagination
space. Expressions like I would like open a desire space. Expressions
like What if open a hypotheticality space. Some adjectives specifi-
cally have the function of introducing non-veridical mental spaces.
An imaginary illness exists only in the mental space of the sufferer’s
 Conceptual structures 97

imagination. A would-be actor is an actor only in the mental space of

the person who is hoping to become an actor.
3. Mental spaces are used to account for a counterfactual conceptual-
ization; a mental space is set up that runs counter to a presupposed
reality. The utterance If I were your father, I’d smack you, can prompt
a number of different interpretations, each of which arises from dif-
ferent mappings between reality and the counterfactual scenario that
is constructed. The counterfactual scenario entails consequences for
how we view the father and his parenthood in reality. In the first, the
father is lenient, while the speaker is strict. In the second, the father
is strict, whereas the speaker is lenient. In the third, the speaker is
not allowed to smack the child. All this show that context directs the
mapping between a situation that is grounded in reality and a situation
that is based on a counterfactual scenario.

5.2.4.2 Patterns
Mental spaces are used to explain a range of semantic phenomena mostly
connected with reference: the issue of how speakers and hearers keep track
of the entities referred to in the language.

1. Indefinite reference
An indefinite noun phrase introduced by a merely designates an entity in
some mental space, as in the well-known case of Jane wants to marry a
millionaire. Here, we can set up a wish space and a reality space. In the wish
space, Jane marries a millionaire. In the reality space, the sentence has two
distinct interpretations. The first is called the specific interpretation. Here, a
specific millionaire exists and Jane wants to marry him. The second is called
the non-specific interpretation. Here, a specific millionaire does not exist.
Jane merely has the desire to marry him. These interpretations may be distin-
guished by the manner in which the millionaire is referred to in subsequent
discourse. On the specific interpretation, the millionaire can be referred to
by personal pronouns such as he or him. Jane wants to marry a millionaire.
She met him at the Casino. On the non-specific interpretation, the millionaire
can be referred to by indefinite pronouns such as one. Jane wants to marry a
millionaire. She hopes to meet one at the Casino.

2. Definite reference
A definite noun phrase introduced by the merely designates an entity in some
mental space. The sentence The minister changes every four years relates to
98 Semantics

potential ambiguity. The sentence contains a noun phrase with definite inter-
pretation, but with an open reference. This means the noun phrase may or
may not refer to a unique referent. The sentence has two interpretations. The
first is that every four years the person who is minister changes in some way,
either physiologically or psychologically. The second is that every four years
the person who serves as minister changes. The two interpretations come
about because of the possibility of setting up two mental spaces. One relates
to value, while the other relates to role. The value reading relates to the indi-
vidual who is the minister. This mental space fits the first interpretation of the
sentence. The role reading relates to the position of the minister, regardless of
who fills it. This mental space fits the second interpretation of the sentence.
This and other examples illustrate the fact that meaning construction is a
dynamic process; it is inseparable from context. Meaning is not solely found
in the words which an utterance contains, but relies on the conceptual pro-
cesses that make connections between spaces.

Exercise 5.6
Using the theory of mental spaces, explain the referential opacity in
each of the following italicized items.
1. In the film, Catherine is a psycho.
2. Nancy wants to marry a film star.
3. If I were you, I would accept the offer.
4. In 1985, my wife was a sportswoman.
5. Your father’s car is always different.

5.2.5 Blending
Blending, also known as Conceptual Integration, is a form of conceptual
structure in which two mental spaces are blended to create a new space. The
two spaces, known as input spaces, represent relevant aspects of the con-
cepts being combined. They correspond to the source and target domains
of conceptual metaphor. The created space, known as the blended space
or blend, is the result of the interaction of the input spaces. The blend has
emergent meaning of its own that is not contained in either of the inputs. In
other words, the blend takes information from both inputs, but goes further
in providing additional information that cannot be attributed to either of its
inputs. There is also a generic space, which facilitates the identification of
 Conceptual structures 99

counterparts in the input spaces, and so serves as a basis for shared infor-
mation. The conceptual blending theory derives from two traditions within
Cognitive Semantics: Conceptual Metaphor Theory and Mental Spaces
Theory.
An often-cited example of blending is the expression That surgeon is
a butcher. In this expression, there are two input spaces, the surgeon and
the butcher. In the generic space, the speaker identifies the surgeon with the
butcher. The blend space links features from the input spaces to create a new
blend. The emergent feature of the blend is that the surgeon in question is
incompetent, although this feature is not revealed in any of the input spaces
because it is not characteristic of surgeons or butchers. This emergent feature
of incompetence represents the additional meaning provided by the blend.
The incompetence is inferred by comparing the surgeon operating on a human
body with a butcher tackling a carcass. By conceptualizing a surgeon as a
butcher, we are evaluating the surgeon as incompetent. This example is meta-
phorical in nature, yet it cannot be accounted for by the Conceptual Metaphor
Theory. This is so because the negative evaluation cannot be derived from the
source domain ‘butcher’ as butchery is a highly skilled profession.

5.2.5.1 Properties
1. Blending provides speakers with a way of describing new experienc-
es. It focuses on how information from two spaces is combined to pro-
duce a novel blend. The creation of a blend is an imaginative action
that involves the interaction of source and target domains, containing
features that belong to neither of the input domains. The expression
the grim reaper is an imaginary figure representing death. The expres-
sion has death as a target domain, and involves two source domains:
that of the reaper and that of a killer. Death is personified as a reaper.
The word reaper refers to a person who cuts and collects crops on a
farm, and so has positive connotation. However, in the expression it
means a killer, and so takes on negative connotation. The meaning of
the blend does not reside in the input domain of harvesting because
grim features do not fit there.
2. Blending offers an insight into some complex areas of language
use like compounding. As a productive means of word formation in
English, compounding is the process of putting together two free
morphemes, be they nouns, adjectives or verbs, to make a compound
word, a brand-new word. A compound is a blend formed by inte-
grating two substructures, free morphemes. A standard example of a
100 Semantics

blend is the expression landyacht. This novel noun-noun compound

consists of two input spaces. One relates to land. The other relates to
yacht. In the blend, these linguistic forms are projected into the blend.
However, only selected aspects of their meanings are integrated into
the blend. As a result, the integration gives rise to the new form landy-
acht with a distinct meaning: a large expensive luxury car.
3. Blending is a cognitive operation that proves crucial in describing the
semantics of counterfactual statements. An often-cited example is In
France, Bill Clinton wouldn’t have been harmed by his relationship
with Monica Lewinsky. The expression includes two input spaces.
One input space is about American politics and contains Clinton,
Lewinsky and their relationship. In this frame, marital infidelity
causes political harm. The other input space is about French politics,
which contains French president, his mistress and their relationship.
In this frame, marital infidelity does not result in political harm. The
generic space establishes cross-space counterparts between the two
frames. In the blended space, the emergent meaning which does not
exist in either of the inputs is that Clinton is not politically harmed by
his marital infidelity.

5.2.5.2 Patterns
Cognitive semanticists have used blending in a variety of linguistic pro-
cesses, covering a wide range of cognitive phenomena from the formation of
morphological structures to the creation of grammatical constructions.

1. Morphological blends
Blending is well-known as a word formation process. Morphological blends
are words formed by combining parts of other words. They can be under-
stood as a special kind of compound, including in particular nominal com-
pounds based on adjective plus noun and noun plus noun combinations. For
example, the word wheelchair is morphologically composed of the two input
spaces wheel and chair. Semantically, certain core information from the
input spaces is projected into the blended space wheelchair. The additional
meaning, which goes beyond the meanings inherent in the two input spaces,
is that of hospital or invalid or both. This and other blends have been so
deeply established or entrenched that the language user no longer recognizes
the blending background.
 Conceptual structures 101

Exercise 5.7
Discuss the conceptual blends in each of the following morphological
expressions.
1. motel
2. brunch
3. moped
4. breathalyser
5. infotainment

2. Grammatical blends
In the area of grammar, grammatical blends are represented by proverbs. The
blends are the result of undergoing a process of conceptual projection and
composition of material from input spaces into a blended space. For exam-
ple, the proverb Children are poor men’s riches contains two input spaces.
One input space contains the elements rich men and riches. The other input
space contains the elements poor men and children. The generic space con-
tains the schematic information men and possessions, and sets up cross-space
connections between counterparts in the input spaces. In the blend, certain
elements from the input spaces are integrated into the blended space and
results in an emergent structure. In neither of the input spaces does there exist
a connection between children of poor men and riches of rich men.

Exercise 5.8
Discuss the conceptual blends in each of the following grammatical
constructions which are proverbs.
1. Brevity is the soul of wit.
2. Money is the root of all evil.
3. Vanity is the quicksand of beauty.
4. Speech is the mirror of the mind.
5. Necessity is the mother of invention.

5.3 Summary
In this chapter, I have demonstrated the distinctive feature of Cognitive
Semantics, its attempt to ground meaning in conceptual structures. The
102 Semantics

crucial insight of Cognitive Semantics is that the meaning of an expression

derives from structure that is apparently unavailable in its linguistic real-
ization. Conceptual structures are knowledge representations which are
rooted in physical and social experiences. That is, meaning is experientially
based. In Cognitive Semantics, language functions as a recipe for construct-
ing meaning and linguistic structure triggers a series of cognitive processes.
These processes mediate between the world of concepts and their linguistic
realizations in language. Human thought and its expression in language are
intimately interrelated. Five important forms of conceptual structure, which
serve to construct meaning, have been identified. These are so important
because they allow language users to conceptualize experiences, create new
linguistic expressions, and account for their interpretations.

Table 5.1 Forms of conceptual structure

Conceptual structure Definition
Metaphor A conceptual structure in which one domain, the source,
is employed to describe another domain, the target, with
which it shares some characteristics. It involves a relation
of resemblance or analogy and represents the relation ‘X is
understood in terms of Y’. It involves a mapping between
two domains.
Metonymy A conceptual structure in which one element, the source, is
employed to identify another element, the target, with which
it is associated within the same domain. It involves a relation
of association and represents the relation ‘X stands for Y’. It
involves a mapping within a single domain.
Image Schema A conceptual structure which arises directly from our physical
and perceptual interaction with and observation of the world.
Accordingly, it derives from embodied experience. It contrib-
utes to the interpretation of a complex situation. An example
is the up-down schema, as in Prices are up five per cent.
Mental Space A mental pattern which contain one or more of the following
sorts of information: an element, a property and a relation.
In ongoing discourse, distinct mental spaces are established.
An element in one mental space is linked to its counterpart
element in another on the basis of co-reference or identity.
Blending A conceptual structure in which selected elements from input
spaces are integrated to create a novel space, the blend. The
blend may have a feature that is not found in either of the
input spaces. An example is the blend transistor which is a
combination of the inputs transfer and resistor.
 6

Cognitive Mechanisms
Chapter 6 discusses the cognitive mechanisms which account for the rela-
tionship between the component parts of a linguistic expression, whether
at the word or phrase level. The aim is to introduce the tools of the cog-
nitive framework and explore how they account for intricacies of linguis-
tic expressions. The chapter consists of two sections. Section 6.1 relates to
integration: the way the subparts are combined to form a composite struc-
ture. In four subsections, four pivotal factors are presented: correspondence,
determinacy, elaboration and constituency. These concern the ways in which
lexical items are combined with each other to make meaningful expressions.
Section 6.2 relates to interpretation: the way the meaning of the resulting
composite structure is explained. This concerns the fact that the meaning of a
composite structure is derived not only from the meanings of its subparts but
also from the pragmatic knowledge behind its use. In two subsections, two
essential principles are presented. These are compositionality and analysabil-
ity. In both sections, I pursue three steps. First, I present the factor. Second, I
spell out its nature. Third, I test its application.

6.1 Integration
Integration is the combination of the component subparts of a composite
symbolic structure into a linear sequence. A composite symbolic structure
is a construction, which could be a complex word, a phrase or a sentence.
Integration resides in the notion of valence, the mechanism whereby two
grammatical expressions combine to form a composite expression. More
generally, the notion can be used to encompass all instances of what is tra-
ditionally described as the head-dependent relation. For example, the com-
posite structure behind the counter is comprised of the component subparts
behind, the and counter, which are related by valence or the head-dependent
relation. The integration of the component subparts in a construction depends
on the sharing of some features between them. The presence versus absence
of these features often has striking consequences for the semantic value of
the construction. The component subparts are not the building blocks out
of which a composite structure is assembled, but they function instead to
104 Semantics

motivate selected facets of its meaning. The integration of the participating

subparts in a composite structure is affected by the following four factors.

6.1.1 Correspondence
This factor relates to how the component subparts of a composite structure
fit together and form a coherent assembly. Two subparts can be integrated to
form a composite structure only if they have certain elements in common at
both semantic and phonological levels. A composite structure is formed by
unifying corresponding subparts which overlap conceptually. Typically, one
subpart corresponds to, and serves to elaborate a semantic entity within the
other. The composite structure observer, for example, is composed of the
two component subparts observe and -er. The integration of the two subparts
is affected by correspondences established between them. Phonologically,
the subpart -er, when used agentively, makes schematic reference to a pro-
cess, which is elaborated by observe. Semantically, the subpart -er denotes
an agent which becomes meaningful only when added to the process desig-
nated by the subpart observe. By unifying the two corresponding processes,
one obtains the composite structure observer. As a noun, observer refers to a
person who watches an event.
Consider the prepositional phrase behind the counter. The preposition
behind is a relational predication, whereas the noun phrase the counter is
a nominal predication. The preposition becomes meaningful only when it
relates two entities which are represented as part of its meaning. The cor-
respondence is understood in terms of trajector-landmark organization,
which relates to the relative prominence of participants in a linguistically
encoded scene and reflects the more general perceptual phenomenon of fig-
ure-ground organization. The trajector is the focal, or most prominent, par-
ticipant in a relationship. The landmark is the secondary participant in a
relationship. The grammatical functions subject and object are reflections
of trajector-landmark organization. There is a correspondence between the
landmark of behind and the profile of the counter. The landmark of behind is
a schematic representation of some thing in space. Unless this facet of behind
is overtly expressed, the phrase cannot be conceptualized. The correspon-
dence arises from the ways in which the trajector-landmark organization of
the component subparts interacts.
 Cognitive mechanisms 105

Exercise 6.1
Account for the phonological and semantic correspondences between
each of the following expressions.
1. red carpet
2. vandalism
3. under the bed
4. our friend, James Joyce
5. her husband, the lawyer

6.1.2 Determinacy
This factor relates to which of the component subparts determines the profile
of the composite structure as a whole. A composite structure consists of two
or more subparts. Of the two or more subparts, one lends its profile to the
entire composite structure. This subpart is called the profile determinant,
traditionally known as the head. It is that part in a construction which is cen-
tral because it determines its categorial status, establishes its core meaning,
and selects its dependents. In the composite structure observer, for instance,
the free morpheme observe signifies an action, whereas the bound morpheme
-er signifies a thing. The composite structure as a whole signifies a thing in
the sense that it describes an entity, referring to a person who observes some-
thing. This is so because the bound morpheme -er is the key subpart in that it
lends its profile to the entire composite structure. The free morpheme observe
is describable as one whose profile is overridden by that of the profile deter-
minant -er. Both the free and bound morphemes are crucial to the meaning of
observer, but the bound morpheme which acts as profile determinant is much
more prominent.
Consider the prepositional phrase behind the counter. This construction
contains the preposition behind, which profiles a relation, and the noun
phrase the counter, which profiles a thing. However, the prepositional phrase
as a whole profiles a relation rather than a thing in the sense that it describes
a property of some entity in terms of its location in space. The composite
structure acquires this meaning because the preposition behind is the pro-
file determinant of the construction. Phrased differently, the complex con-
cept has inherited the relational profile of behind. In the woman behind the
counter, by contrast, the prepositional phrase behind the counter modifies
the noun woman, which is the profile determinant of the whole construction.
106 Semantics

Therefore, the construction as a whole is a noun phrase, a construction that

profiles a thing.
In traditional terms, dependents divide into two main categories: comple-
ments and modifiers. A complement is the subpart that elaborates a sche-
matic entity in the semantic structure of the dependent head. It adds intrinsic
conceptual substance to the head. In the derived expression observer, for
instance, the subpart -er is the profile determinant, whereas the subpart
observe is its complement. In the prepositional phrase behind the counter
the preposition behind is the profile determinant, while the noun phrase the
counter is its complement. The complement is conceptually autonomous,
whereas the profile determinant is conceptually dependent because it relies
upon the complement to complete its meaning. A modifier, by contrast, is the
subpart that has a schematic entity in its semantic structure which is elabo-
rated by the head. It adds non-intrinsic or additional information to the head.
In the compound expression football, the noun ball elaborates a thing and
functions as a profile determinant, whereas foot qualifies a thing and func-
tions as a dependent modifier, hence it is extrinsic to the meaning of ball.
The composite structure profiles a thing, a kind of ball designed to be kicked
with the foot. In the woman behind the counter, the phrase behind the counter
modifies the noun woman.

Exercise 6.2
Identify the subpart which serves as the profile determinant in each of
the following composite expressions.
1. jar lid
2. boredom
3. inessential
4. in the drawer
5. send the letter

6.1.3 Elaboration
This factor relates to how one component subpart contains a schematic hole
which the other component subpart serves to elaborate. This amounts to say-
ing that the profile of a particular subpart fills in the hole in the structure
or completes the meaning of another combining subpart via the elaboration
 Cognitive mechanisms 107

process. The component subpart that provides the elaboration is conceptu-

ally autonomous (A), whereas the subpart that is elaborated is conceptu-
ally dependent (D). The dependent subpart requires elaboration in order to
become fully meaningful. A exists on its own without need of D to complete
its meaning, whereas D is dependent on A to complete its meaning to the
extent that A constitutes a salient subpart within D, or fills the hole that D has.
The hole in the D subpart is called an elaboration site, or briefly e-site. The
A subpart elaborates the e-site, which is a salient subpart within the semantic
structure of the D subpart.
As a noun, observer, for example, shows an A/D pattern. The free mor-
pheme observe represents the A subpart. Phonologically, it can exist as a fully
autonomous form. Semantically, it can exist as a fully acceptable expression.
It is possible to conceptualize it without making any necessary reference to
anything outside the concept itself. By contrast, the bound morpheme -er
represents the D subpart. Phonologically, it cannot exist as an autonomous
form. Semantically, it cannot exist as a fully acceptable expression. It has to
attach itself to a host of an appropriate kind, which elaborates a salient sub-
part within its semantic structure and adds specifications to it. In behind the
counter, the subpart the counter is conceptually autonomous, while the sub-
part behind is dependent because it requires elaboration in order to become
fully meaningful. Nominal concepts, those designated by nouns, are rela-
tively autonomous, whereas relational concepts, those designated by prepo-
sitions, adjectives, adverbs and verbs, are conceptually dependent.

Exercise 6.3
Separate the autonomous (A) and dependent (D) subparts in the fol-
lowing composite expressions.
1. leakage
2. leisurely
3. disqualify
4. besprinkle
5. budgetary
108 Semantics

6.1.4 Constituency
This factor relates to the construction of progressively more complex com-
posite structures. A composite structure consists of two or more subparts. The
order in which the subparts are successively integrated to yield a composite
structure is referred to as Constituency. In the integration process, the sub-
parts can be arranged at different levels of constituency, such that subparts at
one level integrate to form a composite structure that functions as a unitary
entity at the next higher level, and so on. Constituency tends to be variable.
An expression which has the same composite structure and the same gram-
matical relations can have alternate orders of composition. In gentlemanly,
for example, at the first or lower level of constituency, the subpart gentle is
integrated with the subpart man to form the composite structure gentleman.
At the second or higher level, gentleman combines with -ly deriving the over-
all expression. The expression the woman behind the counter is built in two
stages. At the first stage, the subpart behind combines with the subpart the
counter. At the second stage, the subpart behind the counter combines with
the subpart the woman.
Some composite structures allow only one manner of integration. As an
illustration of this, let us examine the formation of the word impersonal.
At the first level, the nominal root person and the adjectival suffix -al are
integrated to produce the adjective personal. At the second level, personal is
integrated with the negative prefix im- to produce the adjective impersonal.
If we combine person and im- first, we get imperson which is incorrect as
there is no such word in English. The analysis can be diagrammed as follows:

Other composite structures, by contrast, allow alternate manners of inte-

gration. As an illustration of this, let us examine the formation of the word
unlockable. The first layer of structure is as follows. At the first level, the root
lock and the adjectival suffix -able are integrated to produce lockable. At the
second level, lockable is integrated with the negative prefix un- to produce
the adjective unlockable. The second layer of structure is as follows. At the
first level, the negative prefix un- is integrated with the root lock to produce
the verb unlock. At the second level, unlock is integrated with the adjectival
 Cognitive mechanisms 109

suffix -able to produce the adjective unlockable. The analysis can be dia-
grammed as follows:

Exercise 6.4
Diagram the following expressions to show their layers of structure.
Note that two of them allow alternate orders of composition.
1. unlawful
2. disgraceful
3. enlargement
4. coauthorship
5. insupportable

6.2 Interpretation
Interpretation is the explanation of the meaning of the resulting composite
structure. It resides in the two principles of compositionality and analysabil-
ity. The principle of compositionality refers to the degree to which the mean-
ing of a composite expression is thought of as being assembled from the
meanings of its component parts. For example, the semantics of the expres-
sion behind the counter involves the meanings of its subparts: behind, the
and counter. However, in some cases the semantics of a complex expression
resides in the background information provided by its contextual use, the
speaker’s conceptualization or the world knowledge. For example, to be in
seventh heaven does not mean that somebody is really in heaven, but rather
somebody who is extremely happy. The principle of analysability refers to
the extent to which the component parts of a composite expression match
up phonologically and semantically. The analysis of the composite struc-
ture behind the counter, for example, is carried out on the basis of both the
phonological and semantic contributions made by its subparts. Below is a
description of each principle responsible for the interpretation of a composite
structure.
110 Semantics

6.2.1 Compositionality
The principle of compositionality, which is adopted by formal semanticists,
refers to the process of deriving the meaning of a composite structure from
the meanings of its subparts. The meaning of a complex word arises from the
meanings of the morphemes out of which it is composed, together with the
way in which the morphemes are arranged by morphology. According to this
view, then, the meaning of a complex word is reconstructed from the mean-
ings of its individual elements and their morphological relationship to one
another. The meaning of the word eventful is determined by the meanings
of event and -ful: full of events. The meaning of a sentence is built up from
the meanings of the words it contains, together with the way in which the
words are syntactically arranged. According to this view, then, the meaning
of a sentence is the output of the context-independent meanings of individual
words and of the properties of the grammar. The meaning of the sentence We
had an eventful journey is based on the meanings of its individual words: We
had a journey full of interesting or important events.
Cognitive semanticists have a different say on the question. The idea
that word meaning is built straightforwardly out of morpheme meanings
is totally unfounded. The idea that sentence meaning is built simply out of
word meanings is largely vacuous. While the principle of compositionality
might work well enough for compositional expressions, it fails to account
for non-compositional expressions: those expressions whose meaning cannot
be predicted from the meanings of the subparts. That is, not all expressions
of a language conform to this principle. Those that do not are described as
non-compositional or semantically opaque. Non-compositional expressions
are not the exception as argued by formal semanticists, but rather the norm.
Figurative language is in fact central to our way of thinking as well as to the
way language works. The meaning associated with a word or sentence is
subject to change depending on the context of use.
Linguistic expressions exhibit two types of compositionality. One is full,
where the meaning of a composite structure is a function of the meanings of
its subparts. The other is partial, where the meaning of a composite structure
is symbolized by not only the meanings of its subparts but also the contextual
knowledge surrounding its use. These show that the semantic value of an
expression, as we will see, cannot just be limited to conventional means but
enriched by encyclopaedic knowledge.
 Cognitive mechanisms 111

6.2.1.1 Full compositionality

Under full compositionality, the meaning of a composite structure is fully
determined by the meanings of its subparts and the manner in which they
are combined or the grammatical pattern in which they coexist. Full compo-
sitionality works for a large number of linguistic expressions in language. In
derivation, for example, the meaning of mendable in a mendable fault is a
combination of the root and the suffix: a fault that can be mended. In com-
pounding, full compositionality represents a case of endocentricity, where
the meaning of a compound is a specialization of the meaning of its head.
Endocentric compounds are those whose meaning can be figured out by ana-
lysing their parts. In such compounds, the second substructure functions as
the head, whereas the first substructure functions as its modifier, attributing a
property to the head. In hair pin, for example, pin is the head, whereas hair is
the modifier. The meaning of the compound is a combination of the meanings
of the modifier and the head: a pin used to keep the hair back off the face. It
is a compound that denotes a hyponym of the head. A hair pin is a type of
pin. The meaning of the phrase the woman behind the counter is obtained by
adding together the meanings of the individual items: the, woman, behind,
the and counter.

Exercise 6.5
The following compounds are fully compositional. Write what the
meaning of each compound is.
1. day care
2. heartfelt
3. manhunt
4. silver plate
5. sugar bowl

6.2.1.2 Partial compositionality

Under partial compositionality, the meaning of a composite structure is deter-
mined by both the semantic contribution of its subparts and the pragmatic
knowledge behind what is actually symbolized. For example, the meaning
of the word questionable in questionable theory is not only a function of
the meanings of the root and the suffix, a theory that can be questioned, but
rather a theory that is dubious. Presumably, every theory can be questioned.
112 Semantics

The meaning of the phrase be riding high in They are riding high in the polls,
cannot be worked out on the basis of the meanings of the individual words
which it contains, but rather on the basis of pragmatic considerations. The
phrase means ‘very successful’. Partial compositionality or semantic opacity,
which is a matter of degree, is a prototypical characteristic of compounds,
idioms, proverbs and clichés.

Compounds
A compound is a structure formed by integrating two substructures, namely
two free morphemes. As a productive means of word formation in English,
compounding is the process of putting together two free morphemes, be they
nouns, adjectives or verbs, to make a compound word, a brand-new word. In
compounding, partial compositionality represents a case of exocentricity,
where the meaning of a compound is not a specialization of the meaning
of its head as it lacks a head. Since the head is not explicitly expressed,
the meaning of the compound is accounted for by means of encyclopaedic
knowledge. For example, the compound birdbrain does not denote a hypo-
nym of the head. Its meaning is not only a function of the meanings of the
modifier and head: a brain that belongs to a bird, but rather a type of person:
a person who is stupid. The compound redbreast does not mean a breast that
is red but rather a robin. As it is obvious, the meaning of the compound is
different from the meanings of the individual words which it contains.

Exercise 6.6
The meanings of the following compounds are non-compositional.
Account for the meaning of each.
1. skinflint
2. hardback
3. walkman
4. greenhorn
5. hammerhead

Full compositionality fails when the meanings of composite structures

cannot be worked out on the basis of the meanings of their parts. Their inter-
pretation goes beyond the information that is linguistically encoded. This is
so because of two reasons. First, lexical items do not have fixed meanings.
Their meanings tend to vary according to different contexts. Second, lexical
items need, when they integrate, to adjust to each other in certain details. This
 Cognitive mechanisms 113

requires shifting in their values relative to the intended conceptualization.

This process is referred to as accommodation, the phenomenon in which a
component substructure adjusts itself when integrated with another to form
a composite structure. For example, the meaning of the word child can have
positive and negative qualities. The nature of the quality is highlighted by the
type of derivational morpheme used. In childish, the root child accommodates
itself to the meaning of the suffix -ish to denote immaturity. Prototypically
the word house means a place for people to live in. In a warehouse, however,
the meaning of house accommodates itself to the meaning of ware to refer to
a place where things are stored.

Exercise 6.7
In the following expressions, the head box accommodates itself to the
meaning of the modifier. Write the resulting meaning.
1. jury box
2. deed box
3. press box
4. phone box
5. music box

Idioms
An idiom is a group of words that functions as a single expression and has
a particular meaning that is different from the meanings of the individual
words. Idioms are linguistic expressions which are not predictable simply by
knowing the rules of a grammar and the vocabulary of a language. Idioms
have two principal characteristics. From a semantic viewpoint, the mean-
ing of the idiom as a whole cannot be constructed from the meanings of its
individual words. From a syntactic viewpoint, the idiom does not allow the
substitution or modification of any of its words. For this reason, idiomatic
expressions are described as non-compositional and have to be learned as a
whole. Idioms have two readings: compositional (literal) and non-composi-
tional (idiomatic). An example of an idiom is to beat around the bush. First,
it is not possible to derive the meaning of this expression on the basis of the
standard readings of beat and bush. The non-compositional reading of the
expression is that to talk about something for a long time without coming
to the main point. Second, it is not possible to modify the verb beat by an
adverb nor is it possible to make the word bush plural.
114 Semantics

Exercise 6.8
The meanings of the following idioms are non-compositional. Specify
what the meaning of each is.
1. a brain box
2. a high-flier
3. a misery guts
4. a tissue of lies
5. a money-spinner

Proverbs
A proverb is a popular short saying, meant as advice or warning. Two quali-
ties characterize proverbs. One is popularity. A proverb is popular for it con-
tains enduring wisdom. The other is pithiness. A proverb is short in form but
full of meaning. Proverbs cover a wide range of human experience, gained
through doing, seeing or feelings things. Proverbs have two interpretations:
Compositional (literal) and non-literal (metaphorical). The compositional
interpretation is the basic or usual meaning of a proverb. The non-composi-
tional interpretation is the symbolic meaning of a proverb when it is applied
to a new real-life situation. That is, their literal meanings are extended to
other situations or given new applications. Let us examine a proverbial say-
ing like The bull must be taken by the horns. The literal meaning of the prov-
erb is that in moments of danger during a bullfight, a strong expert will grasp
the bull by the horns and so prevent it from tossing him. The metaphorical
meaning of the proverb is that when faced by difficulties or perils one should
meet them fearlessly or boldly, not try to evade them.

Exercise 6.9
The meanings of the following proverbs are non-compositional.
Assign a metaphorical meaning to each.
1. A stitch in time saves nine.
2. All that glitters is not gold.
3. As you sow, so shall you reap.
4. Make hay while the sun shines.
5. Birds of a feather flock together.
 Cognitive mechanisms 115

Clichés
A cliché is a commonly occurring utterance that is used schematically. A
dictionary definition of a cliché is that it is a comment that is very often used
and no longer has any real meaning. By contrast, a linguistic definition of a
cliché is that it is an expression, usually used by people, that has the purpose
of giving advice or expressing feelings. It is an expression which is appar-
ently compositional, but in reality it is not. It has a particular meaning that
is different from the meanings of the individual words which it contains. Let
us take as an example the expression play with fire. In so far as its proposi-
tional meaning is concerned, this expression would have to be described as
fully compositional. As a whole phrase, however, it would not. It does have
meaning of a more subtle kind. That is, the meaning of the expression is not
calculated on the basis of its literal content. The meaning conveyed is to act
in a way that is very dangerous or risky. Because clichés are too often used,
they are stored as complete units in the minds of speech participants. They
are easy to retrieve for the speaker and easy to decode for the hearer. Like an
idiom, a cliché is stored in the mental lexicon in a ready-made form.

Exercise 6.10
The meanings of the following clichés are non-compositional. Specify
what the meaning of each is.
1. She was in a fix.
2. That was easy as pie.
3. She is as fit as a fiddle.
4. It made my blood boil.
5. The story is hard to swallow.

