DR AF T

Handbook for
Water Budget
Development
With or Without Models

C A L I F O R N I A D E PA R T M E N T OF

WATER RESOURCES
Using This Handbook
• The "Handbook for Water Budget Development: With or Without Models"
(Water Budget Handbook) provides a catalog of methods that a water
agency may consider based on their basin setting, needs, availability of
data and tools, and expertise. It is not prescriptive in what methods an
agency should apply and does not impose requirements as to how a
water budget should be developed for any compliance purposes. It serves
as a technical resource that provides information on a suite of methods
and data sources and is provided as technical assistance to parties
interested in developing water budgets.
• The Sustainable Groundwater Management Act and Groundwater
Sustainability Plan Regulations specify the requirements of a groundwater
sustainability plan. While the Water Budget Handbook describes methods
a groundwater sustainability agency may use to estimate water budgets,
following these methods or any additional guidance in this handbook does
not guarantee approval of the resulting groundwater sustainability plan.
• Water budgets developed using the methods and accounting template
described in the Water Budget Handbook are not meant to satisfy the
requirements for a water right application. Additional pertinent studies
and data collection may be necessary to satisfy those requirements.
• The guidance and methods presented in the Water Budget Handbook can
be used to support water planning decisions by resource managers as
they assess potential actions to improve the water portfolio and
sustainability within their management areas. Additional guidance and
methods beyond those discussed in this handbook may be required for
developing water budgets to support their decision making.
• The case studies for the modeling and non-modeling approaches are
included as practical examples of applying the methods and models
presented in the Water Budget Handbook. For a specific management
area of interest, relevant data should be compiled for developing water
budget estimates and additional work may be needed to confirm or refine
the estimates to support water management decisions.
• The Data Resources Directory included in the Water Budget Handbook
provides an organized inventory of relevant information, although it is not
all-inclusive. In addition, some resources may be duplicative, covering the
same information but in different formats or time scales. Users of the
directory are responsible for independently verifying and understanding
the applicability of the information provided.
 Handbook for Water Budget Development

DRAFT
Handbook For Water Budget Development
With or Without Models

February 2020
 State of California
Gavin Newsom, Governor
California Natural Resources Agency
Wade Crowfoot, Secretary for Natural Resources
Department of Water Resources
Karla A. Nemeth, Director
Cindy Messer, Chief Deputy Director
Michelle Banonis, Assistant Chief Deputy Director

Office of the Chief Legislative Affairs Office

Internal Audit Office
Counsel Kasey Schimke, Assistant
David Whitsell
Spencer Kenner Director
Public Affairs Office
Tribal Policy Advisor Office of Workforce Equality
Erin Mellon, Assistant
Anecita Agustinez Stephanie Varrelman
Director

Deputy Directors
Business Operations Delta Conveyance
Katherine S. Kishaba Vacant
Flood Management and Dam Safety Integrated Watershed Management
Gary Lippner Kristopher A. Tjernell
Statewide Emergency
Statewide Groundwater Management
Preparedness and Security
Taryn Ravazzini
Michael Day
State Water Project
Ted Craddock (Acting)

DIVISION OF PLANNING DIVISION OF REGIONAL ASSISTANCE

KAMYAR GUIVETCHI, DIVISION CHIEF ARTHUR HINOJOSA, DIVISION CHIEF

TECHNICAL SUPPORT AND INTEGRATED DATA BRANCH

CHRIS MCCREADY, BRANCH CHIEF

This report was prepared under the supervision of:

Abdul Khan, Water Budgets and Analytics Section Chief
 Prepared by:
Department of Water Resources Woodard & Curran
Abdul Khan (Project Manager) Saquib Najmus (Project Manager)
Todd Hillaire Frank Qian
Julie Hass Brian Van Lienden
Paul Shipman Reza Namvar
Cordi Sogge
With assistance from:
Department of Water Resources
Jose Alarcon Brad Arnold Wyatt Arnold
Tito Cervantes Steve Ewert Robert Fastenau
Sergio Fierro Vern Knoop Jennifer Kofoid
Kelly Lawler Michael McGinnis Chris Montoya
Daya Muralidharan Morteza Orang Jeff Smith

Woodard & Curran

Liz DaBramo David Moering Sebastien Poore

With peer review of earlier versions from:

Department of Water Resources
Craig Altare James Common Can Dogrul
Timothy Godwin Tyler Hatch Dan McManus
Toni Pezzetti Maurice Roos Steven Springhorn
Ricardo Trezza

State Water Resources Control Board

William Anderson Sam Boland-Brien Vadim Demchuk
Jelena Hartman Rajaa Hassan Chloe Liu
Timothy Nelson Brent Vanderburgh Valerie Zimmer

UC Davis UC Merced UC San Diego

Graham Fogg Roger Bales John Helly
Thomas Harter
Jay Lund

U.S. Geological Survey

Scott Boyce Justin Brandt Lorraine Flint
Randy Hansen (Retired) Wesley Hensen Steven Phillips
Jon Traum
Graphic Production Services Provided by:
Cordi Sogge

Editorial Review and Document Production Support Services Provided by:

Department of Water Resources Woodard & Curran
Francisco Guzman Desiree Hughart
Charlie Olivares
William O'Daly
 Handbook for Water Budget Development

Foreword
Water is the essence of life for California. It touches everything from public
health and safety to the environment and the economy. The state needs
sustainable and resilient water resources so that all Californians have access
to safe and reliable drinking water, its native plants and animals and their
ecosystems thrive, and its farms and businesses are productive.

The management, protection, and efficient use of water is a shared

responsibility of every Californian. Accurate accounting of the state’s water
resources is vital because a resource that is not measured cannot be
managed. The California Water Code requires the development of water
budgets to better account for the water entering and leaving a given area.

A water budget provides an understanding of historical conditions and how

future changes to supply, demand, hydrology, population, land use, and
climatic conditions may affect an area. Water agencies use water budgets for
a variety of purposes, such as water supply planning and evaluating the
effectiveness of water management actions.

Today, several factors are hindering the development of water budgets,

including inconsistent definitions, nonstandard water accounting, poor
documentation, inconsistent description of inter-basin flows, differing
interpretation of model results, and widely dispersed data sources.

The “Handbook for Water Budget Development: With or Without Models” is a

practical reference guide that addresses these challenges. It fills a significant
gap by systematically presenting relevant information in a single publication.
Its use will facilitate consistent development and communication of water
budget information by diverse water management entities across the state.

The California Department of Water Resources believes that this

comprehensive handbook will reduce the cost of water budget development
and documentation for local and regional agencies. It will contribute to
better communication and information exchange among those who manage
and use water as a shared resource.

Taryn Ravazzini Kristopher Tjernell

Deputy Director Deputy Director
Statewide Groundwater Management Integrated Watershed Management
 Handbook for Water Budget Development

Contents
Figures Page ix
Tables Page xv
Acronyms and Abbreviations Page xvii
1. INTRODUCTION PAGE 1
1.1 PURPOSE AND NEED Page 2
1.2 INNOVATIONS Page 3
1.3 TOTAL WATER BUDGET Page 4
1.3.1 Land System Page 5
1.3.2 Surface Water System Page 6
1.3.3 Groundwater System Page 6
1.4 WATER BUDGET ACCOUNTING TEMPLATE Page 12
2. WATER BUDGET DEVELOPMENT PROCESS PAGE 17
2.1 INTRODUCTION Page 18
2.2 DIFFERENT WAYS OF DEVELOPING A TOTAL
WATER BUDGET Page 18
2.3 DETERMINATION OF WATER BUDGET DEVELOPMENT
APPROACH Page 20
2.4 HYDROGEOLOGIC CONCEPTUAL MODEL Page 22
2.5 BASIN UNDERSTANDING Page 23
2.5.1 Collect Data Page 24
2.5.2 Review Past Studies Page 25
2.5.3 Complete Data Availability Checklist Page 26
2.5.4 Identify Data Gaps Page 27
2.6 WATER YEAR TYPES Page 28
2.7 WATER BUDGET ANALYSIS PERIOD AND TIME STEPS Page 28
2.8 MODELING APPROACH Page 30
2.8.1 Integrated Models Page 31
2.8.2 Subsystem Models Page 38

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Handbook for Water Budget Development

2.8.3 Other Models Page 39

2.9 NON-MODELING APPROACH Page 39
2.9.1 General Data Collection for the Non-Modeling
Approach Page 40
2.9.2 Developing Water Budgets Using the
Non-Modeling Approach Page 41
2.10 AGGREGATION OF WATER BUDGETS Page 44
2.11 UNCERTAINTY IN WATER BUDGET ESTIMATES Page 44
2.12 DOCUMENTATION OF WATER BUDGET Page 45
3. LAND SYSTEM PAGE 49
3.1 INTRODUCTION Page 50
3.2 LAND SYSTEM: WATER BUDGET AND CHANGE
IN STORAGE Page 51
3.2.1 Land System Water Budget for Agricultural Lands Page 52
3.2.2 Land System Water Budget for Urban Areas Page 54
3.2.3 Land System Water Budget for Managed Wetlands Page 57
3.2.4 Land System Water Budget for Native Lands Page 58
3.2.5 Change in Land System Storage Page 59
3.3 PRECIPITATION Page 59
3.4 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION Page 63
3.5 APPLIED WATER Page 74
3.5.1 Agricultural Applied Water Page 74
3.5.2 Urban Applied Water Page 87
3.5.3 Managed Wetlands Applied Water Page 94
3.6 SURFACE WATER DELIVERY Page 98
3.7 GROUNDWATER EXTRACTION Page 104
3.8 APPLIED WATER REUSE AND RECYCLED WATER Page 108
3.9 RECYCLED WATER EXPORT Page 114
3.10 RUNOFF Page 115

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 Handbook for Water Budget Development

3.11 RETURN FLOW Page 121

3.12 CHANGE IN LAND SYSTEM STORAGE Page 126
4. SURFACE WATER SYSTEM PAGE 131
4.1 INTRODUCTION Page 132
4.2 STREAM INFLOW AND OUTFLOW Page 133
4.3 SURFACE WATER DIVERSION Page 140
4.4 STREAM EVAPORATION Page 144
4.5 CONVEYANCE EVAPORATION Page 150
4.6 CONVEYANCE SEEPAGE Page 155
4.7 IMPORTED WATER AND SURFACE WATER EXPORT Page 159
4.8 STREAM-LAKE INTERACTION Page 164
4.9 LAKE EVAPORATION Page 171
4.10 CHANGE IN SURFACE WATER STORAGE Page 174
5. GROUNDWATER SYSTEM PAGE 179
5.1 INTRODUCTION Page 180
5.2 RECHARGE OF APPLIED WATER AND PRECIPITATION Page 181
5.2.1 Recharge of Precipitation Page 182
5.2.2 Recharge of Applied Water Page 184
5.3 SUBSURFACE INFLOW AND OUTFLOW Page 187
5.4 STREAM-GROUNDWATER INTERACTION Page 192
5.5 LAKE-GROUNDWATER INTERACTION Page 200
5.6 MANAGED AQUIFER RECHARGE Page 208
5.7 STORED WATER EXTRACTION Page 209
5.8 GROUNDWATER EXPORT Page 210
5.9 STORED WATER EXPORT Page 212
5.10 CHANGE IN GROUNDWATER STORAGE Page 213
5.11 WATER RELEASE CAUSED BY LAND SUBSIDENCE Page 217
6. CASE STUDY: NON-MODELING APPROACH PAGE 219
6.1 INTRODUCTION Page 220

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Handbook for Water Budget Development

6.2 STUDY AREA Page 221

6.3 INVENTORY OF AVAILABLE INFORMATION Page 227
6.4 APPLICATION OF NON-MODELING APPROACH Page 228
6.5 INSIGHTS FROM THE CASE STUDY Page 241
7. CASE STUDY: INTEGRATED WATER FLOW MODEL PAGE 243
7.1 INTEGRATED WATER FLOW MODEL INTRODUCTION Page 244
7.2 EXTRACTING WATER BUDGET COMPONENTS FROM IWFM Page 244
7.2.1 IWFM Tools Add-In for Excel Page 245
7.2.2 IWFM Model Units Page 249
7.3 LAND SYSTEM Page 250
7.3.1 Precipitation Page 250
7.3.2 Evapotranspiration Page 251
7.3.3 Applied Water Page 252
7.3.4 Surface Water Delivery Page 254
7.3.5 Groundwater Extraction Page 254
7.3.6 Applied Water Reuse Page 256
7.3.7 Recycled Water Page 257
7.3.8 Recycled Water Export Page 258
7.3.9 Runoff Page 258
7.3.10 Return Flow Page 260
7.3.11 Change in Land System Storage Page 261
7.4 SURFACE WATER SYSTEM Page 263
7.4.1 Stream Inflow and Outflow Page 263
7.4.2 Surface Water Diversion Page 264
7.4.3 Stream Evaporation Page 265
7.4.4 Conveyance Evaporation Page 265
7.4.5 Conveyance Seepage Page 267
7.4.6 Imported Water Page 268

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 Handbook for Water Budget Development

7.4.7 Surface Water Exports Page 270

7.4.8 Stream-Lake Interaction Page 271
7.4.9 Lake Evaporation Page 271
7.4.10 Change in Surface Water Storage Page 272
7.5 GROUNDWATER SYSTEM Page 273
7.5.1 Recharge of Applied Water and Precipitation Page 273
7.5.2 Subsurface Inflow and Outflow Page 274
7.5.3 Stream-Groundwater Interaction Page 275
7.5.4 Lake-Groundwater Interaction Page 276
7.5.5 Managed Aquifer Recharge Page 276
7.5.6 Stored Water Extraction Page 280
7.5.7 Groundwater Export Page 282
7.5.8 Stored Water Export Page 284
7.5.9 Water Release Caused by Land Subsidence Page 286
7.5.10 Change in Groundwater Storage Page 286
7.6 TOTAL WATER BUDGET FROM IWFM Page 287
8. CASE STUDY: ONE-WATER HYDROLOGIC FLOW MODEL
(MODFLOW-OWHM) PAGE 293
8.1 MODFLOW-OWHM INTRODUCTION Page 294
8.2 EXTRACTING WATER BUDGET COMPONENTS FROM MODFLOW-OWHM
Page 295
8.3 LAND SYSTEM Page 301
8.3.1 Precipitation Page 301
8.3.2 Evapotranspiration Page 302
8.3.3 Applied Water Page 303
8.3.4 Surface Water Delivery Page 304
8.3.5 Groundwater Extraction Page 304
8.3.6 Applied Water Reuse Page 306

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Handbook for Water Budget Development

8.3.7 Recycled Water Page 307

8.3.8 Recycled Water Export Page 308
8.3.9 Runoff Page 308
8.3.10 Return Flow Page 309
8.3.11 Change in Land System Storage Page 309
8.4 SURFACE WATER SYSTEM Page 310
8.4.1 Stream Inflow and Outflow Page 310
8.4.2 Surface Water Diversion Page 311
8.4.3 Stream Evaporation Page 312
8.4.4 Conveyance Evaporation Page 313
8.4.5 Conveyance Seepage Page 313
8.4.6 Imported Water Page 314
8.4.7 Surface Water Exports Page 315
8.4.8 Stream-Lake Interaction Page 315
8.4.9 Lake Evaporation Page 316
8.4.10 Change in Surface Water Storage Page 317
8.5 GROUNDWATER SYSTEM Page 318
8.5.1 Recharge of Applied Water and Precipitation Page 318
8.5.2 Subsurface Inflow and Outflow Page 320
8.5.3 Stream-Groundwater Interaction Page 321
8.5.4 Lake-Groundwater Interaction Page 322
8.5.5 Managed Aquifer Recharge Page 323
8.5.6 Stored Water Extraction Page 324
8.5.7 Groundwater Export Page 325
8.5.8 Stored Water Export Page 327
8.5.9 Water Release Caused by Land Subsidence Page 329
8.5.10 Change in Groundwater Storage Page 330

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 Handbook for Water Budget Development

8.6 TOTAL WATER BUDGET FROM MODFLOW-OWHM Page 331

9. DATA RESOURCES DIRECTORY PAGE 337
9.1 Introduction Page 338
9.2 Agricultural Water Management Plans Page 344
9.3 Atmosphere-Land Exchange Inverse Model Page 345
9.4 Basin Characterization Model Page 346
9.5 California Department of Finance Page 347
9.6 California Department of Transportation’s Highway
Design Manual Page 348
9.7 California Nevada River Forecast Center Page 349
9.8 California Pesticide Information Portal Page 350
9.9 California Water Plan — Water Portfolios Page 351
9.10 CALSIM 2 Page 352
9.11 CALSIM 3 Page 353
9.12 Cal-SIMETAW Unit Values Page 354
9.13 California Statewide Groundwater Elevation Monitoring Page 356
9.14 California Data Exchange Center Page 357
9.15 Center for Hydrometeorology and Remote Sensing
Data Portal Page 358
9.16 California Irrigation Management Information System Page 359
9.17 CIMIS (Spatial): California Irrigation Management
Information System Page 360
9.18 County Agricultural Commissioner Crop Reports Page 361
9.19 CVHM: Central Valley Hydrologic Model Page 362
9.20 C2VSIM Coarse Grid Model Page 363
9.21 C2VSIM Fine Grid Model Page 364
9.22 DWR Agricultural Land and Water Use Estimates Page 365
9.23 DWR Bulletin 73: Evaporation from Water Surfaces in
California (1979) Page 366
9.24 DWR Bulletin 113: Crop Water Use Page 367
9.25 DWR Bulletin 118: California’s Groundwater Page 368

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Handbook for Water Budget Development

9.26 DWR Bulletin 132: Management of the California State

Water Project Page 369
9.27 DWR Demographic Data Page 370
9.28 DWR Irrigation Methods Survey Page 371
9.29 DWR Land Use Survey Data Page 372
9.30 DWR Land Use Viewer Page 373
9.31 DWR Sustainable Groundwater Management Act
Data Viewer Page 374
9.32 DWR Water Data Library: Surface Water and
Groundwater Data Page 375
9.33 GRACE: Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Page 376
9.34 IDC: IWFM Demand Calculator Page 377
9.35 Irrigation Training and Research Center Evapotranspiration
Data Page 378
9.36 ITRC METRIC Page 379
9.37 IWFM: Integrated Water Flow Model Page 380
9.38 METRIC-EEFLUX Page 381
9.39 MOD16: MODIS Global Evapotranspiration Project Page 383
9.40 MODFLOW-OWHM: One Water Hydrologic Flow Model Page 384
9.41 National Land Cover Database Page 385
9.42 NLDAS-2: North American Land Data
Assimilation System Page 386
9.43 NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information —
Climate Data Online Page 388
9.44 NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information —
Climatological Data Publications Page 389
9.45 NWS Climate Prediction Center Evaporation Page 390
9.46 PRISM Gridded Precipitation Data Page 391
9.47 SSEBop: Operational Simplified Surface Energy Balance Page 392
9.48 State Water Resources Control Board’s Water
Conservation Portal Page 393

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 Handbook for Water Budget Development

9.49 State Water Resources Control Board’s Water

Rights Information (eWRIMS) Page 394
9.50 TOPS-SIMS: Satellite Irrigation Management Support Page 395
9.51 United States Census Page 396
9.52 Urban Water Management Plans Page 397
9.53 U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Central Valley Operations
(including Central Valley Project) Page 398
9.54 USDA County Ag Commissioner’s Data Listing Page 399
9.55 U.S. Department of Agriculture CropScape Page 400
9.56 U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources
Conservation Service Geospatial Web Soil Survey Page 401
9.57 U.S. Geological Survey Publications Page 402
9.58 U.S. Geological Survey Surface-Water Data for California Page 403
9.59 Validated Water Loss Reporting Page 404
9.60 VegScape: Vegetation Condition Explorer Page 405
9.61 Water Recycling Survey (2015) Page 406
9.62 Water Use Classification of Landscape Species: Water Use
Classification of Landscape Species Page 407
10. REFERENCES PAGE 409

Figures
Figure 1-1 Total Water Budget Schematic Page 8
Figure 1-2 Water Budget Accounting Template — Land System
Water Budget Page 13
Figure 1-3 Water Budget Accounting Template — Surface Water
System Water Budget Page 14
Figure 1-4 Water Budget Accounting Template — Groundwater
System Water Budget Page 15
Figure 1-5 Water Budget Accounting Template —
Total Water Budget Page 16
Figure 2-1 Decision Tree for Water Budget Development Approach Page 21

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Handbook for Water Budget Development

Figure 2-2 A Schematic Representation of Hydrogeologic

Conceptual Model Page 23
Figure 2-3 Example of a Water Budget Components Checklist with
Minimum Data Elements Page 27
Figure 2-4 Flowchart for Extracting Water Budget Components from
Existing Models Page 31
Figure 2-5 Flowchart for Compiling Data for the
Non-Modeling Approach Page 40
Figure 2-6 Non-Modeling Approach: Stepwise Process for Developing
a Total Water Budget Page 42
Figure 3-1 Inflow and Outflow Components of Land System
Water Budget Page 50
Figure 3-2 Land System Water Budget for Agricultural Lands Page 53
Figure 3-3 Land System Water Budget for Urban Areas Page 56
Figure 3-4 Components of Agricultural Water Use Page 75
Figure 3-5 Components of Urban Water Use Page 89
Figure 3-6 Components of Managed Wetlands Water Use Page 95
Figure 3-7 Potable and Non-Potable Uses of Recycled Water Page 110
Figure 3-8 Runoff Depth for Curve Numbers and Rainfall Amounts Page 118
Figure 4-1 Components of Surface Water System and Its Interaction
with Other Systems Page 133
Figure 4-2 Example of a PRMS Input Page 139
Figure 4-3 Example of a PRMS Parameter File (.param) Page 140
Figure 4-4 Seepage Factor vs Channel Geometry Page 159
Figure 4-5 Rule Curve for Reservoir Releases Page 167
Figure 4-6 Example of Reservoir Rule Curve Page 168
Figure 4-7 Example of Reservoir Inflows Over Time Page 170
Figure 5-1 Components of Groundwater System and Its Interaction
with Other Systems Page 180
Figure 5-2 An Illustrative Hydrogeologic Cross Section for Calculating
Subsurface Flow Page 190
Figure 5-3 Flow Components in a Stream Reach Page 196

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 Handbook for Water Budget Development

Figure 5-4 Applying the Straightline Method Page 200

Figure 5-5 Applying the Fixed Base Method Page 200
Figure 5-6 Summary of Water Budget Estimates for Various
Goose Lake Studies Page 207
Figure 6-1 Water Districts within the Water Budget Zone Page 222
Figure 6-2 Groundwater Sustainability Agencies within the Water
Budget Zone Page 223
Figure 6-3 Land Use in the Water Budget Zone Page 224
Figure 6-4 Surface Water System within the Water Budget Zone Page 225
Figure 6-5 Groundwater Level Contour Map within the
Water Budget Zone Page 226
Figure 6-6 Land System Water Budget for Water Year 2003
(in acre-feet) Page 229
Figure 6-7 Surface Water System Water Budget for Water Year 2003
(in acre-feet) Page 233
Figure 6-8 Groundwater System Water Budget for Water Year 2003
(in acre-feet) Page 236
Figure 6-9 Total Water Budget (Only Inflows to and Outflows from
Water Budget Zone) Page 239
Figure 6-10 Total Water Budget for Water Year 2003 (in acre-feet) Page 240
Figure 7-1 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Ag. Precipitation Page 250
Figure 7-2 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Urban Precipitation Page 250
Figure 7-3 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Native and Riparian
Vegetation Precipitation Page 251
Figure 7-4 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Agricultural Actual ET Page 251
Figure 7-5 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Urban Actual ET Page 252
Figure 7-6 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Native and Riparian
Vegetation Actual ET Page 252
Figure 7-7 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Agricultural Prime
Applied Water and Agricultural Reused Water Page 253
Figure 7-8 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Urban Prime Applied Water
and Urban Reused Water Page 253

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Handbook for Water Budget Development

Figure 7-9 Land and Water Use Budget: Agricultural and

Urban Deliveries Page 254
Figure 7-10 Groundwater Budget: Pumping Page 255
Figure 7-11 Land and Water Use Budget: Agricultural Pumping Page 256
Figure 7-12 Land and Water Use Budget: Urban Pumping Page 256
Figure 7-13 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Agricultural Reused Water Page 257
Figure 7-14 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Urban Reused Water Page 257
Figure 7-15 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Urban Reused Water Page 258
Figure 7-16 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Agricultural Runoff Page 259
Figure 7-17 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Urban Runoff Page 259
Figure 7-18 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Native and Riparian
Vegetation Runoff Page 260
Figure 7-19 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Agricultural
Net Return Flow Page 260
Figure 7-20 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Urban Net Return Flow Page 261
Figure 7-21 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Agricultural Beginning
and Ending Storage Page 262
Figure 7-22 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Urban Beginning and
Ending Storage Page 262
Figure 7-23 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Native and Riparian
Vegetation Beginning and Ending Storage Page 263
Figure 7-24 Unsaturated Zone Budget: Beginning and
Ending Storage Page 263
Figure 7-25 Stream Budget: Upstream Inflow and
Downstream Outflow Page 264
Figure 7-26 Diversion Detail: Actual Diversion Page 265
Figure 7-27 Diversion Detail: Non-Recoverable Loss Page 266
Figure 7-28 IWFM Diversion Specification Input Page 267
Figure 7-29 Diversion Detail: Recoverable Loss Page 267
Figure 7-30 Groundwater Budget: Recharge Page 268
Figure 7-31 Diversion Detail: Actual Delivery Page 269
Figure 7-32 Diversion Detail: Actual Delivery Page 270

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 Handbook for Water Budget Development

Figure 7-33 Lake Budget: Flow from Streams, Bypasses, and

Lake Outflow Page 271
Figure 7-34 Lake Budget: Lake Evaporation Page 272
Figure 7-35 Lake Budget: Beginning and Ending Storage Page 273
Figure 7-36 Groundwater Budget: Deep Percolation Page 273
Figure 7-37 Groundwater Budget: Boundary Inflow Page 274
Figure 7-38 Groundwater Budget: Net Subsurface Inflow Page 275
Figure 7-39 Groundwater Budget: Gain from Stream Page 275
Figure 7-40 Groundwater Budget: Gain from Lake Page 276
Figure 7-41 IWFM Pumping Data File Page 277
Figure 7-42 IWFM Surface Water Diversion Data File Page 278
Figure 7-43 IWFM Pumping Data Specification Units Page 279
Figure 7-44 IWFM Surface Water Diversion Data Specification Units Page 279
Figure 7-45 Groundwater Budget: Recharge Page 280
Figure 7-46 IWFM Pumping Data File Page 281
Figure 7-47 Groundwater Budget: Pumping Page 282
Figure 7-48 Groundwater Budget: Pumping Page 283
Figure 7-49 Land and Water Use Budget: Agricultural Pumping Page 283
Figure 7-50 Land and Water Use Budget: Urban Pumping Page 284
Figure 7-51 IWFM Pumping Data File Page 285
Figure 7-52 Groundwater Budget: Pumping Page 285
Figure 7-53 Groundwater Budget: Subsidence Page 286
Figure 7-54 Groundwater Budget: Groundwater Storage Page 287
Figure 7-55 Land System Water Budget Components and IWFM
Water Budget Elements Page 288
Figure 7-56 Surface Water System Budget Components and IWFM
Water Budget Elements Page 289
Figure 7-57 Groundwater System Budget Components and IWFM
Water Budget Elements Page 290
Figure 7-58 Total Water Budget Components and IWFM Water
Budget Elements Page 291

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Handbook for Water Budget Development

Figure 8-1 Example MODFLOW-OWHM Discretization File Format Page 301

Figure 8-2 Farm Budget: Precipitation Page 302
Figure 8-3 Farm Budget: Evapotranspiration Page 302
Figure 8-4 Farm Budget: Applied Water Page 303
Figure 8-5 Farm Budget: Surface Water Deliveries Page 304
Figure 8-6 Farm Budget: Groundwater Extraction Page 305
Figure 8-7 MODFLOW-OWHM WEL File Page 306
Figure 8-8 Farm Budget: Non-routed Deliveries Page 307
Figure 8-9 Farm Budget: Runoff Page 309
Figure 8-10 Stream Budget: Runoff Page 309
Figure 8-11 Unsaturated Zone Budget Page 310
Figure 8-12 Stream Budget: Surface Water Inflows and Outflows Page 311
Figure 8-13 Farm Budget: Semi-routed and Routed Deliveries Page 312
Figure 8-14 Stream Budget: Stream ET Page 313
Figure 8-15 Stream Budget: Flow to Aquifer Page 314
Figure 8-16 Farm Budget: Non-Routed Deliveries Page 314
Figure 8-17 Farm Budget: Exported Water Page 315
Figure 8-18 Lake Budget: Stream Lake Interaction Page 316
Figure 8-19 Lake Budget: Lake Evaporation Page 317
Figure 8-20 Lake Budget: Change in Storage Page 318
Figure 8-21 Farm Budget: Deep Percolation Page 319
Figure 8-22 Zone Budget: Farm Net Recharge Page 319
Figure 8-23 Zone Budget: Subsurface Inflows Page 320
Figure 8-24 Zone Budget: Subsurface Outflows Page 321
Figure 8-25 Zone Budget: Stream-Groundwater Interaction Page 322
Figure 8-26 Lake Budget: Lake-Groundwater Interaction Page 323
Figure 8-27 MODFLOW-OWHM WEL File Page 325
Figure 8-28 MODFLOW-OWHM WEL File Page 326
Figure 8-29 Zone Budget: Groundwater Extraction Page 327
Figure 8-30 Farm Budget: Groundwater Extraction Page 327

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 Handbook for Water Budget Development

Figure 8-31 MODFLOW-OWHM WEL File Page 328

Figure 8-32 Zone Budget: Subsidence Page 330
Figure 8-33 Zone Budget: Storage Page 330
Figure 8-34 Land System Water Budget Components and
MODFLOW-OWHM Water Budget Elements Page 332
Figure 8-35 Surface Water System Budget Components and
MODFLOW-OWHM Water Budget Elements Page 333
Figure 8-36 Groundwater System Budget Components and
MODFLOW-OWHM Water Budget Elements Page 334
Figure 8-37 Total Water Budget Components and MODFLOW-OWHM
Water Budget Elements Page 335
Figure 9-1 Key to Sources and Related Water Budget Components Page 340

Tables
Table 1-1 Definitions of Total Water Budget Schematic Components
Shown in Figure 1-1 Page 9
Table 2-1 Availability of Water Budget Components in
IWFM Outputs of Version 2015.0.706 Page 34
Table 2-2 Availability of Water Budget Components in
MODFLOW-OWHM Outputs of Version 1.0.12 Page 37
Table 3-1 Example of Spatial Land Use and Water Source
Data Analysis Page 83
Table 3-2 Example Calculation of Applied Surface Water Page 84
Table 3-3 Example Calculation of Applied Groundwater Page 84
Table 3-4 Potential Magnitude of Irrigation Losses for Furrow
Irrigation (Percent) Page 85
Table 3-5 Potential Magnitude of Irrigation Losses for Sprinkler
Irrigation (Percent) Page 85
Table 3-6 Example Calculation of Applied Water by Water Source Page 98
Table 4-1 Data Requirements and Sources for PRMS Page 138
Table 4-2 Stream Width and Wind Function Relationships Page 149
Table 4-3 Rule Curve Page 168

Contents | xv
Handbook for Water Budget Development

Table 4-4 Reservoir Inflow and Outflow Relationship Page 170

Table 6-1 Summary of Case Study Figures and Tables Page 220
Table 6-2 Documentation: Land System Page 230
Table 6-3 Documentation: Surface Water System Page 234
Table 6-4 Documentation: Groundwater System Page 237
Table 6-5 Challenging Components to Estimate and/or
Obtain Data Page 241
Table 7-1 IWFM Components for Establishing Total Water Budget Page 248
Table 8-1 MODFLOW-OWHM Components for Establishing
Total Water Budget Page 298
Table 8-2 MODFLOW-OWHM Time and Length Unit Flags Page 300
Table 8-3 MODFLOW-OWHM Data Columns Related to Subsidence Page 329

xvi | Contents
 Handbook for Water Budget Development

Acronyms and Abbreviations

af/a acre-feet per acre

af/y acre-feet per year

BCM U.S. Geologic Survey’s Basin Characterization Model

C2VSim California Central Valley Groundwater Surface Water

Simulation

CP cultural practices

CDEC California Data Exchange Center

CVHM Central Valley Hydrologic Model

DAU detailed analysis units

DAUCO detailed analysis units by county

DEM digital elevation model

DWR California Department of Water Resources

ET evapotranspiration

ETAW evapotranspiration of applied water

GIS geographic information system

GPCD gallons per capita per day

GSA groundwater sustainability agency

GSP groundwater sustainability plan

HCM hydrogeologic conceptual model

IDC Integrated Water Flow Model Demand Calculator

ITRC Irrigation Training and Research Center

IWFM Integrated Water Flow Model

Acronyms and Abbreviations | xvii

Handbook for Water Budget Development

KRWA Kings River Water Association

METRIC Mapping Evapotranspiration at high Resolution with

Internalized Calibration

MODFLOW-OWHM MODFLOW One Water Hydrologic Flow Model

MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service

PRISM Parameter-elevation Relationships on Independent

Slopes Model

Reclamation U.S. Bureau of Reclamation

RWQCB Los Angeles Regional Water Quality Control Board

SEBAL Surface Energy Balance Algorithms for Land

SGMA Sustainable Groundwater Management Act

SIMS Satellite Irrigation Management Support

SSEBop Simplified Surface Energy Balance

State Water Board State Water Resources Control Board

taf thousand acre-feet

TOPS Terrestrial Observation and Prediction System

UC University of California

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

WWTP wastewater treatment plant

xviii | Acronyms and Abbreviations

 Handbook for Water Budget Development

1. INTRODUCTION

Section 1. Introduction | 1
Handbook for Water Budget Development

1.1 PURPOSE AND NEED

The purpose of the Handbook for Water Budget Development: With or
Without Models (Water Budget Handbook), prepared by the California
Department of Water Resources (DWR), is to provide the California water
resources community with a resource to develop water budgets for any
geographic area and time period, using modeling and non-modeling
approaches.

A water budget is a critical element of water management planning as it

provides an understanding of historical conditions and how future changes to
supply, demand, hydrology, population, land use, and climatic conditions will
affect a geographic area. Water agencies may use water budgets for a
variety of purposes, such as water supply planning, preparing feasibility
studies, facilitating integrated water resources management, estimating and
quantifying water resources, identifying data gaps, and forecasting optimum
water management actions.

Water budget development is mandated by recent legislation in California.

The Groundwater Sustainability Plan Regulations, adopted pursuant to the
Sustainable Groundwater Management Act (SGMA) of California 1, requires all
high- and medium-priority groundwater basins in California prepare a
groundwater sustainability plan (GSP) that “…shall include a water budget
for the basin that provides an accounting and assessment of the total annual
volume of groundwater and surface water entering and leaving the basin,
including historical, current and projected water budget conditions, and the
change in the volume of water stored.” Additionally, Assembly Bill 1668,
passed in 2018, requires agricultural water management plans to include “an
annual water budget based on the quantification of all inflow and outflow
components for the service area of the agricultural water supplier.”

A review of current hydrologic literature revealed that there is no single

practical reference guide that is available for developing water budgets. To

1
AB 1739 (Dickinson), SB 1168 (Pavley), and SB 1319 (Pavley), collectively
known as the Sustainable Groundwater Management Act (SGMA),
September 16, 2014

2 | Section 1. Introduction
 Handbook for Water Budget Development

support development of water budgets consistent with SGMA requirements,

DWR published the Water Budget Best Management Practices (Water Budget
BMP) in December 2016. The Water Budget BMP describes the fundamental
water budget concepts and the relationships among different water budget
components. The Water Budget Handbook systematically presents the
existing, but unorganized, information on various methods and data sources
for developing estimates of water budget components.

This Water Budget Handbook is not prescriptive in what methods a water

agency should apply to develop water budgets; rather, the handbook
provides a catalog of methods that an agency may consider based on its
needs, data and tool availability, and expertise.

1.2 INNOVATIONS
The Water Budget Handbook is an innovation by itself in that it is the first-
ever single-volume technical reference that explicitly describes how to
develop water budgets with or without models. Other innovations in this
Water Budget Handbook are:
1. First-ever total water budget with three-dimensional
representation of water budget components and common
vocabulary, which was vetted with various DWR programs, State
Water Resources Control Board, U.S. Geological Survey, and
academia (University of California [UC], Davis, UC San Diego,
UC Merced) to facilitate understanding and communication.
2. Decision tree to streamline selection of a modeling or a non-
modeling approach for water budget development.
3. Water Budget Accounting Template to organize and present
inflows (credits) and outflows (debits) for the land system, the
surface water system, and the groundwater system.
4. Case studies demonstrating development of water budgets with
a model (modeling approach) and without a model (non-modeling
approach).
5. First-ever compilation of relevant key data sources with tips
and practical advice on how to use the sources to develop
estimates of various water budget components.

Section 1. Introduction | 3
Handbook for Water Budget Development

1.3 TOTAL WATER BUDGET

Total water budget is a concept found in the California Water Code Section
10721: “an accounting of the total groundwater and surface water entering
and leaving a basin including the changes in the amount of water stored.”
The total water budget is a comprehensive accounting of all inflows to and
outflows from the three interrelated and interacting systems in a water
budget zone:
• Land system.
• Surface water system.
• Groundwater system.
A water budget zone represents any user-defined water management
area, such as a watershed, groundwater basin, water district, groundwater
sustainability agency (GSA), or other geographical area. The total water
budget is developed from individual water budgets of each of the three
systems mentioned above. A schematic representation of inflows and
outflows in these systems within a water budget zone is presented in
Figure 1-1. Flows entering and leaving the water budget zone are shown as
blue and orange arrows, respectively; flows from one system to another are
shown as green arrows, and internal flows within a system are shown as
purple arrows. Definitions of the water budget components shown in
Figure 1-1 are provided in Table 1-1. It should be noted that all components
shown may not be applicable or relevant to a particular water budget zone
depending on the geographic setting and water management operations. For
example, there may not be any applied water reuse or recycled water in a
water budget zone. Furthermore, data for some applicable and/or relevant
water budget components may not be available separately; those
components would need to be combined with related water budget
components. For example, stored water extraction may not be tracked
separately in a water budget zone; in such a case, total groundwater
extraction will be used as a combined total of two components:
(1) groundwater extraction, and (2) stored water extraction. The purpose of
Figure 1-1 is not to prescribe the required components of the total water
budget but to make the user of the Water Budget Handbook aware of
various water budget components and their pathways among the land
system, surface water system, and groundwater system within a water
budget zone.

4 | Section 1. Introduction
 Handbook for Water Budget Development

The three interacting systems — the land system, the surface water system,
and the groundwater system — and the corresponding individual system
water budgets that comprise the total water budget are described below.

1.3.1 Land System

The land system is the portion of the water budget zone that includes the
land surface and the unsaturated zone that extends vertically to the top of
the groundwater system (i.e., water table). The unsaturated zone (also
known as vadose zone) is the portion of the subsurface that lies between the
bottom of the land surface and the water table that defines the upper
boundary of the groundwater system. It includes the root zone, which is the
top layer of the unsaturated portion of the subsurface designated by the
depth of the plant roots that draw moisture from the soil. The thickness of
the unsaturated zone varies seasonally. The variation in thickness may be
caused by groundwater pumping, water management practices, or climatic
conditions. In areas with shallow groundwater conditions, the groundwater
system may connect directly to the land surface, thus eliminating the
unsaturated zone, allowing direct uptake of groundwater by plants, and
potentially causing groundwater to discharge directly to the land surface
through seeps, wetlands, or springs.

The land system water budget is an analysis of inflows to and outflows

from the land system within a water budget zone, including the change in
storage in the land surface and the unsaturated zone. It accounts for the
exchange of water over the land surface resulting from the various native
and managed land use activities (e.g., urban, agricultural, and managed
wetlands), movement of water through the unsaturated zone including
infiltration into the root zone and subsequent percolation, and the exchange
of water with the atmosphere as well as the surface water and the
groundwater systems. The root zone and part of the unsaturated zone
immediately below the root zone store infiltrated water for later transpiration
or evaporation. The portion of the applied water and precipitation that
percolates all the way to the water table becomes groundwater recharge.
Water in the unsaturated zone (including water in the root zone) may move
laterally down gradient and re-emerge in canals and streams without
recharging into the groundwater system. This lateral shallow subsurface flow
is also called interflow and may become applied water reuse to meet applied
water demands on downslope agricultural lands within the water budget
zone.

Section 1. Introduction | 5
Handbook for Water Budget Development

As shown in Figure 1-1, inflows to the land system include surface water
diversions from rivers and streams (streams), groundwater extraction, and
precipitation onto the land surface. In areas with a high groundwater table
or where the subsurface geology causes outflow from the groundwater
system to the land surface, additional inflows to the land system may come
from capillary movement into the root zone or from direct outflow of
groundwater onto the land surface through seeps, wetlands, or springs.
Outflows from the land system include rainfall-runoff and agricultural, urban,
and managed wetlands return flows to the surface water system; managed
aquifer recharge and recharge of applied water and precipitation to the
groundwater system; and evapotranspiration to the atmosphere. The change
in land system storage consists of change in ponded water storage (not
streams, lakes, or conveyance facilities) on the land surface as well as the
change in soil moisture storage in the unsaturated zone, which includes the
root zone. The change in storage in lakes and streams is included in the
change in surface water storage.

1.3.2 Surface Water System

The surface water system is the portion of the water budget zone that
includes streams, conveyance facilities and diversion ditches, and lakes and
reservoirs (lakes) that are part of the water supply system for meeting
agricultural, urban, and managed wetlands applied water demands.

The surface water budget is an analysis of inflows to and outflows from

the surface water system within a water budget zone, including the change
in surface water storage. As shown in Figure 1-1, inflows to the surface
water system include stream flows and imported water entering the water
budget zone, precipitation onto the surface water body, rainfall-runoff and
return flow contributions from the land system, and gain from the
groundwater system. Outflows from the surface water system include
stream flows and surface water exports leaving the water budget zone,
surface water deliveries to the land system, conveyance seepage and
streamflow loss to the groundwater system, and lake evaporation to the
atmosphere. The change in surface water storage includes change of storage
in lakes and large streams.

1.3.3 Groundwater System

The groundwater system is the portion of the water budget zone that
extends vertically from the base of the unsaturated zone (water table) to the

6 | Section 1. Introduction
 Handbook for Water Budget Development

bottom of the basin within the water budget zone; it can include one or more
principal aquifers and represents the physical extent of the water budget
zone used to quantify the volume of groundwater stored.

The groundwater budget is an analysis of inflows to and outflows from the

groundwater system within a water budget zone, including the change in
groundwater storage. As shown in Figure 1-1, inflows to the groundwater
system include subsurface groundwater flow entering the water budget
zone, conveyance seepage from the surface water system, recharge of
applied water and precipitation percolating downward through the
unsaturated zone, and managed aquifer recharge from the land system.
Outflows from the groundwater system primarily include groundwater and
stored water extraction through wells, losses to the surface water system,
and subsurface groundwater flow, as well as groundwater and stored water
exports leaving the water budget zone. The change in groundwater storage
includes change in storage in aquifers resulting from changes in groundwater
levels. Additional outflows from the groundwater system may occur as a
result of (1) shallow groundwater discharge from seeps, wetlands, and
springs, and (2) evapotranspiration and bare soil evaporation when the
capillary fringe of the water table rises to within the root zone or the soil
surface.

Section 1. Introduction | 7
Handbook for Water Budget Development

Figure 1-1 Total Water Budget Schematic

*For clarification, see Table 1-1.

8 | Section 1. Introduction
 Handbook for Water Budget Development

Table 1-1 Definitions of Total Water Budget Schematic Components

Shown in Figure 1-1
Water Budget
Component Definition
(Alphabetical)
Applied Water Volume of water delivered to the intake of a city water system, a
(AW) factory, a farm headgate, managed wetlands, or managed
aquifer recharge; it includes all sources of supply (surface water,
groundwater, applied water reuse, and recycled water).
Applied Water Volume of applied water contributing to (1) lateral flow below the
(AW) Reuse land surface that is influenced by impermeable layers and re-
emerges as return flow for reuse in the land system, (2) tailwater
available for reuse in the land system, or (3) a combination of
both.
Change in Net change in the volume of groundwater stored within the
Groundwater underlying aquifer of the water budget zone.
(GW) Storage
Change in Land Net change in the volume of water stored within the land system,
System Storage which includes ponded water on the land surface (not including
streams, lakes, and conveyance facilities) and soil moisture
within the unsaturated zone, which includes the root zone.
Change in Surface Net change in the volume of water stored within the surface
Water (SW) water system, which includes lakes and reservoirs, streams, and
Storage conveyance facilities.
Conveyance Volume of water evaporated into the atmosphere from
Evaporation conveyance facilities, other than streams, during water delivery.
Conveyance Volume of water recharged to the groundwater system from the
Seepage conveyance facilities, other than streams, during water delivery.
Evapotranspiration Volume of water entering the atmosphere through the combined
process of evaporation from soil and plant surfaces and
transpiration from plants.
Groundwater Volume of groundwater pumped (extracted) from the underlying
(GW) Export aquifer for use outside the water budget zone. It does not include
groundwater extraction, stored water extraction, and stored water
export.
Groundwater Volume of groundwater pumped (extracted) from the underlying
(GW) Extraction aquifer(s) for use within the water budget zone. It does not
include groundwater export, stored water extraction, and stored
water export.
Groundwater Volume of water entering the groundwater system from lakes
(GW) Gain from and reservoirs.
Lake

Section 1. Introduction | 9
Handbook for Water Budget Development

Water Budget
Component Definition
(Alphabetical)
Groundwater Volume of water entering the groundwater system from rivers
(GW) Gain from and streams.
Stream
Groundwater Volume of water entering lakes and reservoirs from the
(GW) Loss to Lake groundwater system.
Groundwater Volume of water entering rivers and streams from the
(GW) Loss to groundwater system.
Stream
Imported Water Volume of water brought from outside the water budget zone for
use within the water budget zone, such as State Water Project
water, Central Valley Project water, water produced from
desalination of ocean water, and water produced from
desalination of deep groundwater from below the base of
freshwater.
Lake Evaporation Volume of evaporation from lakes and reservoirs.

