September 2022

Work Environment
Design
AUDITORY SENSE
 AUDITORY SENSE

1 Introduction

To d a y ' s 2 Learning Objectives

A ge nd a 3 Our Ears

4 Noise and its Health Effects

5 Noise Measurement

6 Noise Control Strategies

 AUDITORY SENSE

In t r o d u c t io n

Hearing forms a vital part of our daily life. I t allows us to perceive the world of acoustic
vibrations all around us and provides us with our most important channels of
communication. I n this module, it will review the basic mechanism of hearing, beginning
with the anatomy and physiology of the ear and the brief review of the auditory pathways
up to the auditory cortex.
Meanwhile, workplaces and other environments may contain equipment and machinery
that produce significant levels of noise. More so, every operating machine tool, fan, or
compressor in a building is a potential source of noise. This module provides an overview of
the events which deals with the effects of noise on human performance and comfort. I t will
discuss related problem about auditory sense and are addressed from a human factors
engineering perspective while several important noise related standards and regulations
will also be covered.
 Learning
O b je c t iv e s

Upon completion of this module the students will be able to:

Evaluate noise hazards in a workplace or

1
environment.
Illustrate engineering methods for reducing noise
2
in the workplace.
Icebreaker
Before we start with the session, let's warm up a little with this icebreaker question:

Do you like listening to music?

What's the loudest sound you heard today?
What’s the softest/lowest sound you heard today?
What's your favorite sound?
What sound do you find irritating?
What do you feel when there's too much noise?
 Auditory Sense

Our Ears
 1 Our Ears

Sound can reach the inner ear via t wo different paths. Sound may be transmitted through bony structures,
but this requires very high intensities to be effective.

Normally, the sound that we perceive is airborne and travels through the ear canal, where it excites the
eardrum and then the structures behind it, as described in the following:
Outer ear. After traveling through the ear canal, a sound wave arriving at the eardrum makes it vibrate
according to the frequency of the sound. Resonance effects within the outer ear and the canal amplify the
intensity of the sound by 10–15 decibels by the time it reaches the eardrum.

The Eustachian tube connects the middle ear to the pharynx (part of our breathing apparatus). When the tube
is open, it allows the air pressure in the middle ear to remain equal to the external air pressure. But when the
tube is obstructed, such as in the case of a cold or an ear infection, pressure equalization may not function,
and one feels pressure in the ear, even pain, and cannot hear well.
I n an airplane, especially during rapid descent, a clogged Eustachian tube can delay the equalization of
pressure between the inner ear and the surroundings.
You may try to open the tube by chewing gum or by willful excessive yawning, but “pumping” your outer ear
with the hand will not help your middle ear.
 AUDITORY SENSE

The S t r u c t u r e
of the Ear

The ear converts sound waves in air

into nerve impulses, which travel along
the auditory nerve to the brain. Further
processing in the brain results in the
perception of sound and the
recognition of auditory patterns. A
simplified diagram of the ear is
presented.
The S t r u c t u r e o f t h e Ear

Hearing requires three main steps. I n each, energy is converted from one form to another:
1.Pressure variations due to longitudinal waves in the environment are guided into the
external auditory meatus where they cause a mechanical vibration of the tympanic
membrane (eardrum). The tympanic membrane is connected to three small bones
(ossicles) in the middle ear which, in turn, are caused to vibrate

2.Mechanical vibration of the auditory ossicles is converted to wave motion in the

cochlear fluid at the oval window.

3.Wave motion in the cochlear fluid is converted to nerve impulses in the auditory
nerve by hair cells in the cochlea.
 AUDITORY SENSE

Humans can hear a remarkable

r a n g e o f sound. W e c a n
d i f f e r e n c e in l o u d n e s s a s w e l l a s
p i t c h , w h i c h is t h e f u n d a m e n t a l
b u i ldi ng b l o c k o f m e l o d y .
Hearing Sounds

Sound is a vibration that stimulates an auditory sensation.

A sound contains a mixture of frequencies, whereas a tone is a single-frequency

oscillation.

The measurement unit of frequencies is hertz (Hz; oscillations per second).

We often describe our personal perception of tone frequencies as pitch.