6.2.2 Analysability
The principle of analysability refers to the process of matching up the sub-
parts of a composite structure phonologically and semantically. Precisely, it
refers to the ability of the speaker to recognize the phonological and semantic
contributions made by the component subparts to the composite structure s/
he is choosing. Analysability is a matter of awareness, i.e., of the presence
and contribution of the subparts of a composite structure. Analysability is
an essential feature of language and of linguistic meaning. It helps speakers
to see if each substructure, which has an identifiable semantic and phonetic
116 Semantics

content, can contribute to the meaning of the composite structure. Linguistic

expressions exhibit two types of analysability. One is full, where there is an
accord between the subparts at the phonological and semantic levels. The
other is partial, where there is a clash between the subparts at the phonolog-
ical and semantic levels.

6.2.2.1 Full analysability

Full analysability is the case when the phonological subparts of a composite
structure match up, one to one, with their semantic subparts. In such expres-
sions, the speaker is aware of how the subparts contribute to the semantic
make-up of the composite structure, and so enrich its interpretation. A word
like farmer, for example, is considered fully analysable at both phonological
and semantic levels. At the phonological level, it is analysable. The speaker
is aware of its two subparts farm and -er. At the semantic level, it is anal-
ysable. The speaker is aware of the semantic contributions of its subparts.
A farmer is a person who operates a farm. Likewise, a compound structure
like homework is considered fully analysable. At the phonological level, the
speaker can divide it into its component subparts home and work. At the
semantic level, the speaker can identify the contribution made by each sub-
structure. That is, the semantics of the compound derives from its subparts.
Homework is work that is given by teachers for students to do at home. The
same analysis applies to the phrase the woman behind the counter, which is
analysable at both phonological and semantic levels.

Exercise 6.11
The following compounds are fully analysable. Write what the mean-
ing of each compound is.
1. hay fever
2. coffee pot
3. fruit market
4. wheat bread
5. college staff

6.2.2.2 Partial analysability

Partial analysability is the case when the phonological subparts of a com-
posite structure fail to correspond with their semantic contributions. In such
 Cognitive mechanisms 117

expressions, the composite structure is only phonologically, not semantically,

analysable. A word like reminder, for example, is considered partially anal-
ysable. Phonologically, it is analysable, but semantically it is not. It does
not mean a person who reminds others, but something that makes one think
about or remember somebody or something. Likewise, a compound structure
like highbrow is considered partially analysable. At the phonological level,
it is quite analysable. The speaker is aware of the fact that it consists of the
two phonological subparts high and brow. At the semantic level, however, it
is not analysable. The speaker is not aware of the contributions made by the
subparts. It is not easy to recognize the meanings of the parts in the resulting
structure. The speaker has to go beyond the information that is linguistically
encoded by its subparts. The meaning becomes clear when the speaker takes
into account clues from context and encyclopaedic knowledge. Highbrow
refers to an intellectual who is interested in cultural ideas. Likewise, the
idiom keep in touch is phonologically analysable but semantically it is not.
The meaning is ‘remain informed through writing or telephoning’.
Partial analysability is a prototypical characteristic of compounds, idioms,
proverbs and clichés.

Compounds
Phonologically, a compound is analysable into its subparts. Semantically, it
is not analysable. The meaning cannot be predicted from its linguistic form.
Rather, it requires pragmatic knowledge, which involves general inferences
together with non-linguistic contextual factors. For example, the compound
blockhead is semantically not analysable. It means a very stupid person.

Exercise 6.12
The following compounds are partially analysable. Solicit encyclopae-
dic knowledge to write what each means.
1. low life
2. spoilsport
3. paperback
4. featherbrain
5. copperhead
118 Semantics

Idioms
At the phonological level, the subparts of an idiom can be demarcated. At the
semantic level, however, the subparts cannot provide the particular meaning
of the idiom. The meaning conveyed is different from the meaning of each
subpart understood on its own. For example, the idiom a big shot does not
mean a shot that is big, but rather an important or powerful person in a group
or organization.

Exercise 6.13
The following idioms are partially analysable. Disclose the meaning
which each idiom expresses.
1. be all ears
2. call it a day
3. run the show
4. lead the field
5. be lost for words

Proverbs
A proverb lends itself to phonological analysis by allowing the division of
its subparts. A proverb, however, falls short of a semantic analysis. This is
because the meaning drawn from the proverb goes beyond the meanings of
the subparts taken in isolation. For example, the proverb There is no rose
without a thorn is semantically not analysable. The meaning is that however
happy we are there is always some little touch of sadness or disappointment.

Exercise 6.14
The following proverbs are partially analysable. Disclose the resulting
meaning which each proverb expresses.
1. It never rains but it pours.
2. Clothes do not make the man.
3. A rolling stone gathers no moss.
4. Do not make a mountain out of a molehill.
5. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
 Cognitive mechanisms 119

Clichés
At the phonological level, the subparts of a cliché can be separated. At the
semantic level, however, the subparts cannot provide its specific meaning.
The overall meaning of the cliché is different from its literal meaning con-
veyed by the subparts in isolation. The meaning becomes clear if one knows
the context. For example, the cliché I shall be there in a twinkling has a hid-
den meaning. The cliché is used to mean in a very short time.

Exercise 6.15
The following clichés are partially analysable. Disclose the meaning
which each cliché expresses.
1. I was at a pinch.
2. It was a waste of time.
3. It made her skin crawl.
4. The ball is in your court.
5. We didn’t see eye to eye.

6.3 Summary
In this chapter, I considered the cognitive mechanisms which govern the
composition and interpretation of composite words. The aim was to intro-
duce the tools of the cognitive framework and show how they account for
intricacies of linguistic expressions. Two sorts of mechanism were pre-
sented. One mechanism is integration, the combination of subparts into a
linear sequence. Four factors were shown to affect linguistic integration.
They are correspondence, dependence, determinacy and constituency. The
other mechanism is interpretation, the assignment of meaning to a linguis-
tic expression. Two principles were shown to affect linguistic interpretation.
They are compositionality and analysability.
Table 6.1 presents a summary of the cognitive mechanisms and their
application to linguistic expressions.
120 Semantics

Table 6.1 Cognitive mechanisms

Integration Interpretation
1. Correspondence, which refers to the 1. Compositionality, whereby the
compatibility between two subparts in meaning of a composite structure is
forming a composite structure. either derived from the meanings of its
2. Determinacy, which refers to the ten- subparts and/or includes knowledge
dency of one subpart to lend its char- outside its limits.
acter to the entire composite structure. 2. Analysability, whereby the subparts
3. Elaboration, which refers to the of a composite structure either match
semantic hole which one subpart has up phonologically and semantically or
and which the other subpart fills. not. In the latter case, the speaker has
4. Constituency, which refers to the order to go beyond the linguistic informa-
in which the subparts are succes- tion that is encoded by its subparts.
sively integrated to yield a composite
structure.
Part III

Operations
One significant task which Cognitive Semantics attempts to carry out is the
explanation of linguistic structures with reference to human mental abilities,
i.e., the cognitive operations which language users perform in the course of
producing and interpreting linguistic expressions. Three crucial aspects of
mental function are underlined in Cognitive Semantics. These are categori-
zation, configuration and conceptualization.
Categorization is the mental ability to group the multiple senses of a
linguistic item in a category. In view of the Category theory, a lexical item
forms a complex category of interrelated senses. The category contains
peripheral zones situated around a conceptual centre. The conceptual centre
of a category, termed the prototype, is the most representative or most salient
example of the category. The periphery of a category includes the remain-
ing examples which are derived from the centre via semantic extensions.
The senses gain membership in the category based on similarity rather than
identity. The peripheral zones need not conform rigidly to the conceptual
centre. For instance, a kitchen chair is regarded as the prototype of the chair
category because it possesses almost all of its features: a piece of furniture
for one person to sit on, which has a back, a seat and four legs. By contrast,
rocking chair, swivel chair, armchair, wheelchair and highchair are regarded
as being on the periphery because they possess only some of those features.
Configuration is the mental ability to group linguistic items into domains,
in which each item occupies a specific facet. In the light of the Domain the-
ory, the meaning of a lexical item cannot be understood independently of the
domain with which it is associated. A domain is a knowledge structure with
respect to which the meaning of a lexical item can be described. A facet is
a portion of a domain which is associated with a particular experience. For
example, the exact meanings of the words incident, happening, occurrence
and episode cannot be identified unless one activates the domain of event as
the background knowledge for their description. Event implies something
interesting, as in a sports event. Incident implies something unpleasant, as in
a road incident. Happening implies something unusual, as in strange hap-
penings in the town. Occurrence implies something repeated, as in a frequent
occurrence. Episode implies something memorable within a particular
period, as in the depressive episode in his life.
Conceptualization is the mental ability to construe a given situation in
alternative ways and to express them in language by using different lin-
guistic expressions. By virtue of the construal theory, the meaning of a lin-
guistic expression is identified in terms of the way its content is construed.
Construal is the ability of the speaker to conceptualize a situation differently
and use different linguistic expressions to represent them in discourse. Two
linguistic expressions may share the same content, but differ in terms of the
alternate ways the speaker construes their common content. The expressions
Even Chris knows the answer and Chris even knows the answer have the
same words, but they differ in meaning. They differ in how the speaker con-
strues the situation. The first means Chris knows the answer although he’s
stupid. The second means Chris knows the answer among the many things
he knows. The speaker’s capacity for making alternative conceptual choices
results in different structural realizations.

Outline

7 Categorization
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Theories of categorization
7.2.1 Check list
7.2.1.1 Theses
7.2.1.2 Consequences
7.2.2 Prototype
7.2.2.1 Theses
7.2.2.2 Consequences
7.2.2.3 Advantages
7.2.2.4 Applications
7.3 Summary
8 Configuration
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Theories of configuration
8.2.1 Lexical Field
8.2.1.1 Premises
8.2.1.2 Repercussions
 8.2.2 Cognitive Domain
8.2.2.1 Premises
8.2.2.2 Repercussions
8.2.2.3 Advantages
8.2.2.4 Applications
8.3 Summary
9 Conceptualization
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Theories of explanation
9.2.1 Reference
9.2.1.1 Axioms
9.2.1.2 Ramifications
9.2.2 Construal
9.2.2.1 Axioms
9.2.2.2 Ramifications
9.2.2.3 Advantages
9.2.2.4 Applications
9.2.2.5 Dimensions
9.2.2.5.1 Prominence
9.2.2.5.2 Perspective
9.2.2.5.3 Focusing
9.3 Summary
 7

Categorization
Chapter 7 explores the role of categorization in the semantic description of
single linguistic items. The aim is to find out what the significant elements of
a single linguistic item are. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 7.1
delineates the phenomenon of categorization and underlines its significance.
Categorization refers to the mental act of grouping together the multiple
senses of a linguistic item, be it lexical or grammatical, into a category. A
category then is a network of distinct but related senses of a given linguistic
item. Section 7.2 discusses the two theories of categorization: classical and
prototype. In the classical theory, categorization is carried out in terms of
defining features. In the prototype theory, which is advocated in Cognitive
Semantics, categorization is carried out in terms of degrees of similarity to a
prominent example. In the discussion, I pursue three steps. First, I underline
the essence of each theory. Second, I disclose its theses and implications.
Third, I provide examples to confirm its application. Section 7.3 makes a
summary of the main points of the chapter.

7.1 Introduction
An interesting aspect of the lexicon is polysemy, the tendency of a linguistic
item, lexical or grammatical, to have a range of different meanings that are
related in some way. The term polysemy comes from Greek poly (many) and
semy (meaning). A polyseme is a word or phrase that has multiple meanings.
The noun play, for instance, shows polysemy when used in different con-
texts: enjoyment as in We watched the children at play in the park, drama as
in The play was written by Shakespeare, a game as in We’ve seen some very
untidy play from both teams, free movement as in They enjoyed the play of
moonlight across the water, use or effect as in All resources were brought
into play to cope with the crisis, and so on. In the literature, there has been a
great deal of discussion of this aspect. Most theories agree on the multiplicity
of senses of a given item, but they differ with reference to two questions. The
first is: Does a linguistic item exhibit multiple senses, and if so, on what basis
are its senses organized? The second is: Do the senses derive from a primary
sense, and if so, how is the primary sense identified?
126 Semantics

7.2 Theories of categorization

To answer the questions raised above, linguists with different theoretical
backgrounds have developed two theories: classical and prototype. Both the-
ories consider categories a pivotal means of making sense of experience. Yet,
they stand in stark contrast to each other regarding how people categorize
and on what grounds they do so. The different views of the two theories fol-
low from their underlying assumptions. The classical theory has an affinity to
philosophy and logic. It relates meaning to truth conditions and describes the
meanings associated with an entity in terms of features. The prototype theory
has an affinity to psychology. It relates meaning to mental representations
or bodily experiences, and describes the meanings associated with an entity
in terms of networks. The classical theory places the regular senses in the
category, and leaves the irregular ones outside the category, whereas the pro-
totype theory places all regular and irregular senses in the category. In what
follows, I elaborate on the stances held by the two theories of categorization.

7.2.1 The classical theory

This theory was the most widely accepted account of categorization from the
time of Aristotle until the early 1970s. According to this theory, every con-
cept is associated with a definition and the category it forms has a definitional
structure. An entity that satisfies the definition is included in the category.
An entity that fails to satisfy the definition is excluded from the category.
Definitions typically take the form of a set of features which are individu-
ally necessary and collectively sufficient for membership in the category. To
illustrate, consider the category fruit. In most dictionaries, the concept fruit is
defined as the usually sweet-tasting part of a plant, tree or bush which holds
seeds and which can be eaten. For an entity to belong to this category, it must
have the following features: [sweet], [soft], [having seeds]. These features
are the necessary and sufficient conditions for inclusion in the category.
They are individually necessary in that an entity which has them qualifies as
fruit, and so becomes a member of the category. They are collectively suffi-
cient in that an entity which has all of them qualifies as fruit, and so becomes
a member of the category. On the basis of these conditions, some fruits, e.g.
apples, pears and apricots, would be in the category. They fulfil the condi-
tions. Other fruits, e.g. lemons, avocados and bananas, would be outside the
category. Lemons are excluded because they are not sweet. Avocados are
excluded because they are not soft. Bananas are excluded because they do
not have seeds.
 Categorization 127

7.2.1.1 Theses
The classical theory of categorization hinges on key theses, which can be
summarized as follows:
1. Categories are defined conjunctively. They are defined in terms of a
conjunction of necessary and sufficient features. The features are sin-
gly necessary but only jointly sufficient for an entity to gain member-
ship in a category. If an entity exhibits all of the features, it is included
in the category. If an entity does not have one or more of the features,
it is excluded from the category. Let us examine the category bird.
For an entity to belong to this category, it must have the following
features: [feathers], [wings], [legs], [ability to lay eggs], [ability to
build a nest], [ability to fly], [ability to sing], and so on. On this basis,
a sparrow, falcon and robin would be in the category for having most
of the features. A penguin, ostrich and chicken would be outside the
category for lacking some of the features such as the ability to fly.
2. Categories display equal degrees of salience. Members of a category
have equal status. Members of a category share the same set of defi-
nitional features. There are no entities which are better members of
a category than others. Entities that are more salient are not better
examples than entities that are less salient. Continuing with the cat-
egory bird, because a sparrow, falcon and robin share the same set
of definitional features, they have equal status in the category. The
features are individually necessary in that every member of the cate-
gory bird must possess them. The features are jointly sufficient in that
every member of the category bird must possess all of them.
3. Categories have sharp boundaries. The boundaries are clearly defined,
so inclusion in any category is clear-cut or unequivocal. A category,
once established, divides the universe into two sets of entities: those
that are included, and those that are not. There are no middle cases,
where some entities in some way belong to the category but in another
way do not. Proceeding with the category bird, because the bound-
aries of the category are clearly defined, a sparrow, falcon and robin
would be included in the category for having the ability to fly. By
contrast, a penguin, ostrich and chicken would be excluded from the
category because they do not have the ability to fly.
4. Categories are rigid. There are no degrees of membership in a cat-
egory. Category membership is an either-or matter. An entity either
is or is not a member of a category. There is a distinction between
128 Semantics

members and non-members. Features are either present or absent;

they cannot apply only to some degree. A feature is either involved
in the definition of a category, or it is not. A member either possesses
a feature or it does not. Remaining with the category bird, because
they possess all the features, a sparrow, falcon and robin would be
members of the category. Because they lack some of the features, a
penguin, ostrich and chicken would not be members of the category.

7.2.1.2 Consequences
The adoption of the classical model of categorization in the description of
linguistic items has the following consequences.
1. Linguistic meaning is objective. The meaning of a linguistic item is
primarily about propositions that are either true or false. This view is
inspired by the theory of objectivism, which stipulates that symbols
used in language get their meaning via correspondence with things in
the external world. The meaning of a linguistic item is objective in the
sense that it is not influenced by the subjective viewpoints of a lan-
guage user. Physical or emotional feelings play no role in shaping the
nature of categories. To take an example, the preposition off is used
to denote concrete entities with different senses such as He fell off his
bike (away from), Take the lid off the jar (remove), He lives just off the
main road (near to), and so on. However, the preposition off is used to
denote abstract entities, as in He is off the medicine now (not taking), I
am taking the day off tomorrow (not working), and so. Unfortunately,
the classical theory fails to include these abstract uses in the semantic
network of the preposition.
2. Polysemy is understood as the case in which a linguistic item has a
wide range of discrete senses that happen to share the same phono-
logical form. The different senses of a linguistic item are separated
from one another. The construction of a category for any linguistic
item includes only its regular senses. In this way, the irregular senses
are considered a list of exceptions and transferred to the lexicon. To
offer an example, an adjective is a word which describes a noun.
Prototypically, an adjective occurs before a noun (attributive) as in
the smart student, or after the verb be (predicative) as in the student
is smart. Many adjectives, however, fail to match one or more of
these criteria: asleep cannot be used before a noun as in The baby is
asleep, and sole cannot be used after the verb be as in the sole runner.
 Categorization 129

Unfortunately, the classical theory names these marginal uses excep-

tions. Thus, it overlooks the fact that they are part of the semantic
nature of adjectives in English.
3. Linguistic meaning is disembodied, i.e., separated from the body. The
category of a linguistic item is defined in terms of features, which
are not represented within the sensory and motor system. Linguistic
items are studied as a part of an autonomous linguistic structure.
This implies that semantics is an autonomous discipline. In this way,
semantic phenomena are studied apart from the physical or cultural
experiences of a language user. To give an example, the word eye
refers to the organ of seeing, as in She’s got beautiful green eyes.
However, the word eye is used in other ways which went unnoticed
by the classical theory. In We were all eyes as the Princess emerged
from the car, it means watching. In I’m up to my eyes in school reports
this week, it means busy. In She has an eye for detail, it means good at
noticing. In In my eyes she was the most beautiful child in the class, it
means in my opinion. In You have no need to be jealous. I only have
eyes for you, it means interested in.
To remedy the shortcomings of the classical theory, a new theory about
the nature and structure of concepts, named prototype, has been proposed.

7.2.2 The prototype theory

This theory of categorization has gained prevalence since the advent of
Rosch’s works during the 1970s. According to this theory, a concept is cen-
tred round an ideal or central member called prototype. It assembles the key
attributes of a given category. The remaining members that contain some,
not all, of the attributes are called the periphery. The different members of
a category are, therefore, not equal. The inclusion of an entity in a category
is determined by its degree of resemblance to the prototype. The members
conflict in some ways with the attributes of the prototype, but are included
in the category on the basis of some perceived similarity to the prototype. To
illustrate, consider the category fruit. In terms of the prototype theory, this
category does not reflect objective assemblies of features. Rather, it involves
approximations which consist of prototypical as well as peripheral mem-
bers. Prototypical members are represented by examples like apples, pears,
apricots, etc. These have all the attributes of the category, which are sweet,
soft and having seeds. Peripheral or less central members are represented
130 Semantics

by examples like lemons, avocados, bananas, etc. These have some of the
attributes of the category. Lemons are considered peripheral because they
are not sweet. Avocados are considered peripheral because they are not soft.
Bananas are considered peripheral because they do not have seeds. Although
these do not have all the attributes, they are included in the category. This
shows that members of a category do not have equal status, category bound-
aries are not always determinate, and some members of a category are better
examples than others. That is why it is difficult to find a single definition
which covers the category.

7.2.2.1 Theses
The prototypical view of categorization is based on key theses, which can be
summarized as follows:
1. Categories are defined disjunctively. They are not defined by a set of
essential attributes which members of a category are expected to man-
ifest. Some of the allegedly essential attributes of the central exemplar
of a category may appear to be optional at the periphery. Within a
prototypically organized category, membership is based on similarity
rather than identity. Let us examine the category bird. All types of
bird are included in the category. The order of the types hinges on the
degree of resemblance of a type to the prototype. The more attributes
a type shares with the prototype, the less distant it is. The fewer attri-
butes a type shares with the prototype, the more distant it is.
2. Categories display different degrees of salience. Members of a cate-
gory have different status. Attributes not shared by all the members of
a category are less important than attributes that appear in all or most
of the members. Members of a category which carry more weight
are considered better exemplars than members which are less salient.
Continuing with the category bird, both a sparrow and an ostrich
are types of bird. However, there is a difference in status. A sparrow
would be a more typical example of bird, whereas an ostrich would
not because of its inability to fly. In spite of this atypical attribute, an
ostrich would be included as a member in the category.
3. Categories have vague boundaries. Categories contain peripheral
zones round clear centres. Categories may have marginal instanti-
ations that do not conform rigidly to the central cases. A category
is structured in terms of similarity and distance. The more similar
a sense to the centre is, the closer in distance it is. The less similar
 Categorization 131

a sense to the centre is, the farther in distance it is. Proceeding with
the category bird, because the boundaries of the category are vague,
all types of bird are included in the category. Because the category is
not defined by a single set of attributes, the kind of birdiness that is
relevant for sparrow is different from the one for ostrich. Being able
to fly is not part of the birdiness of ostrich.
4. Categories are flexible. Category membership is defined by similarity
rather than identity. The distinction between essential and accidental
attributes is not rigid. There need not be a set of attributes that is
applicable to all the members of a category. Category membership
is not a question of either-or, but a matter of degree. Therefore, not
every member is equally representative of a category. Remaining with
the category bird, a sparrow and an ostrich are both types of bird.
Because a sparrow is able to fly, it is prototypical. Because an ostrich,
by contrast, is unable to fly, it is not prototypical. Accordingly, both
are members of the category but in different degrees.

7.2.2.2 Consequences
The adoption of the prototype model of categorization in the description of
linguistic items has the following pivotal consequences.
1. Linguistic meaning is subjective. The meaning of a linguistic item is
derived from the different ways a language user construes a situation
and the different structures chosen to encode them. This view is influ-
enced by the theory of subjectivism, or alternatively experiential-
ism, which stipulates that symbols used in language get their meaning
via correspondence with conceptualizations of the world. The mean-
ing of a linguistic item is subjective in the sense that it grows out
of real-world scenarios and user-specific background data. A clear
example is afforded by mood, the form of a verb in a sentence which
expresses the speaker’s attitude towards the content of an utterance.
Three moods can be distinguished: (a) Indicative mood, which is used
to express a statement or question, as in He went away; (b) Imperative
mood, which is used to express commands, as in Go away!; and (c)
Subjunctive mood, which is used to express uncertainty or wishes, as
in I insist that he go away.
2. Polysemy is understood as the case in which a linguistic item has a
wide range of discrete senses that are subsumed under one phonolog-
ical form. In this approach, the different senses of a linguistic item
132 Semantics

are related. They are treated like members of a large family. They
do not share defining features, but rather family resemblances which
overlap. The construction of a category for any linguistic item should
include both its regular and irregular senses. A simple example is sup-
plied by a type of sentence termed question. The prototypical mean-
ing of a question is requesting information, as in When did he go?
The information is the time at which the stated event occurred. There
are, however, other types of questions which have marginal functions:
(a) Statement, as in Why do these things always happen to me?; (b)
Repetition, as in The newcomer is a psycho. The newcomer is what?;
(c) Comment, as in Are you blind?; (d) Request, as in Could you
please close the door?; and (e) Confirmation, as in They are happy,
aren’t they?
3. Linguistic meaning is embodied. The category of a linguistic item is
constructed in terms of networks. The meaning of a linguistic item
is defined in terms of the actual experiences gained by the human
encountering a physical or social world. Linguistic items can be
described against the realities of life. Accordingly, semantics is not
an autonomous discipline. Semantic studies should take notice of the
experiential and cultural background of the language user. A good
example is offered by declarative sentences. The prototypical mean-
ing of a declarative sentence is in making a statement or some asser-
tion about reality, as in They are making noises. However, based on
the speaker’s experiences, a declarative sentence can have other func-
tions: (a) Order, as in You must stop making noises; (b) Question, as
in You do not stop making noises?; and (c) Command, as in You stop
making noises!

7.2.2.3 Advantages
The adoption of the prototype model of categorization in the description of
linguistic items has some practical advantages.
One advantage is that it embodies the notion of gradation in the char-
acterization of a linguistic item. The parameters along which the senses of
a linguistic item vary are scalar or gradual, rather than binary, plus-or-mi-
nus qualities. The differences along such parameters are relative rather than
absolute. This view shows that there is no place for absolute predictabil-
ity. Rather, the use of a given linguistic item is influenced by context. To
demonstrate this case, let us consider an example. In the classical model, the
derivative force of the suffix -able is restricted to the formation of adjectives
 Categorization 133

from verbal roots with a passive meaning as in eatable goods, meaning goods
that can be eaten. In the prototype model, the derivative force of the suffix
is extended to cover an active meaning as in perishable stuff, meaning stuff
that can perish, or both meanings as in changeable, meaning can be changed
or is able to change. Thus, the prototype model of categorization facilitates
the description of a scenario in various ways, which differ in relative degrees.
Another advantage is that it is all-encompassing, including the con-
forming as well as the non-conforming senses in the characterization of a
linguistic item. Thus, it permits the study of more phenomena, whereas in
pre-cognitive accounts only those exhibiting absolute commonality were
deemed amenable to semantic investigation. In doing so, it helps to delineate
all the specific senses of a linguistic item, showing the points where they
converge and the points where they diverge. To clarify the point, let us take
an example. In the classical model, the suffix -ish is used mainly to denote
disapproval. It picks out an undesirable quality of the thing specified by the
nominal root as in foolish behaviour, meaning behaviour that is unwise. In
the prototype model, the suffix is used additionally, though rarely, to stand
for a desirable quality of the thing specified by the nominal root as in a styl-
ish dress, meaning a dress that is fashionable. Hence, the prototype model of
categorization allows for generality by including uses that have hitherto been
treated as exceptions to the rule or left outside the category.
A further advantage is that it is experiential, involving the role of the
human in structuring the world and allowing for the mental capacities to
shape language. Categories should be defined in terms of the peculiarities
of human understanding or human capacity of conceptualization, and not in
terms of the shared properties of their members. If the members share the
properties, then no members should be better examples than others. To see
how this works, let us look at an example. In the classical model, the suffix
-less is simply employed to construe the absence of something undesirable as
in a noiseless flight, meaning a flight that is without noise. In the prototype
model, the suffix is used also to construe the absence of something desirable
as in a powerless person, meaning a person who is without power. In this
way, the prototype model of categorization helps to describe new phenomena
reflecting experiences which the language user encounters in life.

7.2.2.4 Applications
The prototype theory of categorization can be applied to different areas of
language with equal effect. To construct a category for a given linguistic
item, the following steps should be taken:
134 Semantics

1. Determining the prototypical sense of a linguistic item. There are

some crucial factors which help to select the prototypical sense of
a linguistic item. It is the sense that comes to mind first. It is the
sense that occurs most frequently in our experience. It is the sense
that stands out as the most salient among the category senses. It is the
sense that is most basic in its capacity to clarify the other senses. It is
the sense that serves as a reference-point for the less salient ones.
2. Identifying the peripheral senses of a linguistic item. There are some
key principles which assist in establishing the peripheral senses in the
semantic network of a linguistic item. They are the senses that have
additional meanings that are not apparent in the other senses. They are
the senses that are derived from context or inferred from other senses.
They are the senses that display certain structural properties. They are
the senses which are rated according to how similar they are to the
prototype.
3. Laying down the itinerary which links the senses. There are some
pivotal means which help to clarify the relations between the differ-
ent senses of a linguistic item. The linkage is motivated by semantic
rather than syntactic considerations. Such considerations make the
transition possible from one sense to another. Any linguistic item
has a core sense; the other senses arise because they satisfy different
semantic conditions. This process helps to uphold the unity of the
linguistic item.
A number of objectives lie behind drawing the semantic network of a linguis-
tic item, the most important of which are:
1. Meanings are structured. The multiple senses associated with a lin-
guistic item are not represented in the mind as single entities, but
rather as a network of distinct but related senses. The multiple senses
associated with a linguistic item are structured round a centre. The
senses are not related to one another in equal ways. Some may be
directly related to the centre; others may be indirectly related to the
centre. The gist of the argument is that the semantic network of a
linguistic item has a clear centre, and its fuzzy boundaries embrace
overlap.
2. Meanings motivate meanings. New senses are derived from the exist-
ing ones. The senses are related to one another by semantic principles
in the human mind. Semantic principles defining nouns are concrete/
abstract, human/non-human and common/proper. Semantic principles
 Categorization 135

defining adjectives are qualitative/quantitative or gradable/non-grad-

able. Semantic principles defining verbs are transitive/intransitive.
The thrust of the argument is that there exist semantic principles
which help to yield new senses.
3. When the perceptual system experiences an entity in the environment,
the conceptual system places the entity into a category. Categories
mirror human sensory modalities (sight, sound, smell, taste and touch)
and reflect the particular way in which something exists or is expe-
rienced. In addition, they reflect emotions and thoughts. Language
helps speakers to categorize their experiences of the world. The
import of the argument is that the conceptual system is organized in
terms of categories, which relate to entities experienced in the world.

Morphology
An affix, prefix or suffix, is argued to form a complex category made up of
distinct senses which are structured in the shape of a network. The senses
are organized with respect to a central, prototypical, sense. The prototypi-
cal sense is the one that comes to mind first when thinking about the affix,
occurs most frequently and is the most basic in its capacity to clarify the
other senses. The remaining senses range over a continuum from less pro-
totypical to peripheral. They are arranged relative to their distance from the
central sense. Accordingly, the more peripheral senses are less related to the
central sense than the less peripheral ones. The borders between the senses
within the network are extremely fuzzy, and so the senses tend to overlap
with one another in meaning.
An example of a morphological item is the suffix -ary. The prototype of
the suffix -ary signals relation. It consists of two senses. (a) ‘relating closely
to the thing named by the root’. This sense succeeds when the nominal
roots are abstract and the adjectives formed apply to inanimate entities. For
example, a budgetary policy is a policy that relates to the budget. A hand-
ful of other adjectives includes customary, dietary, disciplinary, elementary,
etc. (b) ‘serving to do the thing named by the root’. This sense succeeds
when the nominal roots are abstract and the adjectives formed name inani-
mate characteristics. For example, a complementary list is a list that serves
to complete another. A handful of other adjectives includes complimentary,
exemplary, inflationary, precautionary, supplementary, etc. The periphery of
the suffix -ary consists of the sense ‘embodying the characteristics of the
entity referred to by the root’. This sense succeeds when the nominal roots
are abstract and the adjectives formed name animate characteristics. For
136 Semantics

example, a legendary broadcaster is a broadcaster who embodies a legend in

being famous and admired. A handful of other adjectives includes honorary,
visionary, etc.
Figure 7.1 presents a graphical representation which captures the multiple
uses of the suffix -ary. Note that the solid arrow represents the prototypical
sense, whereas the dashed arrows represent the semantic extensions.