Managed Aquifer Volume of water intentionally added to the groundwater system

Recharge as part of defined recharge and water banking programs through
spreading basins, injection wells, and other means.
Percolation Volume of applied water and precipitation that travels from the
root zone to the unsaturated zone of the aquifer; this water then
travels either vertically into the groundwater system or
horizontally into the surface stream system.
Precipitation Volume of water vapor that falls to the earth (land and surface
water systems) as rain, snow, hail, or is formed on the earth as
dew, and frost.
Recharge of Volume of applied water and precipitation that travels vertically
Applied Water and through the soil/unsaturated zones and reaches the saturated
Precipitation zone of the aquifer (groundwater system).
Recycled Water Volume of water which, as a result of treatment of waste, is
(RW) suitable for a direct beneficial use or a controlled use that would
not otherwise occur within the water budget zone. It includes
wastewater that is treated, stored, distributed, and reused or
recirculated for beneficial uses.
Recycled Water Volume of recycled water diverted from the land system within a
(RW) Export water budget zone for use outside the zone.
Return Flow Volume of applied water that is not consumptively used and
flows to the surface water system. It includes treated wastewater
discharges to the surface water system.

10 | Section 1. Introduction
 Handbook for Water Budget Development

Water Budget
Component Definition
(Alphabetical)
Runoff Volume of water flowing into the surface water system within a
water budget zone from precipitation over the land surface.
Stored Water Volume of groundwater pumped (extracted) from the underlying
Export* aquifer(s) through a defined recharge and extraction program for
use outside the water budget zone. For example, a water bank
with dedicated extraction wells can provide data for stored water
export. It does not include stored water extraction, groundwater
extraction, and groundwater export. Groundwater export and
stored water export will be combined if stored water export
amounts are unknown or are not separately measured. In such a
case, the total volume of combined exports will be reported as
groundwater export.
Stored Water Volume of groundwater pumped (extracted) from the underlying
Extraction* aquifer(s) through a defined recharge and extraction program for
use within the water budget zone. For example, a water bank
with dedicated extraction wells can provide data for stored water
extraction. It does not include stored water export, groundwater
extraction, and groundwater export. Groundwater extraction and
stored water extraction will be combined if stored water
extraction amounts are unknown or are not separately
measured. In such a case, the total volume of combined
extractions will be reported as groundwater extraction.
Stream Volume of water evaporated into the atmosphere from streams.
Evaporation
Stream Inflow Volume of water entering through streams at the periphery of a
water budget zone.
Stream Outflow Volume of water leaving through streams at the periphery of a
water budget zone.
Stream-Lake Volume of water exchanged between streams and lakes.
Interaction
Subsurface Inflow Volume of water entering as groundwater into a water budget
zone through its subsurface boundaries.
Subsurface Volume of water leaving as groundwater from a water budget
Outflow zone through its subsurface boundaries.
Surface Water Volume of surface water delivered to a water budget zone. This
(SW) Delivery does not equal the volume of surface water diversion and
imported water because the latter also include conveyance
seepage and evaporation during transport of the water.
Surface Water Volume of water taken from the surface water system within a
(SW) Diversion water budget zone for use within the zone.

Section 1. Introduction | 11
Handbook for Water Budget Development

Water Budget
Component Definition
(Alphabetical)
Surface Water Volume of water diverted from the surface water system within a
(SW) Export water budget zone for use outside the zone.
Water Release Volume of water released to an aquifer on a one-time basis as a
Caused by Land result of land subsidence, which is caused by the inelastic
Subsidence consolidation of porous fine-grained material.

1.4 WATER BUDGET ACCOUNTING TEMPLATE

Water budget accounting involves accounting of all inflows and outflows
within each of the three systems, which aggregates into total water budget
accounting. A template for water budget accounting will facilitate
standardization, error checking, and correction of water budget estimates.
Use of a standardized template will also result in improved communication
and coordination with neighboring water agencies through consistent water
budget accounting across boundaries and water budget zones. An example
template is provided in Figure 1-2 through 1-5. The template is available in
accessible Excel format on the Water Budget Handbook webpage. The
standardized template applies to both modeling and non-modeling
approaches discussed in Section 2, “Water Budget Development Process.”
The inflow and outflow components of the land, surface water, and
groundwater systems are shown as credits (+) or debits (-) to facilitate
proper accounting of different water budget components. The relationships
of the components in a system with components in other systems are
provided in the rightmost column of Figures 1-2 through 1-5.

12 | Section 1. Introduction
 Handbook for Water Budget Development

Figure 1-2 Water Budget Accounting Template — Land System Water Budget

LAND SYSTEM WATER BUDGET

Flow Credit(+)/
Component Relationship with Other Systems
Type Debit(-)
Inflow Precipitation on Land System +
Inflow Surface Water Delivery + Equal to the Surface Water Delivery term in the surface water system outflow
Inflow Groundwater Extraction + Equal to the Groundwater Extraction term in the groundwater system outflow
Inflow Stored Water Extraction + Equal to the Stored Water Extraction term in the groundwater system outflow
Inflow Applied Water Reuse/Recycled Water
Inflow Applied Water Sum of Surface Water Delivery , Groundwater Extraction , Stored Water Extraction , and Applied Water Reuse/Recycled Water

Inflow Total Inflow Precipitation plus Surface Water Delivery plus Groundwater Extraction plus Stored Water Extraction
Outflow Evapotranspiration -
Outflow Runoff - Equal to the Runoff term in Surface Water System*
Outflow Return Flow - Equal to the Return Flow term in Surface Water System*
Outflow Recharge of Applied Water - Equal to the Recharge of Applied Water term in the groundwater system
Outflow Recharge of Precipitation - Equal to the Recharge of Precipitation term in the groundwater system
Outflow Managed Aquifer Recharge - Equal to the Managed Aquifer Recharge term in the groundwater system
Outflow Recycled Water Export -
Evapotranspiration plus Runoff plus Return Flow plus Recharge of Applied Water plus Recharge of Precipitation plus Managed Aquifer
Outflow Total Outflow
Recharge plus Recycled Water Export
Storage
Change in Land System Storage
Change
Land System Mass Balance Error
* For cases where the surface water system is outside the water budget zone, some of these components will require additional consideration to characterize correctly.

Section 1. Introduction | 13
Handbook for Water Budget Development

Figure 1-3 Water Budget Accounting Template — Surface Water System Water Budget

SURFACE WATER SYSTEM WATER BUDGET

Flow Credit(+)/
Component Relationship with Other Systems
Type Debit(-)
Inflow Stream Inflow +
Inflow Imported Water +
Inflow Precipitation on Lakes +
Inflow Runoff + Equal to the Runoff term in land system*
Inflow Return Flow + Equal to the Return Flow term in the land system*
Inflow Stream Gain from Groundwater + Equal to the Groundwater Loss to Stream term in the groundwater system
Inflow Lake Gain from Groundwater + Equal to the Groundwater Loss to Lake term in the groundwater system
Stream Inflow plus Imported Water plus Precipitation on Lakes plus Runoff plus Return Flow plus Stream Gain from Groundwater plus Lake
Inflow Total Inflow
Gain from Groundwater
Outflow Stream Outflow -
Outflow Surface Water Exports -
Outflow Surface Water Diversions Surface Water Delivery minus Imported Water plus Conveyance Evaporation plus Conveyance Seepage
Outflow Conveyance Evaporation -
Outflow Conveyance Seepage - Equal to the Conveyance Seepage term in the groundwater system
Outflow Surface Water Delivery - Equal to the Surface Water Delivery term in land system
Outflow Stream Loss to Groundwater - Equal to the Gain from Stream term in the groundwater system
Outflow Lake Loss to Groundwater - Equal to the Groundwater Gain from Lake term in the groundwater system
Outflow Lake Evaporation -
Outflow Stream Evaporation -
Stream Outflow plus Surface Water Exports plus Conveyance Evaporation plus Conveyance Seepage plus Surface Water Delivery plus Stream
Outflow Total Outflow
Loss to Groundwater plus Lake Loss to Groundwater plus Lake Evaporation plus Stream Evaporation
Storage
Change in Surface Water Storage
Change
Surface Water System Mass Balance Error
* For cases where the surface water system is outside the water budget zone, some of these components will require additional consideration to characterize correctly.

14 | Section 1. Introduction
 Handbook for Water Budget Development

Figure 1-4 Water Budget Accounting Template — Groundwater System Water Budget

GROUNDWATER SYSTEM WATER BUDGET

Flow Credit(+)/
Component Relationship with Other Systems
Type Debit(-)
Inflow Recharge of Applied Water + Equal to the Recharge of Applied Water term in the land system
Inflow Recharge of Precipitation + Equal to the Recharge of Precipitation term in the land system
Inflow Managed Aquifer Recharge + Equal to the Managed Aquifer Recharge term in the land system
Inflow Groundwater Gain from Stream + Equal to the Stream Loss to Groundwater term in the surface water system
Inflow Groundwater Gain from Lake + Equal to the Lake Loss to Groundwater term in the surface water system
Inflow Conveyance Seepage + Equal to the Conveyance Seepage term in the surface water system
Inflow Subsurface Inflow +
Inflow Water Release Caused by Land Subsidence +
Recharge of Applied Water plus Recharge of Precipitation plus Managed Aquifer Recharge plus Groundwater Gain from Stream plus Groundwater
Inflow Total Inflow
Gain from Lake plus Conveyance Seepage plus Subsurface Inflow plus Water Release Caused by Land Subsidence
Outflow Groundwater Extraction - Equal to the Groundwater Extraction term in the land system
Outflow Stored Water Extraction - Equal to the Stored Water Extraction term in the land system
Outflow Groundwater Loss to Stream - Equal to the Stream Gain from Groundwater term in the surface water system
Outflow Groundwater Loss to Lake - Equal to the Lake Gain from Groundwater term in the surface water system
Outflow Subsurface Outflow -
Outflow Groundwater Export -
Outflow Stored Water Export -
Groundwater Extraction plus Stored Water Extraction plus Groundwater Loss to Stream plus Groundwater Loss to Lake plus Subsurface Outflow
Outflow Total Outflow
plus Groundwater Export plus Stored Water Export
Storage
Change in Groundwater Storage
Change
Groundwater System Mass Balance Error

Section 1. Introduction | 15
Handbook for Water Budget Development

Figure 1-5 Water Budget Accounting Template — Total Water Budget

TOTAL WATER BUDGET

Flow Credit(+)/
Component Relationship with Other Systems
Type Debit(-)
Inflow Precipitation on Land System + Equal to the Precipitation term in the land system
Inflow Precipitation on Lakes + Equal to the Precipitation on Lakes term in the surface water system
Inflow Stream Inflow + Equal to the Stream Inflow term in the surface water system
Inflow Imported Water + Equal to the Imported Water term in the surface water system
Inflow Subsurface Inflow + Equal to the Subsurface Inflow term in the groundwater system
Inflow Water Release Caused by Land Subsidence + Equal to the Water Release Caused by Land Subsidence term in the groundwater system
Precipitation on Land System plus Precipitation on Lakes plus Stream Inflow plus Imported Water plus Subsurface Inflow plus Water Release
Inflow Total Inflow
Caused by Land Subsidence
Outflow Evapotranspiration - Equal to the Evapotranspiration term in the land system
Outflow Stream Evaporation - Equal to the Stream Evaporation term in the surface water system
Outflow Lake Evaporation - Equal to the Lake Evaporation term in the surface water system
Outflow Conveyance Evaporation - Equal to the Conveyance Evaporation term in the surface water system
Outflow Stream Outflow - Equal to the Stream Outflow term in the surface water system
Outflow Subsurface Outflow - Equal to the Subsurface Outflow term in the groundwater system
Outflow Surface Water Export - Equal to the Surface Water Export term in surface water system
Outflow Groundwater Export - Equal to the Groundwater Export term in the groundwater system
Outflow Stored Water Export - Equal to the Stored Water Export term in the groundwater system
Outflow Recycled Water Export - Equal to the Recycled Water Export term in the land system
Evapotranspiration from Land System plus Stream Evaporation plus Lake Evaporation plus Conveyance Evaporation plus Stream Outflow plus
Outflow Total Outflow
Subsurface Outflow plus Surface Water Export plus Groundwater Export plus Stored Water Export plus Recycled Water Export
Storage
Change in Total System Storage
Change
Total System Mass Balance Error

16 | Section 1. Introduction
 Handbook for Water Budget Development

2. WATER BUDGET DEVELOPMENT

PROCESS

Section 2. Water Budget Development Process | 17

Handbook for Water Budget Development

2.1 INTRODUCTION
To properly account for all water budget components under the wide range
of circumstances faced by local agencies, a systematic process of identifying,
classifying, verifying, summarizing, interpreting, and communicating water
budget information is needed. The Water Budget Handbook attempts to
respond to this need by defining consistent water budget components
(Section 1) and documenting multiple methods for estimating and
accounting the water budget components (Sections 3, 4 and 5). Section 2
identifies necessary considerations for water budget development and
describes the decision process for selecting appropriate approaches based on
needs and availability of data.

2.2 DIFFERENT WAYS OF DEVELOPING A TOTAL WATER BUDGET

A water budget can be developed using (1) a modeling approach and/or
(2) a non-modeling approach. The modeling approach refers to using an
integrated numerical model that includes simulation of processes in the land
system, surface water system, and groundwater system at various time
scales, such as daily, monthly, or annually. The non-modeling approach is
an accounting method that uses a combination of assumptions, process
equations, and available basic meteorological, hydrologic, and other related
data to develop spatially and temporally lumped estimates of various water
budget components. The modeling approach is the most comprehensive way
of developing the total water budget for a water budget zone. But,
development of a defensible integrated numerical model that is well
calibrated and has stakeholders’ buy-in requires considerable investment in
data, tools, people, and process. The non-modeling approach is used in the
absence of a robust, accepted integrated numerical model, or when a model
may not be needed for estimating the required water budget components.

The non-modeling approach may be a relatively inexpensive way to

understand the water budget within a water budget zone and assess
whether development of a numerical model is needed to support evaluation
of projects and management actions. Additionally, the non-modeling
approach provides a preliminary means of developing water budgets and can
serve as the fundamental building block toward the modeling approach over
time as more data are collected and more tools are developed.

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The application of the non-modeling approach helps identify data necessary

for developing various water budget components. This Water Budget
Handbook systematically presents a compendium of methods and data
sources for estimating different water budget components using the non-
modeling approach. The same or similar methods are sometimes also the
basis for the subprocess models of land, surface water, and groundwater
systems within an integrated numerical groundwater and surface water
model. Similarly, data sources for water budget development used in the
non-modeling approach may also be utilized in developing input data for
numerical models and in calibrating and validating those models.

The detail required in a water budget depends on the questions a water

agency intends to answer. A more detailed answer will likely require more
data and more resources to develop and maintain a numerical model. A
simple water budget developed through the non-modeling approach may not
be capable of providing sound answers to certain questions that require a
more complete understanding of the spatial and temporal scope of the water
budget. In contrast, certain basin conditions may require less detail than
others, where a non-modeling approach may be adequate for the purpose at
hand.

Similarly, although the non-modeling approach can be used to develop

projected future water budgets under different management scenarios, the
modeling approach is naturally well suited for simulating a range of future
conditions. Another unique strength of the modeling approach is its ability to
simulate the temporal and spatial aspects of groundwater movement in a
detailed way that is not possible using the non-modeling approach. For
example, a non-modeling approach may show water recharged as an
accretion to groundwater storage, but not the distribution of the recharged
water over space and time. In contrast, a numerical model which attempts
to represent the physical hydrologic processes would capture this spatial and
temporal aspect more accurately. Based on whether these additional
capabilities provided by a numerical model are critical for a water agency to
manage its basin may dictate its decision to invest in the
development/refinement of a numerical model.

The modeling approach allows the evaluation of interdependencies

associated with various water budget components, resulting in improved
water budgets. Additionally, it facilitates the identification of the range of

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uncertainties inherent in various water budget components and provides a

means to improve water budget estimations over time through collection of
supplemental data to address those uncertainties. In the modeling approach,
water budget components which have a higher level of certainty can be used
to help validate or constrain estimates of the components that carry more
uncertainty. For example, groundwater extraction and recharge, two of the
largest groundwater budget components in irrigated California basins, have
not been measured or reported in many locations. But if an integrated
numerical model can both simulate historical fluctuations in groundwater
levels and some fluxes that have also been measured (e.g., stream
baseflows, conveyance facility flows), the model can reduce the actual
uncertainty in the groundwater extraction and recharge numbers. As a
result, a well calibrated model with sufficient data representing the physics
of groundwater flow allows the use of the model to compute unknown water
budget components from other, known or more reliably estimated water
budget components and parameters. In such a case, the model helps fill in
data gaps.

2.3 DETERMINATION OF WATER BUDGET DEVELOPMENT

APPROACH
This Water Budget Handbook is intended to assist water managers, having
different levels of data, capacities, and resources, in determining an
approach (modeling or non-modeling) to develop a water budget. The
decision tree in Figure 2-1 illustrates the logical steps for determining when
to use the non-modeling approach and when to use the modeling approach.
The significance of each water budget component in a water budget zone of
interest should be assessed before embarking on a specific approach for
water budget development. There are cases when a hybrid approach of the
modeling approach and the non-modeling approach may be best suited for a
water budget zone of interest depending on the status of data availability
and model features.

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Figure 2-1 Decision Tree for Water Budget Development Approach

Decision tree process illustrated in Figure 2-1:

Step 1. Initial Assessment:

A. Why do you need a total water budget?
B. At what timescale and period do you need the water budget?
C. What components of the total water budget are significant or
applicable to your area?
Step 2. Do you need a model to develop missing components of the water
budget?
A. If no, then use the non-modeling approach.
B. If yes, then go to Step 3.
Step 3. Is there an integrated model that covers your area? Or could you
develop an integrated model that covers your area?
A. If no, then use non-modeling approach.
B. If yes, then go to Step 4.

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Step 4. Is the model calibrated and accepted by stakeholders?

A. If yes, go to Step 5.
B. If no, then do you have resources and time to calibrate and
gain stakeholder acceptance?
a. If no, then use non-modeling approach
b. If yes, go to Step 5.
Step 5. Was the model developed specifically for your area?
A. If yes, then go to Step 6.
B. If no, then does the model represent your area adequately to
develop a water budget?
a. If yes, then go to Step 6.
b. If no, then can you adequately refine the model
representation for your areas?
1. If yes, then go to Step 6.
2. If no, then use non-modeling approach
Step 6. Use modeling approach (If all required water budget components
are not available in the selected model, use non-modeling approach
to estimate those components)

Generally, a non-modeling approach will allow quick calculation of water

budgets with available data and simpler methods. If a water agency is not
using a model, the methods described in this handbook will help the agency
to estimate water budgets. In contrast, an integrated model will be
necessary to assess complex groundwater flow patterns, the timing of
groundwater recharge, groundwater-streamflow interaction, and long-term
future water budget projections. Even when a model is used for water
budget development, priority should be given to using measured data when
available; model results should not be used as a surrogate for measured
data.

2.4 HYDROGEOLOGIC CONCEPTUAL MODEL

Development of a hydrogeologic conceptual model (HCM) is the first step in
developing any water budget. An HCM does not include specific quantities of
water inflows into or outflows from a basin, but rather provides a general
understanding of the physical setting, characteristics, and processes that
govern groundwater occurrence and flow within the basin. The purpose of
developing an HCM is to simplify the complex natural system and organize
relevant field data and information so that the hydrogeologic system can be
analyzed (Anderson and Woessner 1992). The HCM forms the basis for

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mathematical (analytical or numerical) model development and sets the

stage for quantifying the water budget components. DWR’s Best
Management Practices for the Sustainable Management of Groundwater:
Hydrogeologic Conceptual Model document provides guidance on how to
develop an HCM. A schematic representation of the HCM from the document
is reproduced in Figure 2-2.

Figure 2-2 A Schematic Representation of Hydrogeologic Conceptual

Model

2.5 BASIN UNDERSTANDING

Once an HCM has been developed and the basin boundary/water budget
zone has been delineated, the next step in water budget development is to
gain basin understanding. Developing a water budget requires both data and
professional judgment based on a sound understanding of the groundwater
basin and watershed. Basin understanding is necessary to support
assumptions that may be required to complete the water budget and to
provide quality control for the results of the analysis.

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Data provide the fundamental building blocks for developing water budgets.
The steps described in the following subsections will help identify the data
available in the basin that is needed to guide basin understanding.

2.5.1 Collect Data

To develop an understanding of the groundwater basin and watershed, a
wide variety of available data should be compiled and reviewed. There are
several publicly available databases in California that provide useful data to
support improved basin understanding. A list of the related data sources is
provided in Section 9, “Data Resources Directory.”

Selected data elements that describe the groundwater basin or watershed

and their potential influence on the water budget are:
• Topography — Topography influences the runoff and eventually the
recharge of applied water and precipitation, rim inflows, and
groundwater interaction with streams.
• Climate — Climatic conditions affect both spatial and temporal
distribution of recharge of precipitation.
• Hydrology — Hydrologic parameters, such as stream stage, affect the
stream-aquifer interactions.
• Land and water use — Land use conditions of agricultural, urban,
and managed wetlands areas affect the amounts of evapotranspiration
and applied water (irrigation) requirements, which in turn, affect the
recharge of applied water and precipitation. Water use is often a
consequence of land use in a given area.
• Infrastructure — Project facilities (e.g., lakes, conveyance facilities,
diversion structures) constructed over time impact evaporation,
recharge, and stream-aquifer interactions.
• Surface water diversions/deliveries — Land use activities,
availability of conveyance facilities, and hydrologic conditions dictate
the quantities of surface water diversions/deliveries.
• Soil — Soil parameters such as texture, porosity, field capacity, and
hydraulic conductivity can affect the spatial and temporal distribution
of recharge of applied water and precipitation.
• Geologic setting — Three-dimensional distribution and geometry of
geologic deposits form aquifers and aquitards that store groundwater.

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• Aquifer characteristics — The distribution of aquifer hydraulic

conductivity represents the groundwater flow direction and impacts the
subsurface flows. Aquifer storage parameters such as specific yield
impact the change in groundwater storage.
• Groundwater elevation data — Variations in groundwater elevations
represent the changes in groundwater storage and are an indication of
balance between aquifer inflows and outflows. These data can also
help quantify inter-basin flows.
• Groundwater extraction data — Land use activities and availability
of surface water impact the quantity of groundwater extraction.
Droughts and associated reductions in surface water availability result
in increased groundwater extraction while a wet hydrology and
abundance of surface water result in decreased groundwater
extraction.

2.5.2 Review Past Studies

Past studies may contain data and analyses that can support the
development of new or revised water budgets. Previous estimates of water
budget components may exist for the area of interest and surrounding
groundwater basins and watershed of interest. Additional sources of
information for development of water budgets with respect to data and
methods may include the following, many of which are described in Section
9, “Data Resources Directory.”
• DWR studies/reports.
o California’s Groundwater (Bulletin 118).
o California Water Plan (Bulletin 160).
• DWR region offices.
• Local agencies, including water districts, cities, and counties.
• Groundwater/hydrologic model reports.
o DWR’s California Central Valley Groundwater Surface Water
Simulation (C2VSim) model.
o U. S. Geological Survey (USGS) Central Valley Hydrologic Model
(CVHM).
o DWR’s Sacramento Valley Simulation (SVSim) model.
o Regional and local models.

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• USGS scientific investigation reports and circulars.

• Universities and academic organizations.
• Non-governmental organizations.

2.5.3 Complete Data Availability Checklist

Developing a summary of available data can assist in identifying major data
gaps and readiness to develop a water budget. A sample data availability
checklist, shown in Figure 2-3, displays the water budget components for the
land, surface water, and groundwater systems, along with the minimum
data needed to calculate each of the components. If the required data for a
specific water budget component are not available, then either additional
data will need to be collected or the application of a rough approximation
technique or an empirical method needs to be used to calculate the water
budget component. The missing water budget component may also be back-
calculated after all other components of the water budget have been
calculated.

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Figure 2-3 Example of a Water Budget Components Checklist with

Minimum Data Elements

2.5.4 Identify Data Gaps

During the development of a water budget, data gaps will become apparent.
Data gaps may appear as limited data, poor-quality data, or inconsistent

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data. These data gaps should be clearly identified and prioritized to provide
direction for developing water budgets in the future by focusing on:
• Components that are most significant for the water budget zone.
• Components that have the highest level of uncertainty and are
important to quantify.

Additional data collection is not necessary where sufficient data exist to

quantify a water budget component or where the contribution of the
component to inflow or outflow is relatively minor.

2.6 WATER YEAR TYPES

Hydrologic conditions represented by water year types can affect the water
budget of an area. Dry hydrologic conditions will typically result in less
surface water availability, potentially increasing the amount of groundwater
extractions and overall lowering of groundwater levels. Wet hydrologic
conditions generally do the reverse, resulting in recovery of groundwater
levels. The water year types for the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys are
determined by the Sacramento Valley Water Year Index and the San Joaquin
Valley Water Year Index. These two indices classify water year types into
five categories: wet, above normal, below normal, dry, and critically dry
conditions. For an area without an existing water year index, water year
types can be developed and classified based on annual precipitation as a
percentage of the previous 30-year average precipitation for the area.
Additionally, like the Sacramento Valley and San Joaquin Valley indices,
water year type determination could also consider antecedent and projected
runoff conditions for the classification of a water year.

2.7 WATER BUDGET ANALYSIS PERIOD AND TIME STEPS

During the data collection process for water budget development, focus
should be on collecting and analyzing data for different water year types and
applicable time scales to improve the understanding of water budgets under
a range of hydrologic conditions. Because annual water budgets do not
account for seasonal variability within a year, a monthly time scale analysis
may be needed to fully capture the interdependencies among water budget
components.

To support a more robust analysis, data for multiple consecutive years

should be collected. Working with more available recent years’ data may

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also facilitate stakeholder acceptance of the analysis. To examine more

extreme hydrologic conditions that may not be reflected in historical records,
additional analysis using data from non-consecutive years may be
conducted. Water budget analysis may be conducted for various time
periods, described below, to meet different planning, operational, and
regulatory needs:
• Single Year — Selected Hydrologic Condition: A water budget may
be developed for a single year that is representative of desired
hydrological and operational conditions, such as analysis of increased
groundwater pumping in a dry year.
• Three Year — Selected Hydrologic Conditions: A water budget
may be developed for three non-consecutive years representing
extreme hydrologic conditions. This option could be used to evaluate
how changes in surface water deliveries affect groundwater storage.
• Long-Term — 20 to 50 Years of Variable Hydrologic Conditions:
A water budget may be developed for several decades that represents
the long-term hydrological condition of the basin and includes one or
more cycles of average, wet, and dry years. Selecting a relatively long
period for water budget analysis is more likely to include a wide range
of hydrological conditions and system responses. This option requires
a significant amount of data and is used to evaluate the effects of
historical pumping and land use and assessment of alternative
management actions. If a model is developed and used, a longer
calibration period is beneficial because the model is calibrated based
on historical changes in groundwater levels, which are driven by
historical changes in land use, groundwater extraction, recharge and
climate. As a result, a well-calibrated model will result when at least
several decades of historical records are used. Furthermore, when
creating a water budget in an area subject to conditions of chronic
overdraft, using a 20- to 50-year historical water budget may be
necessary to capture a time period before overdraft was occurring.
Identifying those key, non-overdraft time periods and the
corresponding water budgets is important for the identification of
future water management objectives and actions.

If the water budget analysis is conducted using data from multiple years, an
average water budget condition can be estimated by averaging across all the
years used for analysis. It is a good practice to maintain and present the

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information for the individual years including the associated monthly data
and analysis, as they provide information on the annual and seasonal
variability of water budget under different hydrologic conditions.

2.8 MODELING APPROACH

The modeling approach for developing a water budget involves using an
existing integrated model. The process flowchart in Figure 2-4 shows the
steps required to obtain the water budget information using the modeling
approach. If the model does not provide all water budget components in the
water budget zone, then the non-modeling approach can be used to
estimate components that are not available from the model.

When using a model for developing a water budget, it should be ensured

that the model is well-calibrated and documented. The most important
indicator of a well-calibrated model is how closely the model reproduces
measured streamflows, groundwater levels, and fluxes. For a model to be
considered reliable for use, the model needs to reproduce historical
conditions through the adjustment of model parameters within the bounds of
hydrogeologic measurements and reasonable assumptions. A well-calibrated
model that is accepted by stakeholders may still have uncertainty in its
calculated water budget components. This is especially true for water budget
components with no measured data available for use in model calibration,
which is often the case with stream-aquifer interaction. Uncertainties
associated with water budget estimates using the non-modeling approach
are usually larger. Even with acknowledgement of uncertainties in water
budget estimates with models, one overriding advantage of using a model is
its ability to provide estimates of water budget components that cannot be
measured. Another advantage of the modeling approach is to better
understand and quantify what the uncertainty is in the various water budget
components. Understanding the uncertainty allows water managers to make
better decisions.

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Figure 2-4 Flowchart for Extracting Water Budget Components from

Existing Models

Flowchart process illustrated in Figure 2-4:

Step 1. Use/Modify/Update Existing Model.
Step 2. Do model outputs include water budget components?
A. If yes, then use model outputs, then go to Step 3.
B. If no then post-process model results to develop water
budget components, then go to Step 3.
Step 3. Are all water budget components available from model?
A. If no, then use non-modeling approach to determine
unavailable water budget components.
B. If yes, then you are done.

Note: The model should be a calibrated model that is accepted by

stakeholders and has proper documentation.

Water resources planning and management in California commonly

incorporate hydrologic modeling approaches that fall under three broad
categories.
• Integrated models.
• Subsystem models.
• Other models.

2.8.1 Integrated Models

Integrated models are fully coupled, numerical groundwater and surface
water models that simulate the processes of the terrestrial hydrologic cycle
from the land system to the surface water system to the groundwater

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system. As a result, these models can compute most or all of the water
budget components depending on model features and extent of the model
application in the water budget zone. But, proper construction of these
models requires knowledge of physical processes and numerical modeling,
extensive data collection, hydrologic analysis, quality control, calibration,
basin understanding, and stakeholder involvement. A successful application
also requires familiarity with such models, including underlying codes and
assumptions; simply obtaining the model code, populating the model with
data, and running the model is not sufficient.

The most commonly used integrated numerical groundwater and surface

water models in California are the Integrated Water Flow Model (IWFM)
developed by DWR and various MODFLOW versions including the MODFLOW
One Water Hydrologic Flow Model (MODFLOW-OWHM) developed by the
USGS. Summary descriptions of IWFM and MODFLOW-OWHM are furnished
below. Both models are open-source software and available freely from the
developers.

2.8.1.1 Integrated Water Flow Model

The IWFM is a water resources planning and management model that
simulates the entire hydrologic system including the land surface, surface
water, and groundwater systems. IWFM simulates stream flow, soil moisture
accounting in the root zone, flow in the unsaturated zone (also known as
vadose zone), groundwater flow, and stream-aquifer interactions. A
distinctive feature of IWFM is the land use-based approach for calculating
water demand, which is also incorporated in other models such as
MODFLOW-OWHM. Agricultural and urban water demands can be pre-
specified or calculated internally based on different land use types. It also
simulates water reuse, tile drains, and lakes or open water areas. Consistent
with other similar models, it includes features for simulation of subsurface
flow computations across basin boundaries.

IWFM is designed such that during model development, “subregions” may be

defined to facilitate the development and assignment of input data. Model
elements are grouped into subregions that may represent different types of
boundaries and scales depending on the scale of the model application. In
addition, there is the ability to specify element groups for assignment of
input data. Different datasets can use different element groups for assigning
data to the model elements. By default, IWFM outputs water budgets by

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user defined subregions. In addition to reporting water budgets at the

subregional scale, it includes a “Z-Budget” post-processor to generate water
budgets for a user defined water budget zone. This feature allows extracting,
reporting, and analyzing water budgets for the selected water budget zones.

A list of total water budget components that can be extracted from the
different types of water budget outputs of the current version of IWFM
(2015.0.706) is provided in Table 2-1. A component-by-component
description of how to obtain the various water budget components for the
total water budget from model outputs is provided in Section 7, “Case
Study: Integrated Water Flow Model.” DWR is enhancing IWFM to make all
water budget components available as model outputs.

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Table 2-1 Availability of Water Budget Components in IWFM Outputs

of Version 2015.0.706
Water Budget Component Availability
Land System
Precipitation Available
Evapotranspiration Available
Applied Water Available
Surface Water Delivery Available
Groundwater Extraction Available
Applied Water Reuse and Recycled Water Only Reuse is Available
Recycled Water Export Not Available
Runoff Available
Return Flow Available
Change in Land System Storage Available
Surface Water System
Stream Inflow and Outflow Available
Surface Water Diversion Available
Stream Evaporation Not Available
Conveyance Evaporation Available (see Note A)
Conveyance Seepage Available (see Note B)
Imported Water and Surface Water Export Available
Stream-Lake Interaction Available
Lake Evaporation Available
Change in Surface Water Storage Available
Groundwater System
Recharge of Applied Water and Precipitation Available
Subsurface Inflow and Outflow Available
Stream-Groundwater Interaction Available
Lake-Groundwater Interaction Available
Managed Aquifer Recharge Available (see Note C)
Stored Water Extraction Available (see Note D)
Groundwater Export Not Available (see Note E)
Stored Water Export Not Available (see Note E)

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Water Budget Component Availability

Water Release Caused by Land Subsidence Available
Change in Groundwater Storage Available
Table 2-1 Notes:
Note A: Available in diversion detail output. Volume is by diversion and cannot be split
into user specified zones.
Note B: Available in diversion detail output. Volume is by diversion and cannot be split
into user specified zones.
Note C: Grouped into recharge term in groundwater budget. Recharge also includes
recoverable losses from diversions.
Note D: Grouped into total pumping. No easy way to extract aside from looking at
input data.
Note E: User can specify where pumping is used but the model only reports total
pumping by zone, not where it is applied. One could potentially determine it by
comparing the groundwater budget and land and water use budget only if a zone only
imports or exports groundwater, but not both.

The California Central Valley Groundwater-Surface Water Simulation Model

(C2VSim) is an existing application of IWFM that covers the Central Valley of
California. DWR developed, maintains, and periodically updates this model.
The model has been used for several large-scale Central Valley studies. It is
an integrated numerical groundwater and surface water model that
simulates the movement of water through the linked land, surface water,
and groundwater systems of the Central Valley. It includes monthly historical
stream inflows, surface water diversions, precipitation, land use, and crop
acreage data. It simulates historical responses of the Central Valley’s
groundwater and surface water systems to historical stresses and can also
be used to simulate responses of projected future stresses including the
effects of climate change. Results from the model can be used as a source of
information and starting point for basins within the Central Valley that
currently do not have local models. To use C2VSim for a basin water budget,
the first step is to identify whether the model grid covers the area of
interest. If the basin coincides with a subregion, results for the area can be
extracted as described in Section 7, “Case Study: Integrated Water Flow
Model.” If the basin overlaps one or more subregions or is contained within a
subregion, a zone will need to be defined for the basin to extract the
associated “Z-Budget.” Additional information on C2VSim are furnished in
Section 9, “Data Resources Directory.”

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2.8.1.2 MODFLOW: One-Water Hydrologic Flow Model

MODFLOW is the USGS's three-dimensional finite difference groundwater
model, and it is used for simulating and forecasting groundwater conditions
and groundwater-surface water interactions. Originally developed and
released solely for groundwater flow simulation in 1984, it now includes
additional capabilities to simulate coupled groundwater-surface water
systems, solute transport, variable-density flow, and aquifer system
compaction and land subsidence. MODFLOW-OWHM is an integrated
hydrologic model implementation based on MODFLOW, which also includes
the farm process allowing for the simulation of the land system including
irrigated agriculture. Since its initial release in 2014, MODFLOW-OWHM was
one of three recommended models by the World Bank Water Resource
Software Review (Borden et al., 2016) for groundwater-surface water
conjunctive use simulation. The model allows for the use of different
packages to produce different components of the complete hydrologic
budget. Each module outputs its own results, and the output features that
link multiple modules will vary based on the components being simulated.

A list of total water budget components that can be extracted from the
different types of water budget outputs of the current version of the model
(v2.05/31/2018) is provided in Table 2-2. A component-by-component
description of how to obtain the various water budget components for the
total water budget from model outputs is provided in Section 8, “Case
Study: One Water Hydrologic Flow Model.” Depending on the model
configuration, users may need to specify additional output files to obtain
targeted information for water budget components. User specified budget
data are available by package (e.g., Multi-Node Well, General Head
Boundary), by water balance subregion (i.e., farm or area of interest), by
water balance subregion and land-use type, or for each model cell.

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Table 2-2 Availability of Water Budget Components in MODFLOW-

OWHM Outputs of Version 1.0.12
Water Budget Component Availability
Land System
Precipitation Available
Evapotranspiration Available
Applied Water Available
Surface Water Delivery Available
Groundwater Extraction Available
Applied Water Reuse and Recycled Water Available
Recycled Water Export Available
Runoff Available (see Note A)
Return Flow Available (see Note A)
Change in Land System Storage Available (see Note B)
Surface Water System
Stream Inflow and Outflow Available
Surface Water Diversion Available
Stream Evaporation Available
Conveyance Evaporation Available
Conveyance Seepage Available
Imported Water and Surface Water Export Available
Stream-Lake Interaction Available
Lake Evaporation Available
Change in Surface Water Storage Available (see Note C)
Groundwater System
Recharge of Applied Water and Precipitation Available
Subsurface Inflow and Outflow Available
Stream-Groundwater Interaction Available
Lake-Groundwater Interaction Available
Managed Aquifer Recharge Available (see Note D)
Stored Water Extraction Available (see Note E)
Groundwater Export Available (see Note F)
Stored Water Export Available (see Note F)

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Water Budget Component Availability

Water Release Caused by Land Subsidence Available
Change in Groundwater Storage Available
Table 2-2 Notes:
Note A: Runoff and return flow are grouped together. Runoff can be output by model cell if
desired.
Note B: Change in land system storage is only available if the unsaturated zone flow
package is used.
Note C: Dynamic reservoir operations mimics operator agreements to meet downstream
demands subject to delivery gains and losses, required fish flow rates, and flood
protection.
Note D: Managed aquifer recharge can be simulated but output may be grouped with other
recharge.
Note E: Stored water extraction can be grouped into total pumping, or separated by well.
Note F: Pumping can be assigned and used elsewhere. Exported data are written to well
budget files.

The Central Valley Hydrologic Model (CVHM) is an application of MODFLOW-

OWHM that covers the Central Valley of California. USGS developed CVHM,
an integrated surface water-groundwater flow model, that simulates monthly
groundwater and surface water flows, irrigated agriculture, and other key
hydrologic processes over the Central Valley. The model simulates
groundwater and surface water flows and land subsidence in response to
stresses from water use and climate variability in the Central Valley. Like
C2VSim, CVHM can also be used to simulate responses to projected future
stresses including the effects of climate change. Results from the model can
be used as a source of information and starting point for basins within the
Central Valley that currently do not have local models. To use it for a basin
water budget, the first step is to identify whether the model grid covers the
area of interest. If the basin coincides with a subregion, results for the area
can be extracted as described in Section 8, “Case Study: One Water
Hydrologic Flow Model.” If the basin overlaps one or more subregions or is
contained within a subregion, a zone will need to be defined for the basin to
extract the associated “zone budget.” Additional information on CVHM are
furnished in Section 9, “Data Resources Directory.”

2.8.2 Subsystem Models

Hydrologic subsystem models are numerical models that simulate the
hydrologic processes of only one subsystem of the hydrologic cycle. DWR’s
Integrated Water Flow Model Demand Calculator (IDC) only simulates the

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land surface processes to calculate agricultural and urban demands as well

as root zone water storage changes. USGS’s MODFLOW basic version
(MODFLOW 2000, MODFLOW 2005, or MODFLOW6) simulates the
groundwater system of the hydrologic cycle; many of the existing
applications of groundwater models in California are based on MODFLOW
basic version or other similar models. USGS’s Basin Characterization Model
is a grid-based land system model that calculates the water balance for any
time step or spatial scale by using climate inputs, precipitation, and
minimum and maximum air temperature. Hydrologic subsystem models such
as these can only provide estimates of water budget components included in
the represented subsystems. An integrated numerical groundwater and
surface water model such as IWFM or MODFLOW-OWHM includes the
required subsystem models to enable the simulation of the entire hydrologic
cycle.

2.8.3 Other Models

When integrated or subsystem models are not needed, or unavailable,
simpler models can be developed to capture various levels of detail and
complexity of the hydrologic cycle using empirical and analytical methods.
These models can be used to estimate several water budget components
with different levels of accuracy depending on the methods of estimation and
availability of suitable data. Typically, these are developed using
spreadsheets and use a monthly or annual accounting for tracking different
components of demand (e.g., agricultural, urban, and managed wetlands
demand), supply (e.g., surface water diversions and groundwater pumping),
inflows (e.g., stream inflows, subsurface boundary inflows, imported water),
and outflows (e.g., stream outflows, subsurface boundary outflows,
exports). Spreadsheets can also support water budget development using
the non-modeling approach, as described in the next subsection, by
providing a consistent structure to track individual component estimation as
illustrated in Section 6, “Case Study: Non-Modeling Approach.”

2.9 NON-MODELING APPROACH

The non-modeling approach is used when an integrated numerical
groundwater and surface water model is not available to develop water
budget components for the water budget zone or when an existing model
only provides information for a partial set of water budget components. The
non-modeling approach may also be the preferred option when basin

Section 2. Water Budget Development Process | 39

Handbook for Water Budget Development

problems are relatively simple and can be answered on the basis of historical
monitoring data supplemented by additional field data.

2.9.1 General Data Collection for the Non-Modeling Approach

The process flowchart in Figure 2-5 shows the steps required to compile data
and information in preparation for developing a water budget using the non-
modeling approach. Data compilation for the modeling approach requires a
similar set of steps.

Figure 2-5 Flowchart for Compiling Data for the Non-Modeling

Approach

Flowchart process illustrated in Figure 2-5:

Step 1. HCM: Collect well logs, e-logs, pump tests, study reports to develop
a hydrogeologic conceptual model (HCM) of the basin.
Step 2. Past Studies: Compile any previous estimates of water budget
components in your area and surrounding basin.
Step 3. Data Checklist: Complete the water budget data checklist
(Figure 2-3) to determine which component is applicable in your
area and which data are required.
Step 4. Compile/Collect Data.

40 | Section 2. Water Budget Development Process

 Handbook for Water Budget Development

A. Land Use, Precipitation, and Soil: Compile/collect and analyze

land use, precipitation, soil properties, and surface water
delivery data.
B. Streamflow and Diversion: Compile/collect and analyze
streamflow and canal flow data, diversions, and hydraulic
characteristics.
C. Groundwater Pumping: Compile/collect and analyze
groundwater pumping data if available.
D. Managed Recharge: Compile/collect and analyze managed
recharge data.
E. Groundwater Elevation: Compile/collect and analyze
groundwater elevation data

2.9.2 Developing Water Budgets Using the Non-Modeling Approach

After relevant data and information are collected, compiled, and analyzed, a
systematic and stepwise process should be followed to develop a total water
budget using the non-modeling approach by applying data and methods to
one component at a time, as illustrated in Figure 2-6. The methods for
estimating individual water budget inflow and outflow components using
data, without the use of an integrated numerical model, are described in
detail with examples in Section 3, “Land System;” Section 4, “Surface Water
System;” and Section 5, “Groundwater System.”

Water budget accounting template to facilitate and standardize water budget

development process is provided in Section 1, “Introduction.” A component-
by-component example of developing a total water budget using the non-
modeling approach and the standardized template is furnished in Section 6,
“Case Study: Non-Modeling Approach.”