Frequencies t h a t w e H e a r

We cannot hear sounds below 16 Hz, but we may feel such infrasonic
vibrations; nor can we hear ultrasonic, above 2 0 kHz, but dogs and other
animals do.
Infants can hear tones from about 16 to 20.000 Hz (20 kHz), a span of nearly
nine octaves.
With aging, the human ability to hear high frequencies strongly diminishes. Old
people can rarely hear high tones above 10 kHz. Our normal hearing is most
sensitive between about 1 and 5 kHz.
I n human speech, vowel sounds are below 1 kHz, while sibilant consonants
can exceed 5 kHz; yet most speech occurs within the 300–700 Hz range.
AUDITORY SENSE

HOW WE
HEAR?
We humans perceive sound pressure in a roughly
logarithmic manner.Therefore, loudness is measured
in a logarithmic unit called decibel (dB). The
threshold of hearing serves as the reference. This
leads to stating the sound pressure level (SPL) as
the ratio between t w o sound pressures: P is the
present sound pressure (rms) and Po is the
threshold of hearing.
 Auditory Sense

Noise a n d its
Health
Effects
 2 Noise a n d its H e a l t h E f f e c t s

Noise is any unw ant ed and object ionable sound, loud or quiet : many aspect s of noise are
psychological and subjective.
Noise surrounds us, day and night: at home, at work, anywhere.
Any sound may be annoying and t hus felt as noise. The t hreshold for noise annoyance varies
depending on the conditions, including the sensitivity and the mental state of the individual.

Noise can:
Create negative emotions, feelings of surprise, frustration, anger, and fear.
Delay the onset of sleep, awaken a person from sleep, or disturb someone’s rest.
Make it difficult to hear desirable sounds.
Produce temporary or permanent alterations in body chemistry.
Interfere with human sensory and perceptual capabilities and thereby degrade the performance
of atask.
Temporarily or permanently change one’s hearing capability.
N o i s e E f f e c t in W o r k i n g E n v i r o n m e n t

There are four different aspects that can make noise

unacceptable in the working environment:

1.Noise can cause hearing loss

2. Noise can affect performance and productivity
3. Noise can be annoying
4. Noise can interfere with spoken communication
Health E f f e c t s o f Noise

Exposure to noise Short-term exposure Prolonged exposure

can cause a
can cause a variety to noise over a
temporary loss of
of health effects period of years
hearing, normally
varying from referred to as a generally causes
insomnia and stress temporary threshold permanent loss of
to hearing loss. shift. hearing.
 AUDITORY SENSE

T h e n o i s e - c a u s e d c h a n g e in h e a r i n g c a p a b i l i t y
o f s o u n d is p h y s i c a l , n o t m e r e l y p s y c h o l o g i c a l .
The e x p o s u r e t o intense sounds, such a s a n
explosion, c a n c a u s e a p e r m a n e n t t h r e s h o l d
s h i f t (PTS), w h i c h is a n i r r e c o v e r a b l e l o ss o f
h e a r i n g ; i f t h e e x p o s u r e is l e s s a c u t e , t h e r e s u l t
m a y be a t e m p o r a r y threshold shift, f r o m which
t h e hearing eventually returns t o normal.
H e a r i n g Loss

High-intensity noise can cause damage to hearing. I n industrialized countries, noise-

induced hearing loss (NIHL) usually occurs around 4 0 0 0 Hz. I t may spread into lower
ranges, but it mostly extends into higher frequencies, culminating at about 8 0 0 0 Hz.

Prolonged noise exposure can cause hearing loss due to auditory nerve damage, also
called neural hearing loss. I n this case the intensity, frequency, and duration of
exposure must be considered.

Yet reduced hearing at 8 0 0 0 Hz (and above) is also brought about by aging. This may
make it difficult to distinguish between cases related to noise or age. Losing some
hearing capabilities as one ages is normal. I n general, we can expect the following
reductions:
10 dB at 5 0 years
25 dB at 6 0 years
35 dB at 70 years
H e a r i n g Loss

Sounds that are sufficiently strong, lasting, or repetitive can damage one’s hearing in the
involved frequencies.