Figure 7.1: The semantic network of the suffix -ary

Exercise 7.1
The prefixes in A and suffixes in B exhibit multiplicity of meaning.
Sketch out the semantic network for each.
A B
1. un- 1. -ure
2. non 2. -ness
3. fore- 3. -ment
4. ultra- 4. -hood
5. under- 5. -some

Syntax
A grammatical item forms a category of distinct but related senses. The
distinct senses, which are related by virtue of a semantic network, are the
result of dynamic processes of meaning extensions. The extensions are built
by semantic principles which bring about the senses. The sense that has the
common attributes of the category is described as prototypical. The prototype
 Categorization 137

is the sense that comes to mind first or is the easiest to recall. The remaining
senses that contain some, not all, of the attributes are described as peripheral.
The peripheral senses inherit the specifications of the category, but flesh out
the category in contrasting ways. The senses of a category are related to each
other like the members of a family, where they share some general attributes
but differ in specific details.
An example of a grammatical item is the complementizer to-. Prototypically,
to- conveys the idea of subsequence. This meaning can be paraphrased in two
ways. The first is subsequent potentiality, where the realization of the event
expressed by the complement verb is futurized with respect to that of the
main verb. This occurs especially after verbs of desire, intention and endeav-
our, as in They hoped/planned/attempted to climb Mount Everest. With these
verbs, the to-infinitive evokes an event as non-realized or yet to be realized.
The second is subsequent actualization, where the event expressed by the
complement verb is realized as a consequence of a previous event bringing
it into being. This occurs especially after verbs expressing achievement as in
They managed to climb Mount Everest, and some verbs expressing causation
as in She forced him to reconsider his position. With these verbs, the to-in-
finitive evokes an event as realized. Peripherally, to- conveys the idea of
sameness of time. After cognitive verbs, to does not refer to actions but to
states that occur at the same time as the event expressed by the main verb. In
I believe him to be honest, both my belief and his honesty coincide in time.
This serves as evidence that a network includes not only regular but also
irregular meanings.
Figure 7.2 presents a graphical representation which captures the multiple
uses of the complementizer to-.

Figure 7.2: The semantic network of the complementizer to-

138 Semantics

Exercise 7.2
The grammatical elements listed below exhibit multiplicity of mean-
ing. Sketch out the semantic network for each.
1. anticipatory it
2. preposition by
3. complementizer -ing
4. complementizer for-to
5. modal auxiliary should

Lexicology
A lexical item is polysemous in nature. It is associated with a range of distinct
senses which form a complex category. Some senses are regarded as better
examples of the category than others. The sense that is the best example of
the category is the prototype, whereas the other senses are the periphery. The
prototype is the sense that has the common attributes of the category. It is the
sense that comes to mind first or is the most salient. The peripheral senses
are linked to the prototype by a set of semantic principles. That is, the proto-
type gives rise to a variety of peripheral senses. The peripheral senses have
some, not all, of the attributes of the category. Like members of a family, the
peripheral senses share the general attributes of the category, but they differ
in specific details.
An example of a lexical item is the word strong. The prototypical zone
of the adjective strong signifies strength. It has different shades of meaning;
(a) ‘having physical strength’, as in a strong swimmer; (b) ‘having moral
strength’, as in a strong woman, one has the potential to endure hardship;
(c) ‘having a lot of influence’, as in a strong leader; (d) ‘likely to succeed
or happen’, as in a strong candidate for the job; and (e) ‘not easily upset
or frightened’, as in a strong personality. The peripheral zone of the adjec-
tive strong signifies other meanings: (a) ‘having a lot of taste’, as in strong
cheese; (b) ‘containing a lot of substance’, as in a strong coffee; (c) ‘firmly
established’, as in a strong marriage; (d) ‘difficult to attack or criticize’, as
in a strong argument; (e) ‘having a lot of force, often causing offence to peo-
ple’, as in The movie has been criticized for strong language. ( = swearing);
and (f) ‘great in number’, as in There was a strong police presence at the
demonstration.
Figure 7.3 presents a graphical representation which captures the multiple
uses of the word strong.
 Categorization 139

Figure 7.3: The semantic network of the word strong

Exercise 7.3
The verbs in A, adjectives in B and nouns in C exhibit multiplicity of
meaning. Sketch out the semantic network for each.
A B C
1. cut 1. safe 1. wave
2. run 2. cool 2. table
3. take 3. light 3. work
4. close 4. clear 4. flower
5. drive 5. bright 5. wheel

7.3 Summary
In this chapter, I have explored categorization, the mental act of arrang-
ing things into categories. It is the process of grouping together the numer-
ous senses of a linguistic item into a category. A category is a network of
the senses of a linguistic item which is structured in terms of prototype and
periphery. A linguistic item is polysemous and so displays a network of inter-
related senses. It forms a network of senses subsumed under a schema, a
pattern which represents an outline of the item. The prototype is the most
140 Semantics

salient example. It is the central sense that comes to mind first and is the
most frequent in the category. It is the sense on the basis of which the other
senses are arranged. The periphery includes the remaining senses which are
derived from the prototype by semantic extensions. They are defined by their
resemblance to the prototype, and so arranged in terms of distance from it.
They are the boundary senses surrounding the prototype.
Table 7.1 presents a comparison between the classical theory and the pro-
totype theory.

Table 7.1 Theories of classification

Classical theory Prototype theory
1. Categorization is a matter of necessary 1. Categorization is a matter of family
conditions, in which the members resemblance, in which the members
must satisfy all conditions. share general attributes but exhibit
2. Category membership is determined incidental nuances.
by identity. It is considered a binary 2. Category membership is determined
issue, i.e., a yes-or-no issue. by similarity. It is a matter of degree.
3. Because membership is binary, mem- 3. Because membership is graded, mem-
bers enjoy equal status. bers differ in status. Some are consid-
4. A sharp or clear boundary separates ered better examples than others.
members from non-members. 4. A fuzzy or unclear boundary separates
the members.
 8

Configuration
Chapter 8 inspects the role of configuration in the semantic description of
linguistic items as groups. The aim is to discover the distinctive meaning of
each linguistic item in a field. The chapter is organized as follows. Section
8.1 considers the phenomenon of configuration and underlines its signifi-
cance. Configuration refers to the mental act of grouping together a number
of linguistic items, be they lexical or grammatical, into a cognitive domain. A
domain then is a knowledge background with respect to which the meanings
of lexical items can be properly described. Section 8.2 presents the two the-
ories of configuration: Lexical Field and Cognitive Domain. In the Lexical
Field theory, which is advocated in Structural Semantics, configuration rep-
resents a model which focuses only on linguistic meaning. In the Cognitive
Domain theory, which is advocated in Cognitive Semantics, configuration
represents a model which focuses on both linguistic and non-linguistic mean-
ings. In both sections, I pursue three steps. First, I underscore the essence of
each theory. Second, I reveal its premises and repercussions. Third, I give
examples to verify its application. Section 8.3 makes a summary of the main
points of the chapter.

8.1 Introduction
A striking aspect of the lexicon is lexical relationship, the tendency of lin-
guistic items, lexical or grammatical, to form a set of relations. In studying
the lexicon of English, for example, we find that most items group together
in a way that they define each other. The words cry, lament, moan, weep and
wail all express audible sorrow. This indicates that the lexis of a language is
not merely a list of independent items, but is rather organized into areas on the
basis of some principles. Within each area, the words interrelate and define
each other in various ways. That is, the lexis is not regarded as an inventory
of independent items, but rather as a collection of interrelating networks of
relations between items. In the literature, there have been many attempts to
explore this aspect. While there is a sort of agreement on the aspect, there is
a debate over its analysis. The debate has to do with two central questions.
The first is: Do linguistic items form semantic sets, and if so, on what basis
142 Semantics

are they grouped together? The second is: Do the items represent different
regions within the sets, and if so, how do they contrast with one another?

8.2 Theories of configuration

To answer the questions raised above, linguists belonging to different lin-
guistic persuasions offer two solutions. One is the Lexical Field theory, in
which the meaning of a linguistic item is described relative to the relationship
it holds with its counterparts. Linguistic items acquire their meaning through
their relationships to other items within the same field. This is a dictionary
theory, which takes only linguistic phenomena into account. According to
this theory, the core meaning of a linguistic item is the information contained
in the item’s definition. The other is the Cognitive Domain theory, whereby
the meaning of a linguistic item is analysed in terms of the domain in which
it is embedded. A domain is a coherent structure of concepts, in which each
item represents conceptual knowledge based on human experience. This is
an encyclopaedic theory, which takes linguistic and non-linguistic phe-
nomena into account. According to this theory, the meaning of a linguistic
item includes everything that is known about its referent. In what follows, I
expand on the two theories of relationship.

8.2.1 Lexical Field

A Lexical Field, also called Semantic Field, is a theory of meaning which goes
back to Trier in the 1930s. Basic to the theory is the view that the vocabulary
of a language forms clusters of interrelated meanings rather than inventories
of independent items. The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing
of independent items, like the lexemes in a dictionary. Rather, it is organized
into fields within which lexical items interrelate and define each other in vari-
ous ways. The precise meaning of any lexical item can be understood only by
placing it in relation to others. That is, the semantic value of any lexical item
is circumscribed by those of the other lexical items in the field. Examples of
semantic fields include vehicles, colour, fruit, clothing, plants, temperature,
vision, and so on. For example, the field of vision includes words like gape,
gawk, gaze, peer, stare, to name just a few. These words constitute the lexical
field, within which the words define themselves in contrast to each other. The
lexical field of an item reflects its meaning.
 Configuration 143

8.2.1.1 Premises
The Lexical Field theory is based on focal premises, which can be summa-
rized as follows:
1. Language is not a haphazard collection of concepts. Instead, it is a
mosaic of concepts placed together, where each concept occupies a
semantic space within the language. The meaning of any concept is
affected by the other concepts to which it is related. A concept makes
no sense outside its field. For example, on the basis of their mean-
ings the concepts carve, chop, crack, divide and split cluster together
to form the lexical field of breaking or cutting. Each concept takes
up a position within the field. Each concept affects a different entity.
However, the theory stops short of disclosing further details. People
carve wood or stone, chop onions or carrots, crack paint or glass,
divide money and split cost or prize.
2. The concepts in a field are related to each other directly. The meaning
of an individual concept is dependent upon the meaning of the rest of
the concepts in the same field. The meaning of a concept is internally
determined by the set of relations which hold between the concept in
question and the other concepts with which it contrasts. Namely, the
meaning of a concept derives from the totality of relationships the
concept has with other concepts in the language. Speakers understand
a concept by understanding the other concepts that are in the same
field. For example, the concepts boo, cheer, groan, scream and sob
form the lexical field of noise. However, the theory is deficient in
revealing any precise details. People cheer in approval, scream in fear,
groan in pain, boo in disapproval, and sob from sadness.
3. The lexical field is exhaustively partitioned among its members, that
is to say, there are no gaps. The field is complete in terms of the rele-
vant meaning relations. Each member occupies a certain space within
the field. If a single concept undergoes a change in meaning, then the
whole structure of the lexical field changes. If there is an extension in
the sense of one concept, it narrows the meaning of the neighbouring
concepts. For example, the verbs murmur, mutter and whisper form
the lexical field of speaking. However, the theory does not divulge any
details how the change takes place. People murmur when they speak
quietly so as not to disturb others. People mutter when they grumble
in a low voice to themselves. People whisper when they speak so that
only one person can hear.
144 Semantics

8.2.1.2 Repercussions
The adoption of the Lexical Field theory to the description of linguistic items
has the following repercussions.
1. The theory does not recognize the role of context in assigning a lex-
ical item to a field. Contrary to this premise, the use of context is
crucial as it is the best evidence available in accounting for the inter-
pretation of an item. A lexical item has not just a semantic meaning,
but also a pragmatic meaning. In view of the Lexical Field theory, the
grammatical expressions quite, rather and fairly form the lexical field
of comparison. However, the description is low on contextual details.
Quite means completely or wholly, as in The food at the restaurant
was quite good; you should go there. Rather means slightly or some-
what, as in The food was rather good though the restaurant looked
ordinary from the outside. Fairly means nearly or practically, as in
The food was fairly good though we ate better at the other restaurant
last night.
2. The theory ignores the role of speaker in conceptualizing the world.
It is true that one aspect of knowing an item is to know how that item
is used in relation to other words. However, if this is the sole crite-
rion, then the semantic structure of a language becomes a vast calcu-
lus of internal relations, with no contact at all with the way speakers
conceptualize the world. The use of an item reflects the intention of
the speaker and is a response to the communicative needs of the dis-
course. In light of the Lexical Field theory, the grammatical expres-
sions can, may and might denote possibility. However, the description
is lacking in conceptual details. Can form the lexical field of possi-
bility that is always present, as in Everyone can make mistakes. May
denotes possibility in a particular case, as in The cause of the accident
may never be discovered. Might denotes possibility that is less likely,
as in I might visit you next year if I can save enough money.
3. The theory does not draw a sharp distinction between the lexical
items within the lexical fields. It does not tell the exact differences
between lexical items belonging to a field. It does not take into
account the contribution made to meaning by each lexical item. In
virtue of the Lexical Field theory, the grammatical expressions must,
have to, should/ought form the lexical field of obligation or necessity.
However, the description is short of specific details. Must suggests
obligation that comes from the speaker, as in I must take my medicine.
 Configuration 145

Otherwise I’d be very ill. Have to suggests obligation that comes from
the outside, as in I have to take the medicine. The doctor told me
to. Should and ought to suggest obligation that comes in the form of
advice and that may not be carried out, as in I should/ought to take my
medicine, but I often forget. Of the two, ought to is less frequent than
should.
The Lexical Field theory equates roughly with the dictionary view of
meaning, whereby a lexical concept represents a neatly packaged bundle of
meaning. The core meaning of a word is the information contained in the
word’s definition, and this is the proper domain of Lexical Semantics. This
view is consistent with the modularity hypothesis adopted within Formal
Linguistics. The dictionary view is based on a number of premises. First,
there is a distinction between the linguistic (literal) meaning and the non-lin-
guistic (non-literal) meaning of a word. The linguistic meaning of a word
includes the context-independent information. The non-linguistic meaning
of a word includes the context-dependent information. From this premise,
it follows that meaning is divorced from language use. Second, all aspects
of meaning accessible in a given word are equal. The aspects are structured
in terms of positive or negative values. Third, the core meaning of a word
is a function of semantics. It is separated from the use of a word which is a
function of pragmatics. Fourth, knowledge of word meaning is distinct from
cultural, social, and physical knowledge. Fifth, the knowledge that a word
provides access to is stable. It is this knowledge which is stored in the mental
lexicon.
Given the inadequacies of the Lexical Field theory, cognitive semanticists
have put forth a new theory, named Cognitive Domain, about the nature of
lexical relationships.

8.2.2 Cognitive Domain

This theory of meaning was formulated by Langacker in the 1980s. The basic
insight of the theory is that concepts cannot be understood independently of
the domains in which they are embedded. A domain is a knowledge back-
ground with respect to which concepts can be properly described. The struc-
ture of a domain usually has a number of facets. A facet is a portion of a
domain which is associated with a particular experience. In the area of lan-
guage, the meaning of a lexical item cannot be understood independently
of the domain with which it is associated. A domain is a conceptual struc-
ture with respect to which the meaning of a lexical item can be described.
146 Semantics

A domain contains a set of facets, each of which describes a certain human

experience, and each of which is realized by a lexical item. To understand the
meaning of an item, it is necessary to associate it with the appropriate facet
within a domain. The lexical items which occupy different facets are not in
complementary distribution. A close investigation of their behaviour makes
it clear they have distinct meanings.
Let us take an example to illustrate this. The meanings of the expressions
foresee, foretell and forecast can best be understood against the domain of
prediction, which the speaker activates as the conceptual knowledge for
the description. Prediction means saying that something will happen in the
future. Within the domain of prediction, each expression profiles a certain
facet. Without understanding the details of the domain, we would not be able
to use these expressions properly. Foresee implies prediction that comes as
a result of ordinary reasoning and experience, as in Economists should have
foreseen the recession. Foretell implies prediction that is made by using
religious or magical powers, especially in literature and stories, as in The
prophet had the gift of foretelling the future. Forecast implies prediction that
is based on technical or scientific knowledge, as in They forecast a large drop
in unemployment over the next two years.
A similar but not identical theory of meaning is Frame Semantics.
This is a theory of meaning which was initiated by Fillmore in the 1980s.
Fundamental to the theory is the assumption that word meanings can only
be properly understood and described against the background of a particular
body of knowledge known as a frame. The meaning associated with a partic-
ular lexical item cannot be understood independently of the frame with which
it is associated. A frame represents a knowledge structure which relates the
lexical items linked with a particular scene. Frames are based on recurring
human experience. They allow us to understand, for example, a group of
related lexical items, playing a role in explicating their usage in language.
An example that is often cited is that of the commercial transaction frame.
One would not be able to understand the lexical item sell without knowing
anything about the situation of commercial transfer, which involves, among
other things, a seller, a buyer, goods, money and so on. For example, the lex-
ical item sell views the situation from the perspective of the seller, while the
lexical item buy views it from the perspective of the buyer.

8.2.2.1 Premises
The Cognitive Domain theory is based on focal premises with reference to
the nature of concepts, which can be summarized as follows:
 Configuration 147

1. Concepts do not exist in isolation in the mind of the speaker, but

gather together with other concepts in conceptual fields, called cog-
nitive domains. Domains represent human knowledge of a language,
which correspond to background beliefs and perceptual experiences.
A domain refers to a body of knowledge which provides background
information for understanding and interpreting a given concept.
A domain has specific facets of meaning. A facet is a portion of a
domain which represents a particular aspect of experience. For exam-
ple, the words hobby, pastime and recreation belong to the domain of
pursuit, but each emphasizes a different activity. Hobby emphasizes
activities that last over a long period of time such as collecting things,
making models, and so on. Pastime emphasizes activities that make
time pass agreeably such as doing jigsaw puzzles, playing dominos,
and so on. Recreation emphasizes physical activities such as jogging,
playing golf, and so on.
2. Concepts are not related to each other directly. They are linked to cog-
nitive domains, and the particular facets within such domains which
their meanings highlight. The meaning of any concept is established
first by understanding the domain which it evokes and second by
identifying the facet within the domain which it represents. Namely,
concepts in a domain are not independent but are conceptually related.
Concepts are understood by the way they stand in a relation of con-
trast or affinity to each other in a domain. For example, the words
instrument, implement and equipment belong to the domain of tool,
but each has a different use. Instrument refers to a tool used in the area
of medicine or science. Implement refers to a tool used in the area of
agriculture or building trades. Equipment refers to a tool used in the
area of sports or electricity.
3. Concepts evoke domains which are encyclopaedic in nature. Domains
are very broad; they include everything that is known about the refer-
ents of concepts. They cover a large range of knowledge of concepts,
often in great detail. The encyclopaedic meaning of a concept may
vary from one speaker to another, but there exists a common core that
most speakers from a particular community might tend to share. Due
to this, a domain helps to reveal all the semantic differences between
concepts which are small but important. For example, the words
assignment, chore and task belong to the domain of jobs, but each
implies a different type of work to be done. Assignment implies a defi-
nite limited work assigned by one in authority like a teacher. Chore
148 Semantics

implies a minor routine work necessary for maintaining a household

or farm. Task implies work imposed by a person in authority or an
employer.

8.2.2.2 Repercussions
The adoption of the Cognitive Domain theory has vital repercussions with
reference to linguistic items as shown below.
1. Lexical items are dependent on domains. A domain is a coherent area
of conceptualization relative to which the meanings of lexical items
are characterized. A domain is a context of background knowledge
with respect to which lexical items are understood. For example, the
meanings of the adjectives accidental, fortuitous and casual can be
derived from the domain of chance to which they belong, but each
adjective stresses a different facet. Accidental stresses chance, as in
The site was located after the accidental discovery of bones in a field.
Fortuitous stresses a lucky chance connoting the entire absence of
cause, as in His success depended on a fortuitous combination of cir-
cumstances. Casual stresses lack of real intent, as in It was just a
casual comment, I meant no harm.
2. The scope of a lexical item is subdivided into two aspects, both of
which are indispensable for understanding its meaning. These are the
profile and its base, or alternatively figure and ground. The profile is
the conceptual referent within the array of conceptual content invoked
by the item, and the base is the domain relative to which the profile
or figure is understood. One consequence of the profile-base relation
is that the same base can provide different profiles. For example, the
domain of value acts as a base for the adjectives precious, (in)valuable
and priceless, within which each profiles a different facet. Precious
profiles an object that is rare and worth a lot of money, as in precious
jewels. (In)valuable profiles an action that is extremely useful, as in
(in)valuable discovery. Priceless profiles an object that is extremely
important, as in priceless family photos.
3. Lexical items can activate different domains for their interpreta-
tion. A lexical item can be conceptualized in relation to more than
one domain. The set of domains which provide the context for the
full understanding of a semantic unit is referred to as matrix. The
domains evoked by the lexical item do not exist as separate patterns
of knowledge. Rather, they interact with and react to each other in
 Configuration 149

numerous ways. For example, the morpheme -y participates in mul-

tiple domains. The morpheme together with the host provides access
to a large inventory of domains. The first is the domain of action as in
scary. The second is the domain of causation, as in chilly. The third
is the domain of possession, as in bushy. The fourth is the domain of
evaluation, as in doggy. The fifth is the domain of resemblance, as in
woody.
The Cognitive Domain theory equates roughly with the encyclopaedic view
of meaning, which focuses on both linguistic and non-linguistic knowledge
in defining lexical items. The encyclopaedic view is based on a number of
claims. First, it draws no distinction between semantic and pragmatic knowl-
edge. The meaning of a lexical item subsumes knowledge both of what it
means and how it is used. From this premise, it follows that pragmatic mean-
ing is the real meaning of a lexical item. Second, encyclopaedic knowledge
is organized as a network. Aspects of meaning associated with a given lexical
item are not equal. Some aspects are more central than others. Third, mean-
ing is a a consequence of context. The context in which a lexical item is used
contributes to the encyclopaedic information that it evokes. Fourth, lexical
items do not represent neatly pre-packaged bundles of meaning. Instead, they
provide access to vast repositories of knowledge relating to a particular con-
cept. Fifth, the encyclopaedic knowledge that a lexical item provides access
to is dynamic. New experiences always increase one’s knowledge about a
given lexical item.

8.2.2.3 Advantages
The adoption of the domain model of configuration to the description of lin-
guistic items has the following practical advantages.
One advantage pertains to definition. A domain is an area of knowledge
which contains information about linguistic expressions, and so is a mech-
anism for defining their meanings. Extended to morphological expressions,
a domain can serve to define the meanings of affixes. To define an affix, it
is necessary to understand the entire domain to which it belongs and see
which of its facets it picks out. For example, to define the meanings of the
suffixes -ous and -some, we need to think of the domain of possession which
they evoke. The suffixes exhibit comparison by sharing the main features of
the domain and contrast by marking different facets of it. Thus, the domain
provides accurate descriptions of their features. The suffix -ous may or may
not imply indiscretion, as in The adventurous manoeuvre of the staff secured
150 Semantics

the firm profits. By contrast, the suffix -some implies only indiscretion, as in
They don’t like drivers to be so adventuresome as to wreck cars. Accordingly,
affixes should not be defined on individual bases, as dictionaries usually do.
Instead, affixes should be defined in terms of their respective domains.
Another advantage concerns comparison. A domain is a sphere of knowl-
edge within which a number of linguistic expressions can be located, and so
is a tool for comparing one expression with another. Applied to morphologi-
cal expressions, a domain can serve to explicate similarities and differences
among its members, and so is a convenient way of coding information about
the distributions of the affixes and the patterns in which they occur. It shows
the language user that understanding the meaning of an affix facilitates
understanding the meaning of a counterpart affix in the domain. For exam-
ple, to compare the suffixes -ish and -like, we need to think of the domain
of evaluation which they evoke. The domain highlights their contrastive
inherent meanings. The suffix -ish is used when one evaluates somebody or
something in a negative way, as in None of his friends tolerates his childish
outbreaks of temper. The suffix -like is used when one evaluates somebody
or something in a positive way, as in At 85, she retains a childlike curiosity
about her environment. Accordingly, affixes should not be tackled in isola-
tion, as dictionaries usually do. Instead, they should be put in juxtaposition
and tackled in terms of appropriate domains.
A further advantage belongs to construal. A domain is a realm of knowl-
edge which provides the speaker with the linguistic expressions required to
construe a situation in different ways, and so is a means of symbolizing con-
ceptualization. Related to morphological expressions, a domain can serve
to show that the use of a particular affix represents a particular construal of
content. The construal coded is subjective in nature because it is based on
experience that a human encounters, undergoes, or lives through. In constru-
ing a situation, two steps are thus involved. The first concerns the construal
chosen which reflects the way the speaker conceptualizes the situation. The
second concerns the linguistic form which the speaker chooses to represent
the construal. For example, the suffixes -able and -ful represent different
domains. The suffix -able elicits the domain of voice. It means ‘capable of
undergoing the action referred to in the verbal root’, as in forgettable. By
contrast, the suffix -ful elicits the domain of possession. It means ‘likely to
do the action denoted by the verbal root’, as in forgetful. Accordingly, lexical
choice provides a different way of describing a situation, giving rise to a
different construal.
 Configuration 151

8.2.2.4 Applications
The Cognitive Domain theory can be applied to different areas of language
with equal effect. To construct a domain for a group of linguistic items, the
following steps should be taken:
1. Selecting the linguistic expressions which evoke domains by relying
on their definitions. Domains explain and unify meaning at both con-
ceptual and linguistic levels. The former is about conceptual content,
which is in the mind of the speaker. The latter is about lexical content,
which is represented by linguistic symbols. Because of polysemy, it is
quite natural to find that some linguistic expressions appear in more
than one domain, each time serving a different purpose.
2. Explaining the semantic structures of the domains, and identifying
their facets. Domains constitute knowledge structures which serve to
organize the lexicon. They do so by embracing various facets and the
linguistic expressions which represent them. They uncover the prop-
erties of the structured inventory of knowledge associated with lin-
guistic expressions. As reflections of subjective experience, the facets
are necessary in describing the semantic contribution of linguistic
expression.
3. Stating which linguistic expression represents which facet by compar-
ing it with the other linguistic expressions. Domains are interpretative
devices by which we understand a linguistic expression’s deployment
in a given context. To define an expression, it is best to compare it
with the other expressions that belong to the same domain. In lan-
guage, however, it is not surprising to find cases of overlap between
the meanings of linguistic expressions. The focus, however, is on the
general patterns in which the linguistic expressions occur.
A number of objectives lie behind drawing the semantic structure of linguis-
tic items, the most important of which are:
1. Showing that domains mirror the reality of the mental lexicon and
provide a natural means of organizing it. Domains construe reality
in myriad ways and account for variability in conceptual represen-
tations. Domains are realms of knowledge which provide speakers
with the flexibility to construe a situation in different ways. A domain
serves to show that the use of a particular expression represents a
particular construal of content. Domains allow speakers to symbolize
their conceptualizations.
152 Semantics

2. Demonstrating that domains group together conceptually-related

linguistic expressions and account for their meanings. Domains are
spheres of knowledge within which a number of linguistic expres-
sions can be located, and so are tools for comparing one expression
with another. A domain serves to explicate similarities and differences
among its linguistic expressions, and so is a convenient way of coding
information about the distributions of the expressions and the patterns
in which they occur.
3. Indicating that domains serve as a means of encoding information
pertinent to our understanding of linguistic expressions. Domains rep-
resent specific information about linguistic expressions and give an
account of their exact behaviour. Domains serve to provide informa-
tion about the linguistic expressions, and so function as mechanisms
for defining their meanings. To define an expression, it is necessary to
understand the entire domain and see which of its facets the expres-
sion stands for.

Morphology
The meaning of a bound morpheme, prefix or suffix, is best captured in terms
of the domain in which it is positioned. A morphological domain is a concep-
tual configuration which encodes knowledge about morphological items with
special provision for the roles they play in language. A domain is a context
in which a number of bound morphemes are positioned, each having a dis-
tinctive function. As a pillar of meaning, domain is important at two levels.
At a general level, it groups together bound morphemes that are associated
with one concept. At a specific level, it reveals the characteristic behaviour
of each of the bound morphemes. As a collection, bound morphemes are so
related that in order to understand the meaning of one it is necessary both to
understand the domain in which it occurs as well as the meanings of the other
morphological participants. That is, the meaning of a bound morpheme can
be interpreted by setting it in contrast with the other morphological partici-
pants of the domain.
Let us take an example to clarify this. The suffixes -ette, -kin, -let and
-ling evoke the domain of diminution, an area of knowledge in which some-
body or something is made small in size, young in age, or less in value. The
suffix -ling is used mostly to form animate derivatives. It is used chiefly to
describe persons, animals or plants. For example, princeling is a prince who
rules a small or unimportant country, duckling is a young duck, and seedling
 Configuration 153

is a young plant that has grown from a seed. By contrast, the suffixes -ette,
-kin and -let are used mostly to form inanimate derivatives. The suffixes,
however, differ in that each has a particular nuance. The suffix -ette is used
chiefly to describe places or works of literature. For example, kitchenette is
a small kitchen, and novelette is a short novel. The suffix -kin is used chiefly
to describe fabric. For example, napkin is a small piece of cloth or paper
used at a meal for wiping fingers or lips and protecting garments. The suffix
-let is used chiefly to describe things. For example, droplet is a small drop
of liquid, and booklet is a small, thin book with paper covers. The domain of
diminution is diagrammed in Figure 8.1.