Section 2. Water Budget Development Process | 41

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Figure 2-6 Non-Modeling Approach: Stepwise Process for Developing a Total Water Budget

42 | Section 2. Water Budget Development Process

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Flowchart process illustrated in Figure 2-6:

Step 1. Identify Boundaries and Time Scales.
A. Spatial boundaries of the system using HCM/GIS maps.
B. Components and fluxes for the land, surface water, and
groundwater systems.
C. Time steps.
Step 2. Identify Inflows and Outflows: Identify all relevant inflow and
outflow components of the system under consideration.
Step 3. For each component, ask: is it a measured component?
A. If yes, then are the measured data adequate for component
(with reference to needed spatial and temporal coverage
scales)?
a. If yes, then use measured/compiled data for component
and skip to Step 9.
b. If no, then go to Step 4.
B. If no, then go to Step 4.
Step 4. Do existing reports/models have estimates for this component?
A. If yes, then go to Step 5.
B. If not, then go to Step 6.
Step 5. Are estimates adequate for the component (with reference to
needed spatial and temporal coverage scales)?
A. If yes, then use measured/compiled data for component and
skip to Step 9.
B. If no, then go to Step 6.
Step 6. Select Method: Select method of estimation based on available
data.
Step 7. Compile and Analyze Data: Compile/collect and analyze data
needed for the selected method.
Step 8. Estimate Component: Apply selected method to estimate
component.
Step 9. Are all calculations completed for the system?
A. If no, then repeat Steps 3 through 8 for next component.
B. If yes, then go to Step 10.
Step 10. Compile Water Budget: Calculate inflows, outflows, and change in
storage.
Step 11. Calculate Mass Balance Error: Calculate, mass balance error equals
inflow minus outflow minus change in storage.
Step 12. Is the mass balance error within acceptable limit?

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A. If yes, then you are done.

B. If no, then review data, assumptions, and methods and
return to Step 6.

2.10 AGGREGATION OF WATER BUDGETS

For a basin where multiple agencies are preparing water budgets or have
management responsibilities, there is a need to understand how
groundwater and surface water fluxes occur across adjacent water budget
zones. These fluxes affect individual water budgets as well as the overall
basin water budget. When a water budget for a basin needs to be developed
from multiple water budget zones, the integration of water budgets from
those zones to the basin level is an important consideration. Care should be
taken during aggregation to ensure proper accounting (crediting and
debiting, as shown in the Water Budget Accounting Template) of individual
water budget components across water budget zones to avoid double
counting. For example, an outflow from one zone and the corresponding
inflow to a neighboring zone may both become an internal flow within the
larger water budget zone. Cross-boundary flows calculated for adjacent
water budget zones should be equal or close, so that error in the aggregated
water budget for a basin is small. A similar case where flows across
boundaries should be coordinated occurs in the Central Valley where
groundwater basin boundaries can be based on jurisdictional boundaries.

If a water budget is developed for each water budget zone, coordination

among the adjacent water agencies in the basin will be easier if consistent
vocabulary, spatial and time scales, and methods are used for their
respective water budget development. This type of coordination among
water agencies will help ensure that water budgets are comparable across
water budget zones in the basin and can be spatially and temporally
aggregated to the basin scale.

2.11 UNCERTAINTY IN WATER BUDGET ESTIMATES

All water-budget calculations contain some level of uncertainty. Uncertainty
originates from the variability in hydrology, geology, climate, and land use;
errors associated with measurements, data, and tools; and data gaps.
Uncertainty also arises from temporal variability in storage and fluxes largely
tied to diurnal, seasonal, and long-term trends in weather and climate. All
these uncertainties in a water budget can be further compounded by

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misalignment between boundaries of a water budget zone with hydrologic

boundaries, as is often the case with jurisdictional boundaries of local
governments and agencies.

The goal of uncertainty analysis is to properly characterize the range of

variation in a water budget resulting from uncertainty in data and estimation
methods used. The general emphasis should be to identify uncertainty in
data used to estimate the water budget components, evaluate uncertainty
introduced by estimation methods, and assess and quantify the overall
influence of the data and estimation methods on the total water budget.

For historical water budgets, uncertainty in land use, associated groundwater

pumping estimates, and recharge of precipitation and applied water typically
have the largest effect on overall water budget uncertainty. When
developing future water budgets to help formulate projects and evaluate
management actions, uncertainty in future land use, population projections,
and climate change will typically have the largest effect on overall water
budget uncertainty.

Uncertainty analysis helps identify significant components with large

uncertainty bands. Through targeted data collection, these components can
be estimated with a higher level of confidence. Once uncertainties in
significant components have been addressed, similar efforts could be
undertaken to reduce uncertainties associated with other water budget
components. Over time, this incremental approach will lead to improved and
more robust water budget estimates.

Discussion of detailed methods for assessing uncertainty in water budget

estimation is beyond the scope of this Water Budget Handbook. Uncertainty
is discussed here because it is an essential step for the practitioners to
consider as the assessment of uncertainty will help to quantify, understand,
and improve their water budget estimates over time.

2.12 DOCUMENTATION OF WATER BUDGET

Appropriate and sufficient documentation of the water budget is essential for
stakeholders, neighboring jurisdictions, and regulators to understand the
basis of the developed water budget. The documentation also serves as a
knowledge base for a water agency, as well as facilitating staff development
and succession planning.

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Without good documentation, the developed water budgets could be open to

misinterpretation of water budget assumptions, process, and development.
Good documentation provides latitude and incentives to understand and
improve water budgets over time, focusing on the important unknowns one
at a time. The following could be used as high-level guidance on how to
document water budget development and uncertainty.
1. Geographic Setting: Provide description of the hydrogeologic
conceptual model and maps of water budget zone and
management area boundaries highlighting key features
associated with water budget components, such as land use;
streams, creeks, and other surface water bodies; surface water
and groundwater flow directions; and inflows and outflows to the
water budget zone.
2. Data Sources and Gaps: Provide full description of data sources
and gaps. Consider what data are necessary for a water budget
and how frequently data are needed. Take care to include any
relevant data, while ensuring that evidently unreliable data are
not used for developing water budgets.
3. Spatial and Time Scales: Ensure that time and space scales of
measurement and estimation methods match the needs of the
water budget to address the relevant water management issues.
Consider what spatial scale to use and how different scales will be
consistent with each other in relation to the systems and water
budget zones being analyzed.
4. Current Conditions: Provide information describing the current
conditions of the water budget zone including population, land
use, and climate.
5. Future Scenario: If the water budget includes future estimates,
document how climate change, land use change, and population
projection are addressed.
6. Methods and Assumptions: Provide a full description of the
methods used for estimating water budget components, including
key assumptions used in the analysis. As far as practicable, use
technically appropriate and defensible methods.
A. Non-Modeling Approach: Document the rationale for the choice
of methods while giving preference to well-established methods

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described in the Water Budget Handbook. Consider cross-

validating water budget estimates by using different methods
and documenting the results. Whenever possible, validate
estimates with local knowledge or experience gathered from
basins with similar hydrogeologic conditions. In cases where
adjustments are made to balance the inflows and outflows,
document the rationale for the adjustments as well as the
water budget component(s) with high uncertainty.
B. Modeling Approach: In cases where newly developed numerical
model applications are used for water budgets, provide a
complete modeling report with documentation on the
hydrogeologic conceptual model, source code, data sources,
assumptions, model construction, calibration, and any relevant
review of the model platform. In cases where an existing
numerical model is used, provide reference to published model
report(s) and any additional supporting documents for
assessment of the study area by the model. In cases where
multiple existing models cover the study area, select the model
that best characterizes water budget components for the area.
Document the model’s definitions of water budget components
as well as the methods used to extract water budget results
from the model. Where applicable, include excerpts of model
input/output files in the documentation.
7. Water Budget Validation: Discuss the final water budget,
determine how reasonable or reliable it is, and why. The goal is
to attain a consistent and defensible water budget over time.
A. Non-Modeling Approach: The computed water budget can be
deemed sufficiently reliable to support water resources
planning provided all of the following conditions are met:
a. Best available geologic and hydrologic data are used.
b. Methods used are well documented and defensible.
c. Validated with local water budget experts and
stakeholders.
B. Modeling Approach: The computed water budget can be
deemed sufficiently reliable to support water resources
planning provided all of the following conditions are met:

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Handbook for Water Budget Development

a. An integrated numerical groundwater and surface water

model was developed using best available geologic and
hydrologic data.
b. The model was calibrated by carefully adjusting model
inputs without going outside the bounds of parameters and
fluxes indicated by data and hydrogeologic reasoning.
c. The model can reasonably reproduce gauged streamflows.
d. The model can reasonably reproduce measured
groundwater levels.
8. Data Gaps and Monitoring Needs: Based on assessment of the
water budget, identify data gaps and recommend future data
collection and analysis efforts to improve the water budget.
9. Human Resources: Document the resources used to develop
the water budget. Developing a detailed water budget requires a
substantial commitment of funding and human resources.

48 | Section 2. Water Budget Development Process

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3. LAND SYSTEM

Section 3. Land System | 49

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3.1 INTRODUCTION
The total water budget captures the entire hydrologic cycle of water flow,
and the land system is an integral part of it. The components of land system
water budget are shown in Figure 3-1, which is a subset of Figure 1-1. The
color coding of Figure 1-1 was not carried over to Figure 3-1 to avoid
confusion as the designation of inflows and outflows are different in a single
system compared to the total water budget. The definition of the land
system and land system water budget is presented in Section 1.3.1. The
definitions of the associated components are provided in Table 1-1.

The purpose of this section is to describe how to develop reasonable

estimates for these water budget components without a model. To set
context, a general description of land system water budget is provided for
agricultural, urban, managed wetlands, and native lands. This description is
followed by individual sections on each component of the land system water
budget as shown in Figure 3-1.

Figure 3-1 Inflow and Outflow Components of Land System Water

Budget

Multiple methods are provided for estimating these components. The

handbook user should evaluate if a method described in this section or in

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textbooks or reference manuals is the most appropriate to use for the study
area. The methods described here can also be used in case an available
model only provides information for a partial set of land system water
budget components. In case a model is available that provides information
for all components of the land system, the user should refer to Section 2.8,
“Modeling Approach.”

Descriptions of inflow and outflow components in the land system along with
methods for estimating each component are furnished below. Because of the
interdependencies between the systems, several of the components of the
land system are described in other sections: managed aquifer recharge,
recharge of applied water and precipitation, and stored water extraction are
described in Section 5, “Groundwater System.”

3.2 LAND SYSTEM: WATER BUDGET AND CHANGE IN STORAGE

The components shown in Figure 3-1 are primarily outcomes of land use
practices in the land system, which include the broad categories of native,
riparian, and managed land uses. Managed land uses are further subdivided
into “water use sectors” representing specific water management practices
and conditions. Water use sectors categorize water demands based on the
general land uses to which the water is applied including residential,
commercial, industrial, agricultural, managed wetlands, and managed
recharge. These land uses create a demand for water to be met from
precipitation, stream corridors, surface water, groundwater, applied water
reuse, recycled water, or any combination thereof. The water budget can be
influenced by plant uptake of shallow groundwater, the effects of fog in
coastal areas, and other local factors. The water budget for the land system
is comprised of inflow, outflow, and change in land system storage and can
be expressed as:

The interrelationships among inflow, outflow, demand, and supply are

discussed in the following sub-sections for agriculture, urban, managed
wetlands, and native lands along with a formulation of how to calculate
change in land system storage for corresponding land use category.

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3.2.1 Land System Water Budget for Agricultural Lands

For agricultural lands, precipitation and applied water constitute the water
supply that is provided to meet the evapotranspiration (ET) requirements of
crops. In general, the combination of precipitation and applied water is
greater than the crop ET requirements for agricultural lands to account for
distribution inefficiencies and crop management goals. ET of applied water
(ETAW) is the amount of irrigation water needed to meet total crop ET in
excess of effective precipitation. Effective precipitation is the amount of
precipitation stored in the root zone that is available for crop ET. Irrigation
efficiency, as used in this document, represents the effectiveness of water
application on agricultural lands over an entire growing season and is the
ratio of the ETAW to the total applied water. In literature, this term has
multiple definitions or may be identified as application efficiency, seasonal
application efficiency, consumed fraction, etc., and thus it is important to
understand the context of how irrigation efficiency values are presented.
However, in some cases, irrigation efficiency may also include applied water
for salt management (leaching). In these cases, irrigation efficiency is
calculated as the ratio of ETAW plus applied water for salt management to
the total applied water.

As shown in Figure 3-2, the water supply components for agricultural land
are precipitation, surface water delivery, groundwater extraction, stored
water extraction, recycled water, and applied water reuse. Applied water
includes all water supply components except precipitation, which is a natural
supply of water on agricultural land. In limited cases, shallow groundwater,
not shown in Figure 3-2, may be a source for meeting some or all ET
requirements for an area where it can be estimated.

Precipitation on agricultural land is accounted for in four ways: (1) as ET of

precipitation to meet part (or all) of the crop water requirements (this
amount is also known as effective precipitation or consumptive use of
precipitation); (2) as recharge into the groundwater system (passing
through the unsaturated zone, including the root zone); (3) as runoff into
the surface water system; and (4) as change in land system storage.

Applied water on agricultural land is accounted for in seven ways:

(1) as ETAW to meet the crop water requirements not met by precipitation;
(2) as managed aquifer recharge and recharge of applied water into the
groundwater system (passing through the unsaturated zone, including the

52 | Section 3. Land System

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root zone); (3) as return flow of applied water into the surface water
system; (4) as recycled water export into another water budget zone;
(5) as recycled water that is routed back to applied water for application
within the water budget zone; (6) as applied water reuse that is routed back
to applied water for re-application within the water budget zone; and
(7) as change in land system storage.

Figure 3-2 Land System Water Budget for Agricultural Lands

The land system water budget for agricultural lands can be expressed by the
following equations:

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Applied water reuse and recycled water shown in Figure 3-2 are not
considered inflows or outflows for developing a water budget because both
are internal flows within a water budget zone resulting in the reduction in
the amount of surface water delivery, groundwater extraction, and stored
water extraction needed to meet the applied water requirement for
agricultural lands within a water budget zone.

3.2.2 Land System Water Budget for Urban Areas

For urban areas, applied water consists of indoor and outdoor water uses
including distribution system water losses. Indoor water use most commonly
consists of residential, commercial, and industrial water use; this water is
most often non-consumptively used and generally becomes return flow to
the surface water system (e.g., wastewater discharges) or recharge to the
groundwater system (e.g., wastewater percolation ponds or septic tanks). A
part of the indoor water use may become recycled water to meet demands
inside or outside the water budget zone. The recycled water delivered to
irrigate landscape reduces the amount of surface water delivery,
groundwater extraction, and stored water extraction within a water budget
zone. Recycled water used outside the water budget zone is called recycled
water export (Table 1-1).

Urban outdoor water use is for landscape irrigation, and the water budget
analysis for urban outdoor use is the same as that for agricultural lands
described in Section 3.2.1. The water demand for urban landscape irrigation
that is not met by precipitation is met by groundwater extraction, surface
water delivery, and recycled water delivery.

Urban applied water, as described in Section 3.5.2, is defined as the “volume

of water delivered from any source to the intake of a municipal, industrial, or
large landscape water system.” After intake delivery and treatment, water

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then enters the distribution system for delivery to its end user. Most
distribution systems incur losses that include seepage, illegal connections,
and other unaccounted for water, all of which may be difficult to
differentiate. Seepage loss from distribution systems is typical, and its
magnitude is a function of the age, materials, and condition of the system.
Understanding this seepage loss, which is not part of conveyance seepage as
defined in Section 4.6, is important for estimating how much recharge of
applied water occurs from urban areas. For some distribution systems,
seepage loss could be quantified and may be identified separately as
“distribution system water loss” instead of being included in indoor and
outdoor water use. For other systems, distribution system water losses may
be difficult to quantify but estimates may help to quantify recharge of
applied water while lumping losses with indoor and outdoor water uses.

As shown in Figure 3-3, the water supply components for urban area are
precipitation, surface water delivery, groundwater extraction, stored water
extraction, and recycled water. Applied water includes all water supply
components except precipitation, which is a natural supply of water in urban
areas.

Precipitation in urban areas is accounted for in three primary ways:

(1) as ET of precipitation to meet part (or all) of the landscape irrigation
requirements (this amount is also known as effective precipitation or
consumptive use of precipitation); (2) as recharge into the groundwater
system (passing through the unsaturated zone, including the root zone); and
(3) as runoff into the surface water system. Runoff from precipitation could
be intercepted and collected as stormwater, which could become a source of
supply for managed aquifer recharge.

Applied water in urban areas is accounted for in four primary ways:

(1) as ETAW to meet the landscape water requirements not met by
precipitation; (2) as recharge of applied water into the groundwater system
(passing through the unsaturated zone, including the root zone); (3) as
return flow of outdoor water use into the surface water system; and (4) as
treated wastewater generated from indoor water use. Treated wastewater
in urban areas is accounted for in four primary ways: (1) as return flow of
indoor water use into the surface water system, (2) as managed aquifer
recharge into the groundwater system, (3) as recycled water export to areas

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outside the water budget zone, and (4) as recycled water that is routed back
to applied water for re-application within the water budget zone.

Figure 3-3 Land System Water Budget for Urban Areas

The land system water budget for urban areas can be expressed by the
following equations:

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Recycled water shown in Figure 3-3 is not considered an inflow or an outflow

for developing a water budget because it is an internal flow within a water
budget zone resulting in the reduction in the amount of surface water
delivery, groundwater extraction, and stored water extraction needed to
meet the applied water requirement for urban areas within a water budget
zone.

3.2.3 Land System Water Budget for Managed Wetlands

For managed wetlands, precipitation and applied water constitute the water
supply that would meet the wetland water requirements for vegetation,
habitat, and ponding. Applied water includes groundwater extraction, surface
water delivery, applied water reuse, and recycled water.

Precipitation on managed wetlands is accounted for in three ways from the

land surface: (1) as evaporation from ponded areas (i.e., open water
surface); (2) as ET of precipitation to meet part (or all) of the habitat water
requirements (this amount is also known as effective precipitation or
consumptive use of precipitation); and (3) as recharge into the groundwater
system (passing through the unsaturated zone, including the root zone).

Applied water on managed wetlands is accounted for in four ways from the
land surface: (1) as ET of applied water to meet the habitat water
requirements not met by precipitation; (2) as recharge into groundwater
system (passing through the unsaturated zone, including the root zone);
(3) as return flow to surface water system; and (4) as managed aquifer
recharge. Managed aquifer recharge is not a common practice on managed
wetlands as the sites are typically selected with soil conditions that reduce
recharge from occurring; however, some multi-benefit projects may include
managed aquifer recharge as part of their managed wetlands design.

The land system water budget for managed wetlands can be expressed by
the following equations:

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Applied water reuse and recycled water are not considered inflows or
outflows for developing a water budget because both are internal flows
within a water budget zone, which reduces the amount of surface water
delivery and groundwater extraction needed to meet the applied water
requirement for managed wetlands within the water budget zone.

3.2.4 Land System Water Budget for Native Lands

Native lands, which includes both native and riparian vegetation, rely only
on precipitation, stream corridors, and shallow groundwater, or combinations
thereof to meet water demand. Generally, precipitation is the only water
supply to meet the water demands for the growth and sustenance of native
vegetation on native lands; however, in cases where shallow groundwater
exists, part of the water demand may be met by uptake of shallow
groundwater by plants. Similarly, the water demand associated with riparian
(or phreatophytic) vegetation is met by precipitation, surface water from
stream corridors, shallow groundwater, or any combination thereof. The
total inflow or water supply for native lands should include precipitation as
well as any contributions from adjoining stream corridors and shallow
groundwater to meet the ET requirements.

Precipitation on native lands is accounted for in four primary ways: (1) as ET

of precipitation to meet water requirements for native and riparian
vegetation (this amount is also known as effective precipitation or
consumptive use of precipitation); (2) as recharge into the groundwater
system (passing through the unsaturated zone, including the root zone);
(3) as runoff into the surface water system; and (4) as change in land
system storage.

The land system water budget for native lands can be expressed by the
following equations:

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3.2.5 Change in Land System Storage

As mentioned above, the change in land system storage consists of change
in storage of ponded areas (not lakes) on the land surface as well as the
change in storage of the unsaturated zone, which includes the root zone.

From the equations in Sections 3.2.1 to 3.2.4, the total change in land
system storage for the water budget zone of interest can be expressed as:

3.3 PRECIPITATION
Definition: Volume of water vapor that falls to the earth (land and surface
water systems) as rain, snow, hail, or is formed on the earth as dew, and
frost.

Context: Precipitation (P) is an inflow to the land system and hence a

source of water supply in the context of the overall water budget calculation.

1 Plant uptake of shallow groundwater and streamflow from stream corridors is typically
equal to the ET of shallow groundwater and ET of streamflow from stream corridors.
These terms are typically small and are not shown on the total water budget schematic.
2 Although ET of shallow groundwater and ET of streamflow from stream corridors
represent the volume of water needed for vegetation growth in excess of precipitation,
these terms are typically small and are not shown on the total water budget schematic.

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Handbook for Water Budget Development

In general, portions of precipitation contribute to (1) ET (consumptive use)

by agricultural crops, urban landscape, managed wetlands, and native and
riparian vegetation; (2) runoff as overland flow on the land system and
outflow to the surface water system; (3) evaporation from the soil, or
(4) recharge to the groundwater system.

Precipitation is also an inflow to the surface water system, such as lakes.

Precipitation over lakes could be calculated using the same methods
described in this section.

Precipitation is measured by using gauges, which record the depth (in inches
or millimeters) of precipitation falling over a time interval (e.g., 15 minutes,
1 hour, 1 day) at the gauge location. These point measurements are used to
estimate the average areal volume of precipitation during a time interval
over the land surface within a water budget zone.

Related Water Budget Components: Evapotranspiration, Runoff,

Recharge of Applied Water and Precipitation

How to Determine Precipitation Inflow:

• Method 1 — Use published reports and numerical models.
• Method 2 — Use online databases.

Method 1 — Use Published Reports and Numerical Models

Collect and review published reports and existing numerical models for the
area of interest. Data obtained from published reports and numerical models
is typically derived from the online databases described in Method 2 but may
have undergone additional processing/formatting to facilitate ease of use.
These reports and models can be good sources of estimates of historical
precipitation volume over an area. If reliable and defensible estimates of
precipitation volume (monthly or annual) falling in the water budget zone
are available, then use those estimates for developing water budget. If
precipitation data from an existing numerical model are used, then the
following should be validated:
• The numerical model is calibrated and accepted by stakeholders.
• There is documentation of both the source data and the basis of
estimate used in the numerical model.

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• Any geographic scaling factor that is used to convert model estimates

to correspond to the water budget zone is defensible and is
representative of the precipitation regime used in the model for the
area.

Sources include:
• Central Valley Spatial Database (part of the Central Valley Hydrologic
Model [CVHM] project).
• Cal-SIMETAW Unit Values: Monthly per acre precipitation (source:
PRISM — See below) by DAUCO for 2000–2015.
• USGS Basin Characterization Model.
• Previous reports.
• Input files of numerical models, e.g., C2VSim, CalSim 3.

Method 2 — Use Online Databases

Published reports and numerical models may not be adequate for developing
reliable and defensible estimates of precipitation for the water budget zone.
In such a case, historical or current precipitation data (hourly, daily,
monthly, etc.) from existing databases can be used to develop estimates of
precipitation for the water budget zone. This method will generally require
spatial analysis using a geographic information system (GIS) to aggregate
data and calculate volumes of precipitation.

Common sources of precipitation data available at different spatial and

temporal scales in California are listed below.
• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National
Climatic Data Center.
• California Data Exchange Center (CDEC).
• California Irrigation Management Information System (CIMIS).
• PRISM Historical Dataset (1895–1980).
• PRISM Recent Dataset (1981–Current).
• California Water Plan Water Portfolio.
• Local agency data, including flood control districts and water
management agencies.

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Additional information on data sources for precipitation is provided in Section

9, “Data Resources Directory.”

Options for determining volumes of precipitation include:

• Option 1 — spatial analysis using PRISM data.
• Option 2 — spatial averaging techniques.

Option 1 — Spatial Analysis Using PRISM Data

Gridded precipitation data may be available from a variety of sources. One of
the most widely available gridded precipitation data sources is the
Parameter-elevation Relationships on Independent Slopes Model (PRISM).
The PRISM monthly or daily data can be used to estimate precipitation
volumes for the water budget zone. This option requires the use of spatial
analysis tools (e.g., GIS) to analyze the PRISM data and compute volumes
of precipitation based on geographic extent of the water budget zone.

“PRISM calculates a climate—elevation regression for each digital elevation

model (DEM) grid cell, and stations entering the regression are assigned
weights based primarily on the physiographic similarity of the station to the
grid cell. Factors considered are location, elevation, coastal proximity,
topographic facet orientation, vertical atmospheric layer, topographic
position, and orographic effectiveness of the terrain. Station data were
spatially quality controlled, and short-period-of-record averages adjusted to
better reflect the 1971—2000 period.” (Source: Physiographically sensitive
mapping of climatological temperature and precipitation across the
conterminous United States)

For the California Central Valley, DWR and USGS have developed two
numerical models, the California Central Valley Simulation (C2VSim) Model
and the Central Valley Hydrologic Model (CVHM), respectively. In both
models, PRISM data are used to develop monthly estimates of precipitation
volume over model elements, which range in size from 0.6 to 1.5 square
miles. The estimated monthly precipitation volumes are available for the
periods of 1921 through 2015 in C2VSim and 1962 through 2003 in CVHM.
Data from these numerical models can be used and the values by model
elements can be aggregated to develop estimates for precipitation in the
water budget zone. In addition, the pre-processing for the USGS’s Basin
Characterization Model includes precipitation from PRISM that have been

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downscaled to 270-meter spatial resolution and are available from 1900

through 2017.

Option 2 — Spatial Averaging Techniques

Precipitation into the water budget zone can be estimated using gauged data
within or at the periphery of the water budget zone and geographic
information about the area. Gauges typically measure precipitation as depth.
After obtaining precipitation timeseries data for the gauges of interest,
various established methods can be used to estimate total precipitation
volume. The methods include arithmetic mean method (precipitation gauges
are weighted equally) and Thiessen Polygon (precipitation gauges are
weighted by area). Additional information regarding using spatial averaging
techniques to estimate precipitation can be found from the National Weather
Service’s Precipitation Measurements webpage.

Depending on the need and availability of resources and expertise, an

agency may consider using other methods such as kriging or co-kriging to
develop their own gridded precipitation.

3.4 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Definition: Volume of water entering the atmosphere through the combined
process of evaporation from soil and plant surfaces and transpiration from
plants.

Context: Evapotranspiration (ET) is an outflow component from the land

system within the water budget zone to the atmosphere. It includes the
following:
• Volume of water transpired by the plants (crops, native and riparian
vegetation, landscape grasses, etc.) for growth.
• Volume of water evaporated from marshlands and managed wetlands.
• Volume of water evaporated from the bare soil surface.
• Volume of water evaporated from the plant leaves during and after a
precipitation event.

For agricultural lands, ET is often equal to the crop water requirement

because it is generally assumed that agricultural land is well watered and the
amount of ET from precipitation supply and applied water is equal to what

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the crop needs to grow. However, this assumption does not always
represent crop water management and actual ET within a water budget
zone. Deficit irrigation may be used for various reasons such as crop
management goals or managing limited supplies; where this occurs, reduced
crop ET may occur.

Native vegetation typically uses only precipitation, and the amount of ET will
be limited to the amount of water that infiltrates into the soil and is stored
as available soil moisture. In cases where shallow groundwater is available
to the plants, native vegetation may also draw from this source to meet its
water requirements.

Riparian vegetation may use precipitation, surface water from stream

corridors, shallow groundwater, or any combination thereof to meet its water
requirements.

Related Water Budget Components: Surface Water Delivery,

Groundwater Extraction, Applied Water Reuse, Recycled Water, Precipitation,
Recharge of Applied Water and Precipitation, Return Flow, Runoff

How to Determine ET
ET is not a measured water budget component and hence no measured data
is available for this component. It is a complex land phenomenon that varies
from crop to crop (or vegetation type) and depends on a suite of hydrologic,
meteorological, climatic, and agricultural factors. Several approaches are
available to make these estimates. One general approach uses remote
sensing-based image processing models (e.g., METRIC, SEBAL, Satellite
Irrigation Management Support [SIMS]) that can provide ET estimates from
field observation data and satellite data by performing a complete energy
balance of each surface. Another approach uses reference ET rates, crop or
vegetation coefficients, and land uses to estimate ET. This later approach is
not limited to available satellite data when reconstructing water budget
further back in time. DWR has published two land use based stand-alone
models, DWR’s Integrated Water Flow Model Demand Calculator (IDC) and
Cal-SIMETAW, that use this approach to develop estimates for ET in a water
budget zone. The purpose of this handbook is not to provide detailed
information on how to use METRIC, SEBAL, IDC, or Cal-SIMETAW but to
provide a general introduction about these methods while also describing

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simpler methods. These methods can be used to estimate ET volume with

consideration for crop type and crop acreage.

Remote sensing techniques can help to quantify actual ET (e.g., Metric).

Local knowledge and University of California Cooperative Extension (UCCE)
farmer advisors can provide input as to how much deficit irrigation may be
occurring, such as reduced or altered irrigation cycles. A crop water use
model (e.g., Cal-SIMETAW, IDC) is another method to evaluate deficit
irrigation and its effects on ET and soil moisture storage. The reduction in
applied water may not result in a corresponding reduction in ET because of
stored soil moisture. Deficit irrigation may be represented in crop water use
models by adjusting crop coefficients, harvest dates, or applying a reduction
factor to ET.

To develop ET estimates for a water budget zone, use one or more of the
following methods:
• Method 1 — Obtain estimates from available reports.
• Method 2 — Obtain estimates from models.
• Method 3 — Use crop coefficient approach.
• Method 4 — Use water-duty based approach.

Method 1 — Obtain Estimates from Available Reports

Step 1 - Collect and Review Reports: Collect and review available
relevant technical reports, such as agricultural water management plans,
urban water management plans, groundwater management plans,
integrated regional water management plans, water supply master plans,
etc. that cover the water budget zone of interest. These reports may have
direct estimates of monthly or annual ET at different spatial scales or may
have model-generated estimates, which can also be obtained directly from
the inputs and outputs of models described in Method 2.

Sources include:
• Agricultural water management plans.
• U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation) water conservation plans.
• Irrigation Training and Research Center (ITRC) California
evapotranspiration data.

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• ITRC report tables.

• ITRC metric (including native vegetation).

Step 2 - Scale the Available Information: After obtaining the relevant

data from existing reports, an appropriate method should be used to scale
the reported numbers for a given area to the water budget zone of interest.
Direct area proportioning should not be used without due consideration for
the proportion of agricultural land use in the respective areas.

Method 2 — Obtain Estimates from Models

The discussion below is divided into remote sensing-based image-processing
models, numerical hydrologic models, and spreadsheet models. It should be
noted that a user can also obtain model generated estimates from technical
reports described in Method 1.

Remote sensing-based image-processing models: Remote sensing-

based model estimation of ET at field scales are available for more recent
years in different parts of California. These studies are conducted by federal,
State, and local agencies and university research centers. If available, ET
estimates from these models can be used for the water budget zone of
interest.

Two of the most common remote sensing-based image-processing models in

California are:
• Mapping evapotranspiration at high resolution with Internalized
Calibration (METRIC): It uses a satellite-based energy balance
approach for computing and mapping ET at the field scale and with
high-resolution (30 meter) for water-stressed vegetation and
evaporation from wet soil. As an example of available information, the
Irrigation Training and Research Center (ITRC) at California
Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo (Cal Poly) uses a
modified METRIC procedure to compute ETa using LandSAT Thematic
Mapper data and published the resulting data. This ITRC-METRIC
process is based on surface energy balance and includes corrections
for aerodynamic resistance. The method depends upon both accurate
and frequent LandSAT satellite thermal images and understanding of
the cropping systems within a region. The METRIC programs have
gradually evolved from research in the U.S. and other countries with

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the objective of being able to directly estimate ETa over large areas
with limited data availability (such as crop type, irrigation method,
irrigation practices, etc.). For additional information, see Section 9,
“Data Resources Directory.”
• Surface Energy Balance Algorithms for Land (SEBAL): It is an image-
processing model that comprises 25 computational steps to calculate
actual and potential ET rates (respectively, ETa and ETp) as well as
other energy exchanges between the land and atmosphere. SEBAL has
been extensively validated in the US and worldwide over more than 15
years and has been found to consistently provide estimates of ETa that
agree within 5 percent to 20 percent of reliable ground-based
estimates on a seasonal or annual basis.

Other remote sensing-based models include:

• The USGS’s operational Simplified Surface Energy Balance (SSEBop)
approach estimates ET by combining “ET fractions generated from
remotely sensed Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
(MODIS) thermal imagery, acquired every 8 days, with reference ET
using a thermal index approach.” For more information on SSEBop,
see Section 9, “Data Resources Directory.”
• The Satellite Irrigation Management Support (SIMS) system is a
“National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) supported
effort to apply publicly available data from earth observing satellites to
map crop cover, crop coefficients and crop evapotranspiration, with
the longer-term goal of developing information products and tools to
provide decision-support for water managers and agricultural
producers. The project is using the Terrestrial Observation and
Prediction System (TOPS), a NASA modeling framework developed to
monitor and forecast environmental conditions.” For additional
information on SIMS, see Section 9, “Data Resource Directory.”

Existing numerical hydrologic models: There are two existing numerical

hydrologic models from DWR that have estimates for crop ET for different
historical periods at various geographic scales as described below:
• The California Simulation of Evapotranspiration of Applied Water
(Cal-SIMETAW) model is a tool developed by DWR and the University
of California at Davis to perform daily soil water balance and
determine crop ET, ET of applied water, and applied water in support

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of water resources planning in California, including the California Water

Plan. Cal-SIMETAW provides daily, monthly, and annual estimates of
crop ET for the period 2001 to 2015. The geographic scale of input and
output is detailed analysis units (DAUs) by county (DAUCO) areas for
the entire state of California. There are 278 DAUs covering California,
excluding islands. The Cal-SIMETAW results can be obtained by
DAUCO in spreadsheet format from DWR (Section 9, “Data Resources
Directory”). Once the DAUCO data are obtained, the water budget
zone of interest can be related to DAUCO with use of spatial scaling, if
appropriate, to develop initial estimates of ET for the water budget
zone. This model is not publicly available; but model outputs can be
obtained from DWR. For additional information on Cal-SIMETAW, see
Section 9, “Data Resources Directory.”
• The California Central Valley Simulation (C2VSim) model is an
application of IWFM, and it provides monthly and annual estimates of
various water budget components described in this handbook.
Estimates of crop ET for the period 1922 to 2015 for all the
groundwater basins in the Central Valley of California can be obtained.
The C2VSim input data file can be modified to construct a model zone
that corresponds approximately to the water budget zone of interest,
and ET and other water budget outputs can be derived at the scale of
the water budget zone. For additional information on C2VSim, refer to
Section 9, “Data Resources Directory.”

Spreadsheet model: DWR’s California Water Plan team has a spreadsheet

model, called the Water Portfolio, that provides an accounting of water
budget components by DAUCO using collected data and various analysis
tools. This accounting occurs annually, and data are available for the period
2002 to 2015. The Water Portfolio incorporates data and analysis resulting in
estimates of ET, ET of applied water, and applied water by crop type by
DAUCO. For more information, see Section 9, “Data Resources Directory.”

Use of models: ET estimates from these models should be carefully

reviewed to determine if the results reflect current or historical crop water
management. Input parameters can be modified, and results updated to
reflect local crop and native vegetation conditions, including irrigation
methods, planting and harvest dates, etc. Crop production and on-farm
water management are continually changing with technology, and farmers

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are implementing advanced irrigation technologies that may not be fully

represented in these models.

Method 3 — Use Crop Coefficient Approach

In this method, the volume of crop (or vegetation) ET is obtained by
multiplying the crop acreage with the crop ET rate (ETc).

Where, ETc is defined as

Kc is the crop coefficient that depends on the type of crop and growth stage
of the crop, and ETo is reference crop ET that represents the ET from a
reference surface closely resembling an extensive surface of green, well-
watered grass of uniform height (0.12 meter), which is actively growing and
completely shading the land surface.

Native vegetation ET can be determined through a process like that used for
crops by using a reference ET (ETo) and applying vegetation coefficients to
determine potential vegetation ET. Because precipitation is the only source
of supply for native vegetation, it becomes the limiting factor in determining
the actual ET for any native vegetation type (actual ET is always less than
potential ET). A soil moisture balance is needed to evaluate how much
precipitation is effective (the amount stored in the rootzone and available for
crop ET) by determining how much precipitation infiltrates the soil versus
runoff, how much precipitation is stored in the soil versus recharge to
groundwater, and then how much of the effective precipitation that can
contribute to vegetation ET. For native vegetation, ET will equal effective
precipitation if no other sources of water in the root zone are available
(i.e., shallow groundwater).

The following steps can be taken to estimate ET using Method 3:

Step 1: Collect Crop Acreage Data: Collect crop acreage and land use
data in the water budget zone of interest. Crop data are available from local
and state agencies. The most common sources of land use data are DWR’s

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agricultural land and water use estimates, DWR’s land use surveys, and
county agricultural commissioner reports of crop acreage.

Step 2: Obtain ETc Value (or Kc and ETo values, if ETc values are not
available): Multiple ways by which ETc and ETo values can be obtained are
described below.

• DWR Cal-SIMETAW Unit Values: The Cal-SIMETAW dataset contains

monthly unit values (per acre) of crop evapotranspiration (ETc),
applied water, and six other parameters for the period 2000—2015.
Individual monthly unit values are reported for 20 crops and 4 non-
agricultural land use types in each DAUCO in California. The unit
values data are published together with Cal-SIMETAW input (Land Use
Crop Information [LUCI]) files which include crop coefficients (Kc) and
crop growing periods. For more information, see Section 9, “Data
Resources Directory.”
• Statewide ITRC Report: The Irrigation Training and Research Center’s
(ITRC’s) report titled California Crop and Soil Evapotranspiration
contains crop and soil ET information for each of DWR’s 13 ET zones.
The crop and soil ET information are listed for three types of
precipitation years (typical, wet, and dry) on a 12-month basis. It also
includes instructions on how to adjust ET values for different irrigation
systems and different growing seasons. ETc for different crops in
California can be found in Tables 40 through 43 of the ITRC report for
different zones and for typical years, wet years, and dry years.
• The California Irrigation Management Information System (CIMIS):
The system has more than 150 weather stations throughout the state
that provide calculated estimates of daily and hourly ETo, data. For
instructions on how to access CIMIS, see Section 9, “Data Resources
Directory.”
o In addition, CIMIS provides an ETo zones map that allows users
to view the reference evapotranspiration zones for California.
This map divides the state into 18 zones based on long-term
monthly average ETo values calculated using historical data from
CIMIS weather stations. Many areas of California are not
sufficiently covered by the network of randomly placed CIMIS
stations. Recognizing these spatial data gaps, CIMIS in
cooperation with UC Davis developed a daily ETo map known as

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Spatial CIMIS that provides daily ETo at 2-kilometer grids for the
entire State. The ETo maps are generated using complex sets of
models where the input parameters are combinations of data
from satellites and ground measurements.
o Crop coefficients, Kc, vary by crop and the growth stage of the
crop. Numerically, it is simply the ratio of ETc to ETo and ranges
from 0.1 to 1.3. Although crop coefficients vary from day to day,
depending on many factors, they are mainly a function of crop
growth and development. The rate of crop growth and
development will change from year to year, but the crop
coefficient corresponding to a specific growth and development
stage is fixed from year to year. Values of Kc for annual crops
are well under 1.0 in the early growth stages but, at least in dry
climates, tend to increase up to 1.10 to 1.20 for many crops
when they are fully shading the ground. This means that the ET
rate of most crops exceeds the ETo rate by 10 to 20 percent
during periods of full cover. The range of crop coefficients varies
from very small (approximately 0.15 for early season row crops)
to very large (approximately 1.3 for walnuts in mid-season).
• Theoretical Equations for ET:
o The Hargreaves-Samani Equation for ET provides a method for
estimating potential ET when climate data are limited for
planning studies. This method relies on minimum and maximum
temperatures and location (i.e., latitude) to predict ET. The
Hargreaves-Samani equation is used in Cal-SIMETAW.
o The Penman-Monteith equation estimates ET using mean
temperature, wind speed, relative humidity and solar radiation.
It is used in the calculation of ET for CIMIS. The Priestley-Taylor
equation is an alternative to the Penman—Monteith equation. It
is not dependent on relative humidity and wind speed
observations and only requires solar radiation.
Sources of information for ET and crop coefficients include:
• Cal-SIMETAW Unit Values.
• CIMIS Station Reports.
• CIMIS Reference Evapotranspiration Zones (Map).
• CWP Water Portfolio.
• ITRC Metric (including native vegetation).

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• FAO 56 Chapter 6 Single Crop Coefficients (Kc).

Example: Grape field in Monterey County, California.

To estimate ET for the vineyard in the month of July, a grape grower uses
the ETc formula. ETo for July in Monterey (Zone 3) is found from the CIMIS
Reference ET Zones map to be 0.18 inch per day or 5.58 inches per month.
The mid-season KC is found to be 0.7 from Table 12 of FAO 56. Therefore:

The grower estimates that a total of 3.91 inches of water will be required as
ET from the vineyard in the month of July. If the total acreage of the
vineyard field is 1,200 acres, then the total amount of ET from the vineyard
field would be calculated as:

Method 4 — Use Water Duty Based Approach

Water duty for a crop is the amount of applied water (i.e., irrigation) water
per unit area that is reasonable to apply for crop growth, including ET,
evaporation, and seepage from ditches and canals, percolation below the soil
zone, and the water flowing into streams as surface runoff. The water-duty
based approach provides direct estimates of evapotranspiration of applied
water (ETAW) instead of providing estimates of crop ET.

The following steps can be used for Method 4.

Step 1: Collect Water Duty Information: Collect unit water duty rates by
crop from farmers and water purveyors. These rates are not measured data
but are based on a rough approximation developed by farmers from
experience for any specific crop in an area and might be available in
historical reports. It is typically expressed as depth (feet or inches) or as
volume per unit of area (e.g., acre-feet per acre).

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For example, the unit water duty is 4.1 acre-feet per acre for alfalfa in the
Buttonwillow area of Kern County, where the soil generally is heavy and the
common practice is to irrigate heavily during the early months when surface
water is available.

Step 2: Collect Crop Acreage Data: Collect crop acreage and land use
data for the water budget zone of interest. Crop data are available from local
and state agencies with the most common sources of land use data listed
below.
• Agricultural commissioner reports.
• Department of Pesticide Regulation.
• Water purveyor accounting.
• DWR land use surveys.

Step 3: Collect Irrigation Efficiency Information: Obtain

approximations of irrigation efficiencies from local knowledge or other
sources.

Step 4: Estimate ETAW: Use the following equation to estimate ETAW

from crop water duty and irrigation efficiency:

Applied water can include water for cultural practices (e.g. pre-irrigation,
frost protection, crop cooling, rice flood-up and ponding. etc.) and leaching
fractions. Irrigation efficiency information can be obtained from farmers and
agricultural extension offices in the area. Additional sources include:
• DWR agricultural and land use estimates.
• Cal-SIMETAW unit values.
• FAO 56.
• ITRC.
• Local studies.
• University of California Cooperative Extension farm advisors.
• DWR irrigation method surveys.

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• DWR Water Portfolio.

• ITRC surveys.

3.5 APPLIED WATER

Applied water represents the water deliveries to the farm (agricultural) or
managed wetland head gate or the intake of a municipal, industrial, or large
landscape water system. Measured water delivery data should be collected
where available; in the absence of such data, this section provides methods
for estimating applied water applied based on information such as (1) crop
acreage, ET, and irrigation efficiencies; (2) per-capita water use and
population; or (3) ponding depths for managed wetlands. These and other
methods account for the amount of applied water needed to meet the water
demand after accounting for the effective precipitation. In addition, the
amount of applied water may also reflect intentional recharge as part of
irrigation practices or may be a dedicated use for a managed aquifer
recharge project. Local knowledge can improve these estimates by
confirming and updating existing land use data, identifying sources of supply
to fields (surface water, groundwater, mixed sources, applied water reuse,
or recycled water), and identifying irrigation types and management
practices (e.g., pre-irrigation, ponding, managed aquifer recharge).
Developing, refining, and querying such information through GIS will
improve land use acreage estimates and characteristics to estimate volumes
of ET, applied water, and water supply.

3.5.1 Agricultural Applied Water

Definition: Volume of water applied on agricultural land from all sources of
water to meet on-farm crop irrigation requirements.

Context: The total amount of water that is needed for crop growth and
management is applied water (AW) for agriculture; it includes irrigation to
satisfy crop ET, cultural practices, leaching fractions, frost protection, pre-
irrigation, etc. Agricultural applied water is almost always greater than the
crop ET requirements to account for distribution inefficiencies and crop
management goals.

As shown in Figure 3-4, the components of agricultural water use are applied
water, precipitation, applied water reuse, ET, runoff, return flow, recharge of
applied water and precipitation, managed aquifer recharge, and change in

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land system storage for agricultural lands. Applied water is met by a mix of
water sources, such as surface water, groundwater, applied water reuse,
recycled water, or any combination thereof. As a result, agricultural applied
water is equal to agricultural water supply under ideal conditions when there
is no shortage of water supply.

Figure 3-4 Components of Agricultural Water Use

Agricultural applied water is a function of the water management goals and

the method used to irrigate a crop, such as sprinkler, drip, buried drip,
border strip, furrow, check, etc. or a combination thereof. Water
management may include overapplication of irrigation water when it is
available to recharge groundwater. In other cases, on-farm tailwater may be
reused within the same field that it was applied, thus reducing water
deliveries. Any estimate of applied water should not include conveyance to
the farm headgate.