Not all persons respond to sound in the same manner, but, in general, sound levels of
about 85 dBA or more are potentially hazardous because of the energy that they contain.
So the magnitude of the actual hearing loss directly relates to the sound level.

Loss of hearing may also be caused by ear infections, several diseases (mumps, measles,
scarlet fever), and by common colds. Helander suggested that presbycusis may actually
be caused by the cumulative effect of common colds over a lifetime. These viral
infections can destroy auditory nerve cells.
 Noise
M e a sur e m e nt
M e a s u r e m e n t o f Sound
Examples o f Activities and
C o r r e s p o nd i n g Noise Levels
O SHA
Noise
Ex p o s u r e
Limits
Note that the OSHA permissible noise levels require
that the sound measurements be taken on the slow One other element of the OSHA standard is that it
response dBA scale. OSHA also specifies that mandates a hearing conservation program, whenever
exposure to impulsive or impact noise should not employee noise exposures equal or exceed that of an
exceed a 140 dB peak sound pressure level. 8-hour time-weighted average noise sound of 85
decibels dBA. Required elements of a hearing
conservation program include audiometric testing,
exposure monitoring, hearing protection, training, and
notification of the employee.
Safe exposure
levels

I n the USA, OSHA has specified 9 0 dB(A) as the maximum permissible

exposure to continuous noise for an 8-hour shift.

Many other countries, including those in the EU, also regard 9 0 dB(A) as
the maximum permissible level.

However, there is a modern trend worldwide to reduce daily exposures

to below 9 0 dB(A). An exposure level of 85 dB(A) is regarded as the first
action level at which workers must be informed and offered ear
protection.
Noise Dose

Noise dose is total exposure to any sound above 8 0 dBA during an 8 hour day. I f exposure
varies over the day, a noise dose (D) is calculated as follows:
D =100 x (C1/T1 + C2/T2 + …Cn/Tn)
≤ 100 %
Where D =noise dose during an 8 hr day,
Ci =Hours spent at a given noise level,
Ti =Hours permitted at noise level

D must be kept below 100 % of permissible noise dose.

To get the noise level of two or more sounds:

Ltot = 10log10 (10𝐿/10 + 10𝐿/10 )
Noise Dose

Note:
 Noise D o s e E x a m p l e

Problem 1

You are exposed to 3 noise sources during your

work-day:
4 hours at 90 dBA
2 hours at 95 dBA
0.5 hours at 105 dBA

I s your hearing at risk?

Problem 2

A machine subjects its operator to 90 dBA when it

is idle and to 95 dBA when it is used at full power.
Assume 7 hours of use per day, with 2.1 hours at
90 dBA and 4.9 hours at 95 dBA. What is the total
noise dose?
 Answer:

1 2

The total noise dose is calculated accordingly:

Your total noise dose is:
D =100 x (4/8 + 2/4 + 0.5/1) D= 2.1/8+4.9/4
D= 150 % D= 1.487

I s your hearing at risk? Yes. Since the noise dose is greater than 1.0, this work
exposes its operator to excessive noise that is not
permissible.
 Noise D o s e E x a m p l e

Problem 3

What is the combined noise level of two sounds

of 85 and 95 decibles?

Problem 3

During a given work shift of 8 hrs, a worker is

exposed to two consisting sources of noise for 3
hours, one at 87 dB and one at 89 dB. For the
remaining 5 hours, he is exposed to one noise
source of 91 dB. Determine whether this exposure
level exceeds the OSHA permissible noise
exposure.
 Time W eight Noise Ex posure 3

Calculation

The TWA shows a worker's daily exposure to occupational noise (normalized to an 8-hour day),
considering the average levels of noise and the time spent in each area. This is the parameter that
is used by the OSHA Regulations and is essential in assessing a worker's exposure and what action
should be taken.

Before working out the worker's TWA, you must measure the different high noise levels that the
worker is subjected throughout a normal working day.