Figure 8.1: The domain of diminution

Exercise 8.1
The prefixes listed below evoke the domain of distinction. Yet, each
represents a particular facet. What is it?
1. non-
2. a-
3. dis-
4. un-
5. in-
154 Semantics

Syntax
The meaning of a grammatical item cannot be known without taking into
account the domain to which it belongs. A grammatical domain is a knowl-
edge structure which comprises a set of grammatical items. A domain is a
conceptual structure which singles out the individual behaviour of a gram-
matical item. A domain has a twofold import. First, it houses the grammatical
items under one umbrella. Second, it diagnoses the specificity of the gram-
matical items that make up the domain. Grammatical items form a domain in
the sense that to understand the meaning of one grammatical item it is neces-
sary to understand the meaning of the other grammatical items in the domain.
The meaning of any grammatical item consists of the way it contrasts with
the other grammatical items in the domain. Meaning is constituted out of
concept contrasts. The meaning of a grammatical item is the concept which
it stands for or the context in which it occurs. The participants in the domain
then help to uncover the meanings of one another.
Let us take an example to make this clear. The expressions all, any, each
and every evoke the domain of quantification: an area of knowledge which
refers to the act of specifying the quantity of an instance of a thing. The quan-
tity of an instance is specified in two different ways: in terms of a set (relative)
or in terms of a scale (absolute). Set quantification refers to the magnitude
of something measured against a full set. Scalar quantification refers to the
magnitude of something measured against a scale. A set is divided into a
full set (whole) and a subset (part). The above-mentioned expressions refer
to full-set quantification: a collection of elements that forms a whole. The
set quantifiers of English allow us to conceptualize the set’s composition
in different ways. The quantifier all is used to describe collectivity. In All
teachers need training, all denotes all the individual elements of a set as a
collection. The quantifier any is used to describe selectivity. In Any teacher
needs training, any denotes a randomly selected element as representative
for the full set. The quantifiers each and every are used to describe distribu-
tiveness, denoting each single element in relation to the full set. Each refers
to two or more entities as individuals. In Each teacher needs training, each
means each of the teachers considered separately. Every refers to three or
more entities as a group. In Every teacher needs training, every means all
the teachers considered as a group. The domain of set quantification is dia-
grammed in Figure 8.2.
 Configuration 155

Figure 8.2: The domain of set quantification

Exercise 8.2
The prepositions listed below evoke the domain of time. Yet, each rep-
resents a particular facet. What is it?
1. on
2. in
3. at
4. by
5. for

Lexicology
The meaning of a lexical item can be defined in terms of the domain which
it activates. The basic idea is that one cannot understand the meaning of
a lexical item independently of the semantic knowledge it evokes, which
usually involves other items. A domain shows that the use of a particular lex-
ical item represents a particular construal of content. A domain is a coherent
structure which relates lexical items together, captures their semantic specifi-
cations and shows how they correspond to different facets. Lexical items are
organized as knowledge configurations in which each has a specific role to
156 Semantics

play and a specific task to fulfil. The notion of domain shows that what may
appear to be hard-to-predict variations among lexical items can be treated as
instances of conceptual representations. A domain is a device whereby the
choice of a lexical item is guided by its meaning, which is the outcome of the
concept it represents, rather than by its formal property.
Let us take an example to clarify this. The verbs brush, scrub, sweep,
wipe and scour evoke the domain of cleaning, but each is used in a differ-
ent context. Brush means cleaning something or making something smooth
with a brush. It is used with hair, teeth and clothes, as in Have you brushed
your teeth yet? and You should brush your jacket, it is covered in dust. Scrub
means cleaning something by rubbing it hard with a brush and some water
or soap. It is used with stains, as in He is trying to scrub the stain from the
carpet. Sweep means cleaning the floor or the ground using a brush with a
long handle. It is used with floors, as in When everyone had left, she swept the
floor. Wipe means cleaning the surface of something by sliding something,
especially a piece of cloth, over it. It is used with porcelain crockery for
serving food and drink, as in She has washed up, and wiped the cups, saucers
and plates. Scour means cleaning a cooking pan or hard surface by rubbing
with a piece of rough material. It is used with metal containers for cooking
food, as in I scoured the bowls, pots and pans. The domain of cleaning is
diagrammed in Figure 8.3.

Figure 8.3: The domain of cleaning

 Configuration 157

Exercise 8.3
The verbs listed below evoke the domain of employment. Yet, each
represents a particular facet. What is it?
1. hire
2 employ
3. engage
4. recruit
5. appoint

8.3 Summary
In this chapter, I have investigated configuration, the mental act of group-
ing together a number of linguistic expressions into a cognitive domain, in
which each occupies a specific facet. A domain is a knowledge background
with respect to which a concept is described. A domain contains a number
of facets, each of which is linked to a particular experience. The knowledge
is based on experience derived from beliefs, customs and practices. It is a
coherent area of conceptualization which provides the basis for the charac-
terization of a linguistic expression. A facet is a portion of a domain which
is associated with a particular concept. Each facet is expressed by an appro-
priate form of language. To understand the meaning of any expression, it is
necessary first to identify the cognitive domain that it evokes and second to
relate it to the specific facet within the domain.
Table 8.1 presents a comparison between the Lexical Field theory and the
Cognitive Domain theory.
158 Semantics

Table 8.1 Lexical Field theory versus Cognitive Domain theory

Lexical Field theory Cognitive Domain theory
1. Concepts are related to each other 1. Concepts are not related to each other
directly. The meaning of a concept is directly. The meaning of a concept is
dependent upon its relation to the rest dependent on the cognitive domain
of the concepts in the same field. to which it belongs, and the particu-
2. The theory does not recognize the role lar facet within the domain which it
of context in assigning a linguistic highlights.
expression to a field. 2. The theory recognizes the role of con-
3. The theory ignores role of speaker in text in assigning a linguistic expres-
conceptualizing the world. sion to a field. The use of context
4. The theory is dictionary based. It helps to indicate what speakers do in
solicits linguistic knowledge in their natural use of language.
defining the meaning of a linguistic 3. The theory emphasizes role of speaker
expression. in conceptualizing the world.
5. The procedure relates to the discipline 4. The theory is encyclopaedia based. It
of Lexical Semantics. The definitions solicits non-linguistic knowledge in
are stored in the mental lexicon. defining the meaning of a linguistic
expression.
5. The procedure relates to the discipline
of Pragmatics. The definitions are
governed by principles of language
use.
 9

Conceptualization
Chapter 9 evaluates the effect of conceptualization on the explanation of
pairs of linguistic expressions acting as rivals. The aim is to discover the
meaning differences between apparently similar linguistic expressions. The
chapter is organized as follows. Section 9.1 explores the phenomenon of con-
strual and underlines its significance. Construal refers to the mental ability
of a speaker to describe a situation in alternate ways and express them in
language by using different linguistic expressions. Section 9.2 weighs two
theories of explanation: reference and construal. In the reference theory,
meaning equals reference. This theory treats meaning as existing outside the
mind. In the construal theory, meaning equals conceptualization. This theory
treats meaning as existing in the mind. In both sections, I pursue three steps.
First, I establish the essence of the theory. Second, I disclose its axioms and
ramifications. Third, I provide examples to demonstrate its application to
different areas within language. Section 9.3 gives a summary of the main
points of the chapter.

9.1 Introduction
An intriguing aspect of the lexicon is synonymy, the tendency of linguistic
expressions to have similar meaning, and so interchange freely in the context
in which they occur. The word synonymy comes from Greek syn (with) and
onoma (name). A synonym is an expression that has the same or nearly the
same meaning as another in the same language. Expressions that are sup-
posedly equivalent in meaning are synonymous. The verbs disdain, hate,
loathe, despise and detest, for instance, are considered by some linguists to
be synonymous. They are alternative forms or variants of the concept of dis-
like. Most theories agree on the fact that two or more expressions may have
the same meaning, but they differ as to exactly how they should be used. The
difference revolves around two questions. The first question is: Do seemingly
similar expressions have different readings, and if so, in what respect are they
different? The second question is: Is the difference between such expressions
supported by evidence, and if so, where does it come from?
160 Semantics

9.2 Theories of explanation

To solve the riddle of semantic equivalence and explain the meanings of
seemingly similar pairs of expressions, linguists belonging to different lin-
guistic persuasions offer two theories of explanation. One is the reference
theory, which regards meaning as objective in nature. Lexical meaning is a
matter of relationships holding between words and mind-independent worlds.
To count two words as non-synonymous, the choice between them relies on a
difference in the objects in the external world which they represent. The other
is the construal theory, which considers meaning as subjective in nature.
Meanings tend to refer less to objective situations and more to subjective
ones; less to the described situation and more to the discourse situation. The
construal theory is concerned with how human beings use language to repre-
sent, or even construct, reality. The meaning of an expression represents the
way the speaker describes a situation.
In what follows, I briefly survey the two theories of explanation which are
prevalent in modern linguistics.

9.2.1 Reference
The reference theory of meaning is an approach to language in which the
meaning of an expression equals its reference. The meaning of an expression
resides in the relationship between the expression and aspects of an objective
world. This theory focuses exclusively on the referential properties of lan-
guage. Language is seen as corresponding to the external world in an almost
literal sense. The meaning of an expression involves applying it appropriately
to an object in the world. This theory has given rise to a more sophisticated
version, referred to as truth-conditional theory. Truth-conditional theory,
which is adopted in Generative Linguistics, is an approach to language that
sees the meaning of an expression as being the same as, or reducible to, its
truth conditions. The meaning of an expression is identified with the condi-
tions in the world under which it is true or false. Speakers of language are
concerned with the conditions which allow them to determine the objective
truth, or otherwise, of expressions. For example, the statement Snow is white
is true if and only if snow is white.

9.2.1.1 Axioms
The reference theory is based on principal axioms, which can be summarized
as follows:
 Conceptualization 161

1. Meaning is defined in terms of the conditions in the real world under

which an expression is used to make a true statement. This is in con-
trast to approaches which define meaning in terms of the use of expres-
sions in communication, or the speaker’s role in describing a scene. In
terms of the reference theory, the two expressions wound and injury
refer to physical damage to the body, and so are freely interchange-
able. However, there is a difference in usage which the theory ignores.
Wound is the result of an intentional action. It is caused by a weapon,
as in The victim suffered a severe stab wound. Injury is the result of an
accident. It is caused by a crash, as in The train passenger sustained a
serious injury in the crash.
2. Meaning is described by means of mechanical devices. Such mechan-
ical devices are stated in terms of complex formalisms inspired by
work in mathematics, computer science or logic. On the basis of such
devices, speakers can judge the statement to be either true or false.
On the basis of the reference theory, the two expressions assembler
and collector share the components [human] + [adult] + [+/− male].
However, there is a difference in usage which the theory neglects.
Assembler means a person who assembles a machine or its parts.
Collector means a person who collects things either as a hobby like
stamps, or as a job like taxes.
3. Meaning equates roughly with denotation, referring to objects in the
external world. Meaning resides in the relationship between a linguis-
tic expression and the explicit entity which it denotes. In virtue of
the reference theory, the two expressions referee and umpire denote a
person who makes sure that the rules are followed in a sports game.
However, there is a difference in usage which the theory disregards. A
referee controls contact sports games such as football, basketball and
handball. An umpire, by contrast, controls non-contact sports games
such as cricket, tennis and baseball.

9.2.1.2 Ramifications
The adoption of the reference theory to the description of linguistic items has
the following ramifications.
1. Propositional meaning is the centre of attention. The propositional
meaning of a linguistic expression is that part of its meaning which
determines its truth conditions. It thus excludes non-proposition-
al meaning including descriptive, expressive and social content. In
162 Semantics

virtue of the reference theory, the expressions false and untrue share
the same proposition: lack of veracity. In usage, however, they are
different. The former as in She was charged with giving false evidence
in court is more disapproving than the latter as in Their story was
completely untrue. The non-propositional content of false includes
the notion of deliberateness.
2. When two expressions occur in the same position, they are in free
alternation, which refers to the substitutability of one expression for
another in a given environment. In this way, synonymous expressions
are considered free alternatives. In view of the reference theory, the
two expressions defender and defendant are derived from defend, and
so can be used interchangeably. In usage, however, they are distin-
guishable. Defender means a person who defends someone or some-
where against attack, as in She has finally found a defender of her
viewpoints. Defendant means a person who defends a legal charge in a
court of law, as in The defendant has been convicted of a petty crime.
3. Concrete entities which have truth conditions are the main focus of
analysis. In this way, abstract entities which have no truth conditions
lie outside the scope of investigation. In light of the reference theory,
the two expressions benefactor and beneficiary denote concrete enti-
ties and so are equal in meaning. That is, they have the same truth
conditions. In usage, however, they are clearly different. Benefactor
means a person who gives benefits, as in The benefactor is generous,
donating $2 million. Beneficiary means a person who receives bene-
fits, as in The beneficiary is grateful, receiving all the money in her
father’s will.
Owing to such limitations, the reference theory is no longer a solution to
semantic problems. Such a state of affairs paves the way for a new theory of
meaning, named construal.

9.2.2 Construal
The construal theory of meaning is an approach to language that links the
meaning of an expression with the idea in the mind of the person who pro-
duces it. The meaning of a lexical item is the function of both conceptual
content and construal. Conceptual content is the property inherent in a situ-
ation. It is the meaning that is conventionally associated with an expression.
Construal is the way the content is conceived relative to the communicative
 Conceptualization 163

needs. It is the ability of the speaker to conceptualize a situation differently

and use different linguistic expressions to represent them in discourse. When
two linguistic expressions share the same conceptual content, they differ
semantically in terms of the alternate ways the speaker construes their com-
mon content. Each alternative encodes a distinct meaning. Each alternative
serves to highlight a different aspect of the content. Each alternative is real-
ized in language differently. The expressions non-person and unperson are
truth-conditionally equivalent, i.e., they describe the same objective situa-
tion, but they have nevertheless different meanings. The first refers to one
who is ignored. The second refers to one who is non-existent. Construal is
then a matter of how a situation is conceptualized and how it is linguistically
encoded.

9.2.2.1 Axioms
The construal theory is based on principal axioms, which can be summarized
as follows:
1. A difference in form always indicates a difference in meaning. Lexical
or grammatical items are not in free variation. Variants usually dis-
play subtle differences in meaning or unequal functions in discourse,
which can be observed in certain contexts. Variation in language is not
random. Pairs of expressions are neither identical in meaning nor equal
in use. According to the Principle of Contrast, every two forms con-
trast in meaning. The two expressions authentic and genuine denote
something real, but they are not synonymous. They construe the thing
differently. Authentic construes something as traditional, as in It is a
friendly restaurant offering authentic Greek food. Genuine construes
something as natural, as in Is the painting a genuine Picasso?
2. A semantic structure includes both conceptual content and a particular
way of construing that content. Two expressions may invoke the same
conceptual content, yet differ semantically by virtue of the constru-
als they represent. The ability of the speaker to construe an objective
situation in different ways is fundamental to lexical and grammatical
organization. The choice of an expression correlates with the partic-
ular construal imposed on a situation. The two expressions empathy
and sympathy have to do with understanding and caring about some-
one else’s problems, but they are not synonymous. They construe the
situation differently. Empathy focuses on sharing someone else’s feel-
ings, while sympathy focuses on being sorry for someone.
164 Semantics

3. Meaning equates roughly with connotation, referring to ideas in the

internal world. Meaning resides in the association between a linguistic
expression and the indirect or implicit message which it suggests. The
two expressions jealous and envious mean feeling angry or unhappy
because one wishes one had the advantage that somebody else has.
Yet, they are not synonymous. They construe the situation differ-
ently. Jealous means feeling hostile towards someone who enjoys an
advantage, as in You are just jealous of me because I got better marks.
Envious means wishing to have the advantage which someone else
has, as in She has always been envious of her sister’s good looks.

9.2.2.2 Ramifications
The adoption of the construal theory to the description of linguistic items has
the following crucial ramifications.
1. Both propositional and non-propositional meanings count. Speakers
of a language do not accept two linguistic forms of the same propo-
sition as synonyms. When language provides two apparently equal
expressions, speakers should find a way to discriminate between
them. Each linguistic expression corresponds to a distinct meaning.
The difference in meaning is argued to be the outcome of a given
dimension of construal. The two expressions allude and refer share
the same proposition, but they differ in construal. Allude is used to
state things indirectly, as in The reporter alluded to the president’s
secret fortune. Refer is used to state things directly, as in The reporter
referred to the $250 million in the president’s bank account.
2. When two expressions occur in the same position, they are not in free
alternation. Alternatives reflect different conceptualizations, and as a
result are realized linguistically differently. Differences in linguistic
form are not arbitrary, but signal differences in meaning. The two
expressions pick and select have the same proposition: choose some-
thing from a number of possibilities. Yet, they differ in construal. Pick
means to choose something without thinking very carefully about it,
as in Pick a card from the pack. Select means to choose something by
thinking very carefully about it, as in How do you select people for
promotion?
3. Seemingly similar expressions, abstract or concrete, are subject to
analysis. They are not derived from the same underlying structure. Nor
is one derived from the other. Rather than being regarded as linguistic
 Conceptualization 165

variants, they are attributed distinct semantic values. Semantics is

associated directly with surface form. The form of a linguistic expres-
sion reflects its meaning. Although the two expressions freedom and
liberty mean more or less the same, they are distinguishable in use.
Freedom means the right to live the way one wants without restraint,
as in He enjoys freedom of speech. Liberty means release from former
restraint, as in The released prisoner enjoys his new liberty.

9.2.2.3 Advantages
The construal theory employed in Cognitive Semantics is capable of resolv-
ing many of the difficulties encountered by previous proposals, and offers a
number of advantages over their analyses. It provides a revealing account of
lexical and grammatical structure.
First, the construal theory allows the speaker to conceptualize and express
a situation in alternate ways, which result in different linguistic manifesta-
tions. When there is a one-to-one mapping between a construal and its linguis-
tic representation, the construal theory plays a crucial part in differentiating
between one expression and another. In complementation, for example, there
is a case in which a complement clause represents a particular construal and
follows a different verb. In He desires to achieve fame, and He enjoys achiev-
ing fame, for example, prominence is accorded to the main clause subject,
and his essential interaction with the complement event. The main clause
subject explicitly relates himself to the content of the situation depicted in
the complement clause. There is, however, a difference in construal, which
is realized by the use of a different complement type. The to-infinitive makes
reference to a future action, describing the achievement of fame as a longed-
for goal. The -ing gerund refers to an action taking place at the moment of
speaking, describing the achievement of fame as a pleasurable activity.
Second, the construal theory solicits semantic as well pragmatic factors
in determining the selection of a linguistic expression, particularly when
there is a one-to-many mapping between a construal and its linguistic rep-
resentations. In complementation, for example, there is a case in which the
same verb is followed by two types of complement clause. Despite follow-
ing the same verb, each complement type represents a different construal.
For example, among differences in construal between to-infinitive and -ing
gerund complement clauses, one relates to potentiality vs. actuality. In It is
hard to come to terms with being unemployed, the to-infinitive complement
clause refers to a situation which has not yet occurred or is about to occur.
Pragmatically, the success of the action is not guaranteed. By contrast, in It
166 Semantics

is hard coming to terms with being unemployed, the -ing gerund complement
clause refers to a situation that has actually occurred, or is occurring at the
moment of speaking. Pragmatically, the success of the action is guaranteed.
Third, the construal theory focuses both on the form and the distribution
of linguistic expressions. The form of an expression is characterized in terms
of the particular construal imposed on its conceptual content. The distribu-
tion of an expression is the result of the semantic compatibility that exists
between its internal parts. In the cognitive framework, the issues of form and
distribution are considered inseparable. By accounting for the distributional
difference between one linguistic expression and another, and by explaining
why one linguistic expression is chosen over another, the cognitive analysis
represents a departure from the current trend in linguistic research which
tends to focus only on the structural specificity of expressions. For example,
in Working in the garden cheered him up, the -ing gerund is coherent. This
is so because it refers to an actual event, which is supported by the use of
the past marker -ed. In this context, the to-infinitive is incoherent. This is so
because the to-infinitive refers to a non-actual event.

9.2.2.4 Applications
The construal theory can be applied to different areas of language with equal
effect. To help interpret the meaning of an expression, the following steps
should be taken:
1. Collecting pairs of expressions that share the same conceptual con-
tent. The use of a pair has double import. Theoretically, it achieves
emphasis by placing focus on a particular segment within an expres-
sion, and provides evidence that the segments compared have different
meanings. Empirically, it helps, by relying on a corpus, to determine
the contextual preferences of the pair members, and to stress the role
of the distinguishing segments in signalling the meaning differences
between them.
2. Distinguishing the pairs of expressions by examining their structures.
To achieve this, first their mode of formation are identified and sec-
ond their component parts are defined. Their uses are demonstrated
through examples of sentences. Through these examples, it becomes
easy to see how a difference in structure brings about a difference in
meaning. Precisely, it becomes easy to see how the segments serve as
a locus of difference in meaning, how related expressions are used in
different ways, and how appropriate they are in different contexts.
 Conceptualization 167

3. Identifying the construals that are responsible for disambiguating the

meanings of pairs of expressions. One great advantage of construal
is that it captures differences between apparently similar expres-
sions. Construal serves to show how a conceptual content is viewed
in numerous ways and how these views are realized in language.
The meaning of an expression is not just the conceptual content it
evokes. Equally important is how that content is construed. As part of
its semantic value, every expression construes its content in a certain
fashion.
A number of objectives lie behind drawing the use of the construal theory,
the most important of which are:
1. Confirming the absence of synonymy in language, a phenomenon
whereby word pairs are assumed to have similar meanings. It is very
rare that words are randomly interchangeable. Although word pairs
may share some features, they are still distinguishable in actual use.
Word pairs may be truth-conditionally similar, but they are subtly dif-
ferent. Such is the nature of language that there is essentially some
difference. For example, the difference between tasty and tasteful
is often encoded morphologically through the use of a different suf-
fix. Each suffix affects the character of the word by adding a special
meaning to it. Tasty is used to construe food as in tasty soup, whereas
tasteful is used to construe objects as in tasteful décor. Each suffix
represents a different conceptualization of experience.
2. Verifying the multiplicity of word meanings in language, a phenom-
enon whereby a word base has a wide range of meanings. Meanings
are not fixed entities, but rather constitute different subsets of seman-
tic components. Meaning represents a highly motivated process,
whereby word pairs can be derived from the same bases. For example,
the same state of affairs like closure can be linguistically encoded in
different ways by means of different prepositions. The shop closed up
means ‘stop operating temporarily’, whereas The shop closed down
means ‘stop operating permanently’. Although the word pairs are
based on the same content, each has a different meaning, and so hosts
a different preposition. The word pairs acquire special meanings,
which differ with respect to how they construe a given situation.
3. Substantiating the role of construal in language, a phenomenon
whereby a speaker conceives of and expresses a situation. The
speaker is endowed with the ability to construe a situation in alternate
168 Semantics

ways, and choose the language resources available to express them.

For example, the difference between the word pair personable and
personal can be explained by the different construals imposed on their
common content, which is person. Personable means showing per-
sonality, whereas personal means relating to a person. The specific
form of each word reflects the particular way in which the speaker
chooses to describe its scene. Thus, seemingly similar words are not
free variants. The distinction between them is not a function of formal
rules; it is exclusively a property of construal. Each represents a dif-
ferent construal.

9.2.2.5 Dimensions
One of the central ideas in Cognitive Semantics relates to the way a speaker
chooses to encode a conceptual representation in language. This is achieved
by imposing a particular construal upon a scene. Construal refers to the cog-
nitive ability to conceive a situation in alternate ways and use the appropriate
linguistic expressions to stand for them. The meaning of an expression is
therefore characterized in terms of both its content and the particular construal
the speaker imposes on the content. Expressions differ in meaning depend-
ing on not only the entities they designate but also the images employed to
structure their contents. Alternate expressions reflect contrasting images on
a conceived situation. For example, one can construe the conceptual content
of dreaming in two ways and use different linguistic structures to represent
them. When one imagines and thinks while one is asleep about something
that one would like to happen, one uses dream of, as in She dreams of running
her own business. When one imagines and thinks while one is asleep about
something in the past, one uses dream about, as in She dreamed about him
last night.
Construal is a multifaceted phenomenon whose various dimensions reflect
some of our basic cognitive abilities. The dimensions of construal enable us
to make focal adjustments, thereby transforming one conceptualization into
another that is roughly equivalent in terms of content but different in terms of
construal. Speakers can conceive of a situation according to different dimen-
sions, which result in different expressions to describe the same conceived
situation. An essential aspect of the semantic value of linguistic expressions
resides in the dimensions of construal imposed on their content. In choosing
a particular expression, the speaker selects a particular dimension from a
range of alternatives to structure its conceptual content for expressive pur-
poses. The selection relates to the way in which attention is differentially
 Conceptualization 169

focused on a particular aspect of a given scene and the way different linguis-
tic expressions are used to describe that scene.
Before embarking on a classification of the construal operations, two
notes are in order. First, it is very difficult to organize a comprehensive sys-
tem of classification for the construal operations. The assignment of a partic-
ular construal operation under one rubric rather than another cannot always
be entirely justified. In the literature, a number of classification systems have
been proposed for the construal operations. The one presented here, however,
provides a unifying framework in terms of which many semantic phenomena
can be captured. It attempts to organize the construal operations into basic
types. Second, several dimensions of construal can be involved in the mean-
ing of a single linguistic expression. Each dimension views the conceptual
content of the expression in a different way. The dimensions of construal
apply to different areas of language. They can be grouped under three main
headings: prominence, perspective and focusing.

9.2.2.5.1 Prominence
Prominence refers to the quality of eminence given, often in different
degrees, to the substructures of a conception relative to their importance.
Linguistically, the substructures are placed in different positions within the
construction. Three types of prominence are distinguished: profiling, trajec-
tor/landmark alignment and salience.

1. Profiling
Within its base, every expression singles out a substructure which functions
as the focal point of attention. This substructure, the profile, is the one that the
expression designates. The base constitutes the larger structure of which the
profile constitutes a substructure. The base is essential for understanding the
meaning of the profile. The process whereby an aspect of some base is des-
ignated is referred to as profiling. In order to illustrate this, consider the fol-
lowing examples, where the action chain is realized linguistically differently,
where the speaker chooses to profile different segments of it. In a three-ele-
ment action chain like Floyd broke the glass with a hammer, the entirety of
the action chain is in profile; the agent Floyd is coded as subject, the patient
the glass as object, and a hammer as instrument. The success of the action
is attributed to Floyd. In a two-element action chain like The hammer broke
the glass, the agent is left unprofiled, while the rest of the chain is in profile;
the instrument is coded as subject and the patient as object. The success of
the action is inherent in the nature of the hammer. In a single-element action
170 Semantics

chain like The glass broke, the agent and the instrument are left unprofiled,
while the patient alone is in profile, and hence coded as subject. The success
of the action is inherent in the nature of the glass.

Morphology
In morphology, the significance of the dimension of profiling can be appraised
by probing the function of prefixes or suffixes. For example, the bound mor-
phemes -able and -ful can attach to the root respect to form respectable and
respectful. Yet, they profile different relationships characterizing the relation-
ship of the trajector to the verbal process, and so denote different meanings.
In She is a respectable woman from a good family, the adjective respectable
is derived from the verb respect, which means ‘can be respected by others
for having good qualities’. The suffix -able means ‘capable of undergoing the
action referred to in the verbal root’. A respectable woman deserves respect
by reason of good character, appearance or behaviour. In He taught his son
to be respectful of other people, the adjective respectful is derived from the
noun respect, which means ‘showing respect to others for having good qual-
ities’. The suffix -ful means ‘full of the thing denoted by the nominal root’. A
respectful son has deference for other people and their beliefs.

Exercise 9.1
Show what segment in the conceptual content of the following expres-
sions the rival affixes profile.
1. earthen earthly
2. childish childlike
3. compulsive compulsory
4. documental documentary
5. adventurous adventuresome

Syntax
In syntax, the dimension of profiling can be evaluated by reviewing non-ex-
traposed vs. extraposed, raised vs. non-raised, and active vs. passive expres-
sions. These variants are meaningful expressions which are used in different
contexts despite the fact that they evoke the same conceptual content. In an
active construction like Nigel helped Kathy to make a presentation, the most
important participant Nigel, which is the agent of the main event, is in profile
 Conceptualization 171

and consequently chosen as subject. In a passive construction like Kathy

was helped to make a presentation, the most important participant Nigel is
bypassed in favour of a less important participant Kathy, which is in profile
and consequently chosen as subject. This shows that in Cognitive Semantics
the selection of an entity as subject or object arises as a result of different
conceptualizations. In other words, the function of subject or object assigned
to an entity ensues from profiling, and not from semantic role.

Exercise 9.2
The non-equivalence of the following pairs of expressions is the result
of placing different parts in profile. Discuss.
1. a. I expect that Susan will leave.
b. I expect Susan to leave.
2. a. That Anna will resign is likely.
b. Anna is likely to resign.
3. a. To entertain Catherine is difficult.
b. Catherine is difficult to entertain.
4. a. To argue about a trivial issue is unwise.
b. It is unwise to argue about a trivial issue.
5. a. They released the shoplifter on bail.
b. The shoplifter was released on bail.

Lexicology
In lexicology, the dimension of profiling can be estimated by perus-
ing instances in which profiling designates different aspects of a scene.
Linguistically, the lexical item used evokes a distinct domain. For instance,
in the following examples the different uses of the lexical item close invoke
different domains as the basis for meaning. This is due to the semantic flexi-
bility which the lexical item close displays. In Our new house is close to the
school, it profiles the domain of space. In The children are close to each other
in age, it profiles the domain of time. In The new library is close to comple-
tion, it profiles the domain of state. In The child is very close to her mother, it
profiles the domain of relationship. In His feeling for her was close to hatred,
it profiles the domain of similarity. In She’s always been very close with her
money, it profiles the domain of meanness. In He was so close about his past,
it profiles the domain of secrecy. In Can I open the window? It’s very close in
here, it profiles air conditions, in which it is uncomfortably warm.
172 Semantics

Exercise 9.3
Identify the cognitive domain which the adjective far activates in each
of the following expressions.
1. She does not live far from here.
2. They worked far into the night.
3. You are getting far too cheeky!
4. I read as far as the third chapter.
5. The story sounds very far-fetched.
6. He is the most far-sighted politician.
7. The law has far-reaching benefits for workers.
8. She was so far-gone that she could hardly walk.
9. The advantages far outweigh the disadvantages.
10. He’s a very talented writer. I’m sure she’ll go far.

2. Trajector/landmark alignment
Within every expression, the profiled participants stand in a relationship,
where one is more salient than the other. One participant, termed the trajec-
tor, is analysed as the primary figure within the relationship. It is the focal, or
most prominent, participant in a profiled relationship. The other participant,
termed the landmark, is analysed as the secondary figure. This distinction
between trajector and landmark in linguistic expressions reflects the more
general perceptual phenomenon of figure-ground organization. The assign-
ment of the function of trajector (subject) or landmark (object) to an entity
arises as a result of different conceptualizations. For instance, take the spatial
relation expressed in The mirror is above the washbasin. In this relationship,
both the mirror and the washbasin are profiled. However, the mirror is the
trajector, whereas the washbasin the landmark. The mirror is the focus of
attention, whereas the washbasin functions only as a spatial reference point,
and is relatively backgrounded. In The washbasin is below the mirror, the
situation is reversed. The trajector status is given to the washbasin, whereas
the landmark status is conferred on the mirror.

Morphology
In morphology, the dimension of trajector/landmark alignment can be veri-
fied by investigating the functions of prefixes or suffixes. For example, the
suffixes -er and -ee can attach to the verbal root employ to form new words,
 Conceptualization 173

but they align the trajector/landmark status differently. The suffix -er derives
a noun which profiles the trajector of the verb it combines with. The suffix
means ‘a person who performs the action named by the verbal root’. For
example, an employer is a person or organization that employs people, as in
We need a reference from your former employer. By contrast, the suffix -ee is
added to verbal roots to form patientive nouns, and so assigns the landmark
status to the new formation. The suffix means ‘a person who is affected by
the action named by the verbal root’. For example, an employee is someone
who is paid to work for someone else, as in She is a former employee of the
local council. In this example, the human person is the direct object of the
verb, and so the target of the influence.

Exercise 9.4
Which status, trajector or landmark, do the rival suffixes confer on
each of the following pairs?
1. trainer trainee
2. rescuer rescuee
3. adopter adoptee
4. examiner examinee
5. interviewer interviewee

Syntax
In syntax, the dimension of trajector/landmark alignment can be assessed by
examining the functions of prepositions. For example, the spatial preposi-
tions above and below designate what is referentially the same relationship.
The semantic contrast between them resides in their choice of trajector and
landmark, not in content or profiling. They confer different trajector/land-
mark statuses on the members of the profiled relationship. In She’s rented a
flat above a shop, the flat is the focus of attention, while the shop is relatively
backgrounded, and so functions only as a spatial reference point. In this rela-
tionship, the flat is the trajector, whereas the shop is the landmark. In She’s
rented a shop below a flat, the situation is reversed. In this sentence, the
shop is brought into focus, and so functions as the trajector, whereas the flat
functions as the landmark. As can be seen, the two prepositions bring about
a change in focus, and so assign different statuses to the entities involved in
the profiled relationship.
174 Semantics

Exercise 9.5
The semantic non-equivalence of the following pairs of expressions
resides in their choice of trajector and landmark. Discuss.
1. a. The lamp is above the table.
b. The table is below the lamp.
2. a. The sculpture resembles a seashell.
b. The seashell resembles a sculpture.
3. a. She ordered the driver to fetch the car.
b. She ordered the car to be fetched.
4. a. The phone box is in front of the house.
b. The house is behind the phone box.
5. a. Some of the guests had left before we arrived.
b. We arrived after some of the guests had left.