Most often, applied water is not measured, and it is a common practice to

estimate this volume based on crop ET, effective precipitation, and irrigation
efficiency as follows:

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or

Adjustments for Irrigation Efficiency: As shown above, irrigation

efficiencies are used to calculate applied water from ETAW. Informational
sources will cite typical irrigation efficiency ranges for a variety of irrigation
methods and practices. The actual irrigation efficiencies in the water budget
zone of interest may be higher or lower for any given irrigation method
(e.g., drip, sprinkler, furrow, etc.). When adjusting irrigation efficiencies to
reflect actual conditions, it is important to understand how irrigation
efficiencies affect the return flow, recharge, and applied water reuse
components when accounting the amount and destination of applied water in
excess of ETAW. For example, a farmer uses border strip irrigation for a
pasture. According to the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation’s AgriMet Program,
irrigation efficiencies, also known as seasonal application efficiencies, for
border strip irrigation range from 55 percent to 90 percent. The farmer is
using a 10-day rotation which may result in over application to fully meet ET
between irrigations. The resulting irrigation efficiency may be 55 percent in
contrast to a system on a 7-day rotation that would have a 65 percent
irrigation efficiency. Each crop should be evaluated to best determine
representative irrigation efficiency.

Adjustments for On-farm Managed Aquifer Recharge (Over-

application): A common practice in some areas is to over-apply surplus
surface water for recharging groundwater, which is referred to as managed
aquifer recharge in this handbook. If the amount is known or can be
approximated, it may be appropriate to add a depth of recharge to the
applied water; otherwise, the irrigation efficiency could be lowered to better
reflect this situation. As an example, local knowledge may indicate that
0.5 foot per acre was applied for groundwater recharge during a specific
period. If a crop’s unit applied water value was 4.5 acre-feet per acre for the
entire growing season, then it would be adjusted as follows:

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The volume of recharge purposefully occurring through the over-application

applied water should be included in the volume of managed aquifer
recharge, not in recharge of applied water and precipitation.

Adjustments for Shallow Groundwater Uptake: The need for irrigation

applied water may be decreased by capillary rise from shallow groundwater
to meet the crop evapotranspiration demand. It is difficult to estimate the
contribution from shallow groundwater because it is sensitive to the depth to
water table, and there are no simple methods to quantify it. If local
knowledge exists regarding the location and potential magnitude of the
shallow groundwater uptake, it can be accounted for as a source of supply.
Although evapotranspiration from shallow groundwater uptake may reduce
groundwater pumping from the aquifer, the net outflow from the
groundwater system will remain the same. The only difference is that
evapotranspiration of shallow groundwater is not part of total applied water,
and hence there is no return flow associated with that amount.

Related Water Budget Components: Surface Water Delivery,

Groundwater Extraction, Applied Water Reuse, Precipitation,
Evapotranspiration, Recharge of Applied Water and Precipitation, Return
Flow

How to Determine Agricultural Applied Water:

• Method 1 — Obtain available water delivery data.
• Method 2 — Use available technical reports and existing numerical
models.
• Method 3 — Estimate applied water volumes.

Method 1 — Obtain Available Water Delivery Data

Water delivery data typically represent on-farm applied water and, when
correlated with crop type and acreage served, these data can support
estimates of unit applied water by crop for other areas without measured
data within the water budget zone. Furthermore, where possible, the
sources of the delivered water in terms of surface water, groundwater, and
applied water reuse should be identified.

Available water delivery, crop type, and crop acreage data (daily, monthly,
etc.) for all years of interest should be obtained from local water purveyors.

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If all on-farm applied water is measured (and applied water reuse is

measured), then all delivery data by crop type and acreage can be summed
to determine the volume of applied water. Where tailwater reuse occurs but
is not measured, local knowledge can be used to determine or approximate
the amount of tailwater being used and that amount can be added to the
water delivery to approximate on-farm applied water.

Sources of information include:

• Local agency water delivery records (water deliveries, crop type, and
crop acreage).
• On-farm water use data.

Method 2 — Use Available Technical Reports and Existing Numerical

Models:
Compile and evaluate applied water data available in technical reports,
models, databases, etc. (daily, monthly, etc.) for all years of interest.
Review all information to ensure representation throughout the water budget
zone. Use local knowledge about irrigation practices to confirm or modify
data to represent local conditions. Sources of information include:
• Cal-SIMETAW unit values: monthly applied water per acre by DAUCO
for 2000 through 2015.
• Existing reports and studies.
• Existing models such as CVHM, C2VSIM or local models.
• Agricultural water management plans.
• Existing California Water Plan unit applied water by crop.
• UC Cooperative Extension farm advisors.

Method 3 — Estimate Applied Water Volumes

Estimating agricultural applied water can be approached in two ways; the
method chosen for calculation of evapotranspiration in Section 3.4 will likely
dictate the method used here.
1. Water-duty based approach.
2. Crop ET approach.

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Water Duty Based Approach: In this approach, agricultural applied water

is approximated based on water duty rates (also known as unit applied
water) developed by local water purveyors and extrapolated to represent
applied water for crops within the water budget zone. Local knowledge can
be used to adjust water duty rates based on current water management
practices (some areas may apply more or less than others).

Applied water can be approximated by using water duty rates by crop (see
Method 4 of Section 3.4) and extrapolating the rates to all areas of interest.
Determine acreage by crop type, apply the representative water duty rate by
crop, and then sum the results as follows:

If crop acreage by water source (surface water, groundwater, applied water

reuse) can be determined, then:

It is important to note that water duty rates, or applied water, may differ
among water sources for the same crop. The differences can be attributed to
different irrigation methods and water management practices that are used
for each water source type.

Crop ET Approach: In this approach, the estimation of agricultural applied

water is obtained by using the equation described earlier. Crop ET
requirements can be calculated by using methods described in Section 3.4.
Effective precipitation can be estimated using methods described in Section
3.3. Identifying irrigation methods by field and by crop can contribute to
better estimates of irrigation efficiencies when calculating agricultural
applied water.

Applied water can be calculated using crop ETAW and irrigation efficiency
(IE), like methods used for California Water Plan Water Portfolios. ETAW by
crop type can be estimated using a soil moisture balance (e.g., Cal-
SIMETAW, IDC) or an approximate method. Irrigation efficiencies and any
additional amounts applied for cultural practices (CP) such as rice and rice

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straw decomposition flood-up, frost protection, or leaching requirements are

added to the applied water calculation.

Applied water (AW) estimates should start by using acreage, ETAW, and
irrigation practice information by crop and then sum all estimates to
determine the total applied water for the water budget zone.

or

In the equation above, irrigation efficiency (IE) is adjusted for over

irrigation; cultural practices (CP) include volumes of flood-up, pre-irrigation,
frost protection, and leaching; and ETAW is determined from:
• A soil moisture balance using crop ET data (see Section 3.4), soils,
rooting depths, available soil moisture holding capacities, managed
allowable depletion, deficit irrigation, and other factors that influence
crop water use.
• Estimates of unit ETAW and applied water from existing data and
models or developed using models, such as Cal-SIMETAW, IDC, and
C2VSIM (see Section 3.4).
• An approximate method for determining ETAW using crop ET less
effective precipitation (EP) as follows: ETAW = (ET minus EP) by crop.
• Adjusting ETAW for deficit irrigation.

Calculating applied water from land use data can facilitate initial estimates of
water supplies. Using or creating water source information by field or
geographic area can help initial estimates of how much surface water
delivery [SWdel], groundwater [GW], and applied water reuse [Ru] is being
applied. In many areas, there is no mapping of water source by field
(surface water, groundwater, or a combination thereof [mixed water]);
however, local water users may know the sources of supply and duration of
its use (full or partial irrigation). That knowledge can be leveraged to make
initial estimates of surface water delivery and groundwater extraction.
Where a mix of the two sources occurs, an initial distribution of those source
can be made, such as 50-50, 30-70, or 80-20 representing the proportion of

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surface water to groundwater. These estimates become input to the surface

water delivery, groundwater extraction, and applied water reuse
components. Land use data in GIS format (such as the 2014 LandIQ data or
DWR land use surveys) can facilitate these initial estimates by identifying
the crop, then identifying the water source for each crop, and then
aggregating the data for the water budget zone.

The following steps can be used for Method 3, Approach 2.

Step 1: Calculate Crop ET Requirements — Using crop data and

reference ET information (ETo), calculate monthly crop ET requirements (see
Section 3.4) for all months of the growing season. Adjust crop ET based on
deficit irrigation practices within the water budget zone.

Step 2: Calculate Precipitation Volume for the Agricultural Area —

Obtain measured precipitation data, and using methods described in Section
3.4, calculate monthly precipitation volume over the agricultural area during
the growing season.

Step 3: Calculate Runoff Volume — Using any of the methods described

in Section 3.10, calculate monthly runoff volume over the agricultural area.

Step 4: Calculate ET of Precipitation — Subtract runoff volume from the

precipitation volume for agricultural lands and compare that with the crop ET
requirements for each month of the growing season and take the minimum
of two values as the consumptive use of precipitation, also known as
effective precipitation (EP), for the corresponding month.

Step 5: Calculate ET of Applied Water — Subtract consumptive use of

precipitation from the crop ET requirements to determine consumptive use
of applied water, also known as ETAW.

Step 6: Estimate Applied Water Using Irrigation Efficiency —

Agricultural applied water estimates depend on the understanding irrigation
practices and irrigation efficiency. Applied Water is calculated as:

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If crop acreage by water source type (i.e., groundwater, applied water

reuse, and surface water) is known or can be estimated, then applied water
can be used to make initial estimates of water supplies using the following
steps:

Step 7: Calculate Volume of Groundwater Extraction — Multiply crop

acreage and unit applied water for groundwater to determine the volume of
groundwater extraction.

Step 8: Calculate Volume of Applied Water Reuse — Multiply crop

acreage, unit applied water, and the reuse component of irrigation efficiency
to determine the volume of applied water reuse.

Step 9: Calculate Volume of Surface Water Delivery — Multiply crop

acreage and unit applied water for surface water to determine the volume of
surface water, and then subtract the volume of applied water reuse.

The following example demonstrates how this process is used in the

California Water Plan. A DAU in northeastern California consists of a mix of
water purveyors and individual agricultural water users located in the upper
Pit River system. Surface water comprises a majority of the water uses with
diversions and ditch systems as the primary means of providing irrigation
water to mostly pasture and alfalfa crops, and water diversion data are
generally not available. This example uses DWR’s land use survey with water
sources mapping that identifies land using surface water, groundwater, and
mixed water sources. A spatial query aggregates the data by crop and by
water source. The mixed source lands are split 50 percent / 50 percent to
surface water and groundwater, respectively. The acreage by crop and unit
applied water values are used for the calculation. Because groundwater is
directly applied to fields through gated pipe, center pivots, or wheel line
systems, the irrigation efficiency is higher than surface water.

First, the land use spatial data are queried through GIS and the mixed
source split is applied to determine crop acreage by surface water and
groundwater as shown in Table 3-1.

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Table 3-1 Example of Spatial Land Use and Water Source Data
Analysis
Data Mixed
Full or Data Data query Total Total
query source
Crop Partial query GW mixed SW GW
SW use split
Irrigation use only SW/GW use use use
only SW/GW
Alfalfa Full 3.6 5.2 1.2 50 / 50 4.2 5.8
Alfalfa Partial 0.0 0.2 0.0 50 / 50 0.0 0.2
Grain Full 1.9 0.4 0.5 50 / 50 2.0 0.5
Meadow
Full 8.2 1.5 0.8 50 / 50 8.6 1.9
Pasture
Meadow
Partial 2.9 1.5 0.0 50 / 50 2.9 1.5
Pasture
Pasture Full 20.4 1.1 0.8 50 / 50 20.8 1.5
Pasture Partial 0.6 0.0 0.0 50 / 50 0.6 0.0
Rice Full 2.2 0.3 0.2 50 / 50 2.3 0.4
Total 39.8 10.2 3.2 41.4 11.8
Table Notes: GW = groundwater, SW = surface water
Units are in thousand acre-feet

Next, irrigation efficiency values are used with unit ETAW and land use
acreage by water source type to calculate Applied Water for surface water
deliveries and groundwater extraction as shown in the equations below and
summarized in Table 3-2 and Table 3-3.

CP is 0.6 feet for flood-up practices associated with rice and zero for all
other crops.

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Table 3-2 Example Calculation of Applied Surface Water

Crop Thousands ETAW Irrigation Cultural Applied
of Acres (af/a) Efficiency Practices (af/a) Water (taf)
Alfalfa 4.2 2.1 72% 0 12.2
Grain 2.0 1.1 74% 0 3.0
Meadow Pasture 8.6 2.1 68% 0 26.66
Meadow Pasture — 2.9 0.3 68% 0 1.3
Partially Irrigated
(April–June)
Pasture 20.8 2.2 65% 0 70.4
Pasture — Partially 0.6 1.0 70% 0 0.8
Irrigated (April–June)
Rice 2.3 2.6 63% 0.6 10.9
Total Applied Surface Water (AWSW) = 125.2
Table Notes: af/a = acre-feet per acre, taf = thousand acre-feet

Table 3-3 Example Calculation of Applied Groundwater

Crop Area ETAW Irrigation Cultural Applied
(thousands (af/a) Efficiency Practices Water
of acres) (af/a) (taf)
Alfalfa 5.8 2.1 76% 0 16.0
Alfalfa — Partially 0.2 1.0 76% 0 0.3
Irrigated (April–June)
Grain 0.5 1.1 77% 0 0.7
Meadow Pasture 1.9 2.1 70% 0 5.7
Meadow Pasture — 1.5 0.3 70% 0 0.6
Partially Irrigated
(April–June)
Pasture 1.5 2.2 66% 0 5.0
Rice 0.4 2.6 63% 0.6 1.9
Total Groundwater Applied Water (AW GW) = 30.2
Table Notes: af/a = acre-feet per acre, ETAW = evapotranspiration of applied water,
taf = thousand acre-feet

A majority of the water applied for crop irrigation is either consumed by ET

or retained by the crop. The remainder of that water can be attributed to
mostly non-consumptive uses of irrigation water (applied water less ETAW),

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such as infiltration through the root zone and unsaturated zone to recharge
the groundwater or surface runoff (e.g., tailwater). That surface runoff may
contribute to applied water reuse, return flow to the surface water system,
or a combination of both. The amount of recharge, applied water reuse, and
return flow is a function of the irrigation method, water management,
cultural practices, and soils. These non-consumptive uses can be estimated
from the loss portion of irrigation efficiency (i.e., 100 percent — irrigation
efficiency) and cultural practices not meeting ET. Tables 3-4 and 3-5 provide
the typical components of irrigation efficiency to estimate the disposition of
the non-consumptive uses for applied water, namely recharge of applied
water and return flow from irrigation systems.

Table 3-4 Potential Magnitude of Irrigation Losses for Furrow

Irrigation (Percent)
Type of
Distribution Air Soil Canopy Surface Overall
Irrigation Recharge
System Evap. Evap. Evap. Runoff Efficiency
System
Every row 1-5 <1.0 1-5 0.0 10-20 10-35 40-75
With surge
valve 1-5 <1.0 1-5 0.0 5-15 5-15 60-85
With reuse 1-5 1-2 1-5 0.0 10-20 0 55-90
Siphon tube 5-10 1-2 1-5 0.0 15-25 15-25 40-75
Alternate
row 1-5 < 0.5 1-3 0,0 5-15 10-20 60-85
Source: Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary

Table 3-5 Potential Magnitude of Irrigation Losses for Sprinkler

Irrigation (Percent)
Type of
Distribution Air Soil Canopy Surface Overall
Irrigation Recharge
System Evap. Evap. Evap. Runoff Efficiency
System
Hand-
moved <1.0 3-5 1-5 10-15 5-10 0-5 60-80
Solid set <1.0 3-5 1-5 10-15 0-10 0-5 60-85
Traveler <1.0 1-3 1-5 1-5 0-5 5-10 55-75
High
pressure
impact <0.5 1-3 0-1 1-5 0-5 0-5 70-80

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Type of
Distribution Air Soil Canopy Surface Overall
Irrigation Recharge
System Evap. Evap. Evap. Runoff Efficiency
System
Low
pressure
impact <0.5 1-3 0-1 1-3 0-5 0-10 75-85
Low
pressure
spray <0.5 1-3 0-1 1-3 0-5 0-20 70-90
Low
pressure
bubble <0.5 0.0 0-0.5 0.0 0-5 20-40 60-95
Drip
irrigation <0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 5-30 0.0 70-95
Source: Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary

The following steps can be used to estimate of the amount of recharge,

return flow, and applied water reuse based on proportioning the losses
associated with irrigation efficiency:

Step 10: Calculate Volume of Irrigation Recharge — Multiply crop

acreage, unit applied water, and recharge component of irrigation efficiency
to determine the volume of irrigation recharge.

Step 11: Calculate Volume of Irrigation Return Flow — Multiply crop

acreage, unit applied water, and return flow component of irrigation
efficiency to determine the volume of irrigation return flow.

Example: Corn is irrigated on 1,000 acres of land with moderately

permeable soils using surface water, furrows, and siphon tubes. The
irrigation results in an ETAW of 2.2 af/a. Using Table 3-4 as a guide, furrow
irrigation using siphon tubes is estimated to have a 70 percent irrigation
efficiency, and the remaining irrigation loss are estimated to be 15 percent
for moderate recharge, 3 percent for soil/air evaporation, and 12 percent for
surface runoff. Local information indicates that about half of the surface
runoff is either reused on-farm or diverted by others, translating to about
6 percent for applied water reuse. The following calculations show estimates
of AW, applied water reuse (Ru), return flow (Rf), recharge of applied water
(Di) and precipitation, and ETAW using information in Table 3-4:
• Soil and canopy evaporation are estimated to be 0 percent.

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• 50 percent of the tailwater is reused downstream and the other 50

percent becomes surface runoff.
• Surface runoff fraction estimate is 12 percent from Table 3-4.
• Ruf = reuse fraction of AW; in = 50 percent of surface runoff fraction
• Rff = return flow fraction of AW = 50 percent of surface runoff fraction
• Dif = Recharge fraction of AW = estimate is 15 percent from Table 3-4.
• Using given information from above, calculate irrigation efficiency and
applied water, applied water reuse, return flow, and recharge
volumes:

These estimates can be used for estimating applied water reuse, return flow,
and recharge. It is important to note that these should be used as initial
estimates and computing the total water budget may require multiple
iterations to develop a representative water budget, especially where one or
more water budget components can be refined with available measured
data.

3.5.2 Urban Applied Water

Definition: Volume of water delivered from any source to the intake of a
municipal, industrial, or large landscape water system. This would equal the
volume of surface water delivery, groundwater water extraction, applied
water reuse, and recycled water.

Context: Urban applied water consists of a broad category of water uses

that include municipal, self-supplied rural, industrial, energy production, and

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large landscape uses. Urban water use represents water measured at the
intake to an urban water supplier (i.e., water production) and does not
include conveyance losses (evaporation and seepage) to the intake;
however, it will include distribution system water losses (seepage, illegal
connections, unaccounted for water) that occurs between the intake and the
end user (Section 3.2.2). Available data should be known by the local
purveyors and water users with larger municipalities having measured
supplies and currently reporting their supplies and metered deliveries to the
State Water Resources Control Board (State Water Board). This information
was previously collected by DWR (Public Water Supply Statistics data). Self-
supplied rural represents individual supplies serving individual or small
groups of residences, commercial, industrial, etc., most of which are served
by groundwater. Calculations of applied water may include supplies offset by
reuse or recycled water.

As shown in Figure 3-5, the components of urban water use are applied
water (landscape and indoor uses), precipitation, applied water reuse,
recycled water, ET, recycled water export, runoff, return flow, recharge of
applied water and precipitation (including septic tank recharge, distribution
system water loss seepage), managed aquifer recharge, and change in land
system storage for urban areas. Urban applied water is further subdivided
into indoor and outdoor water uses. Indoor water use most commonly
consists of interior residential, commercial, and industrial water use; this
water is most often non-consumptively used and generally becomes return
flow to the surface water system (e.g., wastewater discharges) or recharge
to the groundwater system (e.g., waste water percolation ponds or septic
tanks). A part of the indoor water use may become recycled water to meet
demands inside or outside the water budget zone. The recycled water
delivered to irrigate landscape reduces the amount of groundwater
extraction and surface water delivery to urban areas within a water budget
zone. Recycled water used outside the water budget zone is called recycled
water export (Figure 1-1). Urban outdoor water use is largely for landscape
irrigation, which is consists of landscape ET, return flow, or recharge of
applied water.

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Figure 3-5 Components of Urban Water Use

Related Water Budget Components: Surface Water Delivery,

Groundwater Extraction, Recycled Water, Precipitation, Evapotranspiration,
Recharge of Applied Water and Precipitation, Return Flow

How to Determine Urban Applied water:

• Method 1 — Obtain available urban water production data.
• Method 2 — Use available technical reports and existing numerical
models.
• Method 3 — Estimate unavailable urban demand data using population
and per-capita water use.

Method 1 — Obtain Available Urban Water Production Data

Obtain available urban water production data (daily, monthly, etc.) for all
years of interest. Water production data represents the volume of surface
water, groundwater extraction, imported water, and ocean desalination that
is treated for distribution and delivery. Imported water may come from
another water purveyor or wholesale water entity and may consist of both
surface water and groundwater. Applied water reuse and recycled water may

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be treated and distributed for landscape use, recharge, other uses and
included in the water purveyor data. It may be useful to collect data outside
the water budget zone when there is a lack of data within the zone to
represent urban water use conditions. Monthly data should be collected to
support the calculation of indoor use based on lowest month production.
Sources of information include:
• State Water Board’s Electronic Annual Report (Public Water Systems).
• State Water Board’s Monthly Urban Water Production Reporting.
• DWR Public Water Supply Statistics Data — Historical.
• Local agency water delivery records.
• Urban water management plans.
• Other.

It is important to thoroughly review all production data for accuracy. Often,

the measured data from local purveyors or municipalities will not cover the
entire population but can be helpful in making estimates for non-represented
populations by computing per-capita water use and factoring it for non-
represented populated areas.

Method 2 — Use Available Technical Reports and Existing Numerical

Models
Compile and evaluate urban water production or applied water data that are
available in technical reports, numerical models, and databases (daily,
monthly, etc.) for all years of interest. It may be useful to collect data
outside the water budget zone when there is a lack of data to represent
urban water use conditions in the water budget zone. Sources of information
include:
• Existing reports and studies.
• Existing models such as CVHM, C2VSIM, and local models.
• Urban water management plans.
• California Water Plan Water Portfolio data.
• DWR’s A Guide to Estimating Irrigation Water Needs of Landscape
Plantings in California.

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All technical report data and numerical model input data and results should
be carefully reviewed for adequacy and appropriateness of assumptions.

Method 3 — Use Population and Per-Capita Water Use

This method estimates urban applied water using population and per-capita
water use. Collecting population data and service area coverage information
from urban water purveyors in a spatial format (e.g., GIS) is needed for this
analysis. U.S. Census track data provides decadal population data in spatial
format for querying and can be used with service areas to determine
population being served by urban water purveyors and those not being
served. The California Department of Finance provides annual projections of
population to help interpolate between decadal census data. These annual
population projections are helpful in all situations but essential for rapidly
expanding urban areas. Alternatively, some water purveyors estimate their
annual population served based of an assumed number of persons per
connection where the number of connections is known.

Per-capita water use estimates are based on production data from an

existing urban area and divided by the population served when such data
are available. For unmeasured municipal and self-supplied areas such as
rural, industrial, and large landscapes (parks, gold courses, etc.), applied
water estimates are calculated using population being served and estimates
of representative per capita water use from similar areas.

Per-capita water use estimates by DAUCO are available through the

California Water Plan Water Portfolios (information on Water Portfolios is
available in Section 9.9), or for specific areas, these can be determined
using public water supply statistics data compiled by the State Water Board
or DWR. These statistics will include total water production, water production
by source (surface water or groundwater) and may contain water delivery
data by customer class types (residential, multi-family, industrial, large
landscape, etc.). Data from Methods 1 and 2 can also inform these
calculations.

Some landscape irrigation may not be included in per-capita water use

estimates, such as golf courses or park with a self-produced supply. If
measured water use is not available, then estimate the landscape irrigation
using spatial land use data through GIS and coupling it with ET rates (see
Section 3.4 - Evapotranspiration) and estimated irrigation efficiencies to

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determine applied water (see Section 3.5.1 for method to estimate applied
water)

Urban water production, or applied water, can be estimated as:

Where:
• Population is estimated from city, water purveyor, or rural estimates of
population or U.S. Census and California Department of Finance data.
• Per capita water use is estimated from municipal water use records
(water deliveries divided by population served) and represents a
“community per-capita” that reflects a certain mix of residential,
commercial, landscape, industrial, and other use. These per-capita
estimates can be extrapolated to unmeasured communities or rural
areas with similar characteristics. Per capita water use is often
represented as gallons per capita per day (GPCD). Lower rates of
GPCD may reflect areas with low landscape irrigation (outdoor water
use), such as coastal areas, whereas higher rates of GPCD may reflect
more landscape irrigation (e.g., Central Valley) or seasonal tourism
(e.g., Lake Tahoe).
• Industrial water use is estimated from data collected, correlating
representative water use information from water use surveys or
approximations. Sources of information can be industrial users,
surveys of industrial users where gallons per employee or gallons per
square foot may represent specific types of uses.
• Landscape irrigation includes golf courses and parks where the
irrigated area and unit applied water values can estimate supply.

The following example shows the process for estimating urban applied water
using California Water Plan information for Modoc County DAU 130 (Goose
Lake — Alturas).

Example: This example consists of a mix of water purveyors and individual,

unorganized agricultural and urban/rural water users located in the upper Pit
River system around Alturas. Urban uses include the City of Alturas, rural
development, and golf course irrigation. The urban and rural populations use

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groundwater. Water use estimates focus on the measured data for the city
of Alturas and an estimate of rural population. Local knowledge indicates
that the rural population often has larger landscaped areas than residents in
Alturas. Reviewing data adjacent to the region, the large landscape areas
are best represented by the community of Cedarville, which is thus selected
as the representative per-capita water use for the rural areas.

Urban water use is calculated as the summation of areas with similar per-
capita water uses:

Where:

• Population of Alturas = 2,827 (Sources: Department of Finance,

California Water Plan, and checked with population served by the
water purveyor).
• Per Capita Water Use of Alturas = 0.251 acre-feet per capita annually.
• Rural Population = 3,637.
• Rural Per Capita Water Use (represented by Cedarville) = 0.328 acre-
feet per capita annually.

The estimate of applied water for the self-supplied golf course is based on
land use and local information (data not reported). Golf course water use
can be estimated by area irrigated, ETAW, and irrigation efficiency as
follows:

Where:
• Landscape Area = 49.6 acres (Source: DWR land use survey).
• Unit ETAW = 27.87 inches/acre.
• Irrigation Efficiency = 75 percent.

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Thus:

3.5.3 Managed Wetlands Applied Water

Definition: Volume of water delivered from any source as either direct or
incidental flows to a marsh or wetland for wildlife areas. This would equal
the volume of surface water delivery, groundwater water extraction, and
reuse.

Context: Managed wetlands applied water is the total amount of water

applied for habitat management, including irrigation to satisfy ET, ponded
water evaporation, ponded water habitat flood-up, and habitat management
practices (e.g., circulation rates, irrigation for forage production, etc.).
Tailwater systems (reuse) may result in water deliveries less than actual
applied water volumes as reuse is re-application of tailwater from water
already applied. Applied water does not include conveyance to the headgate
of the managed wetlands. When applied water is not measured, a common
practice is to estimate the amount based on habitat evaporation and ET and
volumes of habitat management practices. Available applied water or water
delivery data can be used to estimate unmeasured applied water conditions.

As shown in Figure 3-6, the components of managed wetlands water use are
applied water, precipitation, applied water reuse, ET, runoff, return flow,
recharge of applied water and precipitation, managed aquifer recharge, and
change in land system storage for managed wetlands.

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Figure 3-6 Components of Managed Wetlands Water Use

Related Water Budget Components: Surface Water Delivery,

Groundwater Extraction, Applied Water Reuse, Recycled Water, Precipitation,
Evapotranspiration, Evaporation, Recharge of Applied Water and
Precipitation, Return Flow

How to Determine Managed Wetlands Applied Water:

• Method 1 — Obtain available water delivery data.
• Method 2 — Collect available technical reports and existing numerical
models for applied water data.
• Method 3 — Estimate applied water volumes.

Method 1 — Obtain Available Water Delivery Data

Obtain available water delivery data (daily, monthly, etc.) for all years of
interest. Water delivery data can represent managed wetlands applied water
if no reuse of tailwater occurs. If tailwater reuse occurs, determine or
approximate the amount of tailwater being used. Adding water delivery and
reuse can approximate managed wetlands applied water. Sources of
information include:
• USFWS and CDFW refuge water management plans.
• Reclamation’s Central Valley Project refuge water delivery data.

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• Local agency water delivery records.

• California Water Plan Water Portfolio managed wetlands water use
data.

Method 2 — Collect Available Technical Reports and Existing

Numerical Models for Applied Water Data

Compile and evaluate applied water data available in technical reports,

numerical models, and databases (daily, monthly, etc.) for all years of
interest. Sources of information include:
• Existing reports and studies.
• Existing models such as CVHM, C2VSIM, and local models.
• Cal-SIMETAW Unit Values: Per acre AW for riparian vegetation and
shallow water surface bodies by DAUCO for 2000—2015.
• California Water Plan Water Portfolio data.

Method 3 — Estimate Applied Water Volumes

Managed wetlands consist of federal or State wildlife refuges, private
wetlands, and duck clubs that create habitat suitable for waterfowl and other
wetland dependent species using managed wetlands water supplies. Federal
and State refuges often have management plans providing valuable
information on habitat types, water management objectives, and operations.
Habitat objectives could include flood-up and drawdown dates (management
periods), irrigation management, ponding depths, circulation rates, etc., all
which support estimates of habitat applied water. It is important to note that
the same habitat type may have different flood-up and drawdown dates
within a given refuges, thus calculating applied water by habitat type by
management period may be necessary. Examples of habitat include seasonal
and permanent wetlands, open water, grasslands, forage (e.g., water grass),
etc. It is best to estimate applied water for each habitat type because of the
large differences in water requirement for different habitat types, and then
sum the results. The typical unit applied water calculation involves depths of
ETAW, flood-up, circulation, seepage, and forage irrigation and does not
include irrigation efficiency because entire habitat is flooded to target
depths. The resulting calculation from this approach is as follows:

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Where:
• Unit ETAW = ET of applied water per acre by habitat type and
management. These values are generated from crop/habitat
spreadsheets, models, or soil moisture balance.
• CP = Cultural Practices = (Flood-up Depth + Circulation Water +
Seepage + Forage Irrigation) per acre.
o Flood-up depth includes saturating soil pore space and depth of
ponding.
o Circulation is the continuous flow rate needed for waterfowl
disease management. It is represented as a depth per acre.
o Seepage is the amount of water percolating from the field that
needs replacement to maintain the required water depth for the
habitat. It is represented as a depth per acre.
o Forage irrigation is the water applied to grow seed producing
vegetation for waterfowl and commonly consists of one or two
applications of water about 3 inches in depth for each irrigation.

Sources of information include:

• Individual refuges operated by USFWS or CDFW.
• Private wetlands or duck clubs (Ducks Unlimited, The Nature
Conservancy, California Waterfowl Association, etc.)
• DWR Land Use Surveys (permanent managed wetlands, seasonal
managed wetlands).
• California Water Plan Water Portfolio estimates by DAUCO for refuge,
private wetland, or duck club, which include land use by habitat type,
ETAW by habitat type, management practices by habitat, and
estimates of water use.
Example: Modoc County DAU 130 (Goose Lake, Alturas) — This example
represents the estimate of water use and resulting surface water diversion
for the Modoc National Wildlife Refuge. Refuge habitat consists of open water
(Dorris Reservoir), permanent ponds, wet meadows, and seasonal marsh.
Water management is specific to habitat type and is calculated as:

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First, the Modoc County land use spatial data are queried and the refuge
management plan is consulted to determine the managed wetlands acreage
by habitat type. Next, unit ETAW and cultural (habitat) practices are
collected from available information for use in the above equation and the
results are shown in Table 3-6.

Table 3-6 Example Calculation of Applied Water by Water Source

Area Applied
ETAW Cultural
Habitat (thousands Practice Water
of acres) (af/a) (af/a) (taf)
Open Water 0.5 2.6 0.0 1.30
Permanent
0.4 2.8 0.3 1.24
Ponds
Wet Meadows 0.7 1.2 0.5 1.19
Seasonal Marsh 0.3 0.5 1.4 0.57
Grain 0.2 1.3 0.8 0.42
Total Applied Surface Water for Managed Wetlands = 4.72
Table Notes: af/a = acre-feet per acre, ETAW = evapotranspiration of applied water,
taf = thousand acre-feet

3.6 SURFACE WATER DELIVERY

Definition: Volume of surface water delivered to a water budget zone. This
does not equal the volume of surface water diversion and imported water
because the latter also include conveyance seepage and evaporation during
transport of the water.

Context: Surface water deliveries (SWdel) are typically measured at the

farm, managed wetlands, or managed aquifer recharge project headgate or
the intake to an urban water supplier and do not include conveyance losses
(evaporation and seepage); however, conveyance or distribution losses
occurring on-farm or within an urban water supplier’s distribution system
would be included. Available data should be known by the local water
purveyors and users. Where delivery data are not readily available (including
historical), volumes of applied water can be used to estimate the delivery
volumes based on lands fully or partially using surface water. Tailwater

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systems recapturing drainage may result in water deliveries less than

applied water volumes.

Adjustments for Deficit Irrigation: See Section 3.4, “Evapotranspiration,”

for more information on adjustments for deficit irrigation.

Adjustments for Irrigation Efficiency: See Section 3.5.1, “Agricultural

Applied Water,” for more information on adjustments for irrigation efficiency.

Adjustments for On-farm Managed Aquifer Recharge (Over-

application): See Section 3.5.1, “Agricultural Applied Water,” for more
information on adjustment for on-farm recharge (over-application).

Inclusion of Managed Aquifer Recharge: See Section 5.6, “Managed

Aquifer Recharge,” — for more information on quantifying managed aquifer
recharge. Surface water deliveries should include supplies for managed
aquifer recharge projects.

Related Water Budget Components: Surface Water Imports, Surface

Water Diversions, Groundwater Extraction, Applied Water Reuse, Recycled
Water, Conveyance Evaporation, Conveyance Seepage

How to Determine Surface Water Deliveries:

• Method 1 — Obtain available surface water delivery data.
• Method 2 — Use published reports and numerical models.
• Method 3 — Estimate unavailable surface water delivery data.

Method 1 — Obtain Available Surface Water Delivery Data

Obtain surface water delivery data (daily, monthly, etc.). Sources of
information include:
• Local agency records, including flood control districts or entities
managing stormwater.
• For additional sources, see Section 9, “Data Resources Directory.”

Method 2 — Use Published Reports and Numerical Models

Collect and review published reports and existing numerical models for the
area of interest; these are good sources of estimates for historical surface

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water delivery data over an area. If reliable and defensible estimates of

surface water delivery volumes (monthly or annual) are available for the
water budget zone, those estimates can be used for developing water
budgets. If surface water deliveries from an existing numerical model are
used, then the following should be validated:
• The numerical model is calibrated and accepted by stakeholders.
• There is documentation of both the source data and the basis of
estimate used in the numerical model.
• Any geographic scaling factor used to convert model estimates to
correspond to the water budget zone is defensible and representative
for the area.

Method 3 — Estimate Unavailable Surface Water Delivery Data

Surface water deliveries can be estimated for agricultural, urban, and
managed wetlands systems using volumes of applied water, like the
approach used in the California Water Plan Water Portfolio. Section 3.5,
“Applied Water,” describes methods to estimate the amount of applied water
met by surface water, groundwater, and applied water reuse. Details for
estimating agricultural, urban, and managed wetlands applied water are
provided, respectively, in Sections 3.5.1, 3.5.2., and 3.5.3.

Calculating applied water from land use data can facilitate initial estimates of
water supplies. Using or creating water source information by field or
geographic area can help initial estimates of how much surface water
delivery [SWdel], groundwater [GW], and applied water reuse [Ru] is being
applied. In many areas, there is no mapping of water source by field
(surface water, groundwater, or a combination thereof [mixed water]);
however, local water users may know the sources of supply and duration of
its use (full or partial irrigation). That knowledge can be leveraged to make
initial estimates of surface water delivery and groundwater extraction.
Where a mix of the two sources occurs, an initial distribution of those source
can be made, such as 50-50, 30-70, or 80-20 representing the proportion of
surface water to groundwater. These estimates become input to the surface
water delivery, groundwater extraction, and applied water reuse
components. Land use data in GIS format (such as the 2014 LandIQ data or
DWR Land Use Surveys) can facilitate these initial estimates by identifying
the crop, then identifying the water source for each crop, and then
aggregating the data for the water budget zone.

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For agricultural and managed wetlands uses where water sources are
identified, surface water deliveries can be simply estimated from Agricultural
Applied Water (Section 3.5.1) and Managed Wetlands Applied Water
(Section 3.5.3) as:

If applied water by water source is unknown, then estimates should be made

for groundwater extraction (GWext) and applied water reuse (RU), which may
be an iterative process. Applied water reuse can be simplified as a
percentage of applied water based on local knowledge of irrigation practices
and tailwater conditions for the area of interest. Surface water delivery can
then be estimated as:

where applied water reuse (RU) can be estimated as a fraction of applied

water (Ruf), then

Estimating applied water reuse can become more complex when agricultural,
urban, or managed wetlands return flows become sources of supply for
another use within the water budget zone. This quantity is not a new supply
but more than likely an applied water reuse (double counting of supply
should be carefully avoided). Thus, all reuses should be considered.

If the amount of applied water met by surface water has been calculated,
then:

Where the amount of applied water reuse (RU) is unknown but can be
estimated as a fraction of applied water reuse (Ruf), then:

For urban water supplies, recycled water (RW) for landscape irrigation can
reduce the amount of surface water treated for distribution, also known as
water production or applied water. It is important to know if recycled water

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is accounted for in urban water deliveries to customers or if the recycled

water becomes a separate use. For example, a wastewater treatment plant
provides recycled water for landscape irrigation along a highway, and this
irrigation is not accounted for by the urban purveyor because it is directly
supplied by the wastewater treatment plant. The recycled water would not
reduce the urban supply but rather is used to meet additional applied water
in the form of landscape irrigation (Section 3.5.2, “Urban Applied Water”).
Surface water deliveries can in this case be estimated as:

SWdel = AWSW − RW

If an estimate of GWext is available, then:

If how much applied water is surface water has been calculated, then:

Example: This example consists of a mix of water purveyors and individual,

agricultural and urban/rural water users located in the upper Pit River
system. Surface water comprises a majority of the water uses with
diversions and ditch systems as the primary means of providing irrigation
water to mostly pasture and alfalfa crops, and deliveries are mostly
unmeasured. Other uses include golf course irrigation and refuge
management. For the urban and rural populations, the applied water
estimate is used for surface water deliveries. This example represents
estimating surface water delivery to a golf course served by surface water,
which is based on land use and local information (data not reported). Applied
water is estimated to be 0.2 thousand acre-feet (taf). It is assumed that no
applied water reuse occurs, and the calculation of surface water delivery is:

Where applied water reuse (RU) can be estimated using the fraction of
applied water reuse (Ruf), then:

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Where AW (Surface Water) = 0.2 taf and Ruf = 0, then:

For agricultural uses, the volumes of applied water can be used to estimate
these deliveries based on land and water use estimates in the California
Water Plan and is based on the identification of lands using surface water,
groundwater, and a mix of both. For the mixed source, the distribution is
estimated at 50 percent surface water and 50 percent groundwater so that
these lands and use can be categorized as surface water and groundwater
only. The example in Section 3.5.1 presents this calculation. In dry years,
this distribution can change. Water management for this area includes
significant applied water reuse of previously diverted or applied water
resulting from soil conditions that facilitate more runoff than deep
percolation. Applied water from surface water is estimated to be 125.2 taf.
The estimate of reuse is 22 percent. The calculation of surface water delivery
is:

Where AWSW = 125.2 taf and Ruf = 0.22, then:

For managed wetlands, the applied water estimate is also used to determine
the associated surface water delivery for managed wetlands, specifically
Modoc National Wildlife Refuge. The refuge habitat consists of open water
(Dorris Reservoir), permanent ponds, wet meadows, and seasonal marsh.
There is little or no tailwater re-capture within the system. The calculation of
surface water delivery is:

Where AWSW = 4.6 taf and Ruf = 0, then:

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3.7 GROUNDWATER EXTRACTION

Definition: Volume of groundwater pumped (extracted) from the underlying
aquifer(s) for use within the water budget zone. It does not include
groundwater export, stored water extraction, and stored water export.

Context: Groundwater extraction (GWext) for municipal uses is often

measured; in contrast, GWext for agricultural and managed wetlands
groundwater has often not been measured. In the absence of measured
data, groundwater extraction can be approximated using volumes of applied
water estimated using methods in Section 3.5 and local knowledge of
surface water availability. This requires the need to identify lands fully or
partially using groundwater. This can be difficult where groundwater and
surface water uses occur on the same field; however, local knowledge could
assist in approximating reasonable estimates. Irrigation with groundwater
often makes use of drip and sprinkler technology, resulting in higher
irrigation efficiencies and lower applied water use than surface water. An
alternative method for estimating groundwater extraction is to subtract
surface water deliveries and applied water reuse from total applied water.

Adjustments for Deficit Irrigation: See Section 3.4, “Evapotranspiration,”

for more information on adjustments for deficit irrigation.

Adjustments for Irrigation Efficiency: See Section 3.5.1, “Agricultural

Applied Water” or more information on adjustments for irrigation efficiency.

Adjustments for On-farm Groundwater Recharge (Over-application):

See Section 3.5.1, “Agricultural Applied Water” for more information on
adjustment for on-farm recharge (over-application).

Related Water Budget Components: Surface Water Deliveries,

Groundwater Export, Stored Water Extraction, Applied Water Reuse,
Recycled Water, Applied Water

How to Estimate Groundwater Extraction:

• Method 1 — Obtain measured groundwater extraction data.
• Method 2 — Use published reports and numerical models.
• Method 3 — Estimate groundwater extraction volumes.

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Method 1 — Obtain Measured Groundwater Extraction Data

Obtain groundwater extraction data (daily, monthly, etc.). Sources of
information include:
• Available pumping data from local agencies (municipal, industrial,
large landscape, agriculture).
• DWR or State Water Board Urban Water Supply Statistics data.

Method 2 — Use Published Reports and Numerical Models

Collect and review published reports and existing numerical models for the
area of interest; these are good sources of estimates for historical
groundwater extraction data over an area. If reliable and defensible
estimates of groundwater extraction volumes (monthly or annual) are
available for the water budget zone, then those estimates can be used.
Sources of data for groundwater extraction volumes include:
• Existing reports and studies.
• Existing groundwater models such as CVHM, C2VSim and local models.
• Existing crop applied water based on land use, crop unit applied water
volumes and groundwater extraction data.
• California Water Plan Update data.

If groundwater extraction data are used from an existing numerical model,

then the following should be validated.
• The numerical model is calibrated and accepted by stakeholders.
• There is documentation of both the source data and the basis of
estimate used in the numerical model.
• Any geographic scaling factor used to convert model estimates to
correspond to the water budget zone is defensible and representative
for the area.

Method 3 — Estimate Groundwater Extraction Volumes

Groundwater extraction can be estimated for urban, agricultural, and
managed wetland systems using techniques like the ones used in the
California Water Plan. Section 3.5.1, “Agricultural Applied Water” and
Section 3.5.3, “Managed Wetlands Applied Water,” respectively, provide
guidance on how to estimate the amount of applied water uses for

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agricultural and managed wetlands met by surface water, groundwater, and

applied water reuse using spatial land use data, identifying which lands are
served by what source of water, and aggregating uses by crop acreage and
water source type.

Calculating applied water from land use data can facilitate initial estimates of
water supplies. Using or creating water source information by field or
geographic area can help initial estimates of how much surface water
delivery [SWdel], groundwater [GW], and applied water reuse [Ru] is being
applied. In many areas, there is no mapping of water source by field
(surface water, groundwater, or a combination thereof [mixed water]);
however, local water users may know the sources of supply and duration of
its use (full or partial irrigation). That knowledge can be leveraged to make
initial estimates of surface water delivery and groundwater extraction.
Where a mix of the two sources occurs, an initial distribution of those source
can be made, such as 50-50, 30-70, or 80-20 representing the proportion of
surface water to groundwater. These estimates become input to the surface
water delivery, groundwater extraction, and applied water reuse
components. Land use data in GIS format (such as the 2014 LandIQ data or
DWR Land Use Surveys) can facilitate these initial estimates by identifying
the crop, then identifying the water source for each crop, and then
aggregating the data for the water budget zone.