Once you have the Dose% figure, you can calculate the TWA using the following equation:

where:
TWA is the 8-hour Time Weighted Average Sound Level
D is the Dose % as calculated above (or measured with a dosimeter)
Log10 is the Logarithm to base 10
TWA Example:

A worker is exposed to 86 dB for six hours and 92 dB for a

three hours, giving a nine-hour working day. Calculate the TWA.
TWA Example:

Compute for Noise Dose:

Dose = 100 x (6/13.9 + 3/6.1) = 92.3%

Once you have the Dose% figure, you can calculate the TWA
using the following equation:
TWA = 16.61 Log10 (D/100) + 90
TWA = 16.61 x Log10 (92.3 / 100) + 90
TWA = 89.4 dB
 Auditory Sense

Noise
C ont r ol
Strategies
 Noise Control Strategies

Ergonomics designers can and should do a number of things to reduce noise levels. Noise control
strategies are given in the order of their probable effectiveness. Some suggested design principles
are as follows:

1.Reduce the noise level of the source itself. This solution is without doubt the best choice to
start with, and it is likely to be the most cost effective. Identify why the machine makes noise and
then examine the possibility of making design changes to achieve those objectives. At times the
effectiveness of the machine is tied to the noise it makes and so little can be done on this strategy.

2.Enclose the source. This potential solution stops the sound emission at the source, but
enclosures can make machine tending or maintenance operations far more difficult. Also, machine
enclosures can cause the machines to overheat unless additional cooling is developed. Before
enclosing machines, check with the manufacturers of the machines to see if there is any downside
to enclosing. Consider going to a heavier wall construction or a double wall construction so that
structural members on the inside of the wall near the machines are separated from those in the
wall away from the machines.
 Noise Control Strategies

3.Increase the distance between the source and nearby people. Moving the
machine operation away from nearby personnel or moving the personnel away
from the operation will help the attenuate the sound before it reaches the people
around it. Remember, noise levels decrease approximately with the square of the
distance between the source and the receiver.

4.Place sound-absorbing and reflecting barriers in the noise path. Absorbing

materials will help reduce the sound level energy and reflecting barriers will
direct some of that energy away from surrounding personnel so that the sound
wave will need to go a large distance before encountering people and, hence,
attenuate.
 Noise C o n t r o l
Measures

Example of noise control measures that can

be implemented in an industrial building:
S o m e b a s i c s t e p s in t h e
management of
industrial noise
exposure
 Industrial Noise Control
Several ap p roac hes t o noise c ont rol c an b e ISO 1996-1:2016
identified: Acoustics —Description, measurement and
assessment of environmental noise —Part 1:
1.Eliminate the threat to hearing by Basic quantities and assessment procedures
redesigning the machine or using a less noisy
ISO 1996-1:2016 defines the basic quantities to be used for
machine. the description of noise in community environments and
2.Remove personnel from the noisy describes basic assessment procedures. I t also specifies
environment. methods to assess environmental noise and gives guidance
on predicting the potential annoyance response of a
3.Protect personnel by issuing ear plugs or community to long-term exposure from various types of
muffs or build an acoustic refuge. environmental noises.

Noise I m p a c t Assessment

A noise impact assessment is a detailed noise survey which is often required for planning
applications. These are requested by local authorities in order to establish the environmental
noise impacts of a development. A noise impact assessment will typically involve an
assessment of the existing noise environment and comparison of the predicted noise level
generated by the proposed development.
References:

Lehto, M. R., Landry, S.J., I n t r o d u c t i o n t o H u m a n f a c t o r s a n d E r g o n o m i c s f o r

Engineers, 2 n d Edition, C R C Press, 2 0 1 3
h t t p s : / / w w w. p d f d r i v e . c o m / f i t t i n g - t h e - h u m a n - i n t r o d u c t i o n - t o - e r g o n o m i c s - h u m a n -
factors-engineering-e158280956.html
https://kuliahdianmardi.files.wordpress.com/2016/03/handbook -of-human-
factors-and-ergonomics-fourth-edition-2012.pdf
http://ssu.ac.ir/cms/fileadmin/user_upload/Daneshkadaha/dbehdasht/khatamat_b
ehdashti/kotobe_latin/Introduction_to_Ergonomics.pdf
h t t p s : / / w w w. p d f d r i v e . c o m / a - g u i d e - t o - h u m a n - f a c t o r s - a n d - e r g o n o m i c s -
e 3 4 3 2 0 31 7. h t ml
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QUESTIONS FOR
DISCUSSION
T h a n k you!

Have a great
weekend!