3. Salience
Within every perceptual field, something becomes more salient than its sur-
roundings. This is so because it requires less cognitive effort to bring it to
the centre of attention. In linguistics, a substructure of a conception becomes
more significant and eminent than the rest. Within its base, an expression
places some participants on stage. These participants are accorded a spe-
cial quality termed salience, referring to the quality of a participant of an
expression of being noticeable, obvious and conspicuous. When there are
two landmarks in a profiled relationship, they differ in the degree of salience
they receive. The primary landmark receives what is called initial salience,
referring to the most significant participant within a scene. Linguistically, the
participant, standing out from the ground, is placed in a certain position in
the expression relative to its importance. The secondary landmark has least
salience.
To illustrate this, let us have a look at an example on the dative shift, as in
He sent a letter to Susan, and He sent Susan a letter. According to theories of
autonomous syntax, the two sentences have the same source, with the second
being derived from the first. Because they have the same source, the two
sentences are equivalent in meaning. In Cognitive Semantics, each sentence
symbolizes a different construal of the same conceptual content, with the
grammatical morphemes contributing to its meaning. In terms of salience,
 Conceptualization 175

in He sent a letter to Susan it is the direct object a letter which is initially

salient, whereas in He sent Susan a letter it is the indirect object Susan which
is initially salient. Therefore, the two sentences embody different meanings.
Only the second implies that Susan has received the letter. The meaning of
each sentence is reflected by its structure, i.e., symbolized by the presence of
to and by the juxtaposition of the nominals.

Syntax
In language, the attachment of varying degrees of salience to the profiled enti-
ties within the same content results in various syntactic structures. In a sen-
tence with two entities in profile, the dimension of salience determines which
entity is construed as initially salient by the speaker. In construing a causative
situation, grammar provides the speaker with two sentential options. If the
speaker construes the situation in such a way that s/he selects the comple-
ment clause for salience, s/he chooses the bare infinitive as in They made
her accept low-paid jobs. By contrast, if the speaker selects the subject of
the complement clause for salience, s/he chooses the to-infinitive as in They
forced her to accept low-paid jobs. Semantically, the bare infinitive denotes
an action that is direct, whereas the to-infinitive denotes an action that is
indirect. Temporally, in the bare infinitive sentence the main and complement
verbs refer to the same stretch of time, while in the to-infinitive sentence the
complement verb refers to a time posterior to that of the main verb.

Exercise 9.6
Apply the dimension of salience to the following expressions and
write what difference in meaning it causes.
1. a. She ordered them to join the club.
b. She persuaded them to join the club.
2. a. She let the kids play in the garden.
b. She allowed the kids to play in the garden.
3. a. I had the gardener plant some trees.
b. I had the gardener to plant some trees.
4. a. He saved the boy drowning in the canal.
b. He saved the boy from drowning in the canal.
5. a. They gave a chance to the applicant.
b. They gave the applicant a chance.
176 Semantics

9.2.2.5.2 Perspective
In the sphere of perception, a perceiver can see a visual scene from different
angles. In the sphere of language, by analogy, a speaker can view a situation
differently and adapt his/her viewpoint accordingly. The particular way of
viewing a situation, which can shift according to one’s intention, is referred
to as perspective. Describing a situation often involves shifting attention or
emphasis from one part to another depending on the needs of the discourse.
Perspective relates to the way in which a scene is viewed, including the rel-
ative prominence of its participants. The relationship between the perceiver
and the perceived entity in the perceptual realm corresponds in the linguistic
realm to the conceptual relationship between the speaker and his or her object
of conceptualization. The distinction between Have you seen a giraffe? and
Have you seen the giraffe? relates conceptually to a shift in definiteness and
linguistically to the use of different articles. The first sentence construes the
giraffe as unknown to the speech participants, whereas the second sentence
construes the giraffe as part of their common knowledge.

Exercise 9.7
The way each member of the following pairs is described depends on
the viewpoint taken by the speaker. Discuss.
1. a. The table was covered with glass.
b. The table was covered with glasses.
2. a. A few people can afford to buy a house.
b. Few people can afford to buy a house.
3. a. Our next-door neighbour is a nuisance.
b. Our next-door neighbour is being a nuisance.
4. a. The dog was chewing the bone happily.
b. The dog was chewing on the bone happily.
5. a. By the time I leave work, the sun will be setting.
b. By the time I leave work, the sun will have set.

The perspective imposed on a conceptualized scene subsumes two factors:

vantage point and viewing arrangement.
The vantage point refers to the position from which the same objective
situation is observed and described, resulting in different construals and dif-
ferent structures. The vantage point is the actual location of the participants
in the speech situation: either of the speaker or the hearer. The importance of
vantage point is twofold. Conceptually, it serves as a window through which
 Conceptualization 177

the speech-act participants can observe the described scene, and so helps to
specify which participant is involved in the described scene. Syntactically, it
yields a distinction between expressions where the scene is construed from
an external vantage point, i.e., from outside its scope of predication, and
expressions where the scene is construed from an internal vantage point, i.e.,
from inside its scope of predication. The different wordings in Sara came in
and Sara went in reflect a shift in perspective. The first involves the vantage
point of the person who is inside the place, whereas the second involves the
vantage point of the person who is outside the place.

Exercise 9.8
The following expressions describe the same situation but differ in
terms of vantage point. Account for the meaning of each.
1. a. Come up into the tower.
b. Go up into the tower.
2. a. Shall I come to your place?
b. Will you come to my place?
3. a. Andy is sitting to the left of Jane.
b. Andy is sitting to the right of Jane.
4. Context: On Monday Sally says ‘I’m pregnant’.
a. On Tuesday: Sally said she was pregnant.
b. On Tuesday: Sally said she is pregnant.
5. a. The door slowly opened and two thieves sneaked in.
b. Two thieves slowly opened the door and sneaked in.

The viewing arrangement refers to the relationship between the speaker

and the situation being described. The importance of the viewing arrangement
is twofold. Conceptually, it shows how the speaker relates himself or herself
to the scene s/he describes, and so yields two basic types of viewing arrange-
ments, respectively called the Optimal Viewing Arrangement (OVA), and
Egocentric Viewing Arrangement (EVA). In the OVA, the speaker excludes
himself or herself from the scene s/he describes. In the EVA, the speaker
includes himself or herself as part of the scene s/he describes. Syntactically,
it yields a distinction between expressions which are objectively construed
and expressions which are subjectively construed. In admonishing her child,
an annoyed mother may say either Don’t lie to me!, or Don’t lie to your
mother! In the first sentence, the mother includes herself as part of the scene
she describes. Linguistically, she uses the deictic pronoun me. This gives a
178 Semantics

subjective perspective of the scene conceptualized. In the second sentence,

the mother displaces herself from the person speaking. Linguistically, she
uses the descriptive noun phrase mother in referring to herself. This gives an
objective perspective of the scene conceptualized.
Closely related to the viewing arrangement and vantage point are the two
dimensions of subjectivity and objectivity, which result from imposing two
different descriptions on a situation.

1. Subjectivity
With reference to the dimension of subjectivity, the speaker expresses
involvement in the situation being described. There is a close relationship
between the speaker and the content of the situation. Subjectivity represents
the EVA, where the speaker includes himself or herself as part of the scene s/
he describes. The scene is construed from an internal vantage point, where the
attention is fully focused on the self. Subjectivity concerns a specific situation
or a particular person and the private areas of his/her life. In the area of lan-
guage, a subjectively-construed expression is one in which the speaker relates
the situation described exclusively to the self. The above-mentioned example
Don’t lie to me! is subjectively-construed because conceptually the mother is
included in the scene and linguistically the deictic pronoun me is used.

2. Objectivity
In connection with the dimension of objectivity, the speaker expresses dis-
tance from the situation being described. There is distant relationship between
the speaker and the content of the situation. Objectivity represents the OVA,
where the speaker excludes himself or herself from the scene s/he describes.
The scene is construed from an external vantage point, where the attention
is fully focused on some external entity. Objectivity concerns a general sit-
uation shared by or affecting most people, and not only the speaker who is
describing it. In the area of language, an objectively-construed expression
is one in which the speaker relates the situation described exclusively to the
public. The above-mentioned example Don’t lie to your mother! is objective-
ly-construed because conceptually the mother is displaced from the scene
and linguistically the noun phrase mother is used.

Syntax
In syntax, the dimensions of subjectivity-objectivity can be validated by com-
paring personal and impersonal complement expressions. The two expres-
sions can be analysed as different choices in the construal imposed on the
 Conceptualization 179

complement scene, where difference in choice results from a difference in

the vantage point taken and from a difference in the viewing arrangement
between the conceptualizer and the conceptualized scene. A personal com-
plement expression codes a subjective construal of the complement scene
judged from the vantage point of the main clause subject, who includes him-
self/herself in the scene s/he describes. An impersonal complement expres-
sion, by comparison, signals an objective construal of the complement scene
judged from the vantage point of a general conceptualizer, who excludes him-
self/herself from the scene s/he describes as if it were none of his/her concern.
To illustrate the distinction, let us look at a pair of expressions. The sen-
tence Robert desires to have some familiarity with computers is a personal
complement expression because its subject position is occupied by the lexical
noun phrase Robert. Therefore, the construction represents the perspective of
Robert. This sentence stands for EVA and gives a subjective perspective of
the event, which is conceptualized from the vantage point of the main clause
subject, namely from inside the complement’s scope of predication. The sen-
tence It is desirable to have some familiarity with computers is an imper-
sonal complement expression because its subject position is taken up by the
pronoun it. It does not refer to a specific individual or person. Therefore, the
expression represents the perspective of anyone. This sentence represents
OVA and gives an objective perspective of the event, which is conceptualized
from the vantage point of the speaker, namely from outside the complement’s
scope of predication.

Exercise 9.9
Compare the following pairs of expressions in terms of the alternative
construals imposed on their conceptual content.
1. a. He enjoys going on holiday.
b. It is enjoyable going on holiday.
2. a. Lesley abhors killing animals for food.
b. It is abhorrent killing animals for food.
3. a. He strains to reach the pinnacle of his career.
b. It is a strain to reach the pinnacle of a career.
4. a. She dreams of living on a tropical island.
b. It is a dream living on a tropical island.
5. a. Alice prefers to travel/travelling around by train.
b. It is preferable to travel/travelling around by train.
180 Semantics

3. Dynamicity
This dimension pertains to how a conceptualization unfolds through process-
ing time. It illustrates how the specific course of development is a significant
aspect of our mental experience. Dynamicity can be observed in three cases:
mode of scanning, order of presentation and course of direction.
In the mode of scanning, the difference relates to whether the scene
described is in motion or not. Speakers demonstrate flexibility by construing
a complex scene either temporally or atemporally. In the temporal construal,
the component states are conceived individually and experienced succes-
sively with the passage of time. The speaker employs the cognitive mode of
sequential scanning, which is defined as the cognitive process of construing
a situation serially as it evolves through time. At the linguistic level, this is
manifested on the verb by tense and agreement. In the atemporal construal,
the component states are conceived collectively and experienced simul-
taneously as a single gestalt. The speaker employs the cognitive mode of
summary scanning, which is defined as the cognitive process of construing
the entire situation simultaneously in a cumulative fashion. At the linguistic
level, this is manifested by morphemes such as -ed past participle and -ing
present participle, and complementizers such as to-infinitive and -ing gerund.
To clarify the point, let us take an example. In the sentence The tour-
ists viewed the exhibition, the verb view profiles a process which comprises
a series of component states distributed through a continuous span of con-
ceived time. The component states are processed in series rather than in par-
allel and construed as different. The conceptualizer moves his mental eyes
successively from one point in the series to another. This is similar to the
ability we display when examining a motion picture. In The tourists like to
view/viewing the exhibition, the verb view requires the support of the to-in-
finitive or the -ing gerund complementizers, which serve to atemporalize the
expression by imposing summary scanning, where the component states are
processed in parallel and construed as identical. The conceptualizer moves
his mental eyes along the path in one go, and simultaneously accumulates his
impressions into one image. This is similar to the ability we display when
examining a still picture. The complementizers differ only in the semantic
effect they have on the base. The to-infinitive refers to time subsequent to the
time of the main verb, whereas the -ing gerund refers to time simultaneous
with the time of the main verb.
 Conceptualization 181

Exercise 9.10
Sequential scanning is characteristic of verbs, whereas summary scan-
ning subsumes everything but verbs. Apply this to the following:
1. a. The bridge collapsed suddenly.
b. The collapse of the bridge was sudden.
2. a. She called me this morning at the office.
b. She gave me a call this morning at the office.
3. a. He had seen the children playing in the yard from the window.
b. He kept seeing the children playing in the yard from the window.

In order of presentation, the difference relates to the different order of

words. The order in which events occur fits with the order in which they are
conceptualized. Alternate word orders embody different construal strategies
for presenting a scene. A case in point is the semantic effect of preposing
a locative expression, as illustrated by A dead rat lay on the counter and
On the counter lay a dead rat. The two expressions are not semantically
equivalent, despite using the same words to characterize the same objective
situation. The semantic non-equivalence resides in how the situation is men-
tally accessed. Precisely, it resides in the general discourse tendency: given
vs. new information. In the first expression, the mental access starts with the
subject a dead rat which marks the new information in the discourse. In the
second expression, the mental access starts with the locative phrase on the
counter which marks the given information in the discourse.

Exercise 9.11
A difference in word order, spatial as in (1) or temporal as in (2),
always implies a semantic contrast. Apply this principle to the follow-
ing examples.
1. a. The document is in the study, on the desk, in the briefcase.
b. The document is in the briefcase, on the desk, in the study.
2. a. I finished my studies, found a job and got married.
b. I got married, found a job, and finished my studies.
182 Semantics

In the course of direction, the difference relates to the route in which an

event is viewed. Speakers exercise flexibility by construing a complex scene,
adopting contrasting directions. This can be seen from a pair of examples
like The hill gently rises from the bank of the river and The hill gently falls
to the bank of the river. The two expressions have the same content, they are
nevertheless semantically nonequivalent. They describe the same spatial con-
figuration but have contrasting meanings, nonetheless. The contrast lies in the
direction of mental scanning, where the distinct directions are realized lexi-
cally differently. The conceptualizer constructs an image of the hill by tracing
a mental path along it in either an upward or a downward direction. The
direction of the scanning is determined by the meanings of the words used:
rises from induces upward mental scanning, and falls to downward scanning.

Exercise 9.12
The following pairs of examples differ in contrasting directions, rela-
tive to the different viewpoints of the speaker. How?
1. a. The washing line extends from the backyard to the gate.
b. The washing line extends from the gate to the backyard.
2. a. The country from east to west is rural.
b. The country from west to east is rural.
3. a. Lilly gave the doorman a tip before she left the hotel.
b. Before she left the hotel, Lilly gave the doorman a tip.

9.2.2.5.3 Focusing
This dimension entails giving attention to one particular part of an expression
rather than another. Focusing includes foreground vs. background and scope.
One reason for grouping these dimensions under the rubric of focusing is that
they are a matter of selection.

1. Foreground vs. background

The act of perception usually involves the foregrounding of some portion
of the perceptual field called the figure and the backgrounding of the rest
called the ground. Attention is focused on the figure, which is thereby more
fully present to consciousness than the ground. In language, foreground-
ing, sometimes called highlighting, refers to giving the most importance
to a particular part in an expression. Foregrounding is used for specific
 Conceptualization 183

communicative purposes. It can be achieved grammatically by means of dif-

ferent structures, as in It was Mark who posted the letter yesterday, It was
yesterday that Mark posted the letter, What Mark posted yesterday was the
letter, and It was the letter that Mark posted yesterday. These structures are
called focusing devices, and the foregrounded part of the utterance is called
the focus. The cognitive notions of profile and base, and trajector and land-
mark are developments of the notions of foregrounding and backgrounding.

Syntax
In syntax, the organization of linguistically encoded spatial scenes reflects
figure-ground organization. The figure, also known as trajector, is the focal
or most prominent participant in a profiled relationship. The ground, also
known as landmark, is the secondary participant in a profiled relationship.
The subject position corresponds to the figure, whereas the object position
corresponds to the ground. The sentences The football fans swarmed onto
the pitch and The pitch swarmed with football fans describe the same situa-
tion. Yet, they are different. The difference resides in the organization of the
information as figure and ground. In the first sentence, the speaker accords
the status of figure to the football fans and ground to the pitch. In the second,
the speaker accords the status of figure to the pitch and ground to the foot-
ball fans. Imposing different views on a situation is rampant in all areas of
language, and it is these areas that Cognitive Semantics attempts to analyse.

Exercise 9.13
The members in each of the following pairs of expression denote the
same objective situation but place different parts in focus. What are
they?
1. a. John lives in Hamburg city.
b. John is living in Hamburg city.
2. a. She sent a postcard to her mother.
b. She sent her mother a postcard.
3. a. The city council built a new mall.
b. A new mall was built by the city council.
4. a. After the police left, violence erupted.
b. The police left before violence erupted.
5. a. The children had smeared mud on the wall.
b. The children had smeared the wall with mud.
184 Semantics

2. Scope
The scope of an expression comprises the array of conceptual content that it
specifically evokes and relies upon for its characterization. Scope contains
the profile and represents the general focus of attention. An expression has
a maximal scope, i.e., the full extent of its coverage, and an immediate
scope, the portion directly relevant for a particular purpose. The immediate
scope is thus foregrounded vis-à-vis the maximal scope. The maximal scope
is vague and non-delimited in reference. It comprises everything a speaker
is aware of at a given moment to assess the meaning of an expression. The
speaker’s scope of awareness is referred to as field, i.e., everything evoked
in describing a situation. The immediate scope is the one with the highest
degree of prominence and relevance. It is the general locus of viewing atten-
tion with respect to which an expression is interpreted. The term elbow, for
instance, evokes as the maximal scope the conception of human body, and as
the immediate scope the conception of arm for its characterization. It is spe-
cifically the arm which is prominent and immediately relevant to the concept
elbow. The immediate scope is therefore describable as the context necessary
for the characterization of the profile.

Syntax
In syntax, the dimension of scope can be corroborated by scrutinizing extra-
posed and non-extraposed expressions. The distinction is not based on the
operation of generative rules; it is exclusively a property of construal which
gives the speaker the flexibility to construe his or her conceptualization in
alternate ways. The choice as to which alternative to use is motivated by the
construal of scope. One way in which the speaker exercises choice in con-
struing a situation is by taking either a narrow or a broad view of it, which
can change relative to the change of the aim one has in mind. In the narrow
view, the speaker considers a minimal range of content in describing the sit-
uation. In the broad view, the speaker considers a maximal range of content
in describing the situation. The type of scope chosen by the speaker is then
deemed crucial for the characterization of a given situation.
A non-extraposed complement expression like To build a house nowa-
days is easy takes a narrow view of a situation. The reason is ascribed to the
absence of a field represented by it. In this type of construal, the complement
clause is considered the sole factor in inducing the experience in the speaker.
That is, the reason for the experience expressed by the main predicate is
unilateral, which is attributed solely to the complement content and does not
involve anything else. By contrast, an extraposed complement expression
 Conceptualization 185

introduced by the pronoun it like It is easy to build a house nowadays takes

a broad view of the situation. In this type of construal, the speaker relies on
different kinds of knowledge in making the evaluation, in which the com-
plement content is the most important. It is the locus of factors inducing the
experience in the speaker, and so the reason for the experience expressed by
the main predicate is multilateral. The source of the evaluation in the extra-
posed expression is therefore somewhat larger in scope than in the non-extra-
posed one, and goes beyond mere observation.

Exercise 9.14
The non-extraposed alternatives in (a) differ from the extraposed alter-
natives in (b) in scope. Explain.
1. a. To win the game is possible.
b. It is possible to win the game.
2. a. To follow the guidelines is mandatory.
b. It is mandatory to follow the guidelines.
3. a. To remember old acquaintances is nice.
b. It is nice to remember old acquaintances.
4. a. To argue about a trivial issue is unwise.
b. It is unwise to argue about a trivial issue.
5. a. To make a momentous decision is tough.
b. It is tough to make a momentous decision.

9.3 Summary
In this chapter, I have investigated conceptualization, the mental act of
construing and expressing a situation in alternate ways. Construal refers
to the mental ability of a speaker to conceive a situation in alternate ways
and express them in language by using different linguistic structures. Two
linguistic expressions may have the same conceptual content, but still con-
trast semantically. The semantic contrast between them is attributable to the
imposition of alternate construals on their content. Each linguistic expres-
sion designates a different construal. An expression’s meaning is not just
the conceptual content it evokes. Equally important is how that content is
construed. Speakers can conceive of a situation according to different dimen-
sions, which result in different expressions to describe the same conceived
186 Semantics

situation. Construal is thus a multifaceted phenomenon, consisting of various

dimensions which reflect basic human cognitive abilities.
Table 9.1 presents a comparison between the Reference theory and the
Construal theory.

Table 9.1 Reference theory and Construal theory

Reference theory Construal theory
1. Meaning is defined in terms of the 1. Meaning is defined in terms of the use
conditions in the real world under of an expression in communication.
which an expression is used to make a 2. Meaning is described by means of
true statement. construal dimensions imposed concep-
2. Meaning is described by means of tual content of a situation.
complex formalisms inspired by work 3. Meaning equals connotation, referring
in mathematics, computer science or to ideas in the internal world.
logic.
3. Meaning equals denotation, referring
to objects in the external world.
Glossary
A
accommodation The phenomenon in which a component substructure
adjusts itself when integrated with another to form a composite structure.
affective The speaker’s feelings vis-à-vis an expression, which differs from
one person to another.
agent The entity performing the action expressed by the verb.
ambiguity A phenomenon whereby an expression has more than one
meaning, and may therefore cause confusion.
analogy The formation of a new word on the basis of a unique expression
or pattern.
analysability The process of matching up the substructures of a composite
structure phonologically and semantically. Linguistic expressions undergo
two types of analysability: full analysability and partial analysability.
analytic sentence A sentence which is necessarily true because of the
meanings of the words in it.
anaphor The word, typically a pronoun, which maintains reference to an
entity that is mentioned.
anaphora The use of a word that refers to or replaces another word which
comes earlier in the discourse.
anomaly The lexical relation in which a word does not match the context
in which it is used.
antecedent The word which gives anaphor its meaning.
anti-antonyms Pairs of words which mean the same thing although they
look the opposite of each other.
antonymy The lexical relation between two words in which one is the
opposite of the other.
arbitrariness The phenomenon where the form of a sign bears no resem-
blance to its meaning.
assertives An assertive, or representative, is a speech act which commits
the speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition.
atomistic The assumption that the meaning of a word can be determined in
isolation by its semantic components.
auto-antonyms Pairs of words which are homographs and mean the oppo-
site of each other.
autonomous The component subpart of an expression that exists on its
own without need of a dependent structure to complete its meaning.
188 Semantics

B
backgrounding The act of paying less attention and so less importance to
a part of a sentence.
base Also called ground. The domain relative to which the profile or figure
is understood.
base space The real space that serves as the starting point for a particular
stage in discourse.
blend Also known as blended space. The created space that results from
the interaction of input spaces. The blend has emergent meaning of its
own that is not contained in either of the inputs.
blending Also called Conceptual Integration. The device by which selected
elements from two mental spaces are combined to create a new space, the
blend.
benefactive The entity which benefits from an action.
broad view The view in which the speaker considers a maximal range of
content in describing a situation.

C
cataphor The word, typically a pronoun, which maintains reference to an
entity that is mentioned later.
cataphora The use of a word that refers to or replaces another word which
comes later in the discourse.
categorization The mental act of grouping together the multiple senses of
a linguistic item into a category. In the cognitive approach to language,
categorization is based on prototypes.
category A network of distinct but related senses of a given linguistic item.
The senses gather around a prototype, are defined by their resemblance to
it, and are arranged in terms of distance from it.
causer The thing which makes something happen.
classical Also called check-list. The theory of linguistic meaning where
humans categorize concepts by means of necessary and sufficient
conditions.
clause A major unit of grammar which may contain a subject, verb phrase,
object, complement and adverbial.
cliché A non-compositional expression that has a particular meaning that is
different from the meanings of the individual words which it contains. It
is used by people to give advice or express feelings.
cognitive In Cognitive Linguistics, it means that language is seen as an
integral facet of cognition. Knowledge of language is based on experience.
 Glossary 189

The mind is initially a blank slate and cognitive development is a matter

of learning. In Generative Linguistics, it means that language is seen as
an autonomous component of the mind. Knowledge of language is innate.
The mind has a blueprint for language.
cognitive commitment The characterization of linguistic structures should
reflect principles from other cognitive sciences like philosophy, psychol-
ogy and neuroscience.
Cognitive Linguistics The general approach to language study which
characterizes language as being non-modular, symbolic, usage based,
meaningful and creative.
cognitive operations Processes which reflect capabilities of the mind or
functions of the brain in producing and interpreting linguistic expressions.
Cognitive Semantics The specific approach to linguistic meaning which
characterizes linguistic meaning as being embodied, motivated, dynamic,
encyclopaedic and conceptualized.
cohesion The act of connecting one piece of language to another.
co-hyponyms The set of words which share the same superordinate term.
colligation A grammatical pattern which shows the position of a word in a
sentence and/or delimits the types of its complements.
collocation The case when two or more words go together and form a com-
mon expression.
co-meronyms Words which name the parts of the same whole.
commissives A commissive is a speech act which commits the speaker to
performing some action in the future.
communicative strategy A plan adopted by the speaker to achieve a par-
ticular purpose.
compatibility The tendency of words to co-occur in certain positions due
to sharing specific syntactic and semantic features.
complement The subpart that elaborates a schematic entity in the semantic
structure of the dependent head. It adds intrinsic conceptual substance to
the head.
complex sentence A sentence which consists of a main clause and at least
one subordinate clause linked by a subordinator.
complex word Also called composite/polymorphemic. A word that is com-
posed of two or more substructures, which is morphologically divisible.
Componential Analysis A type of definitional analysis in which the
meaning of an expression is decomposed into a finite set of semantic
components.
190 Semantics

composite structure A structure formed by unifying corresponding sub-

parts which overlap conceptually.
compositionality An expression is compositional when its meaning is
made up or composed of the meanings of its constituent parts. Linguistic
expressions undergo two types of compositionality: full compositionality
and partial compositionality.
compound A blend formed by integrating two substructures, or a compos-
ite structure that is made up of two, or more, free morphemes.
compounding The process of putting together two free morphemes, be
they nouns, adjectives or verbs, to make a compound word, a brand-new
word.
compound sentence A sentence which consists of two or more main
clauses linked by a coordinator.
compound word A word that is composed of two words which is morpho-
logically divisible.
concept A mental representation which is realized in language by means of
symbolic structures. It is the abstract meaning which a linguistic expres-
sion represents.
conceptual In the light of the conceptual conception, the meaning of an
expression that is a concept in the speaker’s mind.
conceptual content The property inherent in a situation. It is the meaning
that is conventionally associated with an expression.
conceptualization The mental act of construing and expressing a situation
in alternate ways.
conceptualized The claim that the meaning of a linguistic expression is a
reflection of concepts, and not directly of things. It serves as a prompt for
an array of mental processes.
conceptual structure The concept in the conceptual system which stands
for the thing experienced. It is knowledge representation assembled for
purposes of meaning construction.
conceptual system Our knowledge of the world. It is the repository of the
concepts available to a human being.
configuration The mental act of grouping together a number of linguistic
items, be they lexical or grammatical, into a cognitive domain. The lin-
guistic items share the same conceptual area but differ in the specifics.
connotation The figural, cultural or emotional meaning associated with an
expression.
connotative The additional meaning that a word has which goes beyond its
denotative meaning.
 Glossary 191

constancy under negation The property of a presupposition remaining

true even when it is negated.
constituency The order in which the subparts are successively integrated
to yield a composite structure.
construal The mental ability of a speaker to describe a situation in alternate
ways and express them in language by using different linguistic items. The
construal theory considers meaning as subjective in nature.
container An image schema which is derived from the experience of hav-
ing something inside something else or including something as a part of
something else.
containment The act of keeping an entity in an enclosed space and conse-
quently restricting its movement.
context The physical environment in which a linguistic expression is used.
It refers to the location where the discussion takes place.
contextual meaning The meaning which a linguistic expression has in a
context.
contradiction A semantic relation between a pair of sentences in which
the second is a complete opposite of the first, thus triggering a change in
meaning.
contradictory sentence A sentence which is false because of the meanings
of certain words in it.
co-operative principle Principles which speakers and hearers have to
comply with in order to make the conversation work.
correspondence The factor which relates to how the component subparts
of a composite structure fit together and form a coherent assembly when
they have certain elements in common at both semantic and phonological
levels.
co-text The linguistic environment in which a linguistic expression is used.
It refers to that which precedes or follows the linguistic expression, and so
determines its actual meaning.
conventional The quality of linguistic units being established in the lexi-
con through repeated usage.
conventional implicature An implicature that is made irrespective of con-
text, where the additional meaning is arrived at by the use of discourse
markers.
conversational implicature An implicature that is made with respect to
context, where the additional meaning is deduced from particular knowl-
edge, general knoweldge or scalar knowledge.
192 Semantics

conventionalized metaphors Metaphors whose meanings have been so

deeply entrenched in the speech community through repeated usage that
they become automatic.
converse antonyms The relation between two words in which the exis-
tence of one implies the existence of the other.
creative The ability of speakers to coin a novel expression from a conven-
tional expression, or construe the same situation in alternate ways using
different linguistic expressions.

D
declaratives A declarative is a speech act which causes a change of some
sort in the world.
decomposition The analysis of an expression in terms of semantic
components.
deictic expressions Also called indexicals. The linguistic forms which are
interpreted with reference to the speaker’s position in place and time.
deixis The mechanism which encodes the personal, spatial and temporal
dimensions of language by means of linguistic forms relative to the speak-
er’s standpoint.
denotation The literal, constant and basic meaning of an expression. It is
the relationship between an expression and the kind of thing it refers to in
the world. It is the core meaning which an expression has, as described in
a dictionary.
denotative The literal meaning of a word.
dependent The component subpart of an expression that is dependent on
the autonomous structure to complete its meaning.
descriptive The meaning of a word which bears on reference and truth. It
includes the act of both referring to something and stating its truth.
determinacy The factor relating to which of the component subparts deter-
mines the profile of the composite structure as a whole. A composite struc-
ture consists of two or more subparts. Of the two or more subparts, one
lends its profile to the entire composite structure.
dictionary theory The theory according to which the core meaning of
a linguistic item is the information contained in the item’s definition. It
focuses on linguistic knowledge in defining lexical items.
diminution An area of knowledge in which somebody or something is
made small in size, young in age, or less in value.
direction A case of dynamicity which describes the route in which an event
is viewed.
 Glossary 193

directives A directive is a speech act in which the speaker attempts to get

the hearer to do something.
direct speech acts Speech acts in which an explicit relationship exists
between the linguistic form and the communicative function of an
utterance.
disambiguation The process of establishing a single interpretation for an
ambiguous word or sentence.
distal form The deictic form that means away from the speaker like that,
there or then.
domain A knowledge background with respect to which concepts can be
properly described. It is a coherent area of conceptualization relative to
which the meanings of lexical items can be characterized.
dynamic The meaning of a linguistic expression is flexible in the sense of
extending its scope to express new experiences.
dynamicity The dimension which shows how a conceptualization unfolds
through processing time. It illustrates how the specific course of develop-
ment is a significant aspect of our mental experience.