For agricultural and managed wetlands uses where water sources are
identified, groundwater extraction can be simply estimated as:

If applied water by source is unknown, then estimates should be made first

for surface water deliveries (SWdel) and applied water reuse (Ru); this is
often an iterative process. Applied water reuse can be estimated as a
percentage of applied water based on local knowledge of irrigation practices
and tailwater conditions for the area of interest. Groundwater extraction can
then be estimated as:

Where applied water reuse is estimated using the fraction of applied water
reuse (Ruf), then:

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For urban water supplies, the use of recycled water for landscape irrigation
can reduce the amount of groundwater treated for distribution, also known
as water production. It is important to know if the recycled water is
accounted for in urban water deliveries to customers or if the recycled water
becomes a separate use. For example, a wastewater treatment plant
supplies recycled water for landscape irrigation along a highway, and this
irrigation is not accounted for by the urban purveyor because it is directly
supplied by the wastewater treatment plant. This recycled water would not
reduce the urban supply but rather create additional applied water in the
form of landscape irrigation (Section 3.5.2, “Urban Applied Water”).
Groundwater extraction can be estimated as:

Where the groundwater portion of urban applied water has been calculated,
then:

Example: This example consists of a mix of water purveyors and individual,

unorganized agricultural and urban/rural water users located in the upper Pit
River system. Groundwater extraction occurs generally for individual,
unorganized agricultural groundwater pumpers and urban/rural water users.

For urban and rural populations, an applied water estimate is used for
calculating groundwater extraction. This example represents the City of
Alturas and self-supplied rural residential water uses, all using groundwater
(Section 3.5.2, “Urban Applied Water”). Applied water is estimated to be
1.9 taf. There is no applied water reuse, thus the calculation of groundwater
extraction is:

Where AWGW = 1.9 taf and Ruf = 0, then:

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For agricultural uses, volumes of applied water are used to estimate

groundwater extraction based on the land and water use estimates in the
California Water Plan, which are based on the identification of lands using
surface water, groundwater, and a mix of both. For mixed sources, the
distribution may be estimated at 50 percent surface water and 50 percent
groundwater so that these lands and use can be categorized as surface
water and groundwater only. The example in Section 3.5.1 presents this
calculation. In dry years, this distribution can change. Water management
for this area includes direct irrigation of groundwater (no conveyance) with
mostly sprinkler and border strip irrigation. Applied water from groundwater
is estimated to be 30.2 taf. The estimate of applied water reuse is 5 percent.
The calculation of groundwater extraction is:

Where AWGW = 30.2 taf and Ruf = 0.05, then:

3.8 APPLIED WATER REUSE AND RECYCLED WATER

Definition of Applied Water Reuse: Volume of applied water contributing
(1) lateral flow below the land that is influenced by impermeable layers and
re-emerges as return flow for reuse in the land system, (2) tailwater
available for reuse in the land system, or (3) a combination of both.

Definition of Recycled Water: Volume of water which, as a result of

treatment of waste, is suitable for a direct beneficial use or a controlled use
that would not otherwise occur within the water budget zone. It includes
wastewater that is treated, stored, distributed, and reused or recirculated for
beneficial uses.

Context: Applied water reuse (Ru) and recycled water (Rw) cover the
spectrum of water reuse terminology within the land system. The term
“applied water reuse” focuses on agricultural and managed wetlands
discharges where treatment is not generally needed. On the other hand,
“recycled water” requires processing of wastewater to remove contaminants
and sanitize prior to reuse, which is often associated with urban and
industrial uses. Both terms, not considered new supply to the system,

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address how applied water is met. In a water budget, applied water is a

combination of surface water, groundwater, applied water reuse, and
recycled water.

Applied water reuse can be an essential component of the water budget

where tailwater and subsurface drainage recovery lead to re-application of
previously applied water, thus making additional use of existing supply;
however, reuse is most often not measured, difficult to quantify, and
requires careful assessment of local conditions. The amount of reuse
occurring in each area varies widely based on such factors as cultural
practices, irrigation management and methods, and field conditions (soil,
geology, and land slope). Cultural practices for rice operations can include
flood-up and drawdown for planting, weed and salinity management,
thermal control, and harvest, all of which contribute to tailwater conditions.
Similarly, managed wetlands operations can contribute to tailwater
conditions through flood-up and drawdown of permanent and seasonable
wetlands to manage waterfowl habitat along with providing circulation rates
to manage waterfowl diseases. Irrigation methods and field conditions, such
as border strip irrigation and flooding from head ditches on moderate slopes,
may contribute to tailwater conditions. Field conditions, such as relatively
impermeable clay and hardpan layers, may contribute to perched water
table conditions above the unsaturated zone, thus restricting or limiting
vertical flow (Section 5.2, “Recharge of Applied Water and Precipitation”)
and causing subsurface lateral flow to the land system for applied water
reuse. Local knowledge of these practices and conditions can help to refine
estimates of applied water reuse and can include the identification of lands
and estimated portions of on-farm irrigation that can be attributed to applied
water reuse.

Recycled water includes both potable and non-potable uses as shown in

Figure 3-7. Non-potable applied water reuse can include agricultural and
managed wetlands uses, as well as landscape use and energy production
(e.g., geothermal). Potable reuse includes both direct and indirect reuse.
Direct potable reuse requires the appropriate level of treatment suitable for
re-distributing through the potable water distribution system. Indirect
potable reuse includes reservoir augmentation and managed aquifer
recharge (basins or injection), all of which can later be diverted or extracted
for additional treatment and distribution as potable water. Because of the

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need to meet regulatory standards, the use of recycled water is generally

documented.

Figure 3-7 Potable and Non-Potable Uses of Recycled Water

Adapted from California Water Plan Update 2013

Related Water Budget Components: Surface Water Delivery,

Groundwater Extraction, Applied Water, Evapotranspiration, Recharge of
Applied Water and Precipitation, Return Flow, Recycled Water Export,
Managed Aquifer Recharge

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How to Determine Applied Water Reuse and Recycled Water:

• Method 1 — Obtain available applied water reuse and recycled water
data.
• Method 2 — Use published reports and numerical models.
• Method 3 — Estimate applied water reuse and recycled water volumes.

Method 1 — Obtain Available Applied Water Reuse and Recycled

Water Data
Obtain applied water reuse and recycled water data (daily, monthly, etc.).
The most authoritative source for historical recycled water data is the State
Water Board’s Urban Water Supply Statistics data. Other sources may
include:
• Urban water management plans.
• Agricultural water management plans.
• Recycled water data from local/municipal water suppliers.
• Wastewater data and disposition of that water.
• California Water Plan Update data.
• Recycled water data from industrial users.
• Existing water right information from the State Water Board (identify
who can divert and their source of water — might be tailwater).

Method 2 — Use Published Reports and Numerical Models

Collect and review published reports and existing numerical models for the
area of interest; these can be sources for estimates for applied water reuse
or measured recycled water data over an area. If reliable and defensible
estimates of applied water reuse or recycled water volumes (monthly or
annual) are available for the water budget zone, these estimates can be
used for developing water budgets. If applied water reuse data from an
existing numerical model are used, then the following should be validated:
• The numerical model is calibrated and accepted by stakeholders.
• There is documentation of both the source data and the basis of
estimates used in the numerical model.

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• Any geographic scaling factor used to convert model estimates to

correspond to the water budget zone is defensible and representative
for the area.

Method 3 — Estimate Applied Water Reuse and Recycled Water

Volumes
Recycled water and applied water reuse can be estimated for urban,
agricultural, and managed wetlands systems using methods like those used
in the California Water Plan. Recycled water data are generally measured
and reflect internal reuse within the urban sector; however, unmeasured
recycled water may include treated wastewater recycling, disposal through
irrigation of landscape or other vegetation, or treated water percolated as
managed aquifer recharge (including injection wells for seawater intrusion
control). Recycled water data can be obtained from municipal water
suppliers and wastewater treatment plants, but where it is unavailable, it
can be estimated based on the volumes of applied water as:

Applied water reuse can occur within and between sectors of use. As an
example, tailwater or return flow from agricultural lands may be re-diverted
within the water budget zone for managed wetlands use and vice-versa.
Similarly, urban wastewater discharge can be diverted for agricultural or
managed wetlands uses. These discharges and subsequent diversions can be
identified through local knowledge and estimated based on applied water use
to estimate the volume of applied water reuse. However, both reuse and
groundwater extraction could be closure terms in the calculation of applied
water (as applied water is made up of surface water delivery, groundwater
extraction, and applied water reuse), thus introducing additional uncertainty
in the estimates.

Section 3.5.1, “Agricultural Applied Water,” provides guidance on how to

estimate the amount of agricultural applied water met by surface water,
groundwater, and applied water reuse using spatial land use data,
identifying which lands are served by what source of water for irrigation, and
aggregating use by crop acreage and water source type. If agricultural
applied water by water source is unknown, then estimates should be made
for surface water and groundwater, which can be an iterative process.

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Applied water reuse can also be estimated as a percentage of applied water

or using a fraction of applied water reuse (Ruf), that is based on local
knowledge of irrigation practices and tailwater conditions. Applied water
reuse (Ru) can then be estimated as:

Another option is to proportion applied water using irrigation efficiency and

percentages of applied water reuse, return flows, and recharge of applied
water as fractions of non-consumptive use of applied water. This option,
which is described in Method 3, Approach 2 in Section 3.5.1, “Agricultural
Applied Water,” is a quick approach to addressing the non-consumptive uses
based on local knowledge of irrigation practices, soils, geology, and
drainage. Using Tables 3-4 and 3-5 as guides, irrigation efficiency (IE) as
well as fractions applied water reuse (Ruf), return flow (Rff), and recharge of
applied water (Dif) can help to identify the disposition of applied water as
follows:

The recharge fraction of applied water can also be determined as:

Where Di = recharge of applied water

The return flow fraction of applied water can also be determined as:

Where Rf = return flow of irrigation

Estimation of these components can be an iterative process and will require

verification of the results in a total water budget.

Estimating applied water reuse can become more complex when agricultural,
urban, or managed wetland return flows become sources of supply for
another use within the area of interest. The resulting volume of water
available is not considered a new supply (supply should not be double

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counted), but rather becomes reuse. Reuse under such situations should be
calculated with due diligence to ensure that there is no double counting.

3.9 RECYCLED WATER EXPORT

Definition: Volume of recycled water diverted from the land system within a
water budget zone for use outside the zone.

Context: Recycled water includes both potable and non-potable uses as

described in Section 3.8. The amount of recycled water export from a water
budget zone is often measured and documented as part of a water recycling
program. Also, recycled water export can include managed aquifer recharge
projects outside the water budget zone.

Related Water Budget Components: Applied Water Reuse, Recycled

Water

How to Determine Return Flow:

• Method 1 — Obtain available recycled water export data.
• Method 2 — Use published reports and numerical models.
• Method 3 — Estimate recycled water export volumes.

Method 1 — Obtain Available Recycled Water Export Data

Obtain recycled water export flow data (daily, monthly, etc.). Sources of
information include:
• Urban water management plans.
• Wastewater data and discharge location.
• California Water Plan Update data.
• Existing reports and studies.
• Existing groundwater models such as CVHM, C2VSim or local models.

Method 2 — Use Published Reports and Numerical Models

Collect and review published reports and existing numerical models for the
area of interest; these can be sources of estimates for recycled water
exports for a water budget zone. If reliable and defensible estimates of
recycled water export volumes (monthly or annual) are available for the

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water budget zone, those estimates can be used for developing water
budget. If recycled water export flow data are used from an existing
numerical model, then the following should be validated:
• The numerical model is calibrated and accepted by stakeholders.
• There is documentation of both the source data and the basis of
estimate used in the numerical model.
• Any geographic scaling factor used to convert model estimates to
correspond to the water budget zone is defensible and representative
for the area.

Method 3 — Estimate Recycled Water Export Volumes

Recycled water data are generally measured and reflect internal reuse within
the urban sector; however, unmeasured recycled water may include treated
wastewater recycling, disposal through irrigation of landscape or other
vegetation, or treated water percolated as recharge. The amount of recycled
water exported can be estimated based on the area and uses outside the
water budget. The applied water methods outlined in Section 3.5 can be
used for this estimation.

3.10 RUNOFF
Definition: Runoff is the volume of water flowing into the surface water
system within a water budget zone from precipitation over the land surface.

Context: Runoff (R) is a major component of the water budget. When the
infiltration capacity of the soil is less than the precipitation rate, the portion
of the precipitation that is in excess of infiltration becomes surface runoff
and contributes to streams and large bodies of water such as lakes. The
occurrence of surface runoff also depends on factors as soil type, vegetation,
and the presence of shallow, relatively impermeable, soil horizons. In urban
areas, runoff is high because impermeable surfaces like rooftops, paved
roads, and parking lots abound. Runoff from urban areas is sometimes
captured in stormwater collection facilities and can be used for managed
aquifer recharge or urban outdoor use. In these cases, runoff should be
reduced by the volume of stormwater capture.

Related Water Budget Components: Precipitation, Evapotranspiration,

Recharge of Applied Water and Precipitation

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How to Determine Runoff:

• Method 1 — Obtain data from previous reports and numerical models.
• Method 2 — Calculate direct runoff using the Runoff Curve Number
method.
• Method 3 — Use the Precipitation-Runoff Modeling System (PRMS).
• Method 4 — Apply other approaches.

Method 1 — Obtain Data from Previous Reports and Numerical

Models
Runoff is an important part of the water cycle and an important factor in
urban water management. USGS provides historical annual runoff estimate
for California, which is the quantity of water that is discharged as runoff
from the state in one year. Other historical publications, records, and
numerical models may include estimates of runoff in the water budget zone
of interest. Sources of information include:
• USGS Publications Warehouse.
• USGS Water Resources.
• USGS Runoff Estimates for California.

Method 2 — Calculate Direct Runoff Using the Runoff Curve Number

Method
For drainage basins where no runoff has been measured, the Runoff Curve
Number method can be used to estimate the depth of direct runoff from the
rainfall depth. Direct runoff of precipitation from small watersheds can be
estimated with the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Runoff
Curve Number method (NRCS was previously known as the Soil
Conservation Service):

Where:
• Qr is direct unit runoff in inches.
• P is precipitation (depth in inches).
• S is the potential maximum retention (inches).

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This equation allows the runoff depth to be estimated from rainfall depth,
given the value of the potential maximum retention, S. The potential
maximum retention, S, is determined using the following equation:

Where CN is the curve number.

To obtain total runoff volume (R), the direct runoff (Qr) calculated above
may be multiplied by the watershed area:

In cases where the precipitation is less than 0.2S, no runoff is assumed to

occur and initial abstractions absorb all the water, and thus Qr is zero.CN has
a range from 30 to 100, with lower numbers indicating more permeable soil
with a lower runoff potential. CN is a function of land use, land treatment,
land cover, hydrological condition, hydrologic soil group, and antecedent soil
moisture condition in the watershed. Soils are classified into hydrologic soil
groups A, B, C, or D according to the following criteria: Group A (high
infiltration rates), group B (moderate infiltration rates), group C (slow
infiltration rates), and group D (very slow infiltration rates).

The value of CN can be found for different cultivation practices, hydrological

conditions, and soil groups from various publications. Sources of information
include:
• Runoff curve numbers presentation.
• Runoff curve numbers publication.
• TR-55 method.

Figure 3-8 shows the graphical solution of runoff equation, indicating a

volume of runoff depth Qr as a function of rainfall depth P for selected values
of curve numbers. For paved areas, for example, S will be zero, CN will be
100 and all rainfall will become runoff. For highly permeable, flat-laying soil,
S will go to infinity, CN will be zero and there will be no runoff. In most
watersheds, the reality will be somewhere in between.

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Figure 3-8 Runoff Depth for Curve Numbers and Rainfall Amounts

Example: A watershed has a soil with slow infiltration rates (i.e., group C).
The land use is row crops on contoured and terraced land in a good
condition. The 24-hour, 10-year precipitation is estimated as 8 inches (from
NOAA database). From the CN tables (see any of the provided references),
the CN is 78, and therefore, the potential maximum retention is calculated
as:

Since the precipitation (8 inches) is greater than 0.2 × 2.82, or 0.564, the
SCS method can be used to obtain an estimated depth of runoff as follows:

The same results would be obtained if the above figure is used instead.

Total runoff (R) would then be calculated as:

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Method 3 — Use the Precipitation-Runoff Modeling System (PRMS)

Runoff from un-gauged watersheds contribute to a water budget zone and
quantifying the volume and timing of runoff may require a more detailed
approach than the Runoff Curve Number method. One detailed approach to
use is the USGS’s Precipitation-Runoff Modeling System (PRMS), which
simulates basin hydrology. Model documentation states that: “PRMS is a
modular-design, deterministic, distributed-parameter modeling system
developed to evaluate the impacts of various combinations of precipitation,
climate, and land use on streamflow, sediment yields, and general basin
hydrology. Basin response to normal and extreme rainfall and snowmelt can
be simulated to evaluate changes in water-balance relationships, flow
regimes, flood peaks and volumes, soil-water relationships, sediment yields,
and ground-water recharge. Parameter-optimization and sensitivity analysis
capabilities are provided to fit selected model parameters and evaluate their
individual and joint effects on model output. The modular design provides a
flexible framework for continued model-system enhancement and
hydrologic-modeling research and development.”

The approach used in PRMS states that “a watershed is divided into subunits
based on such basin characteristics as slope, aspect, elevation, vegetation
type, soil type, land use, and precipitation distribution. Two levels of
partitioning are available. The first divides the basin into hydrologic response
units (HRU) based on the basin characteristics. Water and energy balances
are computed daily for each HRU. The sum of the responses of all HRU's,
weighted on a unit-area basis, produces the daily system response and
streamflow for a basin. A second level of partitioning is available for storm
hydrograph simulation. The watershed is conceptualized as a series of
interconnected flow planes and channel segments. Surface runoff is routed
over the flow planes into the channel segments; channel flow is routed
through the watershed channel system. An HRU can be considered the
equivalent of a flow plane or it can be delineated into a number of flow
planes.”

Method 4 — Apply Other Approaches

When the previous methods cannot be utilized, average annual runoff can be
roughly estimated using maps of the average historical runoff. This type of

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approach is relatively coarse and may not be appropriate at local spatial

scales. The following are three examples of such approaches:

Example 1: The Public Policy Institute of California (PPIC) published a map

of relative runoff as a percentage of annual runoff. The map uses data from
PRISM, CIMIS, and the U.C. Davis Soil Resource Laboratory. The description
states that “the map shows the distribution of runoff — the amount of local
precipitation that flows into streams and recharges groundwater. Relative
runoff is represented as a percentage of annual runoff after adjusting
average monthly precipitation (PRISM 1970—2000) by losses to soil storage
capacity (U.C. Davis Soil Resource Laboratory, Beaudette, and O’Geen) and
average monthly reference ET (CIMIS 2000—2005, Hart).” Source: PPIC
California’s Variable Climate.

Example 2: USGS’s Basin Characterization Model calculates a monthly

water balance using potential ET as calculated from solar radiation with
topographic shading and cloudiness, snow as it accumulates and melts; and
excess water as it moves through the soil profile, which are used to calculate
actual ET and climatic water deficit—the difference between potential and
actual ET. Depending on soil properties and the permeability of underlying
bedrock, surface water can be classified for each cell as either recharge or
runoff. Post-processing calculations are made to estimate baseflow,
streamflow, and potential recharge to the groundwater system for
watersheds. Source: USGS California Basin Characterization Model.
Example 3: This method directly estimates storm water runoff. The Los
Angeles Regional Water Quality Control Board (RWQCB) has developed
requirements for the Standard Urban Stormwater Mitigation Plan (SUSMP)
requiring specific development categories to manage storm water runoff.
The RWQCB proposes using a site-specific rainfall, based on a spatially
distributed statistical rainfall distribution, and requires using the 85th
percentile 24-hour rainfall event. The volume (𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀 ) of stormwater runoff to be
mitigated from the new development is calculated using:

Where 𝐴𝐴𝐼𝐼 , 𝐴𝐴𝑃𝑃 , and 𝐴𝐴𝑈𝑈 are the impervious percentage of developed area, the
pervious percentage of developed area, and the contributing developed
upstream area, which is assumed zero here (𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒. , 𝐴𝐴𝑈𝑈 = 0); I is the rainfall
intensity; and 𝐶𝐶𝑈𝑈 is the undeveloped runoff coefficient for each of the seven

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zones. For example. assuming 5 percent of area is impervious for each zone,
𝐴𝐴𝐼𝐼 and 𝐴𝐴𝑃𝑃 can be calculated as 0.05 and 0.95, respectively.

More information is available at:

• Los Angeles County Low Impact Development Standards Manual.
• Analysis of 85th Percentile 24-hour Rainfall Depth Analysis Within the
County of Los Angeles.

3.11 RETURN FLOW

Definition: Volume of applied water that is not consumptively used and
flows to the surface water system. It includes treated wastewater discharges
to the surface water system.

Context: Two primary components of return flow (Rf) are urban wastewater
discharge and irrigation runoff to a surface water body. Urban wastewater
discharge relates to non-consumptively used indoor water uses but also
includes water for industrial processing, etc. Irrigation of landscape, crops,
and managed wetlands can result in tailwater (surface runoff) - some
recaptured for applied water reuse and the other part becoming return flow
to streams.

Related Water Budget Components: Surface Water Delivery,

Groundwater Extraction, Applied Water Reuse, Recycled Water, Applied
Water, Evapotranspiration, Recharge of Applied Water and Precipitation

How to Determine Return Flow:

• Method 1 — Obtain available return flow data.
• Method 2 — Use published reports and numerical models.
• Method 3 — Estimate return flow volumes.

Method 1 — Obtain Available Return Flow Data

Obtain return flow data (daily, monthly, etc.). Sources of information
include:
• Urban water management plans.
• Wastewater data and discharge location.
• National Pollution Discharge Elimination System permits.

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• California Water Plan Update data.

• Existing reports and studies.
• Existing groundwater models such as CVHM, C2VSim or local models.

Method 2 — Use Published Reports and Numerical Models

Collect and review published reports and existing numerical models for the
area of interest; these can be sources of estimates for return flows over an
area. If return flow data are used from an existing numerical model, then
the following should be validated:
• The numerical model is calibrated and accepted by stakeholders.
• There is documentation of both the source data and the basis of
estimate used in the numerical model.
• Any geographic scaling factor used to convert model estimates to
correspond to the water budget zone is defensible and representative
for the area.

Method 3 — Estimate Return Flow Volumes

The two primary components of return flow are irrigation runoff and urban
indoor use; each has a different approach for estimation.

Irrigation: Return flow from urban landscape, agriculture, and managed

wetlands irrigation is highly dependent on irrigation methods, practices,
water management, and soils, which commonly result in one or more of the
following:
• Transpiration by crops and vegetation (ET).
• Evaporation.
• Recharge.
• Runoff.

Estimating return flow is an iterative process using either a simplified water

balance of applied water (inflow versus outflow) or apportioning irrigation
efficiencies. The simplified water balance for applied water is:

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Where:
• AW = Applied Water.
• RU = Applied Water Reuse.
• ETAW = Evapotranspiration of Applied Water.
• Rf = Return Flow.
• Di = Recharge.

If no estimate of recharge is available, then it can be estimated by

proportioning the non-consumptive portion of irrigation efficiency as outlined
in the Crop ET Approach in Method 3 of Section 3.5.1 for use in the equation
below

Where Dif is estimated from Table 3-4 and Table 3-5.

When estimates of recharge as well as other components of simplified water

balance equation are not available, then both return flow and recharge can
be estimated using information from Table 3-4 and Table 3-5 and Section
3.5.1 for input to the following equations:

Where:
• .
• Dif = Recharge Fraction of Applied Water (from Tables 3-4 and 3-5).
• Ruf = Reuse Fraction of Applied Water (from Tables 3-4 and 3-5).

Above approach is an iterative procedure of estimating these components

and verifying the results in the total water budget.

Urban Indoor Use: This is an inclusive category accounting for domestic,

industrial, commercial, and other water uses that are non-consumptive and

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not associated with landscape irrigation (commonly referred to outdoor use).

Two different methods can be used to estimate urban indoor use:
• Option 1 - Use wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) data.
• Option 2 — Use lowest month urban water production.

Option 1 consists of using WWTP data to quantify indoor use. This method
assumes that most indoor water use is non-consumptively used and will
return as wastewater. WWTP data are commonly reported and should be
collected for the water budget zone of interest. National Pollution Discharge
Elimination Program discharge permits can help identify location of
wastewater treatment and discharge. Measured WWTP data are very useful
but may also have several limitations, such as: (1) city with combined sewer
systems conveying both stormwater and sewage, and (2) precipitation
infiltration into sewer systems during the rainy season, especially in areas
with significant precipitation and aging systems. Where a combined sewer
system or significant precipitation infiltration occurs, wastewater treatment
may be approximated by using the lowest month urban water production for
the same population served. Adjustments may be needed to remove the
effects of precipitation infiltration in the calculation of urban indoor use.

Collecting WWTP within and adjacent to the water budget zone of interest
can support estimates of indoor water use or return flow. The service area
and the resulting population served should be determined to support the
calculation of indoor per-capita water use that can then be applied to areas
without such information. Self-supplied use is often covered by septic
systems, which contribute to recharge of applied water and precipitation and
not wastewater discharge or return flow. Keeping these treatment processes
separate is essential.

The specific calculation steps include:

1. Collect monthly or annual WWTP discharge data.
2. Check data for precipitation accretion. Is it an issue? Adjust as
needed.
3. Determine population served by WWTP (data report by WWTP or
GIS query of population data).
4. Compute per-capita indoor water uses for all measured data as:

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5. Determine what areas are best represented by the calculated per-

capita urban indoor use.
6. Determine what areas are served by WWTP (return flows) and
what areas are served by septic systems (recharge of applied
water).
7. Calculate return flow from wastewater as:

In Option 2, a simplified method is used to quantify indoor water use by

utilizing the lowest month water production by an urban water purveyor.
Lowest month water production most often occurs during the winter months,
typically January or February in the Central Valley, where precipitation and
colder temperatures reduces or eliminates the need for landscape irrigation.
Exceptions to this general approach may occur in drought years, in warmer
inland areas of southern California, or when urban water use is heavily
influences by commercial and industrial users or tourists. This option
assumes that indoor water use remains relatively constant throughout the
year; however, in some areas, seasonal use may need to be factored in such
as recreational areas, food processing, etc. Careful review of the records and
local knowledge are needed to support these calculations.

The specific calculation steps include:

1. Collect monthly urban water production data and determine
lowest month water production.
2. Identify and apply any seasonal adjustments.
3. Determine population served by water production from water
purveyor or GIS query of population data.
4. Compute per-capita indoor water uses for all measured data as:

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5. Determine what areas are best represented by the estimated per-

capita indoor water use.
6. Determine what areas have wastewater discharges (return flow),
what portion of treated wastewater is recharged (managed
aquifer recharge), and what areas are served by septic systems
(recharge of applied water).
7. Calculate return flow from wastewater as:

3.12 CHANGE IN LAND SYSTEM STORAGE

Definition: Net change in the volume of water stored within the land
system, which includes ponded water on the land surface (not including
streams, lakes, and conveyance facilities) and soil moisture within the
unsaturated zone, which includes the root zone.

Context: The land system storage as presented in this handbook represents

the change in volume of water storage that occurs in three forms: (1) as
ponded water storage on the land surface (not including streams, lakes, and
conveyance facilities); (2) as soil moisture storage in the root zone; and
(3) unsaturated zone storage (Figure 3-1). Water storage on the land
surface can include managed land use practices such as flood-up and
drawdown for rice ponding, rice-straw decomposition, managed wetlands
habitat, etc. where storage may occur over one or more monthly time steps
of the water budget (e.g., daily, monthly). It also includes precipitation
detention on the land surface, which cannot readily be estimated. Similarly,
a soil moisture balance of the root zone can tract fluxes in soil moisture
storage because of precipitation, irrigation, evaporation, transpiration, and
percolation. However, storage change in the unsaturated zone is often
difficult to quantify or estimate because there are no commonly used
measurements that can indicate the status of percolation and interflow
entering and leaving the unsaturated zone. To quantify these changes, a
monthly time step analysis of change in land system storage may reveal the
effects associated with precipitation and irrigation. A simple mass balance to
determine the change in land system storage would be expressed as:

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Assessing mass balance error for the land system is unrealistic given the
lack of measured parameters. Surface ponding can be estimated through
measured water depths, area, and duration. However, both soil moisture
storage and unsaturated zone storage do not have direct measurements.
Changes in soil moisture storage are generally determined through a soil
moisture balance as computed balance of inflow less outflow, which will then
have no mass balance error. Similarly, a numerical model is needed to
estimate change in unsaturated zone storage because there are no
commonly used measurements to indicate the status and amount of
percolation and interflow entering and leaving the unsaturated zone. Without
a numerical model, a simple mass balance would be used to estimate
change in unsaturated zone storage as follows:

Related Water Budget Components: Surface Water Delivery,

Groundwater Extraction, Applied Water Reuse, Recycled Water, Precipitation,
Applied Water, Evapotranspiration, Recharge of Applied Water and
Precipitation, Return Flow, Runoff

How to Estimate Change in Land System Storage:

One or more the methods may be needed to estimate change in land system
storage and its three sub-components — (1) change in ponded storage,
(2) change in soil moisture storage, and (3) change in unsaturated storage.
• Method 1 — Use published reports and numerical models.
• Method 2 — Estimate using inflow and outflow balance.
• Method 3 — Estimate change in ponded water storage using water use
calculations.
• Method 4 — Estimate change in soil moisture storage using water use
models.

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• Method 5 — Estimate change in unsaturated zone storage as a water

balance.
• Method 6 — Estimate change in unsaturated zone storage using
numerical models.

Method 1 — Use Published Reports and Numerical Models

Collect and review published reports and existing numerical models for the
area of interest. These can be good sources of estimates for root zone soil
moisture storage and ponded water for agriculture and managed wetlands.
Numerical models such as Cal-SIMETAW and C2VSIM use a soil moisture
balance to determine root zone storage in support of estimating ET.
Furthermore, numerical models such as C2VSIM and CalSim 3 have
agricultural and managed wetlands ponding functions where model input
specifies the depth, timing, and duration of the respective ponding practices
and ponding volumes can be determined from model output. If reliable and
defensible estimates of soil moisture storage and ponded storage volumes
(monthly or annual) within the water budget zone are available, then use
those estimates.

Sources include:
• Previous reports.
• Result files of numerical models, e.g., Cal-SIMETAW, C2VSim, and
CVHM.

Method 2 — Estimate Using Inflow and Outflow Balance

The change in land system storage can be estimated through a simple
calculation using the inflow and outflow components of the land system. The
calculation is expressed as:

Where:

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Method 3 — Estimate Change in Ponded Water Storage Using Water

Use Calculations
Ponded water storage for agricultural and managed wetlands is part of
applied water. The calculations of applied water may be based on ETAW and
irrigation efficiency or specifically represented as a target depth of ponding
in a numerical model such as C2VSIM or CalSim 3. Where ETAW and
irrigation efficiency are used, agricultural water ponding depths by month
should be estimated based on local knowledge of flood-up and drawdown
pattern for rice cultivation and rice straw decomposition.

Method 4 — Estimate Change in Soil Moisture Storage Using Water

Use Models
Change in soil moisture storage can be determined using numerical models
where a soil moisture budget is calculated. Numerical models supporting the
calculation of ET and ETAW contain such an accounting, and Section 3.4
describes several such models. The analysis should have a daily or monthly
soil moisture storage for the root zone.

Method 5 — Estimate Change in Unsaturated Zone Storage as a

Water Balance
Estimating the change in unsaturated zone storage is often a difficult task
that requires the use of a numerical model and the estimation of
unsaturated zone properties. If conducting such an analysis is not feasible,
then a simple water balance can be used to make the initial estimates of
change in unsaturated zone storage. For example, if ponded water storage
analysis and root zone soil moisture storage balances have been computed,
then the unsaturated zone storage can be computed as:

Method 6 —Estimate Change in Unsaturated Zone Storage Using

Numerical Models
Unsaturated zone numerical models can be used to estimate the change in
unsaturated zone storage for a specified time step. It is beyond the scope of

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this handbook to list a particular model and the dataset needed for such a
model. The UC Davis’ Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources
maintains a website containing useful links to unsaturated (Vadose) zone
modeling software and soil surveys, databases, and software to estimate
unsaturated zone properties.

130 | Section 3. Land System

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4. SURFACE WATER SYSTEM

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Handbook for Water Budget Development

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The total water budget captures the entire hydrologic cycle of water flow,
and the surface water system is an integral part of it. The components of
surface water system water budget are shown in Figure 4-1, which is a
subset of Figure 1-1. The color coding of Figure 1-1 was not carried over to
Figure 4-1 to avoid confusion as the designation of inflows and outflows are
different in a single system compared to the total water budget. The
definition of the surface water system and surface water system water
budget is presented in Section 1.3. The definitions of the associated
components are provided in Table 1-1.

The purpose of this section is to describe how to develop reasonable

estimates for these water budget components without a model. The methods
described in this section can also be used when an available model only
provides information for a partial set of surface water system water budget
components. When a model is available that provides information for all
components of the surface water system, the user should refer to
Section 2.8, “Modeling Approach.” Many of the methods described in this
section involve a mass balance approach, which should be used with caution.
While a mass balance approach is appropriate for estimating an individual
component, there are inherent dependencies of one component with other
components of the mass balance equation. Therefore, it would be
inappropriate to use the mass balance approach for more than one term in
the mass balance equation. The mass balance approach in the surface water
system is also not suitable at the daily time scale because of potential
changes in stream storage that may need to be considered. For longer time
scales, the change in stream storage can be assumed to be negligible and
therefore ignored in the mass balance.

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Figure 4-1 Components of Surface Water System and Its Interaction

with Other Systems

Descriptions of inflow and outflow components in the surface water system

along with methods for estimating each component are furnished below.
Because of the interdependencies between the systems, several of the
components of the surface water system are described in other sections:
precipitation (on lakes), runoff, and return flow are described in Section 3,
“Land System;” stream-aquifer interaction is described in Section 5,
“Groundwater System.”

4.2 STREAM INFLOW AND OUTFLOW

Definition: Stream inflow is the volume of water entering through streams
at the periphery of a water budget zone. Stream outflow is the converse of
the stream inflow and represents the volume of water leaving through
streams at the periphery of a water budget zone.

Context: A water budget zone having surface water supplies may include a
network of streams entering and leaving the water budget zone at one or
more points along its periphery. Water may be diverted from these streams
for agricultural, urban, and managed wetlands uses within or outside the
water budget zone. The difference between stream inflows and outflows is a
key indicator of the net gain or loss in the surface water system within the
water budget zone.

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Stream inflows and outflows from individual streams can be measured or

estimated in one of three ways: (1) measured by a stream gauge at the
periphery of the water budget zone where streams enter or leave the water
budget zone, (2) estimated by adjusting data from upstream or downstream
streamflow gauges, and 3) calculated using computational methods such as
the drainage area ration method or a rainfall-runoff model for the upstream
watershed.

Related Water Budget Components: Precipitation, Runoff, Return Flow,

Surface Water Diversions, Groundwater loss to Stream, Groundwater gain
from Stream, Stream-Lake Interaction

How to Determine Stream Inflow or Outflow:

First, identify all streams entering and leaving the water budget zone. Next,
identify gauge locations within or adjacent to the water budget zone where
streamflow data are recorded. Federal, State, and local agencies maintain
streamflow gauges in the United States, and a search in their databases can
furnish information on gauge locations, period of record, and time intervals
of available data.

For each stream and river that enters or leaves the water budget zone,
develop streamflow data for all years of interest using one of the following
methods:
• Method 1 — Obtain available streamflow data.
• Method 2 — Estimate from available streamflow data.
• Method 3 — Estimate streamflow using drainage area ratio method.
• Method 4 — Estimate streamflow using rainfall-runoff model.

Method 1 — Obtain Available Streamflow Data

Streamflow and stages at many stations along streams are regularly
monitored by the USGS. In addition, DWR publishes streamflow and stage
data for various locations in the state through California Data Exchange
Center and Water Data Library websites. There are other State and local
agencies that maintain and publish streamflow records as well. These data
are available for different time periods and at different temporal scales
(15 minute, hourly, daily, and monthly). Data from multiple sources may

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need to be obtained for developing the water budget for the surface water
system. The steps for obtaining streamflow data include the following:
1. Identify the streams entering and leaving the water budget zone.
2. Obtain streamflow data from existing federal, State, and local
agencies.

Streamflow data for streams can also be obtained from published reports, in
addition to those from online databases.

If there is a numerical hydrologic model covering the water budget zone,

measured or estimated streamflow data may be available from the model
input/output files. If streamflow data from an existing numerical model are
used, then the following should be validated:
• There is documentation of both the source data and the basis of
estimated flow.
• The numerical model is calibrated and accepted by stakeholders.

Key sources of streamflow data in California are:

• USGS Surface-Water Data for California.
• USGS publications: Water-Resources Investigations Reports, Scientific
Investigations Reports.
• DWR California Data Exchange Center (CDEC).
• DWR Water Data Library.
• Local agency records, including flood control districts or entities
managing storm water.
• State Water Board’s Irrigated Lands Regulatory Program.
• Previous hydrologic and hydraulic investigation reports.
• Input/output files of numerical models (e.g., rainfall-runoff model).
• California Nevada River Forecast Center.

Method 2 — Estimate from Available Streamflow Data

Use this method if data are available from a streamflow gauge or other
source that is located upstream (or downstream) of the location where the

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stream enters (or leaves) the water budget zone. The process of adjusting
streamflow data for the boundary location involves the following steps:
1. Identify a nearby location where streamflow data are available.
2. Obtain measured streamflow flow (at location, G).
3. Calculate net gain/loss in the stream reach between the
measured flow location (G) and point of interest location (L)
using the equation below. Each of the above components can be
estimated using the methods described in Section 3, “Land
System,” and Section 4, “Surface Water System.”

4. Calculate the adjusted streamflow at the location of interest using

a mass balance approach as follows:

Method 3 — Estimate Streamflow Using Drainage Area Ratio Method

When stream inflows enter the water budget zone from unimpaired
watersheds, the drainage-area ratio method can be used to estimate
streamflows. The method assumes that streamflows at a location of interest
can be approximated from gauged streamflow data at a nearby location by
using the ratio of drainage areas as shown by the equation below.

Where:
• Yij is the estimated streamflow (cubic feet per second) for month i and
year j at the location of interest.
• Ay is the drainage area (square miles) of the location of interest.

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• Ax is the drainage area (square miles) of the streamflow gaging station

where measured data is available.
• Xij is the measured streamflow (cubic feet per second) for month i and
year j for the streamflow gaging station.

Drainage areas can be estimated using watershed boundary datasets from

the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. Corresponding gauged
streamflows can be obtained from USGS or DWR gauges.

Method 4 — Estimate Streamflow Using a Rainfall-Runoff Model

Stream inflow from an unimpaired watershed can be estimated using a
rainfall-runoff model. There are numerous rainfall-runoff models including:
• USGS’s Precipitation-Runoff Modeling System (PRMS).
• Water Resource Associates’ HYSIM.
• Vieux & Associates’ Vflo.
• USGS’s DR3M.
• University of Washington’s Variable Infiltration Capacity Model (VIC).

The Precipitation-Runoff Modeling System (PRMS) developed by USGS is a

commonly used rainfall-runoff model. It evaluates the impacts of various
combinations of precipitation, climate, and land use on streamflow and other
basin hydrology using a modular-design, deterministic, distributed-
parameter modeling system. Data requirements and potential sources of
data for this model are provided in Table 4-1.

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Table 4-1 Data Requirements and Sources for PRMS

Data Requirements Potential Sources of Data
• Daily precipitation
• California Data Exchange Center
• Daily maximum and minimum air (CDEC)
temperature (or substitute daily pan
evaporation in areas without snow melt) • California Irrigation Management
Information System (CIMIS)
• Daily short-wave solar radiation (for
snowmelt computation)
• USDA Soil Survey Geographic
Database (SSURGO)
Descriptive data of topography, soils, and
vegetation • USDA State Soil Geographic
Dataset (STATSGO)

The process for estimating streamflow from PRMS involves the following
steps:
1. Download Model: The most recent version of PRMS is available
from the USGS website.
2. Input Control File parameters: The Control File contains all of
the control parameters that PRMS uses during the simulation,
including those related to model input, output, initial conditions,
and active modules.
3. Input Time-series Data into the Data File: Daily precipitation
and maximum and minimum air temperatures are required; solar
radiation, pan evaporation, measured streamflow, humidity, wind
speed, and snowpack-water equivalent may also be included.

The example, shown in Figure 4-2, was processed using TextPad. Each row
has an associated column with data of interest (26 columns with maximum
temperature data, 26 columns with minimum temperature data, 26 columns
with precipitation data, and 1 column with runoff data). The first six rows of
the time series data are the year, month, day, hour, minute, and second,
respectively.

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Figure 4-2 Example of a PRMS Input

4. Input the Parameter File: Use values of the parameters

specified for each of the 39 modules. Each module either defines
a set of parameter/variables or simulates a process. For example,
the “basin” module defines watershed-wide parameters and
variables. The “soilzone” module computes inflows and outflows
from the soil zone from various sources.

For example, one parameter of air temperature and precipitation

distribution is latitude of air-temperature measurement stations
(“tsta_y”). The data are added into the .param file shown in
Figure 4-3.

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Figure 4-3 Example of a PRMS Parameter File (.param)

5. Analyze the Model’s Output: The Water-Budget File includes a

listing of measured and simulated flow, as well as other fluxes in
the watershed.

4.3 SURFACE WATER DIVERSION

Definition: Volume of water taken from the surface water system within a
water budget zone for use within the zone.

Context: Water is diverted from streams and conveyance facilities and

delivered to the place of use through canals and pipes. Sources could include
stream flow and storage releases with different types of diversions including
appropriative and riparian water rights, contracts, and adjudications.
Diversions are generally measured by federal or State agencies and local
purveyors or water users, but specific distributions and allocations are the
responsibilities of the local water purveyors or distributors to maintain.

In the context of the water budget for a water budget zone, surface water
diversion only includes that portion of diverted surface water which
originates from a stream or conveyance facilities inside the water budget
zone and also is used inside the water budget zone. The portion of diverted
water that originates outside of the water budget zone but is used inside the
water budget zone is treated separately as Imported Water; the portion of
diverted water that originates inside the water budget zone but is used
outside of the water budget zone is also treated separately as Surface Water
Export (see Section 4.7). Sometimes water can be rediverted from irrigation
ditches for reuse in an agricultural field; this volume of water is not included

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in surface water diversion as defined above; rather, it is separately

accounted for as Applied Water Reuse (see Section 3.8).

Where diversion data are not readily available, estimates can be made using
the volume of applied water and the knowledge of i) whether lands fully or
partially use surface water and ii) estimates of conveyance evaporation and
seepage.

Related Water Budget Components: Applied Water, Conveyance

Evaporation, Conveyance Seepage, Imported Water, Surface Water Export

How to Determine Surface Water Diversions:

First identify all land use areas that are served by surface water, and then
identify the source of water (i.e., stream diversion) for each land use area.
For each stream diversion, estimate the volume of surface water using one
or both of the following methods:
• Method 1 — Obtain surface water diversion measurements or existing
estimates.
• Method 2 — Estimate unavailable surface water diversions data.

Method 1 — Obtain Surface Water Diversion Measurements or

Existing Estimates
Surface water diversion data are available from online databases maintained
by federal, State, and local agencies. These data are available for different
time periods and at different temporal scales (15 minute, hourly, daily, and
monthly). Data from multiple sources may be needed to develop a complete
set of diversion data.
The process for obtaining available surface water diversion data involves the
following steps:
1. Identify the surface water diversion locations in the water budget
zone.
2. Obtain surface water diversion data from existing federal, State,
local agency data sources.

In addition to the online databases, there are also published reports (such as
a water master reports) where surface water diversion data can be obtained.

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If there is a numerical hydrologic model covering the water budget zone,

measured or estimated surface water diversion data may be available in the
model input/output files. If diversion data from an existing numerical model
are used, then the following should be validated:
• There is documentation of both the source data and the basis of
estimating the diversion, if any.
• The numerical model is calibrated and accepted by stakeholders.

Key sources of surface water diversion data in California include:

• Local agency records, including flood control districts or entities
managing stormwater.
• State Water Project - Bulletin 132.
• Reclamation’s Central Valley Operations (including Central Valley
Project).
• Surface Water Diversions and Delivery Reports from Other Local and
Regional Water Projects.
• State Water Board’s water rights information: eWRIMS.
• USGS Surface-Water Data for California.
• CALSIM 3 Model.
• C2VSim and CVHM input files for surface water diversions in the
Central Valley.

Method 2 — Estimate Unavailable Surface Water Diversion Data

Where data are not readily available from existing sources, surface water
diversions may be estimated from applied water and conveyance losses if
groundwater extraction volume is known or can be estimated. Conveyance
losses typically represent the additional amount of water needed to convey
the water from the point of diversion to the farm or managed wetlands
headgate or to the municipal (urban) water intake.

The process for estimating unavailable surface water diversion data involves
the following steps:
1. Calculate agricultural applied water (Section 3.5.1).
2. Calculate urban applied water (Section 3.5.2).

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3. Calculate managed wetlands applied water (Section 3.5.3).

4. Determine conveyance losses (evaporation and seepage) per
Sections 4.5 and 4.6 or approximate it as the fraction of the
surface water diversion volume, which is referred to as the
conveyance loss fraction (CLF), as follows:

Where CEF is the fraction of surface water diversions attributed to

conveyance evaporation, and CSF is the fraction of surface water
diversions attributed to conveyance seepage. The California
Water Plan estimates of conveyance loss are available by DAUCO
(Section 9.9).

Example: Conveyance evaporation is estimated as 1 percent of

the surface water diversion, and conveyance seepage is
estimated as 5 percent of the surface water diversion. As a result,
CLF is 6 percent.

5. Estimate operational spills, if applicable. Some conveyance

facilities may include operational spills that leave the system.
Request information from facility operators or local water
districts. In cases where data are not available, estimate the
operational spill as a fraction of applied water. Whether measured
or estimated, include the operation spill in Return Flow.
6. Estimate surface water diversion (SWdiv), if groundwater
extraction volume (GWext) is known or can be estimated, as:

Where:
• AWdiv is the portion of the applied water met by surface water
diversions and can be estimated as:

7. Perform a “reality check” with existing information, if available. If

local knowledge exists about surface water diversions, compare

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the estimate from Step 6 with existing information. Assess and

reconcile discrepancies, as applicable.

4.4 STREAM EVAPORATION

Definition: Volume of water evaporated into the atmosphere from streams.

Context: As water flows through streams, some water is lost to evaporation

(Es). Stream evaporation is considered a net loss from the water budget
zone to the atmosphere and cannot be recovered. It is not measured
directly. Evaporation rates can be computed as a function of solar radiation,
atmospheric pressure, vapor pressure profile above the stream,
temperature, wind, and water quality. Computational methods for open-
water evaporation include aerodynamic mass transfer, energy balance
Bowen ratio, Priestley-Taylor available energy, various energy-mass transfer
methods based on Penman, etc. (Maidment 1993)

Methods to compute evaporation from shallow water bodies differ from

methods for deep water bodies. For this handbook, streams are assumed to
be “shallow water bodies” if they are less than about 4 meters (13 feet)
deep. Deeper water bodies having high turbidity can also be assumed to
behave like “shallow water bodies” (Hill, R.W. et al, 2011 after Allen and
Robison, 2007). Methods for estimating evaporation from “deep water
bodies” are furnished in Section 4.9, “Lake Evaporation.”

Related Water Budget Components: Surface Water Delivery, Surface

Water Diversion, Conveyance Evaporation, Lake Evaporation, Imported
Water, Stream-Aquifer Interaction

How to Determine Stream Evaporation:

• Method 1 — Obtain stream evaporation data from existing sources.
• Method 2 — Estimate stream evaporation by using a mass balance.
• Method 3 — Estimate stream evaporation from shallow water bodies
using ET rates.
• Method 4 — Estimate stream evaporation using Mass Transfer
equations.

Method 1 — Obtain Stream Evaporation Data from Existing Sources

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Measurements, estimates, and records from local agencies may be the best
source of knowledge of the evaporative losses occurring in the streams
within a water budget zone based on the estimates of evaporative losses in
their canal systems. Stream evaporation data may also be available from
online databases maintained by federal, State, and local agencies. These
data are available for different time periods and at different temporal scales
(15 minute, hourly, daily, and monthly).

The process for obtaining available stream evaporation data involves the
following steps:
1. Identify the streams in the water budget zone.
2. Obtain information from local agencies on evaporative losses
from open channels that can be used to develop preliminary
estimates of evaporative losses from streams based on length,
width, and flow rates within the stream.
3. Obtain stream evaporation data from existing federal, State, and
local agency data sources.

In addition to online databases, there are also published reports (such as a

water master reports) where stream evaporation data may be found.

If there is a numerical hydrologic model covering the water budget zone,

estimated stream evaporation information may be available in the model
input/output files. Stream evaporation in a model is likely incorporated as a
factor rather than an independently calculated volume. If stream
evaporation data from an existing numerical model are used, then the
following should be validated:
• There is documentation of both the source data and the basis of
estimating the stream evaporation, if any.
• The numerical model is calibrated and accepted by stakeholders.

Method 2 — Estimate Stream Evaporation by Using a Mass Balance

Perform a mass balance on the stream using available flows at the desired
time step over the period of interest. Similar to the mass balance approach
used for determining stream outflows, evaporation can be estimated if all
other components in the surface water system are known. If any of the

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other components are unknown, the mass balance approach will not work;
then use Method 3.

The process for estimating stream evaporation by using a mass balance

involves the following steps:
1. Obtain stream inflows and outflows, surface water diversions, and
runoff and return flows, stream-aquifer interactions, and stream-
lake interactions.
2. Apply the following mass balance calculation to determine stream
evaporation for the period of interest at the desired time
increment (e.g., monthly):

3. Perform “reality check” against existing information, if available.

If local knowledge exists about total evaporative losses in a
stream, compare the estimate above to existing information.
Assess and reconcile discrepancies, as applicable.

Method 3 — Estimate Stream Evaporation from Shallow Water Bodies

Using ET Rates
Open water evaporation for shallow water bodies can be estimated by
multiplying water surface area by a unit ET rate for “shallow, open water.”
The unit evapotranspiration rates can be compiled using the following
options:
• Option 1 — Obtain DWR estimates of statewide regional unit ET rates.
• Option 2 — Compute from reference ET using either CIMIS station
data or Spatial CIMIS and a representative crop coefficient for shallow,
open water.
• Option 3 — Obtain ET data from alternative sources.

The process for estimating stream evaporation by using unit

evapotranspiration rate involves the following steps:

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1. Obtain or calculate monthly unit evapotranspiration for “shallow

open water” (ETc, shallow, open water) from DWR.
A. Option 1 - Locate the DAUCO most representative of the water
budget zone (DAUCO boundary map). If the water budget zone
overlies more than one DAUCO, it may make sense to perform
a weighting of unit ET rates based on the proportion of the
water budget zone in each DAUCO. Download monthly unit ET
rates for “shallow, open water” for the DAUCO of interest.
These unit ET rates are output from the Cal-SIMETAW model
and computed according to the process outlined for Option 2.
Monthly unit ET rates have been averaged for each DAUCO, the
smallest area that DWR uses for planning purposes.
B. Option 2 - Obtain reference ET (ETo) from CIMIS or Spatial
CIMIS. CIMIS allows obtaining ET data at two spatial
resolutions, either i) individual CIMIS stations or ii) gridded
data. Methods for obtaining these data are provided in Section
9, “Data Resources Directory.” Compute shallow, open water
ET as follows:

Where Kc,shallow,open water is the crop coefficient for shallow, open

water, and Kc,shallow,open water = 1.1

2. Compute the surface area of stream (As) as shown below. The

stream width will vary with the amount of flowing water in the
stream channel; therefore, use a width that represents average
flow conditions if more detailed information is not available.

3. Compute Stream Evaporation (Ec) as:

Method 4 — Estimate Stream Evaporation Using Mass Transfer

Equations
The evaporation rate of streams can be estimated by using mass transfer
equations. The evaporation rate is proportional to the vapor pressure deficit
and wind speed, according to the following equation:

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Handbook for Water Budget Development

Where:
• E=evaporation rate (mm/hr)
• es*=saturation vapor pressure (kPa)
• ea=vapor pressure of the above air (kPa)
• ψ=wind function (mm/day/kPa)

Calculate stream evaporation as follows based on methodology from

Chapter 3 of FAO 56:
1. Identify the stream location and investigate the availability of
nearby reports. Two common resources include CIMIS and CDEC.
2. Calculate the saturation vapor pressure (𝒆𝒆∗𝒔𝒔 ) from the
maximum and minimum temperature.

Where T is the temperature in Celsius and the saturated vapor

pressure (𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠∗ ) is in kPa. The temperature can be obtained directly
from vailable reports.

3. Determine the actual vapor pressure (𝒆𝒆𝒂𝒂 ). The vapor pressure

can be:
A. Obtained directly from available CIMIS station reports (“Vap
Pres (mBars)”).
B. Calculated from the dew point temperature (𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ).

C. Calculated from relative humidity (𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) and maximum and

minimum temperature. Relative humidity can be obtained from
CIMIS, CDEC, and weather data sources.

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4. Determine the wind function (𝝍𝝍) from the wind speed and river
width. The wind speed can be obtained directly from the CIMIS,
CDEC, and weather data sources. The wind function has not been
calibrated for all streams, but the list of known wind functions
(mm / (day kPa)) are tabulated in Table 4-2 and should match
the river of interest based on (i) stream width and (ii) description
of water body as closely as possible.
Table 4-2 Stream Width and Wind Function Relationships
Stream Wind Function Description of
Width Location Source
(m) (mm / (day kPa)) Water Body
0.2 to Evaporation, Various McJannet et al.
5129 pans, streams, (2012)
lakes
0.8 to Streams in Exe Basin, UK Webb and
11.3 moorland, Zhang (1997)
grassland and
woodland
4.3 Concrete channel Browns Ferry Fulford and
Nuclear Plant, Sturm (1984)
AL, USA
3.7 Aqueduct San Diego Jobson (1980)
Aqueduct, CA,
USA
80 Stream in Little Maheu et al.
forested Southwest (2014)
catchment Miramichi
River, NB,
Canada
8 Stream in Catamaran Maheu et al.
forested Brook, NB, (2014)
catchment Canada
9 Stream in open John Day Benner (1999)
meadows River, OR,
USA
1.5 Stream in Griffith Creek, Guenther et al.
harvested forest BC, Canada (2012)
catchment

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Table Notes: m = meters, mm = millimeters, kPa = kilopascals

Mass transfer equations for streams and lakes of various sizes and environments u2m
is the wind speed measured at a 2-meter height (meter per second) and L is the
channel average width (meter).

5. Calculate the evaporation rate (E) from calculated values from

previous steps.

4.5 CONVEYANCE EVAPORATION

Definition: Volume of water evaporated into the atmosphere from
conveyance facilities, other than streams, during water delivery.

Context: As water flows through open channels, some water is lost to

conveyance evaporation (Ec) and to conveyance seepage (Dc). Together,
evaporation and seepage account for total conveyance losses in canals. For
the purposes of water budget estimation in a water budget zone,
evaporation of surface water from the stream system to the atmosphere is
separately accounted for as stream evaporation (see Section 4.4).
Conveyance evaporation represents a net loss from the water budget zone
to the atmosphere that cannot be recovered.

In a water budget, it is important to separate evaporation losses from

conveyance losses because evaporation is a net loss from the water budget
zone to the atmosphere and cannot be recovered while seepage, although a
loss from conveyance facilities, it can be a net gain to the groundwater
system or surface water system. Depending on the method selected,
evaporation may be estimated first and then used to calculate or estimate
seepage through a mass balance, or vice versa.

Evaporation is not measured directly. Evaporation rates can be computed as

a function of solar radiation, atmospheric pressure, vapor pressure profile
above conveyance facilities, temperature, wind, and water quality.
Computational methods for open-water evaporation include aerodynamic
mass transfer, energy balance Bowen ratio, Priestley-Taylor available
energy, various energy-mass transfer methods based on Penman, etc.
(Maidment, 1993).

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Methods to compute evaporation from shallow water bodies differ from

methods for deep water bodies. For this handbook, canals are assumed to
be “shallow water bodies” if they are less than about 4 meters (13 feet)
deep. Deeper water bodies having high turbidity can also be assumed to
behave like “shallow water bodies” (Hill, R.W. et al, 2011 after Allen and
Robison, 2007). Methods for estimating evaporation from “deep water
bodies” are furnished in Section 4.9, “Lake Evaporation.” Local knowledge is
useful to verify estimates of conveyance losses.

Related Water Budget Components: Surface Water Delivery, Surface

Water Diversion, Conveyance Seepage, Imported Water, Lake Evaporation

How to Determine Conveyance Evaporation:

• Method 1 — Obtain conveyance evaporation data from existing
sources.
• Method 2 — Estimate conveyance evaporation by using a mass
balance, if seepage has been estimated and conveyance flows are
available.
• Method 3 — Estimate conveyance evaporation from shallow water
bodies using ET rates.

Method 1 — Obtain Conveyance Evaporation Data from Existing

Sources
Conveyance evaporation data may be available from online databases
maintained by federal, State, and local agencies. These data are available
for different time periods and at different temporal scales (15 minute,
hourly, daily, and monthly). Data from multiple sources may be needed to
develop a complete set of evaporation data.

The process for obtaining available conveyance evaporation data involves

the following steps:
1. Identify the conveyance infrastructure in the water budget zone.
2. Obtain conveyance evaporation data from existing federal, State,
and local agency data sources.

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In addition to the online databases, there are also published reports (such as
a water master reports) where conveyance evaporation data can be
obtained.

If there is a numerical hydrologic model covering the water budget zone,

estimated conveyance evaporation information may be available in the
model input/output files. If conveyance evaporation data from an existing
numerical model are used, then the following should be validated:
• There is documentation of both the source data and the basis of
estimating the conveyance evaporation, if any.
• The numerical model is calibrated and accepted by stakeholders.

Key sources of conveyance evaporation data in California include:

• California Water Plan.
• Local reports.
• C2VSim and CVHM input files for surface water deliveries in the
Central Valley.

Method 2 — Estimate Conveyance Evaporation by Using a Mass

Balance
Perform a mass balance on the conveyance facilities using available
conveyance flow and seepage data at the desired time step over the period
of interest. If an estimate for conveyance seepage is not available, the mass
balance approach will not work; then use Method 3.

The process for estimating conveyance evaporation by using a mass balance

involves the following steps:
1. Obtain surface water delivery, surface water diversion, and
imported water estimates for the conveyance facility. Methods for
estimating these components are included in Section 3.6,
“Surface Water Delivery;” Section 4.3, “Surface Water Diversion;”
and Section 4.7, “Imported Water and Surface Water Export.”
2. Estimate conveyance seepage based on methods described in
Section 4.6, “Conveyance Seepage.”
3. Estimate Operational Spills, if applicable. Request information
from conveyance facility owners or operators, and local water

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districts for operational spills data. If no data are available, then

estimate the operational spill as a fraction of applied water.
Whether measured or estimated, include the operation spill in
return flow.
4. Apply the following mass balance calculation to determine
conveyance evaporation (Ec) for the period of interest at the
desired time increment (e.g., monthly):

5. Perform “reality check” against existing information, if available.

If local knowledge exists about total conveyance losses in the
conveyance facility, compare the estimate from Step 4 above to
existing information. Assess and reconcile discrepancies, as
applicable.

Alternative Rough Approximation Technique (for small, unlined

ditches only): If the conveyance network consists of a small, unlined ditch
network with minimal data, a rough approximation technique used for the
California Water Plan is to assume conveyance evaporation as one percent of
the total inflows:

Where CEF is the Conveyance Evaporation Factor. It can be approximated as

1 percent of supply or another fraction based on local knowledge.

Method 3 — Estimate Conveyance Evaporation from Shallow Water

Bodies Using ET Rates
Open water evaporation for shallow water bodies can be estimated by
multiplying water surface area by a unit ET rate for “shallow, open water.”
The unit ET rates can be compiled using the following options:
• Option 1 — Obtain DWR estimates of statewide regional unit ET rates.

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Handbook for Water Budget Development

• Option 2 — Compute from reference ET using either CIMIS station

data or Spatial CIMIS and a representative crop coefficient for shallow,
open water.
• Option 3 — Obtain ET data from alternative sources.

The process for estimating conveyance evaporation by using unit

evapotranspiration rate involves the following steps:
1. Obtain or calculate monthly unit evapotranspiration for “shallow
open water” (ETc, shallow, open water), from DWR.
A. Option 1 — Locate the DAUCO most representative of the water
budget zone (DAUCO boundary map). If the water budget zone
overlies more than one DAUCO, it may make sense to perform
a weighting of unit ET rates based on the proportion of the
water budget zone in each DAUCO. Download monthly unit ET
rates for for “shallow, open water” for the DAUCO of interest.
These unit ET rates are output from the Cal-SIMETAW model
and computed according to the process outlined for Option 2.
Monthly unit ET rates have been averaged for each DAUCO, the
smallest area that DWR uses for planning purposes.
B. Option 2 — Obtain reference ET (ETo) from CIMIS or Spatial
CIMIS. CIMIS allows obtaining ET data at two spatial
resolutions, either (i) individual CIMIS stations or (ii) gridded
data. Methods for obtaining these data are provided in Section
9, “Data Resources Directory.” Compute shallow, open water
ET as follows:

Where Kc,shallow,open water is the crop coefficient for shallow, open

water, and Kc,shallow,open water = 1.1

2. Compute the surface area of canal (Ac) as shown below. The

canal width will vary with the amount of flowing water in the
conveyance channel; therefore, use a width that represents
average flow conditions if more detailed information is not
available.

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3. Compute Conveyance Evaporation (Ec) as:

4.6 CONVEYANCE SEEPAGE

Definition: Volume of water recharged to the groundwater system from the
conveyance facilities, other than streams, during water delivery.

Context: As water flows through open channels (streams and canals), some
water is lost to conveyance evaporation (Ec) and to conveyance seepage
(Dc). Together, evaporation and seepage account for total conveyance losses
from open channels. For the purposes of water budget estimation in a water
budget zone, percolation of surface water from the stream system to the
groundwater system is separately accounted for as stream-groundwater
interaction (see Section 5.4).

In a water budget, it is important to separate evaporation losses from

conveyance losses because evaporation is a net loss from the water budget
zone to the atmosphere and cannot be recovered while seepage, although a
loss from the conveyance facility, is a net gain to the groundwater system.
Depending on the method selected, evaporation may be estimated first and
then used to calculate or estimate seepage through a mass balance, or vice
versa.

Conveyance seepage is the predominant portion of conveyance losses in

open channels. Seepage is water that percolates into the subsurface through
the bed and walls of open water channels, and thus represents a loss from
the surface water system and a gain for the groundwater system.
Conveyance seepage does not necessarily always make it past the
unsaturated zone and reach the aquifer. Instead, it could remain in the soil
and serve to meet vegetation demand. However, this volume is addressed
via groundwater uptake and for accounting purposes can be counted
towards the aquifer storage. Although not directly measured, seepage can
be (1) obtained from published sources of information (Method 1),
(2) calculated using either a mass balance approach (Method 2), or
(3) estimated using seepage rates based on the hydraulic conductivity of the
conveyance facility (Method 3).

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Conveyance seepage can be expressed as a rate (percent of flow per mile).

Larger conveyance facilities, in general, lose less water as a percent of flow
per mile than smaller ones.

Related Water Budget Components: Surface Water Delivery, Surface

Water Diversion, Conveyance Evaporation, Imported Water

How to Determine Conveyance Seepage:

• Method 1 — Obtain conveyance seepage data from existing sources.
• Method 2 — Estimate conveyance seepage by using a mass balance.
• Method 3 — Estimate conveyance seepage based on canal
characteristics.

Method 1 — Obtain Conveyance Seepage Data from Existing Sources

Conveyance seepage estimates may be available from online databases
maintained by federal, State, and local agencies. These data are available
for different time periods and at different temporal scales (15 minute,
hourly, daily, and monthly). Data from multiple sources may be needed to
develop a complete set of conveyance seepage data.

The process for obtaining available conveyance seepage data involves the
following steps:
1. Identify the conveyance infrastructure in the water budget zone.
2. Obtain conveyance seepage data from existing federal, State, and
local agency public data sources.

In addition to the online databases, there may be published reports (such as

a water master reports) where conveyance seepage data can be obtained.

If there is a numerical hydrologic model covering the water budget zone,

estimated conveyance seepage information may be available in the model
input/output files. If conveyance seepage data from an existing numerical
model are used, then the following should be validated:
• There is documentation of both the source data and the basis of
estimating the conveyance seepage, if any.
• The numerical model is calibrated and accepted by stakeholders.

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Key sources of conveyance seepage data in California include:

• California Water Plan.
• Local reports.
• C2VSim and CVHM input files for surface water deliveries in the
Central Valley.

Method 2 — Estimate Conveyance Seepage Using a Mass Balance

Perform a mass balance on the conveyance facilities using conveyance flow
and evaporation at the desired time step over the period of interest. If an
estimate for conveyance evaporation is not available, the mass balance
approach will not work; then use Method 3.

The process for estimating conveyance seepage using a mass balance

involves the following steps:
1. Obtain surface water delivery, surface water diversion, and
imported water estimates for the conveyance facility. Methods for
estimating these components are included in Section 3.6,
“Surface Water Delivery;” Section 4.3, “Surface Water Diversion;”
and Section 4.7, “Imported Water and Surface Water Export.”
2. Estimate conveyance evaporation based on methods described in
Section 4.5, “Conveyance Evaporation.”
3. Estimate operational spills, if applicable. Some conveyance
facilities may include operational spills that leave the system.
Request information from facility owners or operators and local
water districts. If no data are available data, estimate the
operational spill as a fraction of applied water. Whether measured
or estimated, include the operation spill in return flow.
4. Apply the following mass balance calculation to determine
conveyance seepage (Dc) for the period of interest at the desired
time increment (e.g., monthly):

5. Perform “reality check” against existing information, if available.

If local knowledge exists about total conveyance losses in the

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conveyance facility, compare the estimate from Step 4 to existing

information. Assess and reconcile discrepancies, as applicable.

Method 3 — Estimate Conveyance Seepage based on Canal

Characteristics
Conveyance seepage can be estimated based on the lining of canals, soil
characteristics, wetted perimeter, length of canal, and hydraulic conductivity
of canal bed. The process for estimating conveyance seepage rate based on
conveyance facility characteristics involves the following steps:
1. Explore the availability of aquifer parameter data from local
models, if available, or regional groundwater models such as
C2VSim or CVHM. Estimate hydraulic conductivity using
information on soil and aquifer properties as well as well
construction data or aquifer test data.
2. Compute wetted perimeter of the canals. The wetted perimeter is
the portion of the canal cross section that is “wet,” and thus,
varies with the amount of flowing water in the channel. Use a
wetted perimeter that represents average flow conditions if more
detailed information is not available.
3. Measure the length of the conveyance facility.
4. Compute Conveyance Seepage (Dc) using the following equation:

The seepage factor is a dimensionless parameter that is a function of the

channel geometry. Figure 4-4 shows the variation in seepage factor FS, with
the ratio of water depth/bed width for different side slope m.

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Figure 4-4 Seepage Factor vs Channel Geometry

Source: Figure taken from the article “Design and analysis of a canal section for
minimum water loss,” in the December 2011 issue of the Alexandria Engineering
Journal

4.7 IMPORTED WATER AND SURFACE WATER EXPORT

Definition: Imported water is the “volume of water brought from outside
the water budget zone for use within the water budget zone, such as State
Water Project (SWP) water, Central Valley Project (CVP) water, water
produced from desalination of ocean water, and water produced from
desalination of deep groundwater from below the base of freshwater.”
Conversely, surface water exports refer to the “volume of water diverted
from the surface water system within a water budget zone for use outside
the zone.”

Context: Imported water (Iw) can include one or more sources of water
being diverted from stream or conveyance facilities (including groundwater)
originating outside of the water budget zone and are generally measured
and known by the local agencies. Water deliveries from SWP and CVP are
considered imported water into a water budget zone. If water is simply
purchased and the specific source is unknown, the agency from which the
water is purchased should have these records. General deliveries to a region

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or water budget zone may be reported by federal or State agencies, but

specific distributions and allocations are the responsibilities of local agencies
or distributors to maintain. Direct measures or estimates of those
distributions should be available or could be calculated. Imported water
includes water transfers, both surface water and groundwater, originating
outside of the water budget zone.

Surface water export (SWx) in the Water Budget Handbook is a concept tied
to the delineation of a water budget zone. If an amount of water is diverted
from a stream inside a defined water budget zone but delivered/used outside
the zone, then that amount of water is considered a surface water export
from the source water budget zone and a surface water import (after
conveyance losses are accounted for) into the destination water budget
zone. Exported water could include project allocations (e.g., SWP or CVP) or
surface water transfers. A surface water export is usually measured at the
point of diversion unless it is a riparian diversion from a stream that is at the
boundary of two water budget zones. There may be surface water exports
from one area to another which are managed through permits and legal
agreements amongst counties and water agencies; in such cases, the
amount is almost always measured and reported by the involved water
agencies.

Related Water Budget Components: Applied Water, Applied Water

Reuse, Return Flow, Surface Water Delivery, Surface Water Diversion,
Stream Inflow, Conveyance Evaporation, Conveyance Seepage

How to Determine Imported Water and Surface Water Exports:

• Method 1 — Obtain available imported water and surface water export
data.
• Method 2 — Estimate unavailable imported water and surface water
export data.

Method 1 — Obtain Available Imported Water and Surface Water

Export Data
Imported water and surface water export data are available from existing
public databases maintained by federal, State, and local agencies. These
data are available for different time periods and at different temporal scales

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(15 minute, hourly, daily, and monthly). Data from multiple sources may be
needed to develop a complete set of data.

The process for obtaining imported water and surface water export data
involves two steps:
1. Identify imported water and surface water export locations in the
water budget zone.
2. Obtain imported water and surface water export data from
existing federal, State, and local agency data sources.
In addition to databases, there are published reports where imported water
and surface water export data for local agencies can be obtained.

If there is a numerical hydrologic model covering the water budget zone,

measured or estimated imported water and surface water export data may
be available in the model input/output files. If data from an existing
numerical model are used, then the following should be validated:
• There is documentation for both the source data and the basis of the
estimated imported water and surface water export data or estimates,
if any.
• The numerical model is calibrated and accepted by stakeholders.

Key sources of imported water and surface water export data in California
are:
• State Water Project — Bulletin 132.
• Central Valley Project.
• Regional transfers (Truckee River Operating Agreement, etc.).
• Water transfers (DWR, Reclamation, local agencies).
• Surface water diversions and delivery reports from local and regional
water projects.
• CALSIM 2 Model.
• State Water Board’s water rights information (eWRIMS).
• DWR CDEC.
• USGS Surface-Water Data for the Nation.
• Reports containing information on water transfers between entities.

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• C2VSim and CVHM input files for surface water diversions in the
Central Valley.
• Local area hydrologic model input files.
• Diversion and delivery databases maintained by local and regional
agencies.

Method 2 — Estimate Unavailable Imported Water and Surface Water

Export Data
In cases where no data are readily available from existing sources, imported
water and surface water export data can be estimated based on applied
water estimates for agricultural, urban, and managed wetlands using the
methods described in Section 3.5, “Applied Water.” Imported water meets
demands within the water budget zone, while surface water exports meet
demand outside the water budget zone.

The process for estimating unavailable imported water data involves the
following steps:
1. Calculate applied water for agriculture, urban, and managed
wetlands (Section 3.5, “Applied Water”) for the area within the
water budget zone that is served by imported water from outside
the zone. If an area is served both by local surface water and
groundwater in addition to imported water, the local supplies,
that are known or can be estimated reasonably, should be
subtracted from the applied water to calculate the demand met
by imported water.
2. Determine conveyance losses (evaporation and seepage) based
on methods described in Section 4.5, “Conveyance Evaporation;”
and Section 4.6, “Conveyance Seepage,” or approximate the total
conveyance loss as a fraction of the surface water diversion,
referred to as the conveyance loss fraction (CLF), as follows:

Where CEF is the fraction of surface water diversions attributed to

conveyance evaporation, and CSF is the fraction of surface water
diversions attributed to conveyance seepage. The California Water
Plan is a potential source of conveyance loss estimates by DAUCO.

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Example: Conveyance evaporation is estimated as 1 percent of

the surface water diversion, and conveyance seepage is estimated
as 5 percent of the surface water diversion. Thus, CLF is
6 percent.

3. Estimate operational spills, if applicable. Some conveyance

facilities may include operational spills that leave the system.
Request information from facility operators or local water
districts. In cases where data are not available, estimate the
operational spill as a fraction of water demand. Whether
measured or estimated, include the operational spill in return
flow.
4. Estimate imported water (Iw) as follows based on use within the
water budget zone:

Where AWI is the portion of the applied water met by imported

water and can be estimated as:

5. Perform a “reality check” with existing information, if available. If

local knowledge exists about imported water, compare the
estimates from Steps 4 and 5, respectively, to existing
information. Assess and reconcile discrepancies, as applicable.

The process for estimating unavailable surface water export data involves
the following steps:
1. Calculate applied water for agriculture, urban, and managed
wetlands (Section 3.5, “Applied Water”) at the place of use
outside the water budget zone. If an area is served both by local
surface water and groundwater in addition to surface water
export, the local supplies, that are known or can be estimated
reasonably, should be subtracted from the applied water to
calculate the demand met by surface water export.
2. Follow the same steps 2 through 5 used for estimating imported
water but apply these steps for estimating surface water export
to meet demand outside the water budget zone.

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4.8 STREAM-LAKE INTERACTION

Definition: Both the inflow and outflow components of the stream-lake
interaction are covered in this section. The stream-lake interaction is defined
as the “volume of water exchanged between rivers/streams and
lakes/reservoirs.” In this handbook, the term lake is all inclusive,
representing both natural lakes and man-made reservoirs operated for water
storage and supply and including both onstream and offstream storage. The
terminology for the stream-lake interaction covers both lake inflow from
streams (QL(in)) and lake outflow to streams (QL(out)).

Context: A water budget zone with surface water supplies may include lakes
that receive inflow from streams. The stream inflows into the lake may then
be withdrawn for agricultural, urban, or managed wetlands water uses within
or outside the water budget zone. Lake outflow, or releases, to streams are
usually measured and included in reservoir operational records. In many
cases, lake operators will measure precipitation, estimate lake evaporation
and seepage, and then determine lake inflow using a mass balance
approach.

Related Water Budget Components: Precipitation, Applied Water, Runoff,

Return Flow, Surface Water Diversion, Lake Evaporation, Stream Inflow,
Stream Outflow

How to Determine Stream-Lake Interaction Data: First, identify the

lakes/reservoirs within the water budget zone that receive water from
streams within the water budget zone. For each lake, estimate stream inflow
and outflow using one of the following methods:
• Method 1 — Obtain available lake inflow and outflow data.
• Method 2 — Use mass balance to estimate lake inflows and outflows.
• Method 3 — Estimate lake inflows and outflows using reservoir
operations rule curve or model.
• Method 4 — Estimate lake outflows using a mass curve.

Method 1 — Obtain Available Lake Inflow and Outflow Data

Lake inflow from streams and outflow to streams are commonly available
from online databases, published reports, numerical models, or lake
operators. Operators of lake facilities often measure outflow and water

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elevations (levels) and estimate lake evaporation and seepage to determine

inflow through a mass balance approach. After the lakes that receive water
from streams in the water budget zone are identified, the most feasible
method to obtain inflow and outflow data is to use existing public data from
federal, State, and local agencies. Many lakes are regularly monitored by or
report data to the USGS. In addition, DWR publishes lake inflows and
outflows on CDEC for California. There are other federal, State, and local
agencies who maintain and publish lake inflow and outflow records. These
data are available for different time periods and at different temporal scales
(15 minute, hourly, daily, and monthly). Data from multiple sources may be
needed to develop a complete data set. In addition to the online databases,
there are published reports where lake inflow and outflow data can be
obtained.

If there is a numerical hydrologic model covering the water budget zone,

measured or estimated lake inflow and outflow data may be available in the
model input/output files. If data from an existing numerical model are used,
then the following should be validated:
• There is documentation of both the source data and the basis of the
included lake inflow and outflow data, if any.
• The numerical model is calibrated and accepted by stakeholders.

Key sources of lake inflow and outflow data in California are:

• USGS Surface-Water for the Nation.
• DWR CDEC: Current River Conditions.
• Local agency records, including flood control districts or entities
managing reservoirs.
• Previous reports.
• Input/output files of numerical models.
• USGS Water-Resources Investigations Reports.
• USGS Scientific Investigations Reports.
• California Nevada River Forecast Center.

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Method 2 — Use Mass Balance to Estimate Lake Inflows and

Outflows
To estimate lake inflow, perform a mass balance at the desired time step
over the period of interest. Typically, water budget components are
computed at a monthly time step. Depending on the application, some water
budgets may require finer temporal resolution in order to capture the
availability of water. Data needed include:
• Surface water outflow from the lake.
• Change in lake storage (from elevation-area-capacity curves).
• Precipitation.
• Lake evaporation.
• Gain to groundwater from the lake.
• Loss from groundwater to the lake.

Methods to estimate surface water outflow, lake evaporation, gain to

groundwater from lake, and loss from groundwater to lake are included in
Section 4, “Surface Water System;” and Section 5, “Groundwater System.”
Lake storage and elevation records can be found using the same sources as
described under Method 1 of this section.

The mass balance approach needs key information as presented in the

equation below to determine either lake inflow (QL(in)) or lake outflow
(QL(out)). This equation requires (1) either inflow or outflow to be measured
or estimated, (2) measured or estimated reservoir elevation data, and
(3) an elevation-area-capacity curve for input to the following equation:

Use the following equation to estimate lake inflow:

Use the following equation to estimate lake outflow:

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Method 3 — Estimate Lake Inflows and Outflows Using a Reservoir

Operation Rule Curve or Model
In cases where lake releases are not monitored and reported, it may be
possible to estimate the reservoir operations using a rule curve. Rule curves
for reservoirs govern the release of water to balance the demands of flood
control, water supply, recreation, and other purposes as shown in
Figure 4-5. Most reservoirs have a reservoir operation rule curve that can be
used to forecast reservoir outflows, given knowledge of reservoir water
surface elevations.

Figure 4-5 Rule Curve for Reservoir Releases

One example of a simple rule curve is shown in the Table 4-3. Often the rule
curves are much more complex, may include parameters related to the
water index, demand, etc., and are processed in a model.

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Table 4-3 Rule Curve

Storage Outflow
If reservoir storage is above top of Then reservoir outflow varies between
conservation pool objective flow targets and total storage
minus conservation storage
If reservoir storage is between top of Then reservoir outflow varies between
conservation pool and top of inactive pool zero cfs, and minimum flow requirement
If reservoir storage is below top of Then reservoir outflow is zero cfs
inactive pool

The example rule curve shown in Figure 4-6 illustrates the maximum and
minimum storage in the reservoir, based on flood control and water supply
requirements. If the storage is at or above the flood control rule curve level,
then the outflow will be greater than or equal to the inflow. If the storage is
at or below the water supply rule curve, then there will be no outflow. The
reservoir is operated to adjust outflows to maintain levels between the rule
curves.

Figure 4-6 Example of Reservoir Rule Curve

175

170

165
Reservoir Water Level (ft)

160

155

150

145

140

135

130

Flood Operation Rule Curve Minimum Storage/Water Supply Rule Curve

Example Year Actual Storage

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The process for estimating reservoir storage and outflow involves the
following steps:
1. Obtain reservoir rule curve, often available from water agencies
and reservoir operators.
2. Obtain reservoir elevation or storage, generally available from the
California Data Exchange Center or reservoir operators.
3. Use rule curve to calculate outflows, as shown in Table 4-3.

Method 4 — Estimate Lake Outflows Using a Mass Curve

A mass curve is a plot of cumulative inflow into a reservoir overtime.
Although it is usually used to determine reservoir capacity, outflows from a
reservoir can be calculated from reservoir storage and demand.

The process for estimating reservoir outflows based on a mass curve

involves the following steps:
1. Determine the time series inflow into the reservoir and plot the
cumulative inflow over the time period of interest (volume versus
time, solid line displayed in Figure 4-7).
2. Determine the reservoir storage capacity (volume). This is
typically available from the reservoir operator or is published
online.
3. Calculate the average demand from the reservoir (volume per
time), often available from irrigation districts, ditch companies, or
water rights data. This is typically related to the surface water
diversion data for areas where the stream is controlled through
reservoir releases. Diversions from the streams will govern the
volume of releases from the reservoirs.
4. Using the cumulative inflow plot, superimpose the average
demand rate at all points such that the cumulative inflow rate is
equal to the demand rate (dashed line displayed in Figure 4-7).
5. Calculate the outflow depending on the relative inflow, as
outlined in Table 4-4.

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Figure 4-7 Example of Reservoir Inflows Over Time

Table 4-4 Reservoir Inflow and Outflow Relationship

Inflow Outflow
Cumulative inflow is greater than demand curve Outflow = Inflow
Demand curve is greater than cumulative inflow Outflow = Average demand
Demand curve minus cumulative inflow is greater No outflow
than storage capacity

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4.9 LAKE EVAPORATION

Definition: Volume of evaporation from lakes and reservoirs.

Context: Lake evaporation (EL) is the process by which water changes from
a liquid to a gas or vapor. It is a function of solar radiation, atmospheric
pressure, vapor pressure profile above the water body, temperature, wind,
and the quality of water. Evaporation from open water surface is directly
proportional to the exposed area. If the exposed area is not large, the
evaporation is typically a relatively small component of the overall water
budget within a water budget zone.

Related Water Budget Components: Precipitation, Applied Water, Runoff,

Return Flow, Surface Water Diversion, Lake Evaporation, Stream Inflow,
Stream Outflow, Stream-Lake Interaction

How to Determine Lake Evaporation: First, identify the lakes within the
water budget zone and determine the approximate exposed water surface
area. Use existing maps to generate this information or obtain elevation-
area-capacity curves and water elevation data to better approximate the
surface area. Then estimate the evaporation for each lake using one of the
following methods:

• Method 1 — Obtain measured/reported data for evaporation rates

inside the water budget zone.
• Method 2 — Use pan evaporation method to estimate lake
evaporation.
• Method 3 — Use aerodynamic method (mass transfer) to calculate lake
evaporation.

Method 1 — Obtain Measured/Reported Data for Evaporation Rates

Inside the Water Budget Zone
Obtain historical or current evaporation rate data (daily, monthly, etc.) from
existing reports or data sources. Evaporation is of great importance in
regions such as California, and thus some agencies closely measure and
monitor the spatial variation of evaporation in the state. For example,
NOAA’s Climate Prediction Center (CPC) provides real time estimates of daily
and monthly evaporation from multiple sources. Also, NOAA’s National
Climatic Data Center (NCDC) is responsible for providing public access to the

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Nation's treasure of climate and historical weather data including daily pan
evaporation and wind speed for many stations within the U.S.

DWR’s Bulletin 73-79, “Evaporation from Water Surfaces in California,”

summarizes all readily available data on pan evaporation measurements in
California. It includes data from Bulletin 54-A, “Evaporation from Water
Surfaces in California (1948),” and Bulletin 73-1, “Evaporation from Water
Surfaces in California (1973).” This bulletin not only provides an array of
monthly total evaporation data from 478 stations, dating back to the 1880s,
but also includes information about the environment and type of measuring
station, which are of significant value to users for interpreting the data. This
bulletin is of practical and economic importance to water agencies and
others who need evaporation data, as evaporation data are basic to
reservoir operations and irrigation scheduling. For more information on this
bulletin, see Section 9, “Data Resources Directory.”

Sources of information include:

• Previous reports and models.
• NOAA: U.S Evaporation Data.
• NOAA: U.S. Soil Moisture Monitoring, Evaporation.
• NOAA: National Climate Data Center, Climatological Data Publications.
• DWR Agricultural Land and Water Use Estimates.
• DWR’s Bulletin 73-79.

Method 2 — Use Pan Evaporation Method to Estimate Lake

Evaporation
If there are no evaporation estimates, but pan evaporation data are
available, the following formula can be used to estimate evaporation loss
from a water body such as a lake:

Where:
• EL = Lake evaporation.
• Kp = Pan coefficient, a correction factor to the actual evaporation rate,
with a range from 0.64 to 0.81 and an average of 0.70 for the United

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States. This coefficient is specific for each water body and varies with
the geometry of the lake, water depth, lake surface conditions
(turbidity, presence of vegetation), and local weather conditions. Local
or regional calibration or verification of the pan coefficient used is
highly recommended, and caution is needed to account for poor pan
siting and handling.
• Epan = Measured pan evaporation rate.
• As = Surface area of the lake.
Example: DAU 130 (Goose Lake, Alturas) — This example presents how
to estimate lake evaporation for Goose Lake using pan evaporation data. The
surface area of the lake, as determined using an aerial map, is 94,000 acres.
A Class A evaporation pan is located next to the lake, and daily recording of
water depths are 15.20 inches and 15.17 inches on day 1 and day 2,
respectively. The pan coefficient (Kpan) for this lake is 0.7. With no
precipitation over that time period, Epan after 24 hours is 0.03 inch. The total
estimated evaporation from the lake over 24 hours is:

Method 3 — Use the Aerodynamic Method (Mass Transfer) to

Calculate Lake Evaporation
The aerodynamic method is widely used to calculate evaporation from lakes.
The basic equations were tested and developed on Lake Hefner in Oklahoma
in the 1950s. The aerodynamic method (mass transfer) is expressed as:

Where:
• EL = Lake evaporation in mm / t.
• M = Mass transfer coefficient in mm s / (t kPa m).
• es = Saturation vapor pressure at the surface water temperature
(kPa).
• ez = Saturation vapor pressure of the air at level z (kPa).
• uz = Wind speed at level z (m/s).

In practice, researchers employ the bulk aerodynamic equation:

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Where:
• EL = Lake evaporation in mm / t.
• kt = Conversion for time (kt = 86400 for EL in mm/d and Kt = 3600 for
EL in mm/h).
• CE = Bulk evaporation coefficient for level z (dimensionless).
• ρa = density of the air kg/m3.
• ρw = density of the water kg/m3.
• qs = Saturation specific humidity at the temperature of water surface.
• qz =Specific humidity of the air at temperature at level z.
• uz = Wind speed at level z (m/s).

DWR has funded a study conducted by the Desert Research Institute and
Reclamation using the aerodynamic method at Folsom Reservoir. The results
are included on the Reclamation Final Report ST-2012-7662-1 published in
March 2016. A floating weather station (buoy) was placed on the lake which
included sensors for measuring air temperature, relative humidity, wind
speed, net radiation and water surface temperature.

The satellite-based model METRIC uses the aerodynamic method to estimate

lake evaporation using the thermal band of Landsat data (see Section 9,
“Data Resources Directory”).

4.10 CHANGE IN SURFACE WATER STORAGE

Definition: Net change in the volume of water stored within the surface
water system, which includes lakes and reservoirs, streams, and conveyance
facilities.

Context: The term “lake” for the purposes of this handbook include natural
lakes and man-made reservoirs. Storage in a lake fluctuates throughout the
year with changing inflows and outflows. In the water budget schematic,
lake inflows include precipitation and inflows from streams and groundwater
aquifers. Lake outflows include evaporation and outflows to streams and
groundwater aquifers. Lake levels are commonly reported as either stage or

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elevation. “Stage” refers to the depth of water in the lake at the location of
the measurement, and lake surface elevation is the elevation (typically
relative to mean sea level) of the water surface. Changes in the volume of
water within streams may be important components in daily or monthly
water budgets but are typically negligible in annual water budgets. For
simplicity, the change in surface water storage focuses primarily on lakes.

Change in lake storage can be estimated from a simple mass balance of

measured or estimated inflows and outflows or be computed directly from
lake level measurements in combination with an elevation-storage curve. A
simple mass balance would calculate change in lake storage as:

When actual change in lake storage is estimated from measured parameters,

the resulting estimate should be used to evaluate the mass balance error,
which reflects how well the inflow, outflow, and change in storage
components can be estimated. Large mass balance errors may indicate the
need to re-evaluate the inflow and outflow components along with methods
to estimate change in lake storage directly. The mass balance error is
calculated as:

A mass balance error for the entire surface water system is often difficult to
determine where the amount of water stored in stream channels and
conveyance facilities is significant. If stream and conveyance storage are
directly estimated from parameters such as channel shape and water levels,
then the mass balance error could be estimated as:

The mass balance error for the entire surface water system indicates how
well the inflow, outflow, and change in storage components are estimated.
Large mass balance errors may indicate the need to re-evaluate the inflow

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and outflow components along with methods to estimate change in lake and
stream/conveyance storage directly.

Related Water Budget Components: Precipitation, Lake Evaporation,

Stream-Lake Interaction, Lake-Groundwater Interaction (Groundwater Loss
to Lake, Groundwater Gain from Lake)

How to Determine Change in Lake Storage:

• Method 1 — Obtain available technical reports and studies.
• Method 2 — Use measured lake level data.
• Method 3 — Estimate using a mass balance approach.
• Method 4 — Use information from available spreadsheets and
numerical models.

Method 1 — Obtain Available Technical Reports and Studies

Lake storage is commonly available from online databases, published
reports, numerical models, or lake operators. Operators of lake facilities
often measure outflow and water elevations (levels) and estimate lake
evaporation and seepage to determine inflow through a mass balance
approach. Many lakes are regularly monitored by or report data to the
USGS. In addition, DWR publishes lake operations on CDEC for California.
There are other federal, State, and local agencies who maintain and publish
lake storage. These data are available for different time periods and at
different temporal scales (15 minute, hourly, daily, and monthly). Data from
multiple sources may be needed to develop a complete data set. In addition
to the online databases, there are published reports where lake storage data
can be obtained.

If there is a numerical hydrologic model covering the water budget zone,

measured or estimated lake inflow and outflow data may be available in the
model input/output files. If data from an existing numerical model are used,
then the following should be validated:
• There is documentation of both the source data and the basis of the
included lake inflow and outflow data, if any.
• The numerical model is calibrated and accepted by stakeholders.

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Key sources of lake inflow and outflow data in California are:

• USGS Surface-Water Data for the Nation.
• DWR CDEC: Current River Conditions.
• Local agency records, including flood control districts or entities
managing reservoirs.
• Previous reports.
• Input/output files of numerical models.
• USGS Water-Resources Investigations Reports.
• USGS Scientific Investigations Report.
• California Nevada River Forecast Center.

Method 2 — Use Measured Lake Level Data

Using measured lake level data to estimate change in lake storage is a
matter of obtaining lake level data and the reservoir “area-capacity-curve,”
which plots lake levels (or elevations) and corresponding surface area
measurements and storage volumes. Change in storage over time can be
estimated as follows:

Where storage is determined from area-capacity curve for the lake level at
each selected timestep.