E
Egocentric Viewing Arrangement The view in which the speaker includes
himself or herself as part of the scene s/he describes.
elaboration The factor which relates to how one component subpart
contains a schematic hole which the other component subpart serves to
elaborate.
elaboration site/e-site The hole within the semantic structure of a depen-
dent substructure, which is filled by an autonomous substructure.
embodied The structure of reality, as reflected in language, is a product
of the human mind and human embodiment. The meaning of a linguistic
expression is determined in large measure by the nature of our bodies.
emotive The strong feelings, especially of anger, which a subject, state-
ment or use of language has on the people.
encyclopaedic knowledge The structured body of non-linguistic knowl-
edge to which a linguistic expression such as a word potentially provides
access.
encyclopaedic theory The theory according to which the meaning of a lin-
guistic item includes everything that is known about its referent. It focuses
on both linguistic and non-linguistic knowledge in defining lexical items.
endocentricity The case where the meaning of a compound is a specializa-
tion of the meaning of its head.
194 Semantics

entailment A semantic relation between a pair of sentences in which the

second is the implicit consequence of the first.
essential condition A felicity condition which compels the speaker to per-
form an act.
euphemism The phenomenon in which a word or phrase is used instead of
another to avoid being unpleasant, indecent or offensive.
experiencer The entity which is psychologically affected by an action.
expression The meaningful unit of language such as an affix, word, phrase
or sentence.
expressive The semantic quality of an expression which is used inde-
pendently of context.
expressives An expressive is a speech act in which the speaker expresses
feelings or attitudes about something.
extension The set of things which an expression applies to.

F
facet A portion of a domain which is associated with a particular concept.
Any facet is expressed by an appropriate form of language.
felicity conditions Certain criteria which must be met if the speech act is
to achieve its purpose.
field The speaker‘s scope of awareness, i.e. everything evoked in describ-
ing a situation.
figure The entity which is distinguished from a background, i.e., the
ground.
focus The central point of a sentence in which speakers are most interested
and to which they pay a special attention.
focusing The mental act of giving attention to one particular part of an
expression rather than another.
focusing devices The grammatical structures used to express foregrounding.
foregrounding Also called highlighting. The act of highlighting a part
of a sentence by making it the main point of attention and consequently
emphasizing its importance.
form The orthographic representation associated with a linguistic expres-
sion. The form serves to express meaning.
formalist The paradigm that focuses on the formal aspects of language.
It includes the decompositional conceptions of meaning: componential,
conceptual and primitive. It considers language a system which should be
studied in isolation, both from its users and its cognitive processes.
 Glossary 195

Frame Semantics A theory of meaning according to which word meanings

can only be properly understood and described against the background of
a particular body of knowledge known as a frame.
free alternation The substitutability of one expression for another in a
given environment. In this way, synonymous expressions are considered
free alternatives.
free variation The phenomenon in which two or more linguistic items can
occur in the same environment without signalling any change in meaning.
full analysability The case when the phonological substructures of a com-
posite structure match up, one to one, with their semantic substructures.
full compositionality The case when the meaning of a composite structure
is fully determined by the meanings of its substructures and the manner in
which they are combined.
function ambiguity The case when a phrase in a sentence fulfils two or
more grammatical functions.

G
generalization commitment The characterization of linguistic structures
should reflect principles from other aspects of human language like mor-
phology, phonology, pragmatics, syntax and semantics.
goal The entity towards which something moves.
gradable antonyms The lexical relation between two words in which the
degree of opposition is not absolute. Gradable antonyms normally have a
contrary relation.
ground The background against which the figure stands out.
grouping ambiguity The case when a phrase in a sentence can be arranged
in two ways, and so can have two readings.

H
head The central element within an expression which determines its syn-
tactic and semantic character.
holistic The assumption that the meaning of a word is determined its rela-
tions with the other words in the language.
holonym The word which names the whole and includes parts.
homography The relation between two or more words which are spelt
alike but have different meanings and different pronunciations.
homonymy The relation between two words which sound alike but differ
in meaning, or the relation between two words which have the same spell-
ing but different meaning.
196 Semantics

homophony The relation between two or more words which are pro-
nounced alike but have different spellings and meanings.
honorific markers Expressions used to show respect for the person you
are speaking to.
hyperonym The superordinate word which has a general meaning.
hyponym The subordinate word which has a specific meaning.
hyponymy The lexical relation between two words in which the meaning
of one is included in the meaning of the other.

I
iconicity The phenomenon where the form of a sign bears some resem-
blance to its meaning, or where the structure of language bears similarity
to conceived reality.
idiom A non-compositional expression that has a particular meaning that is
different from the meanings of the individual words in it.
idiomaticity The lexical relation that deals with a group of words whose
meaning is different from the meanings of the individual words.
illocutionary act The act of producing an utterance which serves to com-
municate information such as advising, promising, stating, thanking,
warning, and so on.
image schema A conceptual representation which emerges from human
bodily interaction with the world. It is a dynamic pattern which is grounded
in human bodily movements through space.
immediate scope The portion in an expression which is directly relevant
for a particular purpose.
implication The act of suggesting something without saying it directly.
implicature A semantic relation between a pair of sentences in which the
first is said but the second is meant.
indeterminacy The difficulty of identifying the referent in an expression.
indirect speech acts Speech acts in which an implicit relationship exists
between the linguistic form and the communicative function of an
utterance.
inference A conclusion which a hearer draws about something unsaid
based on existing evidence or general knowledge.
initial salience The quality of a participant of being the most significant
participant within an expression.
instances Specific units which represent situations or events. They are
regarded as the basis on which schemas are built.
instrument The means by which something is done.
 Glossary 197

integration The combination of the component subparts of a composite

structure into a linear sequence. The integration process is conditioned
by parameters such as correspondence, dependence, determinacy and
constituency.
intension The set of properties an expression has.
interpretation The way the meaning of the resulting composite struc-
ture is explained. It resides in the two principles of compositionality and
analysability.
inventory A detailed list of all the linguistic resources which speakers
exploit in constructing units for serving particular purposes.

J
juxtaposition The ability of words to combine horizontally.

L
landmark The secondary participant in a relationship.
language A structured inventory of linguistic units defined as form-
meaning pairings used for communicating ideas and feelings.
language user A member of a particular linguistic community who uses
language for the sake of communication.
lattice The set of mental spaces which arise when talk unfolds and thought
proceeds.
lexical ambiguity The case when a word has more than one meaning.
lexical concepts The meanings associated with words. The conventional
form which conceptual structure assumes when encoded in language.
lexical field (I) A network which subsumes words that are related in mean-
ing, each of which represents a special feature. (II) The theory according
to which the meaning of a linguistic item is described relative to the rela-
tionship it holds with its counterparts.
lexical/sense relation A pattern of association that exists between words
in a language. Two types of lexical relation exist: paradigmatic and
syntagmatic.
lexical semantics The branch of semantics which deals with the meanings
of words.
lexical triggers Certain words in the first sentence which presuppose the
truth of the information stated in the second sentence.
linguistic unit Also called symbolic structure. Any unit which consists of
a semantic structure, a phonological structure and a symbolic relationship
between them.
198 Semantics

linguistics The scientific study of language. It studies the cognitive pro-

cesses involved in producing and understanding language.
location The place where an action happens.
locutionary act The act of simply producing an utterance which follows
the grammatical rules of language.

M
matrix The set of domains which provide the context for the full under-
standing of a semantic unit.
maximalist An approach to meaning in which differences between seman-
tics and pragmatics are not recognized.
maximal scope The full extent of the coverage of an expression.
maxim of manner The principle that requires speakers and hearers to be
brief, clear and orderly.
maxim of quality The principle that requires speakers and hearers to be
truthful.
maxim of quantity The principle that requires speakers and hearers to be
economical and informative.
maxim of relevance The principle that requires speakers and hearers to be
relevant.
maxims Basic rules which participants should adhere to in any ordinary
conversation.
meaning The semantic content associated with a linguistic expression. The
meaning is expressed by form.
meaningful The claim that all language elements have semantic values.
Language is a means of conveying meaning; therefore all its resources
serve to carry out this function.
mental space A form of conceptual structure in which a particular mental
construct is set up on the basis of a general scenario to understand a mes-
sage. It is a temporary package of knowledge structure, which is built up
through ongoing discourse for interpretive purposes.
meronym The word which names the part of another word.
meronymy Also called partonymy. The lexical relation between two words
in which the meaning of one names a part of the meaning of the other.
metaphor The form of conceptual structure that involves mapping between
two things from distinct areas of knowledge, where one is compared with
the other.
 Glossary 199

metonymy The form of conceptual structure that involves mapping

between two things within the same area of knowledge, where the name
of one is substituted for the name of the other with which it is connected
in some respect.
mode A case of dynamicity which describes the scene as being in motion
or not.
modifier The subpart that has a schematic entity in its semantic structure
which is elaborated by the head. It adds non-intrinsic or additional infor-
mation to the head.
mood The form of a verb in a sentence which expresses the speaker’s atti-
tude towards the content of an utterance.
motivated The relationship between the form and meaning of a linguistic
expression is often motivated or inseparable. The meaning of a linguistic
expression arises as the outcome of stimulation to achieve a desired goal.

N
narrow view The view in which the speaker considers a minimal range of
content in describing a situation.
non-gradable antonyms Also called complementaries or binary antonyms.
The lexical relation between two words in which the degree of opposi-
tion is absolute. Non-gradable antonyms normally have a contradictory
relation.
non-modular An approach to language which claims that there is no auton-
omous portion of the brain which is specialized for language. Linguistic
abilities are inseparable from other cognitive abilities.

O
objectivism The theory which stipulates that symbols used in language get
their meaning via correspondence with things in the external world.
objectivity The dimension in which the speaker expresses distance from
the situation being described. There is distant relationship between
the speaker and the content of the situation. Objectivity represents the
OVA, where the speaker excludes himself or herself from the scene s/he
describes.
Optimal Viewing Arrangement The view in which the speaker excludes
himself or herself from the scene s/he describes.
order A case of dynamicity which describes the order in which events
occur.
200 Semantics

P
pairing The act of mating the phonological and semantic poles of a lin-
guistic expression for communicative purposes.
paradigmatic relation A pattern of relationship between the morphemes
of a composite structure in a vertical order. It is based on the criterion of
substitution.
paraphrase The semantic relation between a pair of sentences in which the
second is an alternative version of the first without changing its proposi-
tional meaning.
partial analysability The case when the phonological substructures of a
composite structure fail to correspond with their semantic substructures.
partial compositionality The case when the meaning of a composite struc-
ture is determined by both the semantic contribution of its substructures
and the pragmatic knowledge behind what is actually symbolized.
patient The entity which undergoes the action expressed by the verb.
periphery The remaining members in a category that contain some, not all,
of the attributes.
perlocutionary act The act of producing an utterance which serves to
make something happen such as convincing, deterring, misleading, per-
suading, surprising, and so on.
person deixis The deictic form which is used to point to people.
perspective The particular way of viewing a situation, which can shift
according to one’s intention.
pleonasm The use of a word to emphasize what is clear without it.
polyseme A word or phrase that has multiple meanings.
polysemy The tendency of a linguistic item, lexical or grammatical, to
have a range of different meanings that are related in some way. A word
which has more than one distinct but related meaning is said to be polyse-
mous or polysemic.
preparatory condition A felicity condition which obliges the speaker not
to exceed his/her authority in the performance of an act.
presupposition The semantic relation between a pair of sentences in which
the second is the implicit presumption of the first.
primitive Regarding the primitive conception, known as Natural Semantic
Metalanguage, the meaning of an expression can be defined in terms of a
small set of semantic primes or primitives.
primitives Indivisible atoms of meaning which combine to form a more
complex meaning.
 Glossary 201

Principle of Contrast The principle according to which every two forms

contrast in meaning. Pairs of expressions are neither identical in meaning
nor equal in use.
profile Also called figure. The conceptual referent within the array of con-
ceptual content invoked by the item. It is the substructure that an expres-
sion designates.
profile determinant Also called head. The substructure which lends its
profile to the entire composite structure. It determines its categorical sta-
tus, establishes its core meaning, and selects its dependents.
profiling The mental act of singling out a substructure which functions as
the focal point of attention in an expression.
prominence The quality of eminence given, often in different degrees, to
the substructures of a conception relative to their importance.
proposition The semantic content of an expression which describes a state
of affairs in the world.
prototype The ideal or central member of a category. It assembles the key
attributes of the category.
proverb A non-compositional expression whose meaning is different from
the meanings of the individual words in it. It is meant as advice or warning.
proximal form The deictic form that means near the speaker like this, here
or now.

Q
quantification An area of knowledge which refers to the act of specifying
the quantity of an instance of a thing.

R
reference (I) The theory of meaning according to which the meaning of a
word is tied to an actual object in the world. (II) The act of using a word
or phrase, either earlier or later in the discourse, to enable the hearer to
identify an entity.
referring expression The word or phrase that is used to refer to an entity.
referent The specific entity which an expression stands for on any occa-
sion of use.
referential In view of the referential conception, the meaning of an expres-
sion derives from its reference to an actual object in the external world.
relational In virtue of the relational conception, the meaning of an expres-
sion is determined by its position in a network in which it is related to
other expressions.
202 Semantics

relational antonyms The lexical relation between two words which, unlike
the gradable ones, are not susceptible to degrees of opposition, and, unlike
the non-gradable ones, they are not an either-or matter in character.
representational In connection with the representational conception,
known as Cognitive Semantics, the meaning of an expression is linked to
a particular mental representation, termed a concept.
reversive antonyms The relation between two words which involves
opposition in direction.
rivalry The case when two or more affixes or lexical expressions occur in
the same environment but convey different messages.

S
salience The quality of a participant of an expression of being noticeable,
obvious and conspicuous.
scalar quantification The magnitude of something measured against a
scale.
schema A pattern which is specified in general terms and elaborated by
its instances in detailed ways. It is a mental representation with a general
meaning, whose specifics are elaborated by its instances in contrasting
ways.
scope The array of conceptual content that an expression specifically
evokes and relies upon for its characterization.
selection restrictions Syntactic-semantic restrictions which govern the
co-occurrence of words. It is the tendency of a word to select another
word with which it can co-occur.
semantic components The features of meaning which combine to form a
complex meaning.
semantic primes Indivisible atoms of meaning which combine to form a
more complex meaning.
semantic prosody The pattern in which a word co-occurs with other words
that belong to a particular semantic set.
semantic roles Also called functional/thematic/participant. The semantic
relations that link a verb to its arguments.
semantic structure The meaning which stands for the conceptual struc-
ture. It is the meaning that is conventionally associated with linguistic
expressions.
sense The concept represented by the meaning of an expression. It is the
meaning of an expression that is basic to its individual identity.
 Glossary 203

sentence A well-formed string of words put together by the grammatical

rules of a language.
sentence meaning The literal meaning of a sentence taken out of context,
which is built up from the meanings of the words it contains.
sentential ambiguity Also called structural or grammatical. The case
when the structure of a sentence has two or more meanings.
sentential relation The pattern of association that exists between sen-
tences in a language.
sentential semantics The branch of semantics which deals with the mean-
ings of phrases and sentences.
sequential scanning The cognitive process of construing a situation seri-
ally as it evolves through time.
set quantification The magnitude of something measured against a full set.
simple sentence A sentence which consists of only one clause.
simple word Also called monomorphemic. A word that is composed of
only one lexical structure, which is morphologically indivisible.
sincerity condition The felicity condition which requires the speaker to be
sincere in the performance of an act.
social The meaning of a word that is governed by the social rules of inter-
action. It refers to the use of a particular expression in language which
indicates the social relationship between the speaker and the addressee.
social deixis The social relationship between speaker and hearer which is
encoded by certain linguistic forms.
source (I) The entity from which something moves. (II) In metaphor,
aspects of a more familiar area of knowledge are placed in comparison
with aspects of a less familiar area of knowledge, called the target.
space builders The linguistic elements that serve as triggers for opening
new mental spaces or shifting focus to existing ones.
space deixis The deictic forms which are used to point to location.
speech act The act which a speaker performs by using an utterance to
communicate.
structured The property of units being related to one another in organized
ways.
subjectivism Also called experientialism. The theory which stipulates that
symbols used in language get their meaning via correspondence with con-
ceptualizations of the world.
subjectivist The theory of meaning which emphasizes the importance of
world experience to the representation of linguistic expressions and rec-
ognises the speaker’s capacity to construe a situation in alternative ways.
204 Semantics

subjectivity The dimension in which the speaker expresses involvement

in the situation being described. There is a close relationship between the
speaker and the content of the situation. Subjectivity represents the EVA,
where the speaker includes himself or herself as part of the scene s/he
describes.
subordinate The meaning of a word which display a high degree of
specificity.
substance The form and meaning which an expression has. The form is
the phonological representation. The meaning is the idea conventionally
associated with it.
substitution The ability of morphemes to replace each other vertically
within a particular context.
summary scanning The cognitive process of construing an entire situation
simultaneously in a cumulative fashion.
superordinate The meaning of a word which displays a high degree of
generality.
symbolic The claim that language is a set of symbols or conventional
means that are available to language users for representing ideas or com-
municating thought.
synecdoche The process of using a part of something to represent the
whole or vice versa.
synonymy The lexical relation between two words in which the meaning
of one is similar, but not identical, to the meaning of the other. A word is
said to be a synonym of another word when one of its senses is the same
or nearly the same as the other.
synonym An expression that has the same or nearly the same meaning as
another in the same language.
syntagmatic relation The pattern of relation between the words of a linguis-
tic structure in a linear order. It is based on the criterion of juxtaposition.
synthetic sentence A sentence which may be true or false depending on the
way the world is.

T
target In metaphor, aspects of a less familiar area of knowledge are placed
in comparison with aspects of a more familiar area of knowledge, called
the source.
tautology A kind of expression in which you repeat the same word twice,
conveying an additional meaning which goes beyond what the words
mean.
 Glossary 205

taxonomy Also called lexical hierarchy. The systematic way of classifying

words by arranging them into categories.
time The time when an action happens.
time deixis The deictic forms which are used to point to time.
trajector The focal, or most prominent, participant in a relationship.
truth conditions The conditions of objective external reality against which
an expression can be judged true or false.
truth-conditional The theory which sees the meaning of an expression as
being the same as, or reducible to, its truth conditions. The meaning of an
expression is identified with the conditions in the world under which it is
true or false.

U
unit Any simple or composite expression which is frequently used and
thoroughly mastered, thus acquiring the status of a habit. It carries a lexi-
cal or grammatical pattern and serves a particular purpose.
usage based The quality of linguistic units being authentic. Knowledge
of language is knowledge of how language is used. Language patterns
emerge as a result of generalizations made from actual instances of lan-
guage use.
usage event An actual utterance used to serve a particular purpose in
communication.
use The way the language user construes content.
utterance A particular piece of language, be it a word, phrase or sentence,
spoken by a specific speaker on a specific occasion.
utterance meaning Also speaker meaning. The non-literal meaning of an
expression, word or sentence, which is derived from the context in which
it is used.

V
vagueness Lack of referential clarity, which results from giving little infor-
mation about something.
valence The mechanism whereby two grammatical expressions combine to
form a composite expression.
vantage point The position from which the same objective situation is
observed and described, resulting in different construals and different
structures.
viewing arrangement The relationship between the speaker and the situ-
ation being described.
206 Semantics

vocatives The deictic forms which point to the social status of the addressee.

W
word A symbolic unit which has an identifiable meaning and a phonologi-
cal shape. It is a combination of meaning and form.
word meaning The literal meaning of a word taken out of context, which
is derived from the morphemes it consists of.

Z
zeugma The use of a word which has to be interpreted in two different
ways at the same time in order to make sense.
Further Reading
1 General Topics
Cognitive Linguistics
Croft, W., & Cruse, D.A. (2004). Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511803864
Dirven, René. & Marjolijn Verspoor. (eds) (1998). Cognitive Explorations of
Language and Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Evans, V., & Green, M. (2006). Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Edinburgh:
Edinburgh University Press.
Lee, D. (2001). Cognitive Linguistics:Aan introduction. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Ungerer, F., & Schmid, H.-J. (2006). An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics.
Harlow: Pearson Longman.

Cognitive Grammar
Langacker, R. (1987). Foundations of Cognitive Grammar. (Vol. 1). Theoretical
Prerequisites. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Langacker, R. (1991). Foundations of Cognitive Grammar. (Vol. 2). Descriptive
Application. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Langacker, R. (2008). Cognitive Grammar: A Basic Introduction. New York: Oxford
University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195331967.001.0001
Radden, G., & Dirven, R. (2007). Cognitive English Grammar. Amsterdam: John
Benjamins. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/clip.2
Taylor, J. (2002). Cognitive Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Cognitive Morphology
Bybee, J. (1985). Morphology: An Inquiry into the Relation Between Meaning and
Form. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/tsl.9
Hamawand, Z. (2007). Suffixal Rivalry in Adjective Formation. A Cognitive-Corpus
Analysis. London: Equinox.
Hamawand, Z. (2008). Morpho-Lexical Alternation in Noun Formation. London:
Palgrave Macmillan. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230584013
Hamawand, Z. (2011). Morphology in English. Word Formation in Cognitive
Grammar. London: Continuum.
Tuggy, D. (2005). Cognitive approach to word formation’. In Pavol Stekauer &
Rochelle Lieber. (eds) Handbook of Word-Formation, 233–265. Netherlands:
Springer http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3596-9_10
208 Semantics

Semantics
General Semantics
Cruse, D. Alan. (1986). Lexical Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cruse, D. Alan. (2004). Meaning in Language: An Introduction to Semantics and
Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hofmann, T. (1993). Realms of Meaning: An Introduction to Semantics. London:
Longman.
Hurford, J., & Heasley, B. (1983). Semantics: A Coursebook. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Löbner, S. (2002). Understanding Semantics. London: Arnold.
Lyons, J. (1977). Semantics (2 Vols). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lyons, J. (1995). Linguistic Semantics: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511810213
Saeed, J. (1997). Semantics. Oxford: Blackwell.

Cognitive Semantics
Hamawand, Z. (2009). The Semantics of English Negative Prefixes. London: Equinox.
Lakoff, G. (1988). Cognitive semantics. In Umberto Eco, Marco Santambrogio &
Patrizia Violi (eds). Meaning and Mental Representations, 119–154. Bloomington,
IN: Indiana University Press.
Langacker, R. (1988). A view of linguistic semantics. In Brygida Rudzka-Ostyn.
(ed.) Topics in Cognitive Linguistics, 49–90. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1075/cilt.50.04lan
Langacker, R. (1997). The contextual basis of cognitive semantics. In Jan Nuyts
& Eric Pederson. Language and Conceptualisation, 229–232. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Talmy, L. (2000). Toward a Cognitive Semantics, (2Vols). Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.

Formal Semantics
Allan, K. (2001). Natural Language Semantics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cann, R. (1993). Formal Semantics: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139166317
Heim, I., & Kratzer, A. (1998). Semantics in Generative Grammar. Oxford:
Blackwell.
Jackendoff, R. (1990). Semantic Structures. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Portner, P., & Partee, B. (Eds) (2002). Formal Semantics: The Essential Readings.
Oxford: Blackwell. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470758335
 Further reading 209

Pragmatics
Austin, J.L. (1962). How to Do Things with Words. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Davis, S. (Ed.). (1991). Pragmatics: A Reader. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Grice, H.P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. Cole & J.L. Morgan (Eds), Syntax
and Semantics (Vol. 3). Speech Acts, 41–58. New York: Academic Press.
Grundy, P. (2000). Doing Pragmatics. London: Arnold.
Levinson, S.C. (1983). Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mey, J. (2001). Pragmatics: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell.
Searle, J. (1969). Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139173438
Verscheuren, J. (1999). Understanding Pragmatics. London: Arnold.

2 Specialized Topics
Category
Rosch, E. (1977). Human categorisation. In Neil Warren (Ed.) Studies in Cross-
Cultural Psychology 1, 3–49. London: Academic Press.
Rosch, E. 1978. Principles of categorisation. In Eleanor Rosch & Barbara B. LIoyd
(Eds) Cognition and Categorisation, 27–48. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Rosch, E., & Mervis, C. (1975). Family resemblances: Studies in the internal
structure of categories. Cognitive Psychology, 7 (4), 573–605. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/0010-0285(75)90024-9
Taylor, J. (1989). Linguistic Categorisation. Prototypes in Linguistic Theory. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
Tsohadzidis, S.L. (Ed.). (1990). Meanings and Prototypes: Studies in Linguistic
Categorisation. London: Routledge.

Domain
Barsalou, L. (1992). Frames, concepts and conceptual Fields. In Adrienne Lehrer and
Eva Feder Kittay (Eds.), Frames, Fields and Contrasts: New Essays in Semantic
and Lexical Organisation, 21–74. London: Routledge.
Clausner, T., & Croft, W. (1999). Domains and image schemas. Cognitive Linguistics,
10 (1), 1–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/cogl.1999.001
Croft, W. (1993). The role of domains in the interpretation of metaphors and
metonymies. Cognitive Linguistics, 4 (4), 335–370. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/
cogl.1993.4.4.335
Fillmore, C. (1977). Scenes-and-frames. In Antonio Zampolli (Ed.) Linguistic
Structures Processing: 55–81. Dordrecht: Springer.
Fillmore, C. (1982). Frame semantics. In Linguistic Society of Korea (Ed.) Linguistics
in the Morning Calm: 111–138. Seoul: Hanshin.
210 Semantics

Construal
Casad, E. (1995). Seeing it in more than one way. In John Taylor & Robert Maclaury
(Eds) Trends in Linguistics, Language and the Cognitive Construal of the World,
23–45. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9783110809305.23
Croft, W., & Wood, E.J. (2000). Construal operations in linguistics and artificial intel-
ligence. In Liliana Albertazzi (Ed.), Meaning and Cognition: A Multidisciplinary
Approach, 51–78. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/
celcr.2.04cro
Hamawand, Z. (2002). Atemporal Complement Clauses in English: A Cognitive
Grammar Analysis. München: Lincom.
Langacker, R. (1988). A view of linguistic semantics. In Brygida Rudzka-Ostyn.
(Ed.) Topics in Cognitive Linguistics, 49–90. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1075/cilt.50.04lan
Verhagen, A. (2007). Construal and perspectivisation. In Dirk Geeraerts & Hubert
Cuyckens (Eds) The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, 48–81. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.

Mental Spaces
Dancygier, B., & Sweetser, E. (2005). Mental Spaces in Grammar: Conditional
Constructions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.
org/10.1017/CBO9780511486760
Fauconnier, G. (1994). Mental Spaces. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511624582
Fauconnier, G. (1997). Mappings in Thought and Language. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139174220
Fauconnier, G., & Sweetser, E. (1996). Spaces, Worlds and Grammar. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Fauconnier, G., & Turner, M. (2002). The way We Think: Conceptual Blending and
the Mind’s Hidden Complexities. New York: Basic Books.

Image Schemas
Clausner, T.C., & Croft, W. (1999). Domains and image schemas. Cognitive
Linguistics, 10 (1), 1–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/cogl.1999.001
Gibbs, R., Jr., & Colston, H. (1995). The cognitive psychological reality of image
schemas and their transformations. Cognitive Linguistics, 6 (4), 347–378. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1515/cogl.1995.6.4.347
Hampe, B. (Ed.). (2005). From Perception to Meaning: Image Schemas in Cognitive
Linguistics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9783110197532
Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination
and Reason. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
 Further reading 211

Mandler, J. (2004). The Foundations of Mind: Origins of Conceptual Thought.

Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Blending
Coulson, S. (2000). Semantic Leaps: Frame-Shifting and Conceptual Blending in
Meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Coulson, S., & Oakley, T. (Eds.) (2000). Special issue on conceptual blending.
Cognitive Linguistics, 11 (3/4), 175–360.
Fauconnier, G., & Turner, M. (2002). The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and
the Mind’s Hidden Complexities. New York: Basic Books.
Gibbs, R. (2000). Making good psychology out of blending theory. Cognitive
Linguistics, 11 (3/4), 347–358.
Sweetser, E. (2000). Blended spaces and performativity. Cognitive Linguistics, 11
(3/4), 305–334.

Conceptual Metaphor
Gibbs, R. (1994). The Poetics of Mind. Cambridge: Cambridge Universit Press.
Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, Fire and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal
about the Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.7208/
chicago/9780226471013.001.0001
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Lakoff, G., & Turner, M. (1989). More than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic
Metaphor. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.7208/
chicago/9780226470986.001.0001
Paprotté, W. & Dirven, R. (Eds.), The Ubiquity of Metaphor: Metaphor in Language
and Thought. Amsterdam: Benjamins. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/cilt.29

Conceptual Metonymy
Barcelona, A. (2003). ‘Introduction. The cognitive theory of metaphor and
Metonymy’. In A. Barcelona (ed.), Metaphor and Metonymy at the Crossroads: A
Cognitive Perspective: 1–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9783110894677.1
Dirven, R., & Pörings, R. (2002). Metaphor and Metonymy in Comparison and
Contrast. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Kövecses, Z., & Radden, G. (1998). Metonymy: developing a cognitive lin-
guistic view’. Cognitive Linguistics, 9(1), 37–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/
cogl.1998.9.1.37
Panther, K.-U., & Radden, G. (Eds) (1999). Metonymy in Language and Thought.
Amsterdam: Benjamins. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/hcp.4
Panther, K.-U., & Thornburg, L. (Eds) (2003). Metonymy and Pragmatic Inferencing.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/pbns.113
212 Semantics

3 Dictionaries
Language Dictionaries
Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary Online Available at: http://dictionary.
cambridge.org/
C.O.B.U.I.L.D. (1998). English Dictionary, Glasgow: Harper Collins Publishers.
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. (1995). (3rd ed.). London: Longman.
Online, M.-W.D. Available at: http://www.m-w.com.
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. (1995). (5th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University
Press.

Linguistics Dictionaries
Bauer, L. (2004). A Glossary of Morphology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Bussman, H. (1996). Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. London:
Routledge.
Crystal, D. (2002). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Oxford: Blackwell.
Matthews, P. (1997). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Trask, R. (1993). A Dictionary of Grammatical Terms in Linguistics. London:
Routledge.

4 Usage manuals
Fowler, H. (1996). Modern English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
MacKaskill, S. (1981). A Dictionary of Good English: A Guide to Current Usage.
London: The Macmillan Press Ltd.
Partridge, E. (1961). Usage and Abusage. A Guide in Good English. London: Hamish
Hamilton.
Peters, P. (2004). The Cambridge Guide to English Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511487040
Treble, H.A., & Vallins, G.H. (1961). An ABC of English Usage. Oxford: Clarendon
Press.
Answer Key
Chapter 1

Exercise 1.1
1. Said as the tool one is using comes apart in one’s hands.
2. His actions or words caused a disaster.
3. She really thought it would not be useful at all.
4. You are not a tidy cook.
5. You have done nothing.

Exercise 1.2
1. dirty 2. tricky 3. stubborn 4. Submissive 5. evil

Exercise 1.3
1. relax (v): to rest after work or effort: event
2. ring (n): a piece of jewellery that you wear on your finger: object
3. blue (adj): a colour we associate with a clear sky or sea: quality
4. linguist (n): a scientist who studies language: entity
5. I am sick (s): physically or mentally ill: situation

Exercise 1.4
1. The interjection ah expresses surprise.
2. The interjection alas expresses distress.
3. The interjection hey expresses indifference.
4. The interjection ugh expresses disgust.
5. The interjection wow expresses admiration.