The lead agency responsible for operation of a lake or reservoir is the best
source for data. Some sources of lake data include:
• DWR CDEC.
• USGS National Water Information System.
• Reclamation Water Operations.
• USACE Sacramento District’s Water Control Data System.
• Local agencies.

Method 3 — Estimate Using a Mass Balance Approach

In the mass balance approach, inflows (from streams and aquifer, and
precipitation) and outflows (to streams and aquifer, and evaporation) need

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to be estimated. The difference between inflows and outflows for the lake is
the change in lake storage, expressed as:

Where:

Inflow from streams are typically measured and Section 4.2, “Stream Inflow
and Outflow,” describes methods for obtaining or estimating stream inflow
data. If there are no measured inflow data, the runoff from the upstream
watershed can be estimated using methods described in of Section 3.10,
“Runoff.” Section 5.5, “Lake-Groundwater Interaction,” describes methods
for estimating groundwater gains from and losses to lake. Section 3.3,
“Precipitation,” describes methods to obtain precipitation data. Imported
water delivery to a lake is always measured and so are lake releases
(outflow to streams) and diversions/withdrawals from the lake.

Method 4 — Use Information from Available Spreadsheets and

Numerical Models
Numerical hydrologic models developed for various basins in California may
have change in lake storage estimates. These models, whether spreadsheet
or numerical models, may be convenient sources for estimates of change in
lake storage for the water budget zone of interest. Sources of information
include:
• DWR CDEC.
• DWR CALSIM 2 and CALSIM 3.
• USGS California Water Science Center: Central Valley Hydrologic
Model.
• C2VSim.
• Local models by local agencies.

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5. GROUNDWATER SYSTEM

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5.1 INTRODUCTION
The total water budget captures the entire hydrologic cycle of water flow,
and the groundwater system is an integral part of it. The components of
groundwater system water budget are shown in Figure 5-1, which is a
subset of Figure 1-1. The color coding of Figure 1-1 was not carried over to
Figure 5-1 to avoid confusion as the designation of inflows and outflows are
different in a single system compared to the total water budget. The
definition of the groundwater system and groundwater system water budget
is presented in Section 1.3. The definitions of the associated components are
provided in Table 1-1.

The purpose of this section is to describe how to develop reasonable

estimates for these inflow and outflow components if there is no existing
model to estimate these components for the water budget zone of interest.
The methods described in this section can also be used in case an available
model only provides information for a partial set of groundwater system
water budget components. If a model is available that provides information
for all components of the groundwater system, the user should refer to
Section 2.8, “Modeling Approach.”

Figure 5-1 Components of Groundwater System and Its Interaction

with Other Systems

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Descriptions of inflow and outflow components in the groundwater system

along with methods to estimate each component are provided in the
following subsections. The outflow from shallow groundwater through
capillary rise to meet part of the crop ET demand is not shown in Figure 5-1
nor is described in this section. There are no simple methods to estimate the
contribution from shallow groundwater because it is highly sensitive to the
depth to water table. If local knowledge exists pertaining to the
quantification of the shallow groundwater uptake, it can be accounted for in
the water budget for groundwater systems. But caution should be taken in
this regard because although the ET from shallow groundwater will result in
a reduction in groundwater pumping from the aquifer, the net outflow from
the groundwater system will only see a small change. The only difference is
that ET of shallow groundwater is not part of total applied water, and hence,
there is no return flow associated with that amount. Similarly, recharge of
urban indoor use through septic tank and percolation ponds of wastewater
treatment plants is not shown in Figure 5-1 nor is it described in this section.
It is addressed in Section 3.11, “Return Flow.”

Some of the components of the groundwater system that are shown in

Figure 5-1 are discussed in Sections 3 and 4. Groundwater extraction for
agriculture and urban applied water is described in Section 3.7,
“Groundwater Extraction.” Conveyance seepage is discussed in Section 4.6,
“Conveyance Seepage.”

5.2 RECHARGE OF APPLIED WATER AND PRECIPITATION

Definition: Volume of applied water and precipitation that travels vertically
through the soil/unsaturated zones and reaches the saturated zone of the
aquifer (groundwater system).

Context: Recharge (D) of applied water and precipitation refers to the

amount of water entering the saturated zone of the groundwater system
from the land system, originating either as applied water or precipitation on
the land surface. This inflow component is commonly referred to as “deep
percolation” in literature. However, in a literal sense of physical processes,
deep percolation is the volume of water that travels downward through the
unsaturated zone to reach the groundwater table. Hence, use of term deep
percolation to indicate recharge of applied water and precipitation may
create confusion regarding whether other sources of recharge to the
groundwater system are included or not, such as managed aquifer recharge,

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conveyance seepage, groundwater gain from lake, and groundwater gain

from stream. To avoid a confusion, these inflow components are identified as
separate and individual components in the water budget schematic
(Figure 1-1), and in Figure 5-1.

Combined recharge of applied water (Di) and precipitation (Dp) is a

significant inflow component to the groundwater system. It occurs because
of the infiltration of applied water and precipitation that exceeds the water
holding capacity of the rootzone and thus moves downward through the
unsaturated zone to the saturated zone. On the other hand, rice growing
areas and managed wetlands typically have clay soils and restrictive zones
that reduce or restrict the downward movement of water where hardpan
conditions or depositional features cause portions of the percolating water to
move laterally downslope and re-emerge in canals and streams without
percolating into the groundwater system. This shallow lateral subsurface
flow is also called interflow and may become “applied water reuse” to meet
demands in downgradient agricultural lands or become “return flow” to the
surface water system (Figure 1-1). In other areas, tile drains capture and
remove infiltrated applied water to manage shallow groundwater tables
resulting from restrictive layers in the soil stratum. Any flow collected in the
tile drain system is also included as part of either “applied water reuse” to
augment supply or “return flow” to the surface water system. Recharge from
indoor water use can take place through leach drains in rural areas or
through percolation ponds of regional treatment facilities in urban areas.

Related Water Budget Components: Precipitation, Applied Water,

Managed Aquifer Recharge, Conveyance Seepage, Groundwater Gain from
Lake, Groundwater Gain from Stream

How to Estimate Recharge of Applied Water and Precipitation: The

processes to estimate the precipitation and applied water components of
recharge differ and are presented separately in the next two subsections to
simplify the calculation process.

5.2.1 Recharge of Precipitation

The process to estimate the precipitation component of recharge is
presented in this subsection.

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How to Estimate Recharge of Precipitation:

Recharge of precipitation is not a measured quantity; it is typically estimated

as a closure term of a mass balance equation.
• Method 1 — Obtain estimates from existing reports and models.
• Method 2 — Estimate using rainfall-runoff method.
• Method 3 — Estimate using a constant percentage.

Method 1 — Obtain Estimates from Existing Reports and Models

Obtain estimates of recharge of precipitation (monthly, annual) from existing
study reports and integrated hydrologic models for the water budget zone of
interest. Sources of information include:
• Existing reports and studies.
• Existing hydrologic and groundwater models such as CVHM, C2VSim,
or local models.

Method 2 — Estimate Using Rainfall-Runoff Method

Recharge of precipitation can be estimated by solving the mass balance
equation for rainfall-runoff and consumptive use of precipitation:

Where:
• P = Precipitation.
• R = Runoff.
• EP = Consumptive Use of Precipitation.
• Dp = Recharge of Precipitation.

Precipitation is measured data and available from numerous sources (see

Section 3.3, “Precipitation”). Runoff is usually quantified by using a rainfall-
runoff model, an example of which is Runoff Curve Number method
developed by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). The
Runoff Curve Number method is discussed in Section 3.10, “Runoff.”

The consumptive use of precipitation, also known as effective precipitation

(EP), is that portion of the precipitation that is not runoff but is stored in the

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root zone and contributes to meeting the ET requirements during the

growing season. It can be approximated as follows:

Where
• ET = Evapotranspiration.

The methods for calculating crop ET requirements are discussed in Section

3.4, “Evapotranspiration.” Typically, during the growing season, almost all of
precipitation that is not runoff is consumptively used because crop ET
requirements on a monthly basis are almost always higher than the
precipitation during the months of March through September, which is the
growing season for most agricultural crops in California. As a result, during
the growing season, recharge of precipitation is nearly zero unless there is
considerable rainfall in a month. On the other hand, during the non-growing
season, there are no crop ET requirements; as a result, precipitation that is
not runoff will mostly become recharge of precipitation, after contributing to
soil moisture storage. In case of native vegetation areas, the native
vegetation has often developed root systems such that almost all the
precipitation is consumed by ET. As a result, the recharge of precipitation for
native vegetation is very low.

Method 3 — Estimate Using A Constant Percentage

A simpler method with lower accuracy for quantifying recharge of
precipitation is to assume that a fixed percentage of precipitation is
recharged to the groundwater system. This fixed percentage could be based
on previous studies or existing models for areas that are similar to the water
budget zone of interest. The percentage may vary from basin to basin and is
dependent on land use conditions, hydrology, and soil type. The percentage
of precipitation that is recharged into groundwater varies from 5 percent to
20 percent in the Central Valley of California (Brush et al., 2013).

5.2.2 Recharge of Applied Water

The process to estimate the applied water component of recharge is
presented in this subsection.

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How to Estimate Recharge of Applied Water:

Recharge of applied water is not a measured quantity. It can be estimated

by the following methods:
• Method 1 — Obtain estimates from existing reports and models.
• Method 2 — Estimate using agricultural applied water.
• Method 3 — Estimate using urban applied water.

Method 1 — Obtain Estimates from Existing Reports and Models

Obtain estimates of recharge of applied water (monthly, annual) from
existing study reports and/or hydrologic models for the water budget zone of
interest. Sources of information include:
• Existing reports and studies.
• Existing hydrologic and groundwater models such as CVHM, C2VSim,
or local models.
• California Water Plan Water Portfolios.

Method 2 — Estimate Using Agricultural Applied Water

Recharge of applied water can be estimated by solving the mass balance
equation for applied water (irrigation). Irrigation water is applied to meet the
crop ET requirements that are not met by precipitation. Any applied water in
excess of ET requirements becomes non-consumptive use that either
percolates below the root zone or becomes runoff. The percolated water
takes three different paths:
1. A portion of the percolated water moves laterally to drainage
systems and becomes applied water reuse on irrigated lands
within the water budget zone.
2. A portion of the percolated water moves laterally to a canal,
drainage ditch, or a stream and becomes return flow that will
flow out of the water budget zone.
3. The remainder becomes recharge of applied water.

Using the mass balance equation and calculating its component from
methods presented in other sections, the recharge of applied water can be
calculated as

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Where:
• Di = Recharge of Applied Water.
• ET = Crop Evapotranspiration.
• EP = Consumptive Use of Precipitation.
• RU = Applied Water Reuse.
• Rf = Return Flow.
Another option is to proportion applied water using irrigation efficiency and
percentages of applied water reuse, return flow, and recharge as fractions of
the non-consumptive use of applied water. This option, which is described in
Method 3, Approach 2 in Section 3.5.1, “Agricultural Applied Water,” is a
quick approach to addressing the non-consumptive uses based on local
knowledge of irrigation practices, soils, geology, and drainage within the
water budget zone of interest. Using Tables 3-4 and 3-5 as a guide,
irrigation efficiency (IE) as well as fractions of applied water reuse (Ruf),
fractions of return flow (Rff), and fractions of recharge of applied water (Dif)
can identify the disposition of applied water to determine recharge. Volume
of recharge of applied water (Di) can be estimated from the following
equation:

Where:

Proportioning the disposition of applied water can be an iterative estimation

process that should be verified in the total water budget.

Method 3 — Estimate Using Urban Applied Water

Recharge of urban applied water can include contributions from septic tanks,
wastewater treatment percolation, landscape irrigation, distribution system

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water loss seepage, etc. Using a mass balance equation and calculating its
component from methods presented in Sections 3.2.2, 3.5.2, 3.8, 3.9, and
3.11, the recharge of applied water can be calculated as

5.3 SUBSURFACE INFLOW AND OUTFLOW

Definition: Subsurface Inflow is the “volume of water entering as
groundwater into a water budget zone through its subsurface boundaries”,
and Subsurface Outflow is the “volume of water leaving as groundwater from
a water budget zone through its subsurface boundaries.”

Context: The subsurface inflow and outflow (Qb) in the water budget
framework are concepts tied to the delineation of a boundary, such as
groundwater subbasin, water budget zone, or irrigation district. Groundwater
flows from areas of high hydraulic head (high water-level elevation) to areas
of low hydraulic head (low water-level elevation). Because hydraulic heads
vary laterally and vertically in a groundwater system, groundwater
movement will generally have a horizontal as well as a vertical component.

Subsurface flows through saturated zones can move significant amounts of

water in or out of the water budget zone. The quantity of subsurface inflow
and outflow depends on the groundwater elevations and the hydraulic
conductivity of the aquifer material along the boundary of the water budget
zone. In coastal groundwater basins, seawater intrusion occurs when
groundwater elevations in the aquifer are lower than the sea level elevation.

Subsurface flows are never directly measured. They are calculated from
measured groundwater level data or by using numerical models. Subsurface
flows are computed across the boundary of a water budget zone and can be
tied to one of the three types of boundary conditions:
1. Subsurface flow under no flow boundary conditions: When the
aquifer is surrounded by impermeable bedrock along a boundary
of the water budget zone, there will be little to no subsurface
inflow or outflow along the corresponding boundary of the water
budget zone. Any flow from impermeable bedrock is likely

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negligible and can be ignored for the purposes of water budget

calculations. Examples of no flow boundary conditions are
relatively impermeable rock at mountain fronts, along the upland
ridges of groundwater divides, or along the crests of the
groundwater mounds under topographic highs.
2. Subsurface flow under fixed head boundary conditions: When a
large stream or lake defines one or more boundaries of a water
budget zone, the elevation in the stream or lake is considered
constant for all practical purposes. The subsurface inflow (or
outflow) is computed by using the hydraulic gradient between the
boundary stream (or lake) and the groundwater aquifer.
3. Subsurface flow under general head boundary condition: When
boundaries of the water budget zone are not natural boundaries
(e.g., impermeable rock or stream) but rather political or
jurisdictional boundaries dividing a continuous aquifer, this
becomes the most complex case of determining subsurface inflow
and outflow. Adjoining water budget zones may have to divide a
continuous aquifer for their respective water budget calculations;
in such cases, the subsurface flows are computed based on
groundwater elevation differences across the boundary of the
water budget zone. General head boundary condition should be
used with due diligence; because of complexity, it is prone to
misapplication and errors.

Related Water Budget Components: Change in Groundwater Storage

How to compile subsurface flow inflow and outflow:

• Method 1 — Obtain available technical reports and studies.
• Method 2 — Obtain available spreadsheets and numerical models.
• Method 3 — Calculate estimates of subsurface flow using Darcy’s law.

Method 1 — Obtain Available Technical Reports and Studies

USGS and other agencies publish historical investigation reports on
hydrogeology of many regions in the U.S. Such reports may provide a
quantitative description of subsurface flow conditions along the boundary of

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groundwater basins and subbasins in California. Key sources of information

include:
• Local agency records, including flood control districts or entities
managing water resources.
• USGS Water-Resources Investigations Reports.
• USGS Scientific Investigations Report.

Method 2 — Obtain Available Spreadsheets and Numerical Models

Various numerical hydrologic models developed for various regions of
California may contain information regarding estimated subsurface flows
across boundaries. These models, whether a spreadsheet or numerical
model, may be useful in determining subsurface inflows and outflows to and
from the water budget zone of interest. Spreadsheet models are more often
used in local studies where a numerical model does not exist. The availability
of spreadsheet models varies locally. Sources of information include:
• Local agency studies and reports.
• USGS Groundwater Data.
• USGS California Water Science Center — Groundwater Modeling.
• USGS California Water Science Center — Central Valley Hydrologic
Model.
• C2VSim.

Method 3 — Calculate Estimates of Subsurface Flow Using Darcy’s

Law
Subsurface flows between two water budget zones depend on the
groundwater level gradient between boundary of the two zones. Darcy’s law
and groundwater elevation gradient data across the boundary can quantify
the subsurface inflows (and outflows) from adjacent groundwater basins
using the following equation and referencing Figure 5-2 that illustrates the
hydrogeologic cross section:

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Where:
• Qb = Subsurface flow across the boundary.
• K = Hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer at the boundary.
• Ab = Cross-sectional area subject to boundary flow.
• i = Hydraulic gradient through the cross section = (hg — hb) / l.
• hg = Known groundwater elevation inside the boundary of water
budget zone.
• hb = Known groundwater elevation outside the boundary of water
budget zone.
• b = Depth of cross section.
• w = Width of cross section.
• l = Distance between two points with known head, hg and hb.
• T = Transmissivity of the aquifer at the boundary = K × b.
If hb is greater than hg, then Qb will be subsurface inflow into the water
budget zone; if hb is lower than hg, then Qb will be subsurface outflow from
the water budget zone.

Figure 5-2 An Illustrative Hydrogeologic Cross Section for

Calculating Subsurface Flow

The process for calculating subsurface inflow and outflow consists of the
following steps:
1. Collect groundwater level data from available sources that
spatially represent the boundaries of the water budget zone. The

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groundwater level data can be averaged for the temporal scale of

interest. It is important to select wells that represent the flow
direction as horizontal or vertical and not a combination of both.
Well construction information can be used to verify the
groundwater levels are from similar perforations. Sources
include:
A. Local agencies, including counties, cities, water purveyors.
B. DWR Water Data Library.
C. DWR CASGEM.
D. DWR Groundwater Level Monitoring.
E. USGS Groundwater Data for the Nation.
F. USGS CVHM Digital Data Sets.
G. CV2Sim.
2. Estimate aquifer thickness at the boundaries of the water budget
zone using available well construction data and geologic
information. The depths of impermeable clay layers or bedrock,
for example, can be used to establish the base for the aquifer.
3. Divide the boundary interface into smaller sections for a more
accurate analysis if groundwater elevation data are available to
define its variability along the boundary. The boundary should
run parallel to the contours, otherwise flow cannot be calculated.
4. Calculate the cross-sectional areas using the length and depth of
the sections.
5. Estimate aquifer hydraulic conductivity at the boundaries of the
water budget zone using information on soil and aquifer
properties along with well construction data or aquifer test data.
Use regional groundwater models such as C2VSim and CVHM or
available local groundwater models as a source to obtain
applicable information.
6. Estimate aquifer hydraulic gradient (the term (hg-hb) / l) using
hydrogeology reports or groundwater contour maps that are
available for the water budget zone. Groundwater elevation
contour maps provide a means by which groundwater movement
can be assessed. These maps can be developed from water-level
measurements from multiple wells. Contour maps of the

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groundwater elevations are constructed to determine the

horizontal direction of flow. The vertical component of flow can be
determined by comparing groundwater elevations in nearby wells
completed at different depths in the same aquifer or in different
aquifers. The horizontal direction of ground-water flow is
generally perpendicular to the contour lines, and water flows
down the slope of the contours in a manner analogous to the flow
of water down the slope of the land surface. DWR publishes
seasonal contour maps for California. The contours are available
as part of the SGMA data viewer.
7. Calculate subsurface inflow by applying the Darcy’s law for each
boundary section. Sum up subsurface inflows (or outflows) of all
sections to obtain total subsurface inflow (or outflow) along the
boundary of the water budget zone.

Example: Referring to the illustrative hydrogeologic cross-section shown in

Figure 5-2, subsurface outflow beneath the right boundary of a water budget
zone can be estimated directly from the Darcy’s law. Transmissivity of the
hydrogeologic section was estimated to be 1,500 ft2/d from two pumping
tests, and the approximate width of the unconsolidated sediments was
4,000 feet. Hydraulic gradient through the cross-section was about
0.004 ft/ft, and the estimated subsurface outflow for that cross-section is
estimated as:

5.4 STREAM-GROUNDWATER INTERACTION

Definition: Groundwater gain from streams is defined as the volume of
water entering the groundwater system (gain) from rivers and streams.
Conversely, groundwater loss to streams is defined as the volume of water
entering rivers and streams from the groundwater system. Both the gain
and loss components of the stream-groundwater interaction, QGW(gain/loss), are
covered in this section.

Context: Streams play an important role in the total water budget. During
periods when groundwater elevations are lower than the stream stage, the

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stream may contribute water to the groundwater system and during periods
when groundwater elevations are higher than the stream stage, the stream
will drain water away from the groundwater system. The rate of water
exchange between stream and the aquifer is a function of the hydraulic
gradient and the streambed permeability, a relatively uncertain parameter.
If the stream is overlain on a low permeability layer such as peat, it may be
hydraulically disconnected from the aquifer even though groundwater levels
may be high.

If the stream stage is lower than the surrounding groundwater levels, the
groundwater system will lose water to the stream proportional to the
hydraulic gradient between the stream stage and the surrounding
groundwater levels.

If the stream stage is higher than the surrounding groundwater levels, the
groundwater system will gain water from the stream. Two situations may
arise:
1. When the surrounding groundwater levels are higher than the
bottom elevation of streambed sediments, the groundwater gain
from stream is proportional to difference between stream stage
and the surrounding groundwater elevation.
2. When the surrounding groundwater levels are lower than the
bottom elevation of streambed sediments, the groundwater gain
is proportional to difference between stream stage and bottom
elevation of streambed sediments. In this second situation, the
stream is not hydraulically connected to the groundwater system,
and the net groundwater gain from stream is independent of the
surrounding groundwater levels as the stream and aquifer are not
directly in contact. It should be noted that the exact condition
when a stream is disconnected from the groundwater system is
still a research topic. Streams can be losing or gaining at different
locations depending on the corresponding hydraulic gradient
between the stream and the surrounding groundwater levels at
those locations. In addition, streams can be losing or gaining at
different times of the same year or different years over a time
period. The definition of disconnected stream provided in this
paragraph is a widely accepted method and used by many
integrated numerical groundwater and surface water models,

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such as MODFLOW-OWHM, USGS’s FEMFLOW3D, and the

Integrated Groundwater Surface water Model (IGSM); the IWFM
model also includes a user option to use this definition.

Related Water Budget Components: Change in Groundwater Storage

How to determine groundwater gain from streams and losses to streams:

• Method 1 — Use available studies and numerical models.
• Method 2 — Use a mass balance approach.
• Method 3 — Calculate using Darcy’s law.
• Method 4 — Calculate using flow net analysis.
• Method 5 — Use constant seepage percentage method for a losing
stream.
• Method 6 — Baseflow separation techniques.

Method 1 — Use Available Studies and Numerical Models

Agencies such as USGS or DWR may have done historical studies to
delineate a water budget or hydrogeologic conditions for the water budget
zone of interest. Also, regional integrated, numerical models such as CVHM,
C2VSim, SVSim, etc., could be reliable sources of stream gain or loss
information. Sources of information include:
• USGS Water Budgets for Major Streams in the Central Valley (1985).
• Groundwater Availability of the Central Valley Aquifer (2009).
• USGS CVHM Database.
• C2VSim.

Method 2 — Use A Mass Balance Approach

Use the mass balance approach to calculate groundwater gains (or losses)
for each stream reach using the following steps:
1. Delineate Stream Reaches: Divide the streams in the water
budget zone into several smaller reaches. Use stream
characteristics and available data as criteria for delineation of
stream reaches.

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2. Identify Locations of Inflow and Outflow Components for

Each Stream Reach: Identify upstream and downstream
gauges, tributary inflow, diversion points, runoff inflow, and
return flow locations (Figure 5-3).
3. Estimate Stream Inflows: Estimate stream inflows at the
upstream gauge and from tributary streams. Upstream inflow
stream data may be obtained from local agencies and water
purveyors, or estimated using methods describes in Section 4.2,
“Stream Inflow and Outflow.” The Runoff Curve Number Method
described in Section 3.10, “Runoff,” can be used to estimate
direct runoff quantities from ungauged watersheds of tributaries
of the stream reach outside of the water budget zone.
4. Estimate Diversions: Estimate all diversions and inflows for
each stream reach. Diversion data may be obtained from local
agencies and water purveyors as specified in Section 4.3,
“Surface Water Diversion.”
5. Estimate Runoff and Return Flows: Use methods in Section
3.10, “Runoff;” and Section 3.11, “Return Flow;” to estimate
runoff and return flow, respectively, into each stream reach
within the water budget zone.
6. Estimate Stream Evaporation: Use methods in Section 4.4,
“Stream Evaporation,” to estimate stream evaporation from each
stream reach.
7. Calculate Groundwater Inflow from Each Stream Reach:
Use the following mass balance equation to calculate
groundwater gain (or loss) from each stream reach. To quantify
the total stream-groundwater interaction, sum groundwater gains
(inflow) or losses (outflow) for all stream reaches within the
water budget zone.

Where:
• QGW(gain/loss) = Groundwater gain (or loss) from streams.
• SWi = Streamflow at the upstream gauge.
• Qtrib = Inflow from contributing or tributary streams.

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• R = Direct runoff from precipitation to a stream reach.

• Rf = Return flow from applied water (agriculture, urban, managed
wetlands, operational spills).
• SWdiv = Surface water diversion.
• SWevap = Stream evaporation.
• SWo = Streamflow at the downstream gauge.

Figure 5-3 Flow Components in a Stream Reach

Method 3 — Estimate Using Darcy’s Law

Darcy’s law can be used to estimate the net groundwater gain (or loss) for
streams. Darcy’s law uses soil properties and vertical gradients to calculate
the flow of fluid through a porous medium. Depending on the groundwater
elevations in the surrounding aquifer, the stream can be gaining, or losing,
or percolating. A percolating stream is a type of losing stream where the
surrounding groundwater elevations are lower than the bottom elevation of
the streambed materials.

Groundwater Loss to Stream: When the surrounding groundwater

elevations are higher than the water stage in a stream, the stream acts as a
discharge zone for the local groundwater system. Using Darcy’s law, the net

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groundwater loss (QGW(loss)) through the bottom and wetted perimeter of the
stream can be calculated as:

If Haquifer > Hstream > Hstreambed bottom then,

Where:
• Hstream, Haquifer and Hstreambed bottom are the water stage in the stream,
groundwater level in the surrounding aquifer, and the bottom elevation
of the streambed sediments, respectively.
• Bstream is the average thickness of the streambed.
• Ks is the hydraulic conductivity of the streambed material.
• Awps is the effective area of flow exchange, which is the product of the
stream segment’s length and wetted perimeter.
• The difference between Haquifer and Hstream is the vertical gradient used
to determine the flow in Darcy’s law for a connected stream.
Groundwater Gain from Stream: When the surrounding groundwater
elevation are lower than the water stage in the stream but above the bottom
elevation of streambed sediments, the stream is hydraulically connected to
the groundwater system and acts as a source of groundwater recharge.
Using Darcy’s law, the net groundwater gain through the bottom and wetted
perimeter of the stream can be calculated as:

If Hstream > Haquifer > Hstreambed bottom then

Groundwater Gain through Percolation from a Stream: When the

surrounding groundwater levels are lower than the bottom elevation of
streambed sediments, then the stream is not hydraulically connected to the
groundwater system. In these cases, the vertical gradient used in Darcy’s
law is the difference between Hstream and Hstreambed bottom. The net groundwater
gain through the bottom of the stream is independent of groundwater level
and can be calculated as:

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If Hstream > Hstreambed bottom > Haquifer then,

Compiling Relevant Data for the Use of Darcy’s Law: Information on

streambed conductivity, 𝐾𝐾𝑠𝑠 , can be obtained from available reports and
studies. The stream stage information can be obtained from USGS, CDEC,
and DWR Water Data Library (see Section 9, “Data Resources Directory,” for
specific sources). The streambed bottom (or channel invert) elevation can be
obtained from bathymetric surveys. If bathymetric surveys are not available,
USGS quad maps and digital elevation models or existing numerical models
can also be used as a source of information. One caution in using USGS
quad maps for estimating streambed bottom elevation: Using the streambed
bottom elevation from USGS quad maps may not be adequate to capture the
hydraulic radius. In many cases, the methods and resolution of the data
yield a value representative of the water surface elevation and not
necessarily the channel bottom. Monitoring wells or contour maps can be
used to determine the groundwater levels in the surrounding aquifer.

Method 4 — Calculate Using Flow Net Analysis

The flow net analysis is a graphical method for solving groundwater flow
using the Darcy’s law as presented by Cedergren (1997) and USGS (2008).
The method involves drawing equipotential lines (lines of equal hydraulic
head) based on hydraulic head in the wells and flow lines (also called
streamlines) based on stage in the surface-water body. The flow lines are
drawn perpendicular to both the no-flow boundaries and to the equipotential
lines, which assume the porous medium is homogeneous and isotropic. The
number of flow lines to be drawn should result in rectilinear shapes that
approximate squares. The areas between the flow lines are called
streamtubes, and the intervals between equipotential lines are termed “head
drops.” After constructing the flow net, Darcy’s law is used to approximate
flow to or from the surface-water body:

Where:
• Q = Flow through a vertical plane that extends beneath the shoreline
of a surface water body.

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• M = Number of streamtubes across a flow net.

• K = Horizonal hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer at the boundary.
• b = Effective thickness of the aquifer.
• H = Total head drop across the area of interest.
• n = Number of equipotential head drops over the area of interest.

Method 5 — Use Constant Seepage Percentage Method for a Losing

Stream
A simpler method with lower accuracy for quantifying the gains to the
groundwater system from a stream is to assume that a fixed percentage of
total streamflow volume flows to the groundwater system as seepage over
the length of the stream (or a stream reach). The same assumption can be
made for canals to estimate the conveyance facility seepage to the
groundwater system in a water budget zone.

Method 6 — Baseflow Separation Techniques

Streamflow is fed by both surface runoff and subsurface flow from aquifers.
The streamflow resulting from groundwater outflow is called baseflow.
Similar to the mass balance approach discussed earlier, a separate but
related approach is to use stream gaging stations immediately upstream and
downstream of a water budget zone and perform a hydrograph analysis to
determine the baseflow from the hydrograph. This allows the computation of
groundwater contributions, even during stormwater events.

There are numerous methods for baseflow separation. The USGS maintains
the HYSEP: Hydrograph Separation Program software to calculate baseflow
using streamflow timeseries data.

Purdue University maintains a similar program, the WHAT: Web-based

Hydrograph Analysis Tool, that utilizes USGS daily streamflow data to do a
similar hydrograph analysis.

Empirical methods for baseflow separation can also be used to separate out
the portion of streamflow originating from groundwater. In the straightline
method, shown in Figure 5-4, a horizontal line is drawn from the start of the
rising limb to the falling limb. All of the flow under the horizontal line is
considered baseflow.

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Figure 5-4 Applying the Straightline Method

In the fixed base method, shown in Figure 5-5, the baseflow existing before
the storm is projected graphically down to a point directly under the peak of
the hydrograph. Then a straight line is used to connect the projection to the
falling limb. The duration of the recession limb is determined by inspection.

Figure 5-5 Applying the Fixed Base Method

Both the straightline method and the fixed base method are based on
streamflow hydrographs developed from measured streamflow data. The
smaller the time unit, the more accurate the analysis will be.

5.5 LAKE-GROUNDWATER INTERACTION

Definition: Groundwater gain from lakes is defined as the volume of water
entering the groundwater system from lakes and reservoirs. Similarly,
groundwater loss to lakes is defined as the volume of water entering lakes
and reservoirs from the groundwater system. Both the gain and loss

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components of the lake-groundwater interaction (QL(gain/loss)) are covered in

this section.

Context: The interaction of lakes, natural wetlands, and ponds with

groundwater can be calculated as a simplified one-dimensional Darcian flow,
but in reality, it is spatially and temporally variable. In this section, lakes,
reservoirs, ponds, wetlands, and other surface water bodies are referred to
as lakes. Lakes interact with groundwater in three basic ways: (1) some
receive groundwater inflow throughout their entire bed (discharge lakes);
(2) some have seepage loss to groundwater throughout their entire bed
(recharge lakes); but perhaps most commonly (3) lakes receive groundwater
inflow through part of their bed and have seepage loss to groundwater
through other parts (flow-through lakes).

If the average water levels in the lake are lower than the surrounding
groundwater levels, the groundwater system loses water to the lake in
proportion to the hydraulic gradient. Such conditions may result from
excessive surface water export or diversion from the lake, from high lake
evaporation rates in warm or windy weather conditions, or normal reservoir
management during periods of below average precipitation.

If the average water levels in the lake are higher than the surrounding
groundwater levels, the groundwater system gains water from the lake. Two
situations may arise:
1. When the surrounding groundwater levels are higher than the
bottom elevation of lakebed sediments, the groundwater gain
from lake is proportional to difference between water level in the
lake and the surrounding groundwater level.
2. When the surrounding groundwater levels are lower than the
bottom elevation of lakebed sediments, the groundwater gain is
proportional to difference between water level in the lake and
bottom elevation of lakebed sediments. Under this situation, the
net gain is independent of the surrounding groundwater levels as
the lake and aquifer are not directly connected.

Although the interaction of aquifers with lakes is very similar to that with
streams, there are a few key differences. The water level of natural lakes,
that is, those not controlled by dams, generally does not change as rapidly

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as the water level of streams; therefore, bank storage is of lesser

importance in lakes than it is in streams. Evaporation generally has a
greater effect on lake levels than on stream levels because the surface area
of lakes is generally larger and less shaded than many reaches of streams
and because lake water is not replenished as readily as a reach of a stream.
Lakes can be present in many different parts of the landscape and can have
complex groundwater flow systems associated with them. This is especially
true for lakes in glacial and dune terrain. Furthermore, lake sediments
commonly have greater volumes of organic deposits than streams. These
poorly permeable organic deposits can affect the distribution of seepage and
biogeochemical exchanges of water and solutes more in lakes than in
streams.

Related Water Budget Components: Precipitation, Lake Evaporation,

Stream-Lake Interaction, Change in Surface Water Storage

How to determine lake-groundwater interaction:

• Method 1 — Obtain from available hydrogeologic reports and numerical
models.
• Method 2 — Estimate using Darcy’s law.
• Method 3 — Calculate using flow net analysis.
• Method 4 — Calculate using a mass balance.

Method 1 - Obtain from Available Hydrogeologic Reports and

Numerical Models
Collect previous reports and models that include the water budget zone of
interest.
• Technical reports/studies published by federal, State, and local
agencies.
• Spreadsheet and numerical models published by federal, State, and
local agencies that include the water budget zone of interest (lakes are
usually presented as a river or reservoir boundary or as a specified or
constant head boundary in numerical models).

Method 2 - Estimate Using Darcy’s Law

Darcy’s law is used to calculate the net groundwater gain from lakes or
groundwater loss to lakes. Depending on the groundwater levels in the

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surrounding aquifer, lake conditions can be gaining, losing, or percolating. A

percolating lake is a type of losing lake where the surrounding groundwater
elevations are lower than the bottom elevation of the lakebed materials.

Groundwater Loss to Lake: When the surrounding groundwater elevations

are higher than the water stage in a lake, the lake acts as a discharge zone
for the local groundwater system. Using Darcy’s law, the net groundwater
loss (QL(loss)) through the lake bottom and wetted perimeter of the lake can
be calculated as:

If Haquifer > Hlake > Hlakebed bottom, then,

Where:
• Hlake = Water level in the lake.
• Haquifer = Groundwater elevation in the surrounding aquifer.
• Hlakebed bottom = Bottom elevation of the lakebed sediments.
• L = Distance between points where Hlake and Haquifer are measured.
• Kh = Horizontal conductivity of the surrounding aquifer.
• Kv = Vertical hydraulic conductivity of the surrounding aquifer.
• Al = Surface area of the lake.
• Awpl = Wetted perimeter of lake multiplied by the average saturated
thickness of aquifer around the lake.
Despite the high level of uncertainty associated with this simple equation, it
is widely used.

Groundwater Gain from Lake: When the surrounding groundwater

elevations are lower than the water stage in the lake but above the bottom
elevation of lakebed sediments, the lake is hydraulically connected to the
groundwater system and acts as a recharge source. Using Darcy’s law, the
net groundwater gain (QL(gain)) through the lake bottom and wetted
perimeter of the lake can be calculated as:

If Hlake > Haquifer > Hlakebed bottom, then,

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Groundwater Gain through Percolation from a Lake: When the

surrounding groundwater elevations are lower than the bottom elevation of
lakebed sediments, then the lake is not hydraulically connected to the
groundwater system. The net groundwater gain (QL(gain)) through the bottom
of the lake is independent of groundwater level and can be calculated as:

If Hlake > Hlakebed bottom > Haquifer then,

Where:
• Blake = Average thickness of the lakebed sediments.

Estimating the Hydraulic Gradient: If there are any hydrogeology reports

or groundwater contour maps available for the water budget zone, the
hydraulic gradient, the term (Hlake − Haquifer) / L, can be estimated from
contour maps. Groundwater elevation contour maps of aquifers provide a
means by which groundwater movement can be assessed. These maps can
be constructed from water-level measurements obtained from multiple wells.
Alternatively, maps can be based on water levels generated by groundwater
flow models. In general, groundwater moves downgradient, from areas of
higher elevation to areas of lower elevation.

Example: Lake-groundwater interaction — A wet mine is developed from

extracting sand and gravel, thus creating an approximately 1-acre lake
(400 feet by 120 feet). There is no precipitation and the lake stage and
groundwater levels in the sandy-gravely aquifer are expected to be the
same. But, surface water diversions of about 3,250 ft3/day from the lake and
evaporation from the lake induce a water level difference between the lake
and surrounding groundwater table. A hydraulic conductivity of 100 ft/day is
estimated from aquifer testing in the medium-coarse sand aquifer. The
average slope of the water table from the wells toward the lake is
0.0008 ft/ft, computed by dividing the difference between water levels in a
nearby monitoring well and the lake by the distance of the monitoring well

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from the lake. The estimated rate of gradual water loss from the aquifer to
the lake is calculated as:

The extra 590 ft3/day is likely the result of lake evaporation.

Method 3 — Calculate Using Flow Net Analysis

The flow net analysis is a graphical method for solving groundwater flow
using the Darcy’s law as presented by Cedergren (1997) and USGS (2008).
The method involves drawing equipotential lines (lines of equal hydraulic
head) based on hydraulic head in the wells and flow lines (also called
streamlines) based on stage in the surface-water body. The flow lines are
drawn perpendicular to both the no-flow boundaries and to the equipotential
lines, which assume the porous medium is homogeneous and isotropic. The
number of flow lines to be drawn should result in rectilinear shapes that
approximate squares. The areas between the flow lines are called
streamtubes, and the intervals between equipotential lines are termed “head
drops.” After constructing the flow net, the Darcy’s law is used to
approximate flow to or from the surface-water body:

Where:
• Q = Flow through a vertical plane that extends beneath the shoreline
of a surface water body.
• M = Number of streamtubes across a flow net.
• K = Horizonal hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer at the boundary.
• b = Effective thickness of the aquifer.
• H = Total head drop across the area of interest.
• n = Number of equipotential head drops over the area of interest.

Method 4 — Calculate Using a Mass Balance

In the mass balance approach (see also Section 4.8 “Stream-Lake
Interaction”), streamflow and change in total lake storage must be
measured or obtained from available sources. This method is appropriate for

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managed reservoirs or lakes having gauged inflow or outflow data but is not
feasible for lakes where inflow and outflow data cannot be obtained.
Calculate a mass balance of the lake as follows:

A positive value indicates groundwater gain from lake; a negative value

indicates groundwater loss to lake.

Inflow to lake from streams and outflow from lake to streams can be
obtained from streamflow gauge measurements. These inflow and outflow
terms are zero for standalone lakes with no connected streams. Precipitation
can be estimated from local precipitation gauges; lake evaporation can be
calculated using procedures outlined in Section 4.9, “Lake Evaporation;” and
change in lake storage can be computed from water level data and
elevation-storage capacity curves.

Example: Goose Lake — The groundwater discharge to Goose Lake is

estimated based on surface water runoff and potential evaporation estimates
derived from historical reports. The water budget data for Goose Lake are
summarized in Table 7 on Page 36 of “Geohydrology and numerical Model
analysis of “Groundwater Flow in the Goose Lake Basin, Oregon and
California.” It is reproduced as Figure 5-6.

Mean annual surface water inflow to the lake totals 200,000 acre-feet per
year (af/y), irrigation diversions total 130,000 af/y, and return flows total
30,000 af/y. The result is a net outflow from the lake of 100,000 af/y. In this
study, the potential rate of evaporation from the lake surface was assumed
to be 42 inches per year, which is in close agreement with those used by
others. Precipitation on the lake surface is approximately 12 inches per year.
Goose Lake covers 92,000 acres at a water surface elevation of 4,700 feet
above sea level (Daum 1966); at this elevation, Goose Lake loses
322,000 af/y to evaporation and gains 92,000 af/y from precipitation. Using
the mass balance approach, the groundwater loss to Goose Lake can be
calculated based on the following compiled data:

• Inflow to the lake = 200,000 af/y.

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• Diversions = 130,000 af/y.

• Return flow = 30,000 af/y.
• Outflow from the lake = 130,000 minus 30,000 = 100,000 af/y.
• Assumed change in lake storage = 0.

Figure 5-6 Summary of Water Budget Estimates for Various Goose

Lake Studies

Source: Geohydrology and Numerical Model Analysis of Groundwater Flow in

the Goose Lake Basin, Oregon and California

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5.6 MANAGED AQUIFER RECHARGE

Definition: Volume of water intentionally added to the groundwater system
as part of defined recharge and water banking programs through spreading
basins, injection wells, and other means.

Context: Managed aquifer recharge may be a component of a water

banking program or local practices to recharge water to the aquifer and then
extract that recharged water for later use. Water recharged as part of a
water banking program is not considered part of native groundwater and is
tracked separately as stored water for accounting purposes; all other water
recharged is considered part of native groundwater. Stored water may be
extracted for overlying users within the water budget zone (see Section 5.7,
“Stored Water Extraction”) and/or exported to contracting agencies outside
of the water budget zone (see Section 5.9, “Stored Water Export”). Managed
aquifer recharge can include flood water, stormwater, and treated
wastewater recharge as well as seawater intrusion control for urban areas
(see Section 3.5.2, “Urban Applied Water”). Additionally, on-farm managed
aquifer recharge may be less formal as surplus surface water is over-applied
to agricultural fields for the purpose of creating recharge (see Section 3.5.1,
“Agricultural Applied Water”), and the amount of surface water recharge
may need to be estimated from surface water deliveries and crop ET.

Related Water Budget Components: Evapotranspiration, Applied Water,

Surface Water Deliveries, Groundwater Extraction, Stored Water Extraction,
Groundwater Export, Stored Water Export

How to Determine Managed Aquifer Recharge:

• Method 1 — Obtain measured managed aquifer recharge data.
• Method 2 — Estimate managed aquifer recharge of on-farm
application.
• Method 3 — Estimate managed aquifer recharge for treated
wastewater.

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Method 1 — Obtain Measured Managed Aquifer Recharge Data

Managed aquifer recharge is often a measured quantity and is known by the
local agencies and water banks. Obtain managed aquifer recharge data
(daily, monthly, etc.) from the following sources:
• Records for local agency stormwater recharge, treated wastewater
recharge, and seawater intrusion control.
• Annual water bank and spreading basin program operation reports.
• Reports containing information on water transfers between entities.
• Numerical model input files.

Method 2 — Estimate Managed Aquifer Recharge of On-Farm

Application
Use the methods outlined in Section 3.5.1, “Agricultural Applied Water,” to
estimate on-farm application of managed aquifer recharge.

Method 3 — Estimate Managed Aquifer Recharge for Treated

Wastewater
Where treated wastewater recharge is unmeasured, use the methods
outlined in Section 3.8, “Applied Water Reuse and Recycled Water” to
estimate the recharge volume for treated waste water.

5.7 STORED WATER EXTRACTION

Definition: Volume of groundwater pumped (extracted) from the underlying
aquifer(s) through a defined recharge and extraction program for use within
the water budget zone. For example, a water bank with dedicated extraction
wells can provide data for stored water extraction. It does not include stored
water export, groundwater extraction, and groundwater export.
Groundwater extraction and stored water extraction will be combined if
stored water extraction amounts are unknown or are not separately
measured; in such a case, the total volume of combined extractions will be
reported as groundwater extraction.

Context: Stored water extraction is part of a managed water banking

program to recharge water to the aquifer (see Section 5.6, “Managed Aquifer
Recharge”) and extract that recharged water for overlying users within the
water budget zone. Stored water extracted for contracting agencies outside

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of the water budget zone is discussed in Section 5.9, “Stored Water Export.”
These are managed programs that require an accounting of recharge and
withdrawals. Stored water extraction data are always measured and are
available from bank operators.

Related Water Budget Components: Groundwater Extraction,

Groundwater Export, Stored Water Export, Managed Aquifer Recharge

How to Determine Stored Water Extraction: Obtain measured stored

water extraction data for all years of interest from water bank operators.
Obtain stored water extraction data (daily, monthly, etc.) from the following
sources:
• Annual water bank operation reports.
• Reports containing information on water transfers between entities.
• Numerical model input files.
• Measured groundwater pumping from wells in the well field supplying
water to areas inside the water budget zone.

5.8 GROUNDWATER EXPORT

Definition: Volume of groundwater pumped (extracted) from the underlying
aquifer for use outside the water budget zone. It does not include
groundwater extraction, stored water extraction, and stored water export.