Exercise 1.5
1. greeting informal/formal
2. asking about health informal/formal
3. acknowledging informal/formal
4. asking for repetition informal/formal
5. request informal/formal
214 Semantics

Exercise 1.6
1. indisposed 2. slim 3. economical 4. disabled 5. curious

Exercise 1.7
1. viewer: a person who watches television.
2. sightseer: a person who watches tourist places.
3. observer: a person who watches a meeting without taking an active
part in it.
4. onlooker: a person who watches an incident in a street.
5. spectator: a person who watches a sports event.

Exercise 1.8
1. Frail implies delicacy and slightness of structure, as in The teenager
is too frail to enjoy sports.
2. Weak applies to deficiency or inferiority in strength or power of any
sort, as in She felt weak after the surgery.
3. Feeble suggests extreme weakness inviting pity or contempt, as in
She made a feeble attempt to walk.
4. Fragile suggests frailty, brittleness and inability to resist rough usage,
as in The reclusive poet is too fragile for the rigours of this world.
5. Decrepit implies being worn-out or broken-down from long use or old
age, as in A decrepit elderly man sat on a park bench.

Exercise 1.9
1. juror: a member of a jury who decides the verdict in a trial.
2. referee: an official who controls the game in certain sports.
3. reviewer: a person who writes reviews of books, films or plays.
4. surveyor: a person who measures and records the details of a piece of
land.
5. arbitrator: a person who is chosen to settle a disagreement.

Exercise 1.10
1. shun: implies avoiding something as a matter of habitual practice
or policy and may imply repugnance or abhorrence, as in She has
shunned publicity since she retired from the theatre.
2. avoid: stresses forethought and caution in keeping clear of danger or
difficulty, as in They built a wall to avoid soil being washed away.
 Answer key 215

3. evade: implies adroitness, ingenuity or lack of scruple in avoiding

something, as in He evaded the question by changing the subject.
4. escape: stresses the fact of getting away or being passed by not nec-
essarily through effort or by conscious intent, as in She was lucky to
escape serious injury.
5. eschew: implies deliberately avoiding or keeping away from some-
thing as unwise or distasteful, as in We won’t have discussions with
this group unless they eschew violence.

Exercise 1.11
1. bag: a container made of cloth, plastic or leather, used for carrying
shopping or travelling items.
2. box: a container made of wood, cardboard or metal, used for holding
books, tools or matches.
3. sack: a container with made of strong paper or plastic, used for storing
flour or coal.
4. packet: a small container made of paper or cardboard used for packing
biscuits, cigarettes or crisps.
5. wallet: a small container made of leather or plastic used for keeping
paper money or credit cards in.

Exercise 1.12
1. forcible: involving the use of physical power, as in a forcible measure.
forceful: involving the use of mental power, as in a forceful argument.
2. displace: to move away people from their home to another place.
misplace: to put something somewhere and then be unable to find it
again.
3. triumphal: action done in order to celebrate a great success or victory.
triumphant: a person who is successful in a way that causes great
satisfaction.
4. observance: the practice of obeying a law, celebrating a festival or
behaving according to a particular custom.
observation: the act of watching somebody or something carefully for
a period of time, especially to learn something.
5. international: involving two or more countries.
intranational: involving one country.
216 Semantics

Chapter 2
Exercise 2.1
1. expelled 2. discharged 3. evicted 4. banished 5. dismissed

Exercise 2.2
1. non-gradable 2. gradable 3. relational 4. non-gradable
5. relational

Exercise 2.3
1. plain: 1. simple in style as in The rooms are quite plain. 2. honest as in
I will be plain with you. 3. clear as in The instructions were very plain.
2. over: 1. above or more as in Children of 14 and over are invited to the
programme. 2. across a street, an open space, etc. as in I stopped and
crossed over. 3. remaining, not used or needed as in If there’s any food
left over, put it in the fridge.
3. foot: 1. the lowest part of the leg as in What size foot have you got? 2.
the bottom of something as in There is a note at the foot of the page.
3. a measure of length as in She is five feet two inches tall.
4. run: 1. to move using your legs, going faster than when you walk as
in I had to run to catch the bus. 2. to go in a particular direction as in
The road runs along the side of a lake. 3. to organize or be in charge
of something as in They run a restaurant in Leeds.
5. mouth: 1. the opening in the face used for speaking, eating, etc. as in
Don’t talk with your mouth full. 2. a person considered only as some-
body who needs to be provided with food as in The world will not
be able to support all these extra hungry mouths. 3. the entrance or
opening of something as in They took a picture near the mouth of the
cave.

Exercise 2.4
1. Thankful is used especially for feelings of relief at having avoided a
danger or at having come through an unpleasant experience, as in I am
thankful that we got home before the storm started. Grateful is used
especially for people’s reactions to kindness, favours, etc. as in I am
very grateful for all your help.
2. Accurate implies property of precision acquired by training as in He
gave an accurate description of the event. Exact implies property of
 Answer key 217

precision that is inherent or native as in They need an exact measure-

ment of blood volume.
3. Repair is formal as in They are repairing the surface of the road. Fix
is informal as in He is trying to fix my old computer.
4. Quick stresses immediacy of response which is native rather than
acquired as in She was quick to point out that it wasn’t her fault.
Prompt stresses immediacy of response which is acquired by training
as in They are prompt in providing medical assistance.
5. Steal means to take something illegally from a person, shop, etc. It is
followed by the thing stolen, as in She admitted stealing the money
from her employers. Rob means to take money or property illegally
from a place, organization or person, often using violence. It is fol-
lowed by person or place, as in They robbed the bank of £2 million
and My wallet’s gone! I’ve been robbed!

Exercise 2.5
1. knife, fork, spoon 2. cups, plates, bowls 3. train, car, plane
4. cod, salmon, trout 5. sparrow, hawk, fowl

Exercise 2.6
1. flash, lens, tripod 2. monitor, keyboard, mouse
3. wheel, engine, tyre 4. ceiling, door, window
5. cellar, kitchen, study

Exercise 2.7
1. burning occurs with desire, blazing occurs with row
2. broad occurs with shoulders, wide occurs with eyes
3. make occurs with trouble, do occurs with exercise
4. profound occurs with book, deep occurs with well
5. powerful occurs with drug, strong occurs with smell

Exercise 2.8
1. Mutton is meat from sheep. 2. I heard a lion roaring.
3. The man passed away. 4. A stallion is a male horse.
5. The engine needs petrol.
218 Semantics

Exercise 2.9
1. achieve a goal, defeat an opponent
2. highly unlikely, utterly ridiculous
3. bitterly complain, strongly object
4. go bald, become extinct 5. fail miserably, smile proudly

Exercise 2.10
1. recall -ing gerund I can’t recall meeting her before.
2. intend -ing gerund/to-infinitive I intend staying/to stay long.
3. make bare infinitive She always makes me laugh.
4. pledge to-infinitive They pledged to continue
campaigning.
5. like -ing gerund/to-infinitive I like swimming/to swim.

Exercise 2.11
1. watch or look after something or someone
2. accept something unpleasant without complaining
3. sound familiar or you have heard before
4. avoid getting into trouble
5. hear something from other people

Exercise 2.12
1. hire a car 2. let a room 3. lease a video 4. rent a cottage
5. charter a boat

Chapter 3
Exercise 3.1
1. She was not only clever but also honest.
Apart from being clever, she was honest.
2. Staying indoors all the time is unhealthy.
It is unhealthy to stay indoors all the time.
3. It is believed that they knew the answer.
They are believed to have known the answer.
4. I will not leave under any circumstances.
Under no circumstance will I leave.
 Answer key 219

5. It is a pity they live so far away.

I wish they didn’t live so far away.

Exercise 3.2
1. contradictory 2. analytic 3. contradictory 4. analytic
5. synthetic

Exercise 3.3
1. The fox is dead. 2. The man is sleeping. 3. She was tired.
4. She bought a bird. 5. They were selling flowers.

Exercise 3.4
1. The furniture needed cleaning.
2. The children were complaining before.
3. I was ill. 4. There is an investigation. 5. She drove the car.

Exercise 3.5
1. She does not love him. 2. They went there as visitors.
3. The talk show was not that good.
4. Others don’t like playing dominos.
5. He can’t answer the call now.

Exercise 3.6
1. Quantity. The speaker has not provided enough information.
2. Relevance. The speaker’s answer is not related to the question.
3. Manner. The speaker’s answer is not orderly. B.A. should be 1980 and
M.A. 1982.
4. Quality. The speaker has failed to tell the truth.

Exercise 3.7
1. bank: margin of a river/a financial institution
2. backward: a place that is behind/less developed
3. take: give me a lift/take a legal action against me
4. glasses: drinking vessels/a pair of lenses in a frame
5. record: a disc on which music is recorded/the best result especially in
sport
220 Semantics

Exercise 3.8
1. Either we talked about the party which was held last night, or we
talked last night about the party.
2. Either small boys only and other girls, or small boys and small girls.
3. Either the chicken is ready to eat something, or the chicken is ready
for us to eat.
4. Either the idea is crazy, or the lawyer is crazy.
5. Either I like the café, or I like the district.

Exercise 3.9
1. Either the relatives who visit us are boring, or our visiting them is
boring.
2. Either the hunters are shooting something which is appalling, or
someone is shooting the hunters which is appalling.
3. Either planes which fly are dangerous, or flying the planes is
dangerous.
4. Either I like them separately or together.
5. Either she likes pets more than he likes them, or she likes pets more
than she likes him.

Exercise 3.10
1. He is not here. He is there in the garden. person, space
2. She agreed to visit them next summer. person, time
3. Would you like to see the menu, sir? person, vocative
4. There’s a car park in front of the hotel. space
5. Is Jim coming to tomorrow’s meeting? person, time

Exercise 3.11
1. expressive 2. directive 3. assertive 4. declarative
5. commissive

Exercise 3.12
1. agent 2. patient 3. instrument 4. beneficiary 5. location
6. time
 Answer key 221

Chapter 4
Exercise 4.1
1. loveable child: a child who has attractive qualities. Presumably, all
children can be loved, but not every child is loveable.
2. watchable film: a film that is enjoyable. Presumably, all films can be
watched, but not every film is watchable.
3. agreeable deal: a deal that is suitable. Presumably, all deals can be
agreed upon, but not every deal is agreeable.
4. readable book: a book that is enjoyable. Presumably, all books can be
read, but not every one is readable.
5. drinkable water: water that is safe to drink. Presumably, pond water
can be drunk, but it is not drinkable.

Exercise 4.2
1. iso-:/iː.zəʊ/, [ISO], equal
2. eco-:/iː.kəʊ/, [ECO], environment
3. -itis: /aitis/, [ITIS], illness
4. hydro-: /haidrəʊ/, [HYDRO], water
5. -ology: /-ɒ|.ə. ɗʒi/ [OLOGY], study of

Exercise 4.3
1. big occasion, large salary 2. quick meal, fast food
3. right decision, correct answer 4. strong evidence, powerful drug
5. dangerous mission, perilous road

Exercise 4.4
1. fresh 2. pleasant 3. polite 4. spotless 5. accurate
6. lawful 7. fair 8. empty 9. smooth 10. complete

Exercise 4.5
1. a. The present simple tense expresses habitual or everyday activity.
b. The present continuous tense expresses an activity that is in prog-
ress at the moment of speaking.
2. a. The present perfect expresses an action that happened at an
unspecified time in the past.
222 Semantics

b. The present perfect continuous expresses an action that began in

the past and continues to the present.
3. a. The present perfect expresses a situation that began in the past
and continues to the present.
b. The present perfect expresses a situation that began in the past
and finished recently.
4. a. Will is used to express a willingness to do an action in the future,
no prior plan has been made.
b. Going to is used to express a prior plan which the speaker intends
to do in the future.
5. a. The present simple tense expresses a timeless truth or condition.
b. The present continuous tense expresses a temporary condition.

Exercise 4.6
1. COMPULSION 2. BLOCKAGE 3. DIVERSION
4. ENABLEMENT 5. ATTRACTION

Exercise 4.7
1. a. The sentence implies that the family received the letter.
b. The sentence implies that it is not sure if the family received the
letter.
2. a. The helper participates directly in the action for which he is giv-
ing assistance.
b. The assistance is felt as mediate or indirect.
3. a. The sentence implies direct means of achieving a result are
employed.
b. The sentence implies indirect means of achieving a result are
employed.
4. a. The subject is closely concerned with the action of attending the
baby.
b. The subject is less concerned with the action of attending the
baby.
5. a. The sentence describes an event in which the speaker has the
power or the legal right to make the confession happen.
b. The sentence describes an event in which the speaker merely
claims that a certain obligation existed.
 Answer key 223

Exercise 4.8
1. Preference 2. Advice 3. Invitation 4. Opinion 5. Request

Exercise 4.9
1. rim cup, glasses, wheel
2. edge knife, cliff, table
3. fringe city, hair, woodland
4. frame bicycle, picture, glasses, window
5. border country, garden, pillowcase

Exercises 4.10
1. a. means he jumped on the surface of the table, i.e. touching it.
b. means he jumped from one side of the table to the other without
touching it.
2. a. means she moved within the garden.
b. means she moved from a position outside the garden into the
garden.
3. a. means at exactly the correct time, neither early nor late.
b. means with enough time to spare, before the last moment.
4. a. means the grass is short.
b. means the grass is long.
5. a. means the street is at the back of the station.
b. means the street is further away in distance from the station.

Chapter 5
Exercise 5.1
1. He holds a thought. 2. Time is passing quickly.
3. I am crazy about her. 4. He clings to his beliefs.
5. Your argument is vacuous.

Exercise 5.2
1. CONSCIOUS IS UP 2. UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN
3. VIRTUE IS UP 4. BAD IS DOWN 5. HEALTH IS UP
224 Semantics

Exercise 5.3
1. The state of being in love is construed as a container.
2. Violence is construed as an entity.
3. Law is construed as a person.
4. The depression is construed as a container.
5. Unemployment is construed as an entity.

Exercise 5.4
1. CONTAINER FOR CONTENT
2. PLACE FOR EVENT (the name of a place is used for the event that
occurred in that place)
3. PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT (The name of film director is used for
his films)
4. MATERIAL FOR OBJECT
5. PLACE FOR INSTITUTION (the British parliament and government)

Exercise 5.5
1. STATES ARE LOCATIONS 2. SIMILARITY IS NEARNESS
3. QUANTITY IS VERTICAL ELEVATION
4. DESIRE IS HUNGER 5. PURPOSES ARE DESTINATION

Exercise 5.6
1. This sentence can set up two spaces which we can identify as speak-
er’s reality and the film. In the first interpretation, there is a kind of
referential shifting between the two mental spaces: Catherine is the
name of a person in reality, but the speaker uses her name to describe
the film images of her acting the role of a psycho. This kind of inter-
pretation can be described as: real-life Catherine plays the film part of
a psycho. In the second interpretation, there is no referential shifting
between the two mental spaces: Catherine is the name of a character
in the film space and we predicate of this character that she is a psy-
cho. This kind of interpretation can be described as: in the film the
character Catherine is a psycho.
2. This sentence can set up two spaces which we can identify as a reality
space and a wish space. In the wish space which is unlikely or impos-
sible, Nancy wants to marry a film star. In the reality space, we have
two interpretations. In the specific interpretation, there is a film star,
 Answer key 225

but Nancy has not yet married him. In the non-specific interpretation,
there is no such film star.
3. If I were you, I would accept the offer. This sentence sets up two
spaces: a reality space and a counterfactual space. It contains the con-
ditional conjunction if and is in the past tense. In the reality space, the
person is described as being hesitant. In the hypothetical space, the
speaker is firm.
4. This sentence sets up two mental spaces, one representing the now of
the speaker, the other representing the time 1985. The first identifies a
wife in the 1985 time space, and is consistent with the speaker either
having the same wife in the now space or not. The second is that the
person who is speaker’s wife now was not his wife in 1985, but is
referred to as my wife by a shift linking the mental spaces.
5. This sentence is ambiguous. It could mean that every time we see
your father’s car, some aspect of the car has changed. For example,
it might have had some new spare parts. Alternatively, it could mean
that your father has a new car every time we see him.

Exercise 5.7
1. motor + hotel
2. The word brunch is morphologically composed of breakfast and
lunch. Semantically, certain elements of the input spaces breakfast
and lunch are projected into the blended space brunch, in which some
additional meanings emerge. A brunch is typically a meal eaten late in
the morning on Saturday and Sunday. It may include alcoholic drinks
such as champagne.
3. motor + pedal
4. breath + analyser
5. information + entertainment

Exercise 5.8
1. Just as the soul is the heart of something so is brevity is the essence of
intelligence.
2. A root is the primary source of everything just as money is the source
of all evil.
3. Quicksand is a potential trap for the traveller just as vanity is a poten-
tial trap for beauty.
4. A mirror reflects an object just as speech reflects the mind.
226 Semantics

5. A mother gives birth to children just as necessity gives birth to

invention.

Chapter 6
Exercise 6.1
1. For example, a phrase like red carpet brings together two seman-
tic poles: pink designates or profiles a subpart of the COLOUR
SPECTRUM, and brings with it as part of its structure a schematic
TR. This schematic TR is specified only as PHYSICAL OBJECT,
which is a schematic instance of THING. In other words, part of the
meaning of red, which is an instance of the lexical class adjective, is
that it relates to some entity, a TR, which is red. While the TR is not
specified, we know that pink is relational in this way (it has to be a
property of something), which is part of what it means for red to be an
adjective. Carpet designates a specific type of PHYSICAL OBJECT
among its other far richer semantic specifications. The association
of these two semantic poles within the phrase maps the semantically
specific carpet onto the schematic semantic TR of red. At the phono-
logical pole, the association of the two simplex symbolic units entails
that they are pronounced sequentially, one after the other.
2. vandalism
3. under the bed
4. our friend James Joyce
5. This is an example of a nominal apposition, involving the juxtaposi-
tion of two expressions each of which profiles a thing. Both compo-
nent structures her husband and the lawyer profile things, and their
profiles correspond, so both correspond to the composite-structure
profile.

Exercise 6.2
1. As a composite whole, jar lid profiles the same entity as lid: a jar lid is
a kind of lid, not a kind of jar. Lid is thus the profile determinant in jar
lid because the profiles of lid and jar lid correspond (whereas neither
corresponds to the profile of jar).
2. As a composite whole, boredom designates a thing. The suffix -dom
functions as the profile determinant.
 Answer key 227

3. As a composite whole, inessential profiles a relationship. The prefix

in- functions as the profile determinant.
4. As a composite whole, in the drawer designates a relationship of spa-
tial inclusion, not the closet. In functions as the profile determinant
because the relationship it profiles corresponds to the relationship
profiled by in the drawer.
5. As a composite whole, the phrase send the letter designates a relation.
The verb send functions as the profile determinant.

Exercise 6.3
Autonomous: leak, leisure, qualify, sprinkle, budget
Dependent: -age, -ly, dis-, be-, -ary

Exercise 6.4
228 Semantics

Exercise 6.5
1. Care that is given during the day.
2. Feeling that is situated in the heart. 3. Hunt for a criminal.
4. Plate made of silver. 5. Bowl used for holding sugar.

Exercise 6.6
1. A person who does not like spending money.
2. A book that is in stiff covers. 3. A type of personal stereo.
4. A person who lacks experience.   5. A shark.

Exercise 6.7
1. The area in a courtroom wherein the jury sits.
2. A box in which documents are kept.
3. A section, as in a stadium, kept for reporters to work in.
4. A small confined place in which there is a public phone.
5. A box that plays a musical tone when you open it.

Exercise 6.8
1. A very intelligent person.
2. Someone who is very successful at their job and soon becomes pow-
erful or rich.
3. Someone who complains all the time and is never happy.
4. A story that someone has invented in order to deceive people.
5. A business or product that makes a lot of money for someone.

Exercise 6.9
1. By repairing a small tear now we avoid the necessity of repairing a
large tear later. The moral of this proverb is that prompt action at an
early stage may prevent serious trouble in the future.
2. Do not judge a thing by its attractive appearance. The lesson this
proverb teaches is that never base your opinion of anything merely on
what it looks like for appearances are deceptive.
3. The religious meaning is that you will be punished or rewarded
according to whether you have led a virtuous or a sinful life. In much
the same way, all of us are responsible for the consequences of our
actions, so we must put up with them.
 Answer key 229

4. Do not wait until tomorrow, for rain may ruin the harvest. By exten-
sion, the proverb means that we should always take advantage of
favourable circumstances. When an opportunity to do a thing arises,
you should take full advantage of it for you may never get another
one.
5. Birds of the same kind travel in company. In the same way, people
with similar tastes or interests tend to come together in groups.

Exercise 6.10
1. To have a problem. 2. To be very easy. 3. Strong and healthy.
4. To make extremely angry. 5. Difficult to believe.

Exercise 6.11
1. An illness that affects the nose, eyes and throat and is caused by pol-
len from plants that is breathed in from the air.
2. A container that is used for coffee.
3. A place in which fruit is sold.
4. Bread that is made from wheat.
5. The people who work at a college.

Exercise 6.12
1. A person who is outside normal society, i.e. a criminal.
2. A person who spoils other people’s enjoyment.
3. A book which is bound in flexible covers.
4. A very stupid person.
5. A poisonous snake.

Exercise 6.13
1. To be very eager to hear what someone is going to say.
2. Stop work for the day.
3. To be in charge of an organization or an activity.
4. To be more successful than anyone you are competing against.
5. To be unable to speak because you are so surprised.

Exercise 6.14
1. Events, especially misfortunes, always come together. One misfor-
tune is followed closely by another.
230 Semantics

2. It is what is behind the man, namely his character, which really

matters.
3. A person who never stops long in a place or constantly changes his
job will never make money. People whose love affairs are so casual
and frequent gain no real or enduring affection.
4. Do not make a fuss about nothing. Do not turn a trifling matter into a
major disaster.
5. It is better to accept something small than to reject it and hope to get
more later on.

Exercise 6.15
1. To do something if necessary in a difficult situation.
2. The thing was silly or not valuable to do.
3. Being unpleasant or frightened.
4. It is their turn to take action or to reply.
5. Agree with each other.

Chapter 7
Exercise 7.1
un-
Prototypically, the prefix un- is tied to adjectival bases to express distinction,
having the following semantic variants: (a) ‘the antithesis of what is speci-
fied by the adjectival base’. This meaning proceeds when the prefix is tied to
adjectives, simple or complex, describing humans. The formations are grad-
able and express contrariety. In some cases, it describes traits. For example,
uncooperative is the antithesis of cooperative. In some cases, it describes
nationality. For example, unAmerican means the antithesis of an American
national in characteristics. (b) ‘distinct from what is specified by adjectival
base’. This meaning proceeds when the prefix is tied to adjectives, simple or
complex, describing non-humans. The formations are gradable and express
contrariety. For example, unofficial is distinct from being official. (c) ‘not
subjected to what is specified by adjectival base’. This meaning proceeds
when the prefix is tied to complex adjectives denoting quality, participles
ending in -ed or -ing. For example, undressed means not dressed.
Peripherally, the prefix un- is tied to other bases to express other mean-
ings, having the following semantic variants: (a) ‘inverting what is specified
by the verbal bases’. The meaning of reversal proceeds when the prefix is
 Answer key 231

tied to verbal bases denoting action, meaning that the object has the phys-
ical ability to undergo change. For example, unclose means inverting the
action of closing. (b) ‘taking away what is specified by the nominal base’.
The meaning of removal proceeds when the prefix is tied to concrete nouns,
with the resulting formation denoting separation or release. For example,
unchain means taking away a chain from somebody or something. (c) ‘bereft
of what is specified by the nominal base’. The meaning of privation pro-
ceeds when the negative prefix is tied to abstract nouns. In some formations,
the nouns imply non-action. For example, unease means something which
is bereft of ease. In other formations, the nouns imply action. For example,
unbelief means lacking belief.
The figure below presents a graphical representation which captures the
multiple uses of the negative prefix un-. Note that the solid arrow represents
the prototypical sense, whereas the dashed arrows represent the semantic
extensions.

-ure
Prototypically, the suffix -ure is tacked on to verbs to form nouns. Its meaning
is founded on the semantic property of transitivity. Relative to the nature of
the root, the suffix acquires the following senses: (a) ‘the action of perform-
ing the thing described in the root’. This sense emerges when the verbal roots
are transitive. For example, closure is the act of closing something, erasure
is the act of removing something. (b) ‘the result of the action described in the
root’. This sense appears when the verbal roots are transitive. For example,
enclosure is the result of being surrounded. (c) ‘the body which performs
the thing described in the root’. This sense follows when the verbal roots are
intransitive. For example, judicature is a body of persons having the power
to make decisions.
232 Semantics

Peripherally, the suffix -ure is attached to nouns to form nouns. Its mean-
ing is founded on the semantic distinction concrete vs. abstract. Based on the
nature of the root, the suffix acquires the following senses: (a) ‘the position,
rank or office of the thing described in the root’. This sense proceeds when
the nominal roots are concrete and the nouns describe things connected with
people. For example, prefecture is the office, position or territory of a prefect.
(b) ‘the state of being the thing described in the root’. This sense surfaces
when the nominal roots are concrete and the nouns describe conditions in
which people are. For example, candidature is the state of being a candidate.
The multiple senses of the suffix -ure are diagrammed in the figure below.
Note that the solid arrow represents the prototypical sense, whereas the
dashed arrows represent the semantic extensions.
For the semantic network of the remaining prefixes in A, see Hamawand’s
book The Semantics of English Negative Prefixes.

For the semantic network of the remaining prefixes in A and suffixes in B,

see Hamawand’s book Morpho-lexical Alternation in Noun Formation, and
Suffixal Rivalry in Adjective Formation: A Cognitive-Corpus Analysis.

Exercise 7.2
Anticipatory it
Prototypically, the pronoun it is assigned the status of reference. In this role,
it means ‘referring back to an entity which has previously been mentioned in
the discourse’. An entity is something that exists as a material object in the
real world or a non-material concept in the imagined world. In this use, it is
parallel with other third person pronouns. Relative to its nature, the entity
is of the following types: (a) In some cases, the entity is concrete. In Have
you seen my book? Yes, it is on the table, it refers back to a lifeless object
 Answer key 233

represented by book. This sense can be semantically extended to anaphoric

senses for other kinds of antecedents. In Have you been to London? Yes, it
was very crowded, it refers back to a place represented by London. In Many
people watch the BBC. It started broadcasting in 1937, it refers to an organi-
zation. In The bear approached Patrick. It has thick fur, it refers back to an
animal, especially when its gender is not known. Some people use it to refer
to babies in this way, as in The mother feeds the baby. The father bathes it. (b)
In other cases the entity is abstract. In Everyone is asking for love. Few seem
able to provide it, it refers back to an emotion. In Truth is important. One
must always speak it, it refers back to a concept. In Thousands live in poverty.
We must combat it, it refers back to a condition or state. In I am trying to get
a taxi. You won’t find it easy, it refers back to an entire situation, in which an
event coded as a clause is reified as a kind of abstract thing. (c) In rare cases,
it is cataphoric. In this role, it means ‘referring forward to an entity which
comes later in the discourse’. This is a case of right-dislocation, moving an
element to the end of a sentence. It is found mainly in spoken language. It is
used to add clarification to a noun phrase. The entity could be concrete, as in
I liked it, the food. It could be abstract, as in I enjoyed it, dancing the tango.
Peripherally, the pronoun it is assigned the status of non-reference. In this
role, it means ‘profiling a setting within which an activity is introduced’. A
setting represents the region within which an event unfolds or a situation
obtains. It is an expanse within which an activity is introduced or a context
within which it emerges. Depending on the nature of the complement, the
setting is of two types: (a) In some instances, the setting is concrete. In It
is five o’clock or It is Tuesday, it profiles a temporal setting, a location in
time within which an action occurs. Recall that English allows sentences
like Monday witnessed a historic development, in which Monday profiles a
temporal setting within which the action of development is conceptualized
to occur. Normally, one cannot conceptualize an event without connecting it
with the time in which it occurs. In It is freezing, it profiles a spatial setting,
a location in space represented by the environment, within which the action
of freezing takes place. Recall that English allows sentences like Chicago is
freezing. Naturally, one cannot conceptualize a meteorological event with-
out connecting it with the environment causing it. (b) In further instances,
the setting is abstract. In It is tragic to hear the news of a plane crash, it
is used as an anticipatory subject, and so the construction is referred to as
a setting-subject construction. It profiles an abstract setting within which a
situation represented by a complement clause takes place. Moreover, it codes
the general circumstances that surround the occurrence of the complement
234 Semantics

clause. In I would hate it if they said so, it is used as an anticipatory object,

and so the construction is referred to as a setting-object construction. It pro-
files an abstract setting within which a situation represented by a complement
clause takes place. Moreover, the presence of it serves to iconically distance
the content of the complement clause from the main clause subject.

Complementizer –ing
To the -ing gerund, one can attribute precisely the same value that an -ing has
in a progressive construction. In this function, the -ing refers specifically to
an activity which is in progress at the moment of time serving as the reference
point for the utterance. It imposes on a process a restricted immediate scope
of predication comprising an arbitrary series of internal states. It confines the
profile to these component states and portrays them as homogeneous. In She
is pruning the roses, the -ing progressive refers to an ongoing activity which
is happening at exactly the same speech time. The activity of pruning takes
place over some period of time relative to the moment of speaking. Like
the progressive, the -ing gerund takes an internal perspective on the action
described by the verb stem, to the exclusion of the initial and final states. The
only difference is that the former is grounded in time, whereas the latter is
ungrounded.
I assume the meaning of the temporary ongoingness of an activity evoked
by the -ing as central. This core meaning can be extended into two different
values for the gerundial -ing.
The first extended value, which is closely related to the one above, is
simultaneity, where two durative events happen at the same time. This value,
which is the hallmark with complements marked by -ing gerund, is compat-
ible with the notion of happening now, or sameness of time. It is found after
two classes of verbs. In a sentence containing a verb expressing a mental
activity like She considers accepting the offer, the complement event is men-
tally concurrent with the main event, but physically it is not necessarily so.
In a sentence containing a verb expressing an emotional reaction like Kate
enjoys dancing the tango, the value of something happening now is properly
included in the description of the complement event. This implies that if one
enjoys doing anything, one takes delight or pleasure in it at the very time one
is doing it. To verify this value, the use of an adverb of time such as yesterday
would render the sentence ungrammatical, but the use of now would not, as
in She considers now accepting the offer now/*yesterday.
The second extended value is anteriority, where the complement event
temporally precedes the time of the utterance expressed by the main verb.
 Answer key 235

This value is analogous with the notion of factivity, where the speaker of the
sentence presupposes that the action expressed by the complement is true or
has taken place. This sense is found after verbs expressing communication,
as exemplified in He admits tripping her up. That is, the -ing clause describes
a situation which is actual in relation to the process represented by the main
verb admit. This implies that the event of making her fall, by putting his foot
in front of her when she was moving, has actually occurred and happened
before the event of admitting. To verify this value, it would be contradictory
to use a follow-up expression rejecting the complement content, as in He
admits tripping her, *but he hasn’t done it.
For the semantic network of the remaining grammatical elements, see
Hamawand’s book Atemporal Complement Clauses in English: A Cognitive
Grammar Analysis.
For convenience, I will summarize in the figure below the semantic struc-
ture of the -ing complementizer.

The semantic network of the complementizer -ing

Exercise 7.3
Drive
The verb drive is polysemous. Prototypically, it has the following senses. (a)
‘to make a vehicle move along’. In this sense, the agent is human, while the
thing driven is a concrete entity, as in She drives a red sports car. (b) ‘to take
someone somewhere in a car’. In this sense, the thing driven is a concrete
human entity, as in She drove Anna to London. (c) ‘to force something into
a state’. In this sense, the thing driven is an abstract entity, as in The govern-
ment has driven the economy into deep recession. (d) ‘to force someone to
go somewhere’. In this sense, both the agent and the thing driven are human,
as in They drove the occupying troops from the city. (e) ‘a short private road
236 Semantics

which leads from a public road to a house’, as in I parked in the drive. (f) ‘a
journey in a car’, as in Shall we go for a drive this afternoon?
Peripherally, the verb drive has the following senses. (a) ‘to provide the
power to keep something working. In this sense, both the agent and the thing
driven are concrete non-human entities, as in The engine drives the wheels.
(b) ‘to force someone into a particular state, often an unpleasant one;. In this
sense, the agent is an abstract entity, whereas the thing driven is a concrete
human entity, as in Love has driven men and women to strange extremes.
(c) ‘to force someone into a particular state, often an unpleasant one. In this
sense, both the agent and the thing driven are concrete human entities, as in
She’s driving me crazy. (d) ‘energy and determination to achieve things’, as
in We are looking for someone with drive and ambition. (e) ‘a planned effort
to achieve something’, as in The latest promotional material is all part of
a recruitment drive. (f) ‘to state something in a very forceful and effective
way’, as in The speaker really drove his message home, repeating his main
point several times.

Chapter 8
Exercise 8.1
Non- and (to a lesser degree) a- favour a contradictory reading, which arises
from non-gradable bases.
1. Non- conspicuously describes a choice between two different plans of
action, as in They were accused of non-observance of the terms of the
contract.
2. A- noticeably describes a choice between two opposing features of
things, as in They promote wound healing by adherence to aseptic
technique.
By contrast, the negative prefixes dis-, un- and in- favour a contrary
reading, which arises from gradable bases.
3. Dis- occupies the lowest level on the scale of contrariness. It is used
mainly to evaluate attitudes of people. In this use, it is unfavourable
in character, as in Beware of dishonest traders in the tourist areas.
4. Un- occupies a medium level on the scale of contrariness. It is used
chiefly to evaluate properties of things. In this use, it is disapproving
in character, as in The small front garden is untidy; it is full of bushes.
5. In- occupies the highest level on the scale of contrariness. It is used
mostly to evaluate properties of situations. In this use, it is critical in
character, as in The contributions are statistically insignificant.
 Answer key 237

Exercise 8.2
1. On means during a particular day, that is part of the week or date, as
in They’ll be here on Tuesday, I was born on July 1st, We will see you
on Christmas Eve, etc.
2. In means during part or all of a period of time that belongs to month,
season or year, as in We are going to Italy in April. Some trees lose
their leaves in autumn, I started working here in 1991, etc.
3. At means an exact or a particular time that is part of the day, as in
There’s a meeting at 6 o’clock, Are you free at lunchtime?, They will
see each other at Easter, etc.
4. By means not later than a special time, that is at or before it, as in She
promised to be back by five o’clock, We need a firm decision by the
end of the week, The application must be in by the 31st to be accepted,
etc.
5. For is used to show an amount or period of time, as in She’s out of the
office for a few days next week, I’m just going to bed for an hour or
so, I haven’t played tennis for years, etc.

Exercise 8.3
1. Hire means to employ somebody for a short time to do a particular
job, as in They hired a firm of consultants to design the new system.
2. Employ means to give somebody a job to do for payment, as in The
company employs 1200 people.
3. Engage means to employ somebody to do a particular job, as in He is
currently engaged as a consultant.
4. Recruit means to find new people to join a company, an organization,
the armed forces, as in They recruited several new members to the
club.
5. Appoint means to choose somebody for a job or position of responsi-
bility, as in They have appointed him (as) captain of the team.

Chapter 9
Exercise 9.1
1. The adjective earthen means ‘resembling earth in make’, as in The
hut had an earthen floor and a thatched roof. An earthen floor is floor
that is made of soil or composed of baked clay. The adjective earthy
means ‘resembling earth in quality’, as in The old cellar was damp
238 Semantics

and had an earthy smell. An earthy cellar is a cellar that resembles

earth in smell.
2. The adjective childish means ‘having the character of a child’, as in
None of his friends tolerates his childish outbreaks of temper. A per-
son who is childish is immature, irrational and impatient. The adjec-
tive childlike means ‘having the character of a child’, as in At 85, she
retains a childlike curiosity about her environment. A person who is
childlike is innocent, fresh and honest.
3. The adjective compulsive means ‘tending to compel’, as in He suffers
from the addictive disease of compulsive gambling. Compulsive gam-
bling is behaviour that is difficult to stop or control; the compulsion
is due to internal urges. The adjective compulsory means ‘tending to
compel’, as in There are external exams at the end of compulsory
schooling. Compulsory schooling is something people are obliged to
do because it is a law; the compulsion is due to external urges.
4. The adjective documental means ‘relating closely to document’,
as in They have not produced documental proof of their identity.
Documental proof is proof that provides a crucial piece of informa-
tion about the truth of something. The adjective documentary means
‘relating closely to document’, as in We watched a documentary film
on gold miners in Africa. A documentary film is a film that provides
simple or general information about something.
5. The adjective adventurous means ‘causing or inspiring adventure’, as
in The adventurous manoeuvre of the staff secured the firm profits. An
adventurous manoeuvre is one that is difficult but exciting, so clev-
erly planned as to obtain an advantage. The adjective adventuresome
means ‘causing or inspiring adventure’, as in They don’t like drivers
to be so adventuresome as to wreck cars. An adventuresome driver
is a driver who tends to take excessive risks, so daring as s/he lacks
discretion.

Exercise 9.2
1. This is a case of subject-to-object raising. In (a), the non-raised vari-
ant, the overall complement clause that Susan will leave, which func-
tions as the main clause landmark, is accorded the focal status. In (b),
in the raised counterpart, the focal prominence is conferred on the
trajector of the complement clause Susan, which also functions as the
main clause landmark.
 Answer key 239

2. This is a case of subject-to-subject raising. In (a), in the non-raised

variant, there is absence of a candidate for focal prominence. Instead,
the whole complement clause, which functions as its trajector, is
accorded the focal status. In (b), the focal status in the raised coun-
terpart is conferred on the most salient participant in the complement
clause Anna. This second meaning emerges only out of the use of a
to-infinitival complement.
3. This is a case of object-to-subject raising. In (a), in the non-raised
variant, the entire complement clause, which is located in the subject
region, serves as the trajector of the adjective, whereas in (b), in the
raised counterpart the landmark of the complement clause serves as
its trajector.
4. This is a case of converting a non-extraposed into extraposed con-
struction. In the non-extraposed version in (a), the complement clause
is in profile and hence chosen as subject. The complement clause
serves as the trajector of the adjective, and so is coded as subject. In
this type of construction, the speaker takes a narrow view of the com-
plement event. Semantically, the content of the complement clause is
considered the only stimulus that induces the evaluation. So, the rea-
son for the evaluation is deemed unilateral, in the sense that the com-
plement content is held solely responsible for the evaluation made
by the speaker. The act of arguing about a trivial issue functions as a
sole stimulus, and consequently induces a certain judgement by the
speaker.
   In the extraposed version in (b), the pronoun it is in profile and
hence chosen as subject. The speaker’s scope of awareness, i.e. field,
profiled by it serves as trajector, and so is coded as subject. In this
type of construction, the speaker takes a broad view of the comple-
ment event. Semantically, it represents a global stimulus subsuming
the general circumstances which are responsible for the inducement
of the evaluation. The global stimulus embraces two components: the
complement content which is central and the general circumstances
surrounding its occurrence, including its consequences such as sever-
ing ties with people or distorting one’s image in the eyes of people.
So, the reason for the evaluation is deemed multilateral.
5. This is a case of an active and passive pair of sentences. The distinc-
tion relates to a shift in perspective which entails changing the relative
prominence attached to the participants in the profiled relationship. In
240 Semantics

(a), in the active variant, the agent is the focal participant. In (b), in the
passive variant, the patient is the focal participant.

Exercise 9.3
1. Distance 2. Time 3. Degree 4. Progress 5. Difficulty
6. Wise 7. Effect 8. Very drunk or ill 9. Importance
10. Success.

Exercise 9.4
1. A trainer is a person who trains people or animals for sport or work. A
trainee is a person who is being trained for a job.
2. A rescuer is a person who saves someone or something from a situa-
tion of danger or harm. A rescuee is someone who is in a dangerous
situation.
3. An adopter is a person who legally takes someone else’s child into
their own family and treats them as one of their own children. An
adoptee is a child who has been legally been made as part of a family
that s/he was not born into.
4. An examiner is someone who tests someone knowledge or skill in a
particular subject. An examinee is someone whose knowledge or skill
is being tested.
5. An interviewer is the person who asks questions in an interview. An
interviewee is a person answers questions in an interview.

Exercise 9.5
1. In (a), the lamp is interpreted as the thing being located. The lamp
has trajector status only by virtue of how the situation is linguistically
expressed. It reflects the speaker’s decision to say where the lamp
is, and thus to use above, which puts primary focus on the vertically
higher participant. In (b), the same lamp is only a landmark. The table
is the entity being located.
2. In (a), the sculpture is the focal participant and the seashell is the
secondary participant in the profiled relationship. Accordingly, the
sculpture constitutes the trajector, whereas the seashell constitutes the
landmark. In (b), the situation is reversed. The seashell is the focal
participant and the sculpture is the secondary participant in the pro-
filed relationship. Accordingly, the seashell constitutes the trajector,
while the sculpture constitutes the landmark.
 Answer key 241

3. In (a), focus is placed on the trajector of the complement the driver,

while in (b) focus is placed on the landmark the car. The difference
is against which participant the order is being exerted; in the first it is
the driver, whereas in the second it is the car.
4. Here, in front of and behind rely on vantage point to specify the tra-
jector’s location vis-à-vis the landmark. We use (a) when the phone
box intervenes in the line of sight. In this case, the phone box is the
trajector while the house is the landmark. We use (b) when the house
intervenes in the line of sight. In this case, the house is the trajector
while the phone box is the landmark.
5. This is a temporal relation. Both before and after designate what is
referentially the same relationship. The semantic contrast between
them resides in their choice of trajector and landmark, not in content
or profiling. In (a), the status of trajector is conferred on the guests. In
(b), it is conferred on the pronoun we.

Exercise 9.6
1. In (a), the main verb order represents potential reality in the sense that
it evokes the subsequent potentiality of the complement event. The
occurrence of the complement clause is futurized as compared to the
time denoted by order. Potential reality: refers to a future event that
possibly happens. In (b), the main verb persuade represents projected
reality in the sense that it evokes the subsequent actualization of the
complement event. Projected reality refers to a future event that cer-
tainly happens.
2. In (a), in the bare infinitive structure, the complement event of play-
ing in the garden has initial salience, while the participant involved
in that event the kids becomes salient only secondarily. In this type of
construction, the whole complement clause elaborates the landmark
of the main verb let. There is temporal coincidence between the event
of the main verb and the event of the complement verb. In (b), in the
to-infinitive structure, the complement subject the kids receives initial
salience, and is therefore recognized as the primary landmark of the
main verb allow, while the complement clause to play in the garden
as its secondary landmark. There is temporal subsequence between
the event of the main verb and the event of the complement verb.
3. In (a), the complement verb is not preceded by to. The bare infini-
tive construction evokes a realized event. It is characterized as a form
242 Semantics

of non-subsequence involving coincidence in time between the two

events: that of the main verb and that of the complement verb. In (b),
the complement verb is preceded by to. The to-infinitive construction
expresses a non-realized event. It is characterized as a form of subse-
quence. That is, the event expressed by the complement verb follows
the event expressed by the main verb.
4. In (a), without from, direct means of achieving a result are employed.
This sentence would be the appropriate thing to say if the main clause
subject employed some direct means, e.g. jumping into the water and
dragging the boy to the bank. In (b), with from, indirect means of
achieving a result are employed. This sentence would be the appro-
priate thing to say if the main clause subject used indirect means, e.g.
calling the attention of those swimming nearby, or throwing the boy a
lifejacket.
5. In (a), where the two nouns in object position is separated by the prep-
osition to, the implication drawn is that it is not sure if the applicant
received the chance. In (b), where the two nouns in object position
are juxtaposed, the implication drawn is that it is sure the applicant
received the chance.

Exercise 9.7
1. In each sentence, the word glass is used differently. In (a), it is used as
a mass noun. It refers to substance. A mass noun is non-count noun. In
(b), it is used a count noun, It refers to distinct objects. This shows that
many nouns, however, can be either count or non-count, depending on
their meaning and context.
2. The two sentences are used to describe the same state of affairs but in
a different fashion. Intuitively, the difference between a few and few is
that the former is positive whereas the latter is somehow negative. As
evidence, any, which requires a negative context, is compatible with
few, but not with a few, as in Few people can afford to buy any house.
A few means a small number of people or thing. Few means hardly
any of people or thing.
3. The verb phrase in sentence in (a) is in present simple. It describes
a general statement, implying that this is a habit or behavioural trait.
The verb phrase in sentence in (b) is in present continuous. It describes
a specific statement, implying that this is an activity that is going on at
the present time.
 Answer key 243

4. In (a), the bone is being affected by the dog’s action. In (b), it is only
the meat and gristle on the bone that is being affected.
5. The verb phrase in (a) is in future continuous. It expresses an activity
that will be in progress at a time in the future. The verb phrase in (b) is
in future perfect. It expresses an activity that will be completed before
another time or event in the future.

Exercise 9.8
1. These presuppose different speaker locations: In (a), the speaker is in
the tower. In (b), the speaker is down below.
2. In (a), the coming is seen from the hearer’s vantage point. In (b), it is
seen from the speaker’s vantage point.
3. In (a), Andy’s position is reckoned from the speaker’s vantage point.
In (b), Andy’s position is reckoned from the Jane’s vantage point.
4. In these examples, the vantage point is extended to time. In (a), I
describe the situation from Jill’s vantage point. In (b), I describe the
same ongoing situation from my own vantage point.
5. In (a), the vantage point is located inside the room. The subject of the
sentence is the door, which is the theme: a passive entity whose loca-
tion or state is described. In this example, open is an intransitive verb:
it requires no object. The vantage point is located inside the room. In
(b), the vantage point is located outside the room. The subject of the
sentence is two thieves, which is the agent: the entity that intention-
ally performs the action of opening the door. In this example, open is
transitive (it requires an object: the door). The vantage point is located
outside to the room. What comes first in the sentence (the subject)
corresponds to what is viewed first by the human experiencer, and this
provides us with clues for reconstructing the vantage point.

Exercise 9.9
The personal complement clause construction in (a) codes a subjective con-
strual of the complement clause seen from the vantage point of the main
clause subject. Personal complement clause constructions convey the main
clause subject’s involvement in the event profiled in the complement clause.
As the speaker of the scene, the main clause subject relates the scene he
describes exclusively to himself, and consequently appears more commit-
ted to its realization. Such a sentence represents EVA (Egocentric Viewing
Arrangement) and gives a subjective perspective of the scene conceptualized.
244 Semantics

The experience of going on holiday in (1a), killing animals in (2a), reaching

the pinnacle of career in (3a), living on a tropical island in (4a) and travelling
around by train in (5a) is assigned to a specific entity (the main clause sub-
ject), the sentence is construed subjectively.
The impersonal complement clause construction in (b), which begins with
it, codes an objective construal of the complement clause seen from the van-
tage point of the speaker. Impersonal complement clause constructions con-
vey the speaker’s distance from the event denoted in the complement clause.
As the speaker of the scene, the speaker adopts an external vantage point
of the scene and displaces himself from the person engaged in the activity.
Consequently, the speaker appears less committed to its realization. Such
a sentence represents OVA (Optimal Viewing Arrangement) and gives an
objective perspective of the scene conceptualized. Because the experience
of going on holiday in (1b), killing animals in (2b), reaching the pinnacle of
career in (3b), living on a tropical island in (4b) and travelling around by train
in (5b) is assigned to a non-specific entity (general), the sentence is construed
subjectively.

Exercise 9.10
1. The event in (a) is scanned sequentially over time. This is due to the
use of a verb. The event in (b) is scanned summarily as a whole with-
out being scanned through time. This is due to the use of a noun.
2. The verb call in (a) profiles a process. It comprises a series of com-
ponent states scanned successively from one point in the series to
another. The series are construed as different. The noun call in (b)
comprises a series of component states which are scanned summarily
in one go. The series are construed as identical.
3. The example in (a) invokes a stationary perspective. This has to do
with distance, where distal correlates with stationary. If the perspec-
tive point is stationary, it is in synoptic mode. The example in (b)
invokes a motion perspective, as a result of which the children are
seen one or some at a time. This has to do with distance, where proxi-
mal correlates with motion. If the perspective point is moving, it is in
sequential mode.

Exercise 9.11
1. The two sentences evoke the same overall spatial configuration, but
they build it up in different ways, thereby providing very different
 Answer key 245

conceptual experiences. The difference is that the (a) variant zooms

in from the largest area to successively smaller ones, whereas the (b)
variant starts from the smallest area and zooms out to a larger area.
2. The two sentences evoke the same overall temporal configuration,
but they contrast semantically because each conceptualization has its
own time course, unfolding in a particular way through processing
time. The contrast is that in the (a) variant the sequence in which the
component expressions occur correlates with an ordering of the con-
ceptualizations they symbolize, while in the (b) variant the sequence
diverges from their order of occurrence or even runs directly counter
to it. The contrast is in the order from most important things to less
important ones.

Exercise 9.12
1. The sentences are not semantically equivalent, despite using the
same words to characterize the same objective situation. The order
of words induces us to access the conceptions they symbolize in the
corresponding order. In (a), it starts with the backyard and ends in the
gate. In (b), it starts with the gate and ends with the backyard.
2. The sentences symbolize two scanning paths which run counter to
each other. The difference in word order correlates with the difference
in attention. In (a), the scanning path starts at the east and ends at the
west. In (b), the scanning path starts at the west and ends at the east.
3. The difference relates to the direction from which the two events
are viewed. The direction in (a) is prospective. The event-sequence
is viewed from the perspective of the first event, i.e. giving the tip.
That is, the perspective point is located at the temporally earlier event
(giving the tip), from which the speaker looks forward to the later
event (leaving the hotel). The direction in (b) is retrospective. The
event-sequence is viewed from the perspective of the second event,
i.e. leaving the hotel. That is, the perspective point is located at the
temporally later event (leaving the hotel) and the viewing direction is
backwards, towards the earlier event (giving the tip).

Exercise 9.13
1. The form of the verb imposes a particular profile on the interpreta-
tion of the each expression. In (a), the present simple foregrounds
the endpoints of the designated process. This sentence is used when
246 Semantics

someone views the whole process. In (b), the -ing progressive back-
grounds the endpoints (beginning and end) of the designated process.
This sentence is used when someone views only the internal part of
the process.
2. The meaning of each construction is reflected by its structure, i.e.
symbolized by the presence of to and by the juxtaposition of the nom-
inals. In terms of initial salience, in the (a) version it is the direct
object a postcard, whereas in the (b) version it is the indirect object
her mother. Therefore, the two constructions embody different mean-
ings. Only the second implies that her mother has received the letter.
3. In the active sentence in (a), the most important participant, i.e. the
city council, is in profile and consequently chosen as subject. In the
passive sentence in (b), the less important participant, i.e. the new
mall, is in profile and consequently chosen as subject.
4. In (a), the leaving of the police is presumed to cause the violence to
erupt. In (b), the police left before the violence broke out.
5. The two sentences have different syntactic structures, and so have
different semantic values. The two sentences share the same semantic
content, but that content is construed differently by the speaker. In
(a), the implication drawn is that only part of the wall is smeared.
This is reflected by the fact that the wall is separated from the verb
by a preposition. In (b), the implication drawn is that the whole wall
is smeared. This is reflected by the fact that the wall, being a direct
object, is close to the verb.

Exercise 9.14
In the non-extraposed version in (a), the complement clause is in profile and
hence chosen as subject. The complement clause serves as the trajector of the
adjective, and so is coded as subject. In this type of construction, the speaker
takes a narrow view of the complement event. Semantically, the content of
the complement clause is considered the only stimulus that induces the eval-
uation. So, the reason for the evaluation is deemed unilateral, in the sense
that the complement content is held solely responsible for the evaluation
made by the speaker. The complement content functions as a sole stimulus,
and consequently induces a certain judgement by the speaker. A construction
of this type simply highlights the role of the situation as a target of evalu-
ation. The reason is that in this type of construction the speaker’s scope of
awareness is limited.
 Answer key 247

In the extraposed version in (b), the pronoun it is in profile and hence

chosen as subject. The speaker’s scope of awareness, i.e. field, profiled by
it serves as trajector, and so is coded as subject. In this type of construc-
tion, the speaker takes a broad view of the complement event. Semantically,
it represents a global stimulus subsuming the general circumstances which
are responsible for the inducement of the evaluation. The global stimulus
embraces two components: the complement content which is central and
the general circumstances surrounding its occurrence. So, the reason for the
evaluation is deemed multilateral. A construction of this type, which is intro-
duced by it, subsumes the range of considerations that can be brought to bear
for the evaluation. The reason is that in this type of construction the speaker’s
scope of awareness is non-delimited.
Index

accommodation, 113, 187 cognitive operations, 72, 121, 189

affective, 10, 187 Cognitive Semantics, vii, 18, 22, 59,
agent, 57,187 73–80, 82, 189
ambiguity, 48–51, 68, 187 cohesion, 52, 189
analogy, 71, 187 co-hyponyms, 30, 189
analysability, 109, 115–117, 120, 187 colligation, 35, 38, 189
analytic sentence, 42–43, 187 collocation, 29, 33, 38, 189
anaphor, 52, 187 co-meronyms, 31, 189
anaphora, 52, 187 commissives, 55, 189
anomaly, 32, 38, 187 communicative strategy, 41, 189
antecedent, 52, 187 compatibility, 33, 189
anti-antonyms, 27, 187 complement, 33–34, 106, 189
antonymy, 17, 25, 38, 187 complex sentence, 39, 189
arbitrariness, 75, 187 complex word, 23, 189
assertives, 54, 187 Componential Analysis, 12, 15, 22, 189
atomistic, 15, 187 composite structure, 66, 104, 190
auto-antonyms, 26, 187 compositionality, 21, 109–112, 120, 190
autonomous, 107, 187 compounding, 99, 112, 190
compound sentence, 39, 190
backgrounding, 41–42, 183, 188 compound word, 23, 99, 112, 190
base, 148, 169, 174, 183, 188 concept, 18, 64, 65, 190
base space, 95, 188 conceptual, 12, 16, 22, 190
blend, 83, 98–100, 102, 188 conceptual content, 162, 190
blending, 83, 98–100, 102, 188 conceptualization, 59, 79, 122, 159–186,
benefactive, 57, 188 190
broad view, 184, 188 conceptualized, 79, 82, 190
conceptual structure, 19, 83–84, 102, 190
cataphor, 52, 188 conceptual system, 18–19, 83–84, 190
cataphora, 52, 188 configuration, 121, 141–158, 190
categorization, 121, 125–140, 188 connotation, 7, 29, 190
category, 121, 125, 139, 188 connotative, 10, 190
causer, 57, 188 constancy under negation, 44, 191
classical, 76, 85, 125, 126–140, 188 constituency, 108, 120, 191
clause, 39–40, 188 construal, 72, 80, 122, 159, 160, 162–186,
cliché, 115, 119, 188 191
cognitive, 81, 188–189 container, 18, 67, 74, 89, 93, 191
cognitive commitment, 62, 189 containment, 74, 191
Cognitive Linguistics, 59, 61–73, 81, 189 context, 40, 68, 69, 191
 Index 249

contextual meaning, 40, 191 expressive, 9–10, 22, 194

contradiction, 42, 58, 191 expressives, 55, 194
contradictory sentence, 42, 191 extension, 7, 194
co-operative principle, 47, 191
correspondence, 104, 120, 191 facet, 121, 145, 147, 157, 194
co-text, 40, 191 felicity conditions, 55–56, 194
conventional, 71, 191 field, 184, 194
conventional implicature, 46, 191 figure, 104, 148, 172, 182, 183, 194
conversational implicature, 46, 191 focus, 42, 194
conventionalized metaphors, 86, 192 focusing, 182–185, 194
converse antonyms, 26, 192 focusing devices, 42, 194
creative, 59, 71, 81, 192 foregrounding, 41, 182–183, 194
form, 5, 67, 194
declaratives, 55, 192 formalist, 20–21, 194
decomposition, 12, 14–15, 78, 192 Frame Semantics, 146, 195
deictic expressions, 51, 192 free alternation, 162, 195
deixis, 51, 192 free variation, 163, 195
denotation, 7–8, 192 full analysability, 116, 195
denotative, 10, 192 full compositionality, 111, 195
dependent, 107, 192 function ambiguity, 50, 195
descriptive, 8–9, 192
determinacy, 105–106, 192 generalization commitment, 62, 195
dictionary theory, 142, 192 goal, 57, 195
diminution, 152–153, 192 gradable antonyms, 25, 195
direction, 182, 192 ground, 104, 148, 172, 182, 183, 195
directives, 55, 193 grouping ambiguity, 50, 195
direct speech acts, 55, 193
disambiguation, 49, 193 head, 33, 105, 195
distal form, 51, 193 holistic, 15, 195
domain, 78, 121, 141, 142, 145–158, 193 holonym, 31, 195
dynamic, 76–77, 82, 193 homography, 27, 195
dynamicity, 180–182, 193 homonymy, 27, 195
homophony, 27, 196
Egocentric Viewing Arrangement, 177, honorific markers, 52, 196
193 hyperonym, 30, 196
Elaboration, 106–107, 193 hyponym, 30, 196
elaboration site/e-site, 107, 193 hyponymy, 30, 196
embodied, 21, 74, 193
emotive, 10, 193 iconicity, 75, 196
encyclopaedic knowledge, 78, 193 idiom, 36, 1,13, 118, 196
encyclopaedic theory, 142, 193 idiomaticity 36, 38, 196
endocentricity, 111, 193 illocutionary act, 54, 196
entailment, 43–44, 58, 194 image schema, 74, 83, 92–95, 102, 196
essential condition, 56, 194 immediate scope, 184, 196
euphemism, 11–12, 194 implication, 45, 196
experiencer, 57, 194 implicature, 45–48, 58, 196
expression, 5–6, 194 indeterminacy, 49, 196
250 Semantics

indirect speech acts, 55, 196 narrow view, 184, 199

inference, 48, 196 non-gradable antonyms, 26, 199
initial salience, 174, 196 non-modular, 59, 62–63, 199
instances, 71, 196
instrument, 57, 196 objectivism, 73, 128, 199
integration, 103, 119–120, 197 objectivity, 178, 199
intension, 7, 197 Optimal Viewing Arrangement, 177,
interpretation, 103, 119–120, 197 199
inventory, 64, 197 order, 181, 199

juxtaposition, 31, 197 pairing, 65, 200

paradigmatic relation, 24–25, 38, 200
landmark, 104, 172, 197 paraphrase, 41, 58, 200
language, 1, 197 partial analysability, 116–117, 200
language user, 5, 197 partial compositionality, 111–112, 200
lattice, 96, 197 patient, 57, 200
lexical ambiguity, 49, 197 periphery, 121, 129, 140, 200
lexical concepts, 83, 197 perlocutionary act, 54, 200
lexical field, 14, 37, 142–145, 158, 197 person deixis, 51–52, 200
lexical/sense relation, 24, 197 perspective, 176, 200
lexical semantics, 1, 23, 38, 197 pleonasm, 32, 200
lexical triggers, 44–45, 197 polyseme, 27, 200
linguistic unit, 64, 197 polysemy, 27, 200
linguistics, 1, 198 preparatory condition, 55, 200
location, 57, 198 presupposition, 43–45, 58, 200
locutionary act, 54, 198 primitive, 12, 17, 200
primitives, 17, 200
matrix, 148, 198 Principle of Contrast, 163, 201
maximalist, 59, 198 Profile, 148, 169, 183, 201
maximal scope, 184, 198 profile determinant, 105, 201
maxim of manner, 47, 198 profiling, 169–170, 201
maxim of quality, 47, 198 prominence, 169, 201
maxim of quantity, 47, 198 proposition, 40, 201
maxim of relevance, 47, 198 prototype, 121, 125, 126, 129–139, 201
maxims, 47, 198 proverb, 114, 118, 201
meaning, 1, 5, 67, 198 proximal form, 51, 201
meaningful, 59, 68–70, 81, 198
mental space, 83, 95–98, 102, 198 quantification, 154, 201
meronym, 31, 198
meronymy, 31, 198 reference, 7–8, 52, 201
metaphor, 83, 84–89, 102, 198 referring expression, 52, 201
metonymy, 83, 90–92, 102, 199 referent, 7, 201
mode, 180, 199 referential, 12–13, 22, 201
modifier, 34, 106, 199 relational, 12, 13–14, 22, 201
mood, 131, 199 relational antonyms, 26, 202
motivated, 75–76, 199 representational, 12, 18–19, 22, 202
 Index 251

reversive antonyms, 26, 202 substitution, 24, 204

rivalry, 69, 70, 202 summary scanning, 180, 204
superordinate, 30, 204
salience, 174–175, 202 symbolic, 64–66, 81, 204
scalar quantification, 154, 202 synecdoche, 91, 204
schema, 67, 71, 202 synonymy, 28–29, 38, 204
scope, 184, 202 synonym, 28, 204
selection restrictions, 32, 202 syntagmatic relation, 31, 204
semantic components, 15, 202 synthetic sentence, 43, 204
semantic primes, 17, 202
semantic prosody, 34, 202 target, 84, 85, 90, 204
semantic roles, 56–57, 202 tautology, 46, 204
semantic structure, 19, 202 taxonomy, 30, 205
sense, 7, 202 time, 57, 205
sentence, 39, 203 time deixis, 53, 205
sentence meaning, 6, 40, 203 trajector, 104, 172, 205
sentential ambiguity, 49, 50, 203 truth conditions, 15, 79, 205
sentential relation, 41, 203 truth-conditional, 160, 205
sentential semantics, 39, 203
sequential scanning, 180, 203 unit, 5, 205
set quantification, 154, 203 usage based, 59, 66–68, 81, 205
simple sentence, 39, 203 usage event, 66, 205
simple word, 23, 203 use, 5, 67, 205
sincerity condition, 56, 203 utterance, 24, 40, 66, 67, 205
social, 8, 11, 203 utterance meaning, 6, 24, 40, 205
social deixis, 52–53, 203
source, 57, 84, 85, 90, 203 vagueness, 49, 205
space builders, 95, 203 valence, 66, 103, 205
space deixis, 52–53, 203 vantage point, 176–177, 205
speech act, 54, 203 viewing arrangement, 177–178, 205
structured, 64, 203 vocatives, 52, 206
subjectivism, 73, 131, 203
subjectivist, 18, 203 word, 23, 24, 206
subjectivity, 178, 204 word meaning, 6, 24, 206
subordinate, 30, 204
substance, 5, 67, 204 zeugma, 32–33, 206