Context: Groundwater export (GWx) in the total water budget schematic is

a concept tied to the delineation of a water budget zone. If an amount of
native groundwater is pumped from the underlying aquifer inside a defined
water budget zone but is delivered/used outside the zone, then that amount
of water is considered a groundwater export from the source water budget
zone and as imported water (after conveyance losses are accounted for) into
the destination water budget zone. The groundwater exports from one
agency jurisdiction to another agency are always measured except when
pumped groundwater from the same agency jurisdiction is used in a
different water budget zone from where it is pumped.

An important distinction to make is that groundwater exports will be

transported via conveyance facilities. In order to avoid double counting of
water leaving the region, exported water from different sources needs to be

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accounted for separately. Surface water exports refers to surface water

leaving the region that originates as surface water whereas groundwater
exports refer to water leaving the region that originates as groundwater.

Related Water Budget Components: Applied Water, Surface Water

Export, Groundwater Extraction, Stored Water Extraction, Conveyance
Evaporation, Conveyance Seepage

How to Determine Groundwater Export: If extraction wells, excluding

those used for water banking, are identified for the water budget zone of
interest, find out which of those wells deliver water outside of the water
budget zone along with the proportion of the total pumped water that is
delivered outside. Two methods of compiling groundwater export data are
described below:
• Method 1 — Obtain measured groundwater export data.
• Method 2 — Estimate groundwater exports using the estimates of
applied water.

Method 1 — Obtain Measured Groundwater Export Data

Groundwater exports are often measured and known by local agencies.
Obtain groundwater export data (daily, monthly, etc.) from the following
sources:
• Reports containing information on water transfers between entities,
excluding water banking operations.
• Numerical model input files.
• Measured groundwater pumping from wells within the well field
supplying water to areas outside the water budget zone, excluding
water banking operations.

Method 2 — Estimate Groundwater Export Using the Estimates of

Applied Water
Groundwater exports from a water budget zone can be estimated by
calculating the amount of applied groundwater at the place of use and
adding the conveyance losses for transporting the groundwater to its place
of use. Volumes of on-farm total applied water can be determined by
estimating crop types, acreage, and irrigation practices at the place of use
and using the estimates of applied water as calculated in Section 3.5.1,

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“Agricultural Applied Water.” Applied groundwater is calculated by

subtracting the surface water deliveries and applied water reuse from the
total applied water needed.

5.9 STORED WATER EXPORT

Definition: Volume of groundwater pumped (extracted) from the underlying
aquifer(s) through a defined recharge and extraction program for use
outside the water budget zone. For example, a water bank with dedicated
extraction wells can provide data for stored water export. It does not include
stored water extraction, groundwater extraction, and groundwater export.
Groundwater export and stored water export will be combined if stored
water export amounts are unknown or are not separately measured. In such
a case, the total volume of combined exports will be reported as
groundwater export.

Context: The Central Valley of California is home to numerous water

banking operations; these operations play a critical role during the dry years
by providing a reliable supply of water to the banking partners, which may
or may not be in the water budget zone. The stored water is pumped in dry
years and could be used within the water budget zone for overlying use or
transported outside the water budget zone. Stored water extraction for
overlying use within the water budget zone only accounts for the amount of
water that is used on the overlying land; whereas, stored water export
accounts for pumped water from water banks that is used outside of the
water budget zone. Stored water export data are always measured and are
available from water bank operators.

Related Water Budget Components: Groundwater Extraction, Stored

Water Extraction, Groundwater Export, Managed Aquifer Recharge

How to Determine Stored Water Export: Obtain measured stored water

export data for all years of interest from water bank operators. Obtain
stored water export data (daily, monthly, etc.) from the following sources:
• Annual water bank operation reports.
• Reports containing information on water transfers between entities.
• Numerical model input files.

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• Measured or metered groundwater pumping from wells in the well field

supplying water to areas outside the water budget zone.

5.10 CHANGE IN GROUNDWATER STORAGE

Definition: Net change in the volume of groundwater stored within the
underlying aquifer of the water budget zone.

Context: Groundwater is the water that is present underground in the pore

spaces of soil and sand and in the fractures of rock. It moves slowly through
geologic formations of soil, sand, and rocks called aquifers. Aquifers are
recharged through percolation of precipitation, applied water, and managed
aquifer recharge; seepage from canals, lakes, and streams; and subsurface
inflows. Aquifers are discharged through groundwater extraction, accretion
to lakes and streams, and subsurface outflows. The difference of recharge
(inflows) and discharge (outflows) in the aquifer is the change in
groundwater storage. It can be calculated using a simple mass balance
approach as follows:

In addition to an analysis of inflow and outflow, change in groundwater

storage can be estimated by using direct measurements, such as measuring
groundwater levels, or using indirect measurements, such as remote
sensing, both coupled with modeling tools to estimate the change in the
volume of groundwater storage. When actual change in groundwater storage
can be estimated from measured parameters, the resulting estimate can be
used to evaluate the mass balance error, which reflects how well the inflow,
outflow, and change in storage components can be estimated. Large mass
balance errors may indicate the need to re-evaluate the inflow and outflow
components along with methods to directly estimate change in groundwater
storage directly. The mass balance error is expressed as:

Groundwater storage is also affected by one-time only water release caused

by land subsidence (see Section 5.11).

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Change in groundwater storage is not the same as groundwater overdraft.

Bulletin 118 defines overdraft as: “…the condition of a groundwater basin in
which the amount of water withdrawn by pumping exceeds the amount of
water that recharges the basin over a period of years during which water
supply conditions approximate average conditions.” The differences include:
• Change in storage is an annual construct whereas overdraft is
calculated over a period of representative years.
• Change in storage accounts for all inflow and outflow components
whereas overdraft only includes groundwater pumping and recharge
(from precipitation, applied water, seepage, managed aquifer
recharge, etc.).
• Change in storage can be an accretion or depletion of the system
whereas overdraft always indicates a depletion in the system.
Related Water Budget Components: Groundwater Extraction, Stored
Water Extraction, Groundwater Export, Recharge of Applied Water and
Precipitation, Managed Aquifer Recharge, Conveyance Seepage, Subsurface
Inflow, Subsurface Outflow, Stream-Groundwater Interaction, Lake-
Groundwater Interaction

How to Determine Change in Groundwater Storage:

• Method 1 — Obtain available technical reports and studies.
• Method 2 — Obtain available spreadsheets and numerical models.
• Method 3 — Estimate using measured groundwater level data and
aquifer parameters.
• Method 4 — Estimate using a mass balance approach.

Method 1 — Obtain Available Technical Reports and Studies

USGS and other agencies publish historical investigation reports on
hydrogeology of many regions in the U.S. Such reports may provide a
quantitative description of change in groundwater storage for groundwater
basins and subbasins in California. Key sources of information include:
• Local agency records, including flood control districts, or water
resource management agencies.
• USGS Water-Resources Investigations Reports.
• USGS Scientific Investigations Report.

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Method 2 — Obtain Available Spreadsheets and Numerical Models

Various numerical hydrologic models developed for basins in California may
have change in groundwater storage estimates. These models, whether a
spreadsheet or numerical model, may be useful in determining change in
groundwater storage for the water budget zone of interest. Sources of
information include:
• USGS Water Resources.
• USGS California Water Science Center — Groundwater Modeling.
• USGS California Water Science Center: Central Valley Hydrologic
Model.
• C2VSim.

Method 3 — Estimate Using Measured Groundwater Level Data and

Aquifer Parameters
Groundwater level data, in conjunction with estimated aquifer storage
parameters, can be used to estimate change in groundwater storage for the
water budget zone. Groundwater levels are measured, compiled, and
reported by USGS, DWR, local agencies, and water banking projects. Obtain
groundwater level data (daily, monthly, etc.) from the following sources:
• California Statewide Groundwater Elevation Monitoring (CASGEM)
Program.
• DWR Water Data Library: Groundwater Level Data.
• USGS Groundwater Levels for California.
• Local monitoring records.

The change in groundwater storage is calculated as the product of (1) the

difference in groundwater elevation between two monitoring periods, (2) the
area overlying the water budget zone, and (3) the average specific yield in
an unconfined aquifer or storativity in a confined aquifer.

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Where:
• GWEt0 = Average groundwater elevation in the overlying area at
monitoring period 1.
• GWEt1 = Average groundwater elevation in the overlying area at
monitoring period 2.

The average groundwater elevation in an overlying area can be developed

from point groundwater elevation measurements at wells at a given period
of time using GIS interpolation function. Interpolating the point groundwater
elevations in GIS allows for spatial weighting and removes some of the
uncertainty associated with using point measurements over a larger area.
Caution should be taken when developing the average groundwater
elevations from a monitoring network. Depending on the network of wells,
areas with less data will likely result in higher uncertainty in groundwater
elevation estimates.

Specific yield represents the water-yielding capacity of a material and is

defined as the ratio of the volume of water that will drain by gravity from a
saturated rock or soil compared to the total volume of rock or soil. Specific
yield values can be determined in the field or laboratory using direct or
indirect methods. Direct methods divide the measured volume of water that
drains from a volume of saturated material by the measured volume of the
saturated material. Based on aquifer material texture analysis, a range of
specific yield values from 0.07 to 0.17 are reported in C2VSim for aquifers in
the Central Valley. For confined aquifers, storativity describes the volume of
water released from, or taken into, storage per unit surface area per unit
change in hydraulic head in the confined aquifer. The typical storativity of a
confined aquifer, which varies with specific storage and aquifer thickness,
ranges from 5×10-5 to 5×10-3 (Todd 1980).

Specific yield estimates can be obtained from the following sources:

• Well completion reports or driller logs.
• Local studies.
• USGS California Water Science Center: Central Valley Hydrologic
Model.
• C2VSim.

216 | Section 5. Groundwater System

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For a detailed explanation of calculating change in groundwater storage

using groundwater level data, see “Appendix E: California’s Groundwater
Update 2013 Technical Memorandum: Calculating Annual Change in
Groundwater in Storage by Using Groundwater-Level Data.”

Method 4 — Estimate Using A Mass Balance Approach

In the mass balance approach, inflows and outflows need to be determined
for the aquifer within the water budget zone of interest. The difference
between inflows and outflows in the aquifer is the change in groundwater
storage, expressed as:

Inflows to the aquifer consist of recharge of applied water and precipitation,

conveyance seepage, subsurface inflows, gains from lakes and streams, and
managed aquifer recharge. Outflows from the aquifer consist of groundwater
pumping and exports, subsurface outflows, losses to lakes and streams, and
stored water extraction. The inflow and outflow components can be
determined from data identified and methods described for each component
in this handbook.

5.11 WATER RELEASE CAUSED BY LAND SUBSIDENCE

Definition: Volume of water released to an aquifer on a one-time basis as a
result of land subsidence, which is caused by the inelastic consolidation of
porous fine-grained material.

Context: USGS defined land subsidence as “a gradual settling or sudden

sinking of the Earth's surface owing to subsurface movement of earth
materials… Three distinct processes account for most of the water-related
subsidence — compaction of aquifer systems, drainage and subsequent
oxidation of organic soils, and dissolution and collapse of susceptible rocks.”
Land subsidence occurs in California’s Central Valley because of long periods
of over-pumping from aquifers. When land subsidence occurs from inelastic
consolidation of porous fine-grained material, a volume of water is released
on a one-time only basis from the pore spaces, and the corresponding
aquifer storage space is permanently lost because of compaction (Riley
1969). The porous material cannot be “inflated” back to their original volume
by simply replacing the water that was released as a result of land
subsidence.

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Related Water Budget Components: Change in Groundwater Storage,

Groundwater Extraction

How to Determine Water Release Caused by Land Subsidence:

• Method 1 — Obtain available technical reports and modeling studies.
• Method 2 — Estimate using model results and groundwater level data.

Method 1 — Obtain Available Technical Reports and Modeling Studies

The estimates for water release caused by land subsidence is not widely
available because it cannot be directly estimated or measured without a
numerical model. USGS has published historical hydrogeologic investigations
and modeling reports that could be a good source of available information.
Key sources of information for the Central Valley of California include:
• USGS California Water Science Center: Central Valley Hydrologic
Model.
• C2VSim.
• DWR Water Data Library Ground Surface Displacement — Land
Subsidence Monitoring.
• USGS Water Data for the Nation.

Method 2 — Estimate Using Model Results and Groundwater Level

Data
Water release caused by land subsidence could be estimated if a numerical
model is available for a groundwater basin where there is evidence of land
subsidence and where extensive groundwater level measurements are
available. One can calculate the change in storage using the groundwater
level measurements and compare that with the model computed change of
storage. The difference between the two numbers may be the result of many
factors such as modeling errors or because of unaccounted water released
from demonstrated land subsidence. As a result, a portion of this difference
can be attributed to water release caused by land subsidence, subject to the
10 to 30 percent limits of total groundwater pumping.

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6. CASE STUDY: NON-MODELING

APPROACH

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6.1 INTRODUCTION
There can be situations when a model may not be needed, may not be
available, or may not be appropriate for developing a water budget. A case
study is presented in this section to illustrate how to generate estimates of
water budget components using the non-modeling approach. The case study
is an application of the process described in Section 2.9, “Non-Modeling
Approach,” and of methods described in Section 3, “Land System;” Section
4, “Surface Water System;” and Section 5, “Groundwater System.” The case
study relies on measured data as well as estimates developed using the non-
modeling approach. To facilitate application of the non-modeling approach, a
spreadsheet tool was developed.

The methodology and results of the case study are presented in the
following subsections. A summary of the contents of the figures and tables
used in the case study is provided in Table 6-1.

Table 6-1 Summary of Case Study Figures and Tables

Table/Figure Description
Figure 6-1 Map showing the water districts within the water budget zone.
Figure 6-2 Map showing the groundwater sustainability agencies (GSA)
within the water budget zone.
Figure 6-3 Map showing land use within the water budget zone, which is
used to determine evapotranspiration and applied water.
Figure 6-4 Map showing surface water features within the water budget
zone, which is used for identifying and analyzing conveyance
facility seepage and evaporation.
Figure 6-5 Map showing groundwater elevation contours, which are used
to estimate the subsurface flows in the basin resulting from
groundwater gradients.
Figure 6-6 — results Results of the land system budget analysis and the associated
Table 6-2 — documentation of the data sources, assumptions, methods,
documentation and references to sections in the Water Budget Handbook.
Figure 6-7 — results Results of the surface water system budget analysis and the
Table 6-3 — associated documentation of the data sources, assumptions,
documentation methods, and references to sections in the Water Budget
Handbook.
Figure 6-8 — results Results of the groundwater system budget analysis and the
Table 6-4 — associated documentation of the data sources, assumptions,
documentation methods, and references to sections in the Water Budget
Handbook.

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Table/Figure Description
Figure 6-9 Schematic showing the inflows and outflows from the water
budget zone
Figure 6-10 The total water budget, which combines the results of Figure 6-
7, Figure 6-8, and Figure 6-9.
Table 6-5 Components that were found to be challenging to estimate or
obtain during the development of the water budget presented
in the case study.

6.2 STUDY AREA

A portion of the southern Central Valley was chosen as the water budget
zone of interest for the case study because of the access to processed data
from reports, data sources, and prior integrated hydrologic model
applications in the area. The water budget zone selected for the case study
is the same as the C2VSim Subregion 17 and is also covered by the Kings
Basin Integrated Groundwater and Surface Water Model.

The water budget zone selected for the case study is shown in Figure 6-1. It
contains the following agricultural and urban water agencies:
• Alta Irrigation District (AID).
• Consolidated Irrigation District (CID).
• Kings River Water District (KRWD).
• Orange Cove Irrigation District.
• Hills Valley Irrigation District.
• Tri-Valley Water District.
• Several urban agencies.

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Figure 6-1 Water Districts within the Water Budget Zone

The water budget zone is within the Tulare Lake Hydrologic Region and
covers part of the San Joaquin Valley — Kings Subbasin (Bulletin 118
No. 5-22.08). The Kings River flows from north to south through the water
budget zone, bisecting it into eastern and western halves. The boundaries of
the water budget zone are as follows:
• Eastern boundary: The Sierra Nevada foothills.
• Western boundary: The western boundary of the CID.
• Northern boundary: The southern boundary of the Fresno Irrigation
District (FID).
• Southern boundary: The southern boundaries of AID and CID.

As shown in Figure 6-2 there are three GSAs in the water budget zone. The
Central Kings GSA and South Kings GSA have jurisdiction over areas west of

222 | Section 6. Case Study: Non-Modeling Approach

 Handbook for Water Budget Development

the Kings River while the Kings River East GSA has jurisdiction over areas
east of the river.

Figure 6-2 Groundwater Sustainability Agencies within the Water

Budget Zone

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Handbook for Water Budget Development

Agriculture is the primary land use in the water budget zone. Irrigation
water supply is a combination of surface water and groundwater while
municipal supply is exclusively groundwater. Figure 6-3 shows the
distribution of land use in the water budget zone.

Figure 6-3 Land Use in the Water Budget Zone

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 Handbook for Water Budget Development

Surface water is distributed through a network of streams and irrigation

canals as shown in Figure 6-4. Diversions from the Kings River supplies
irrigation water via a network of canals. The Kings River Water Association is
the water master for the Kings River and represents 28 members that divert
water and have water rights to Kings River flows.

Figure 6-4 Surface Water System within the Water Budget Zone

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Handbook for Water Budget Development

The groundwater system of the water budget zone consists of

unconsolidated continental deposits of Tertiary and Quaternary periods
overlain by a younger series of deposits of the Quaternary period that can be
divided into older alluvium, lacustrine and marsh deposits, younger alluvium,
and flood-basin deposits. The general movement of groundwater is from the
northeast to the southwest direction as depicted by the contour map shown
in Figure 6-5.

Figure 6-5 Groundwater Level Contour Map within the Water Budget
Zone

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6.3 INVENTORY OF AVAILABLE INFORMATION

A data search was conducted to determine what relevant water budget data
and information were available for the case study area. This data collection
process is in accordance with the steps described in Section 2.9.1, “General
Data Collection for Non-Modeling Approach.” Each water budget component
was estimated using one or more methods presented in Section 3, “Land
System;” Section 4, “Surface Water System;” and Section 5, “Groundwater
System.” The availability of data is often the determining factor in deciding
which method to use.

Listed below are the data sources used to compute the various water budget
components.

Land System
• Evapotranspiration.
o Crop evapotranspiration (ETc): DWR Agricultural Land and Water
Use Estimates.
o Crop efficiencies (CF): DWR Agricultural Land and Water Use
Estimates.
o Crop areas: DWR Land Use Surveys and DWR Agricultural Land
and Water Use Estimates.
o Reference ET (ETo): California Irrigation Management
Information System zone map.
• Precipitation.
o Monthly precipitation data: California Irrigation Management
Information System.
• Groundwater Extraction.
o Groundwater pumping data: Kings River Conservation District
• Runoff.
o Soil type for curve number: Natural Resources Conservation
Service.

Surface Water System

• Surface Water Inflow and Outflow.

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Handbook for Water Budget Development

o Streamflow: Kings River Water Association.

• Surface Water Diversions.
o Streamflow diversions: Kings River Water Association.

Groundwater System
• Subsurface Inflow and Outflow.
o Groundwater level contours: SGMA Data Viewer.
o Groundwater hydraulic conductivity: USGS Report “Ground
Water in The Fresno Area, California.”
o Historical groundwater elevations: CASGEM Report of
Groundwater Elevation Data.
• Change in Groundwater Storage
o Groundwater level contours: SGMA Data Viewer.
o Groundwater hydraulic conductivity: USGS Report “Ground
Water in The Fresno Area, California.”
o Historical groundwater elevations: CASGEM Report of
Groundwater Elevation Data.

6.4 APPLICATION OF NON-MODELING APPROACH

The results of the monthly water budget computations for Water Year 2003
using the non-modeling approach, including specific data source,
assumptions, and method for calculating each component, are presented in
Figures 6-6 through 6-8 with documentation provided in Tables 6-2 through
6-4, for the land system, surface water system, and groundwater system,
respectively. The results of the case study are also available in accessible
Excel format on the Water Budget Handbook webpage. The water budget
components shown in these figures correspond to the components shown in
Figure 1-1.

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 Handbook for Water Budget Development

Figure 6-6 Land System Water Budget for Water Year 2003 (in acre-feet)
Credit (+)
Component* Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Annual Total
/Debit(-)
1 Precipitation
2 Precip Ag + 0 40,905 37,530 7,983 35,699 20,852 51,922 17,101 0 382 462 0 212,835
3 Precip Native + 0 6,642 6,093 1,296 5,796 3,386 8,430 2,777 0 62 75 0 34,557
4 Precip Urban + 0 5,184 4,756 1,012 4,524 2,643 6,580 2,167 0 48 59 0 26,972
SW Delivery Ag
5 + 4,652 568 243 64 137 2,032 4,661 45,517 138,496 125,280 26,666 6,210 354,527
(Diversion minus losses)
INFLOWS

6 Groundwater Extraction
7 GW Extraction Ag + 49,747 0 0 0 0 18,407 39,251 109,588 85,416 122,440 181,477 146,613 752,940
8 GW Extraction Urban + 3,867 2,386 2,033 1,990 1,661 2,455 2,610 4,043 7,886 5,848 10,554 4,912 50,245
9 Applied Water 58,265 2,953 2,276 2,054 1,798 22,895 46,522 159,149 231,798 253,569 218,697 157,735 1,157,712
10 Appliied Water Ag 54,399 568 243 64 137 20,440 43,912 155,106 223,912 247,721 208,143 152,823 1,107,467
11 Applied Water Urban 3,867 2,386 2,033 1,990 1,661 2,455 2,610 4,043 7,886 5,848 10,554 4,912 50,245
12 Total Inflow 58,265 55,684 50,655 12,345 47,818 49,775 113,453 181,194 231,798 254,061 219,292 157,735 1,432,076
13 Evapotranspiration
14 ET Ag - 45,237 14,537 6,825 6,587 9,850 34,073 79,127 141,784 183,897 203,345 171,042 125,770 1,022,075
15 ET Native - 0 5,434 1,799 1,296 4,722 3,386 8,430 2,777 0 62 75 0 27,981
16 ET Urban - 3,867 1,901 702 702 1,843 4,110 5,807 6,210 7,886 5,896 8,425 4,912 52,262
17 Runoff
18 Runoff Ag - 0 6,355 4,947 0 4,241 362 11,761 37 0 0 0 0 27,704
19 Runoff Native - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
OUTFLOWS

20 Runoff Urban - 0 2,772 2,436 0 2,258 952 3,383 0 0 0 0 0 11,801

21 Recharge of Applied Water
22 Recharge of Ag Applied Water - 1,632 17 7 2 4 613 1,317 4,653 6,717 7,432 6,244 4,585 33,224
23 Recharge of Urban Applied Water - 116 72 61 60 50 74 78 121 237 175 317 147 1,507
24 Recharge of Precipitation
25 Recharge of Precipitation on Ag - 0 1,227 1,126 239 1,071 626 1,558 513 0 11 14 0 6,385
26 Recharge of Preciptation on Native - 0 199 183 39 174 102 253 83 0 2 2 0 1,037
27 Recharge of Precipitation on Urban - 0 156 143 30 136 79 197 65 0 1 2 0 809
28 Total Outflow 50,852 32,669 18,230 8,956 24,350 44,376 111,912 156,244 198,738 216,925 186,121 135,414 1,184,786
STORAGE
CHANGE

29 Change in Land System Storage - - - - - - - - - - - - -

30 Land System Mass Balance Error 7,414 23,015 32,425 3,389 23,468 5,399 1,542 24,949 33,060 37,136 33,172 22,321 247,289
*Note: Stored Water Extraction, Applied Water Reuse/Recycled Water, Return Flow, Recycled Water Export, Managed Aquifer Recharge, and Change in Land System Storage are not included as there was no data available for those
components and estimated to be insignificant in the area.

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Handbook for Water Budget Development

Table 6-2 Documentation: Land System

Row(s) Water Budget Data Sources, Assumptions, and Handbook
of Component Estimation Methods Section
Figure Reference
6-6
2–4 Precipitation Precipitation data for the study area came 3.3
from California Irrigation Management
Information System Stations #39 and
#142.
Thiessen polygons were used to distribute
monthly station data over the agricultural,
urban, and native areas. Each area was
computed separately. The Thiessen
method was adequate for distributing
precipitation over the water budget zone
because the variation over the zone was
not significant.
5 SW Delivery Ag Agricultural surface water deliveries were 3.6
(Agricultural based on measured diversion data that
Surface Water was adjusted for conveyance seepage
Delivery) and evaporative losses (Table 6-3).
Monthly surface water diversion data for
all agencies using Kings River water is
from the Kings River Water Association.
- SW Delivery The study area does not have any surface 3.6
Urban (Urban water deliveries for urban use.
Surface Water
Delivery)
7 GW Extraction Ag Agricultural pumping was calculated 3.7
(Agricultural based on the assumption that
Pumping) groundwater was used when there were
insufficient surface water deliveries to
meet applied water. Agricultural pumping
was calculated as agricultural water
requirement (described in applied water
calculation below) minus effective
precipitation and agricultural surface water
deliveries.
8 GW Extraction Monthly urban pumping data in the water 3.7
Urban (Urban budget zone were available from local
Pumping) agencies (cities and water agencies). Data
was obtained from the Kings River
Conservation District.

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 Handbook for Water Budget Development

Row(s) Water Budget Data Sources, Assumptions, and Handbook

of Component Estimation Methods Section
Figure Reference
6-6
10 Applied Water Ag. Agricultural applied water was used to 3.5.1
(Agricultural estimate agricultural pumping. The crop
Applied Water) coefficient method was used to calculate
crop evapotranspiration (ETc). Irrigation
efficiency data were used to estimate
applied water for each major crop type in
the water budget zone. Crop parameters
were based on DWR’s Agricultural Land
and Water Use Estimates.
Agricultural applied water for each crop is
ETc minus effective precipitation, divided
by irrigation efficiency and multiplied by
crop area. Example data included
maximum monthly ETc of approximately
10 inches for almonds and irrigation
efficiencies ranging from 78 percent for
grain to 90 percent for tomatoes. The
estimated monthly applied water for each
crop was added to obtain the total annual
agricultural applied water in Row 10.

11 Applied Water Urban applied water in the study area is 3.5.2

Urban (Urban met exclusively by groundwater pumping.
Applied Water) As a result, urban applied water is equal
to urban pumping.
12 Total Inflow Equal to the sum of rows 2–5 and 7–8.
14–16 Evapotranspiration The crop coefficient approach was used to 3.4
for Agricultural, estimate evapotranspiration. It is assumed
Native, and Urban that evapotranspiration for each crop is
Areas equal to crop ETc multiplied by crop area.
ET is capped by precipitation over native
and urban areas. Data were obtained from
Agricultural Land and Water Use
Estimates, DWR Land Use Surveys, and
the Cal Poly Irrigation Training and
Research Center: California
Evapotranspiration Data.

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Handbook for Water Budget Development

Row(s) Water Budget Data Sources, Assumptions, and Handbook

of Component Estimation Methods Section
Figure Reference
6-6
18–20 Runoff for Runoff was calculated using the curve 3.10
Agricultural, number method. Soil data in the water
Native, and Urban budget zone were obtained from Natural
Areas Resources Conservation Service Soil
Surveys.
Soil type B is dominant in the water
budget zone. Curve numbers of 75, 48,
and 85 are representative of agricultural,
native, and urban areas in the water
budget zone, respectively.
22–23 Recharge for Monthly recharge of applied water and 5.2
and Agricultural, precipitation was calculated as a constant
25–27 Native, and Urban percentage of the volume of applied water
Areas and precipitation. In the water budget
zone, it was assumed that 3 percent of
applied water and precipitation percolated
into the groundwater system.
28 Total Outflow Equal to sum of rows 14–16, 18–20,
22–23, and 25–27.
30 Land System Equal to total inflow minus total outflow
Mass Balance minus change in land system storage.
Error

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 Handbook for Water Budget Development

Figure 6-7 Surface Water System Water Budget for Water Year 2003 (in acre-feet)
Credit (+)
Component* Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Annual Total
/Debit(-)
1 Stream Inflow
2 Kings River Inflow + 9,130 6,329 5,617 6,853 5,254 24,865 42,118 127,581 391,930 402,768 194,924 86,498 1,303,868
3 Mill Creek Inflow + 0 95 791 734 996 1,882 1,952 1,863 157 0 0 0 8,470
INFLOWS

4 Hughes Creek Inflow + 0 14 93 93 125 234 240 226 16 0 0 0 1,041

5 Friant Kern to Kings Inflow + 341 0 0 0 195 0 1,873 4,615 23,071 19,806 9,367 0 59,268
6 Runoff + 0 9,126 7,384 0 6,500 1,314 15,144 37 0 0 0 0 39,505
7 Return Flow + 1,165 59 46 41 36 458 930 3,183 4,636 5,071 4,374 3,155 23,154
8 Total Inflow 10,637 15,624 13,931 7,721 13,106 28,754 62,257 137,505 419,809 427,645 208,665 89,653 1,435,306
9 Stream Outflow
10 Kings River Outflow - 4,615 8,178 6,879 5,822 4,756 18,495 11,435 26,117 161,377 180,069 96,548 22,259 546,550
11 Surface Water Diversions
12 AID Diversions 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 26,568 44,235 46,062 20,737 0 137,602
13 CID Diversions 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14,914 91,134 75,236 0 0 181,284
14 KRWD Diversions 5,044 698 337 208 329 2,374 5,927 6,998 8,450 9,223 8,513 7,863 55,964
OUTFLOWS

15 Conveyance Evaporation - 237 115 59 79 125 217 325 435 497 514 454 344 3,401
16 Conveyance Seepage - 155 16 35 65 67 125 941 2,528 4,826 4,727 2,130 1,309 16,923
SW Delivery
17 - 4,652 568 243 64 137 2,032 4,661 45,517 138,496 125,280 26,666 6,210 354,527
(Diversion minus losses)
18 Surface Water Exports
19 Gould Canal Export - 303 0 0 1,363 415 831 5,839 13,262 18,343 20,281 18,332 14,789 93,758
20 FID Canal Export - 2,426 81 1,414 1,664 2,594 3,025 35,298 64,660 79,148 85,550 58,894 42,780 377,534
21 Stream Loss to Groundwater - 37 65 55 47 38 148 91 209 1,291 1,441 772 178 4,372
22 Total Outflow 12,425 9,022 8,685 9,104 8,132 24,873 58,590 152,728 403,978 417,862 203,796 87,869 1,397,064
STORAGE
CHANGE

23 Change in Surface Water System Storage - - - - - - - - - - - - -

24 Surface Water System Mass Balance Error -1,788 6,601 5,246 -1,382 4,974 3,881 3,666 -15,223 15,831 9,783 4,869 1,784 38,242
*Note: Precipitation on Lakes, Stream Gain from GW, Lake Gain from GW, Imported Water, Lake loss to GW, Lake Evaporation, Stream Evaporation, and Change in Surface Water System Storage are not included as
there was no data available for those components and estimated to be insignificant in the area.

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Table 6-3 Documentation: Surface Water System

Row(s) Water Data Sources, Assumptions, and Estimation Handbook
of Budget Methods Section
Figure Component Reference
6-7
2–5 Stream Inflow Stream inflows to the water budget zone are 4.2
measured and available from the Kings River
Water Association. Inflows are reported for the
Kings River, Mill Creek, Hughes Creek, and
deliveries from the Friant-Kern Canal to the
Kings River.
- Groundwater In the water budget zone, the groundwater 5.4
Loss to system is predominantly gaining water from
Streams streams and does not lose any water to
streams.
6 Runoff Runoff is an outflow from the land system to 3.10
the surface water system. It is the sum of runoff
from the agricultural, native, and urban areas.
Runoff was calculated using the curve number
method. Soil data in the water budget zone
were obtained from Natural Resources
Conservation Service soil surveys.
Soil type B is dominant in the water budget
zone. Curve numbers of 75, 48, and 85 are
representative of agricultural, native, and urban
areas in the water budget zone, respectively.
7 Return Flow Return flow is an inflow to the surface water 3.11
system and was calculated as a fixed
percentage of applied water. It was assumed
as 2 percent of the agricultural surface water
deliveries, agricultural pumping, and urban
pumping.
8 Total Inflow Equal to sum of rows 2–7.
10 Stream The primary stream outflows from the water 4.2
Outflow budget zone are from the Kings River. Surface
water outflow from the Kings River is based on
Kings River streamflow data measured at
Peoples Weir, which is available from the Kings
River Water Association.

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Row(s) Water Data Sources, Assumptions, and Estimation Handbook

of Budget Methods Section
Figure Component Reference
6-7
12–14 Surface Surface water diversions to Alta Irrigation 4.3
Water District, Consolidated Irrigation District, and
Diversion Kings River Water District are based on
measured data at weirs on the Kings River.
Monthly diversion data are available from
KRWA.
15 Conveyance Conveyance evaporation losses were 4.5
Evaporation calculated using the equation “1.1 × ETo ×
River Surface Area”, where ETo is from the
California Irrigation Management Irrigation
System Reference Evapotranspiration zone
map.
16 Conveyance Conveyance seepage was estimated as a 4.6
Seepage constant percentage of diversions and exports.
It was assumed that 2 percent of diversions
and exports became seepage to the
groundwater system. This percentage is based
on a rough approximation technique when no
other information is available.
17 Surface Calculated as the surface water diversions 3.6
Water minus conveyance evaporation and
Delivery conveyance seepage.
19–20 Surface Surface water exports were based on 4.7
Water Export measured data obtained from the KRWA for:
(1) Fresno Irrigation District from Could Canal,
and (2) Fresno Irrigation District Canal.
21 Stream Loss Surface water loss to groundwater 5.4
to (groundwater gain from streams) was
Groundwater estimated to be 0.8 percent of surface water
(Groundwater outflows, which was based on an average ratio
Gain from from the Kings Basin Integrated Groundwater
Streams) and Surface water Model.
22 Total Outflow Equal to the sum of rows 10, 15–17, and
19–21.
23 Stream Equal to total inflow minus total outflow minus
System Mass change in stream system storage.
Balance Error

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Figure 6-8 Groundwater System Water Budget for Water Year 2003 (in acre-feet)
Credit (+)
Component* Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Annual Total
/Debit(-)
1 Recharge of Applied Water + 1,748 89 68 62 54 687 1,396 4,774 6,954 7,607 6,561 4,732 34,731
2 Recharge of Precipitation + 0 1,582 1,451 309 1,381 806 2,008 661 0 15 18 0 8,231
INFLOWS

3 Groundwater Gain from Stream + 37 65 55 47 38 148 91 209 1,291 1,441 772 178 4,372
4 Conveyance Seepage + 155 16 35 65 67 125 941 2,528 4,826 4,727 2,130 1,309 16,923
5 Subsurface Inflow + 1,118 1,118 1,118 1,118 1,118 1,118 1,118 1,118 1,118 1,118 1,118 1,118 13,416
6 Total Inflow 3,058 2,870 2,728 1,600 2,657 2,884 5,554 9,291 14,189 14,907 10,599 7,337 77,674
7 Groundwater Extraction
OUTFLOWS

8 GW Extraction Ag - 49,747 0 0 0 0 18,407 39,251 109,588 85,416 122,440 181,477 146,613 752,940
9 GW Extraction Urban - 3,867 2,386 2,033 1,990 1,661 2,455 2,610 4,043 7,886 5,848 10,554 4,912 50,245
10 Subsurface Outflow - 24,750 24,750 24,750 24,750 24,750 24,750 24,750 24,750 24,750 24,750 24,750 24,750 296,994
11 Total Outflow 78,363 27,135 26,783 26,739 26,411 45,612 66,610 138,381 118,052 153,038 216,780 176,274 1,100,179
STORAGE
CHANGE

12 Change in Groundwater Storage (computed) -65,335 -2,907 -2,478 -2,425 -2,024 -25,424 -51,013 -138,474 -113,700 -156,335 -234,013 -184,651 -978,779

13 Groundwater System Mass Balance Error -9,970 -21,358 -21,577 -22,715 -21,729 -17,305 -10,043 9,384 9,838 18,205 27,831 15,714 -43,727
*Note: Managed Aquifer Recharge, GW gain from Lake, Water Release Caused by Land Subsidence, Stored Water Extraction, GW Loss to Stream, GW loss to Lake, GW Export, and Stored Water Export are not
included as there was no data available for those components and estimated to be insignificant in the area.

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Table 6-4 Documentation: Groundwater System

Row(s) Water Budget Data Sources, Assumptions, and Handbook
of Figure Component Estimation Methods Section
6-8 Reference
1 Recharge of Recharge of applied water into the 5.2.2
Applied Water groundwater system is equal to the sum of the
land system recharge of applied water
(agricultural and urban areas). For the case
study, a rough approximation technique was
used to estimate recharge as 3 percent of
applied water.
2 Recharge of Recharge of applied water and precipitation 5.2.1
Precipitation into the groundwater system is equal to the
sum of the land system recharge of
precipitation. For the case study, a rough
approximation technique was used to estimate
recharge as 3 percent precipitation.
3 Groundwater Groundwater gain from the surface water 5.4
Gain from system was estimated to be 0.8 percent of
Stream surface water outflows, which is based on an
average ratio from the Kings Basin Integrated
Groundwater and Surface water Model.
4 Conveyance Conveyance seepage was estimated as a 4.6
Seepage constant percentage of diversions and exports.
For the case study, a rough approximation
technique of 2 percent of diversions and
exports was used to estimate seepage to the
groundwater system.
5 Subsurface Subsurface inflows from adjacent aquifer areas 5.3
Inflow were calculated using groundwater contours
and Darcy’s law. Groundwater contours maps
were obtained from DWR monitoring data (see
Figure 6-5).
Based on the contour maps, it was assumed
that inflow only occurred at the eastern
boundary of the study area. Hydraulic
conductivity was assumed to be 40 feet per
day, which was based on a 10–70 feet per day
range reported in a 1984 study in the Fresno
area.
Flow along the eastern boundary is assumed
to occur over a thickness of 50 feet and a
length of 120,000 feet.

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Row(s) Water Budget Data Sources, Assumptions, and Handbook

of Figure Component Estimation Methods Section
6-8 Reference
6 Total Inflow Equal to sum of rows 1–5.

8 GW Extraction Agricultural pumping was calculated based on 3.7

Ag the assumption that groundwater was used
(Agricultural when there were insufficient surface water
Pumping) deliveries to meet applied water. Agricultural
pumping was calculated as agricultural applied
water minus agricultural surface water
deliveries.
9 GW Extraction Monthly urban pumping data were available 3.7
Urban (Urban from local agencies (cities and water agencies)
Pumping) in the water budget zone. Data was obtained
from the Kings River Conservation District.
10 Subsurface Subsurface outflows to downgradient aquifers 5.3
Outflow were calculated using groundwater contours
and Darcy’s law. Groundwater contours maps
were obtained from DWR monitoring data.
Based on the contour maps, it was assumed
that outflows only occur at the western
boundary of the water budget zone. Hydraulic
conductivity was assumed to be 40 feet per
day, which was based on a 10–70 feet per day
range reported in a 1984 study in the Fresno
area.
Flow along the western boundary is assumed
to occur over a depth of
1,000 feet and a length of 185,000 feet.
11 Total Outflow Equal to sum of rows 8–10
12 Change in Change in groundwater storage is computed 5.10
Groundwater using groundwater contours and points
Storage selected from DWR monitoring data and
(computed) California Statewide Groundwater Elevation
Monitoring wells. The change in storage is
calculated for the period of fall 2002 through
spring 2003. A porosity of 0.15 was assumed.
13 Groundwater Equal to total inflow minus total outflow minus
Budget Mass change in groundwater storage.
Balance Error

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The water budgets of the land system, surface water system, and
groundwater systems, as presented in Figure 6-6, Figure 6-7, and
Figure 6-8, are aggregated to develop the total water budget as shown in
Figure 6-9 and presented in Figure 6-10. The total water budget includes
only the inflows and outflows into the water budget zone, not the flows
between systems or flows within systems shown in Figure 1-1. The inflows
and outflows of Figure 6-10 are visually presented in Figure 6-9, which is a
modified version of Figure 1-1 without the flows between systems and flows
within systems.

Figure 6-9 Total Water Budget (Only Inflows to and Outflows from
Water Budget Zone)

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Figure 6-10 Total Water Budget for Water Year 2003 (in acre-feet)
Credit
Component Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Annual Total
(+)/Debit(-)
Precipitation on Land System + 0 52,731 48,379 10,291 46,020 26,880 66,932 22,045 0 492 595 0 274,364
Precipitation on Lakes + na na na na na na na na na na na na na
Stream Inflow + 9,471 6,438 6,502 7,680 6,570 26,982 46,182 134,285 415,173 422,574 204,291 86,498 1,372,646
INFLOWS

Imported Water + na na na na na na na na na na na na na
Subsurface Inflow + 1,118 1,118 1,118 1,118 1,118 1,118 1,118 1,118 1,118 1,118 1,118 1,118 13,416
Water Release Caused by Land Subsidence + na na na na na na na na na na na na na
Total Inflow 10,589 60,287 55,999 19,089 53,708 54,980 114,232 157,447 416,291 424,183 206,004 87,616 1,660,427
Evapotranspiration from Land System - 49,104 21,873 9,326 8,586 16,415 41,569 93,364 150,771 191,784 209,303 179,542 130,682 1,102,319
Stream Evaporation - na na na na na na na na na na na na na
Lake Evaporation - na na na na na na na na na na na na na
Conveyance Evaporation - 237 115 59 79 125 217 325 435 497 514 454 344 3,401
OUTFLOWS

Stream Outflow - 4,615 8,178 6,879 5,822 4,756 18,495 11,435 26,117 161,377 180,069 96,548 22,259 546,550
Subsurface Outflow - 24,750 24,750 24,750 24,750 24,750 24,750 24,750 24,750 24,750 24,750 24,750 24,750 296,994
Surface Water Export - 2,729 81 1,414 3,027 3,009 3,856 41,137 77,922 97,491 105,831 77,226 57,569 471,292
Groundwater Export - na na na na na na na na na na na na na
Stored Water Export - na na na na na na na na na na na na na
Recycled Water Export - na na na na na na na na na na na na na
Total Outflow 81,434 54,996 42,428 42,263 49,055 88,886 171,010 279,994 475,898 520,466 378,520 235,604 2,420,555
STORAGE
CHANGE

Change in Total Storage -65,335 -2,907 -2,478 -2,425 -2,024 -25,424 -51,013 -138,474 -113,700 -156,335 -234,013 -184,651 -978,779

Total System Mass Balance Error -5,510 8,199 16,049 -20,749 6,677 -8,483 -5,766 15,927 54,093 60,052 61,498 36,664 218,650

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6.5 INSIGHTS FROM THE CASE STUDY

Developing a water budget for the case study area using the non-modeling
approach was straightforward but required application of professional
judgment. The water budget calculation tables presented in this section are
based on the water budget accounting template presented in Figures 1-2
through 1-5 and can be adapted to meet the needs of other water budget
zones of interest.

The most time-consuming aspect of the non-modeling approach was data

collection. In instances where data are not measured or readily available,
rough approximation techniques were used to develop initial estimates.
These initial estimates can be adjusted and refined later as better data are
compiled or become available. These estimates should be validated with
local knowledge and information to ensure that the estimates are defensible.

In the process of balancing the overall water budget, each of the water
budget systems was evaluated and an attempt was made to balance the
inflows and outflows in each of the systems. When the systems are not
balanced, it is an indication that there are water budget components that
need to be further adjusted and refined, specifically components that are
gross estimations based on minimal information. In this case study, the
components listed in Table 6-5, were found to be challenging to estimate
because of lack of additional corroborating information.

Table 6-5 Challenging Components to Estimate and/or Obtain Data

Water Budget Component Handbook Section
Return Flow 3.11
Recharge of Applied Water and Precipitation 5.2
Conveyance Seepage 4.6
Subsurface Inflow and Outflow 5.3
Stream-Groundwater Interaction 5.4

It should be noted that no efforts were made to adjust the above

components in this case study, because the purpose of the case study is to
demonstrate the application of the non-modeling approach, using a
standardized water accounting template.

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7.CASE STUDY: INTEGRATED WATER

FLOW MODEL

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7.1 INTEGRATED WATER FLOW MODEL INTRODUCTION

The Integrated Water Flow Model (IWFM) is DWR’s water resources
management and planning model. It calculates groundwater flows, soil
moisture movement in the topsoil, stream flows, land surface flows, and flow
exchange between the groundwater, streams, and land surface as generated
by precipitation, agricultural irrigation, and urban (i.e., municipal, industrial)
water use. IWFM also calculates agricultural water demands based on crop
types, crop acreage, soil types, irrigation methods and rainfall rates, as well
as the urban water demands based on population and per-capita water use
rates. Agricultural and urban water demands can be pre-specified or
calculated internally based on different land use types. Water reuse, as well
as tile drains and lakes or open water areas, is also modeled. IWFM is a
powerful tool that can help water managers to understand the historical
evolution of the surface and subsurface water flows within their basin and to
plan the use of groundwater and surface water for meeting future
agricultural and urban water demands.

IWFM-2015 (Version 2015) is the latest release of the model’s code and
builds upon prior updates. It takes a more modular approach relative to past
IWFM models and allows more options for the simulation of each water
budget component. IWFM-2015 serves as a container for various versions of
code to simulate hydrologic components, including different versions of the
root zone simulation, stream component, and lake component simulation
modules. While the IWFM framework allows the user to customize packages
and methodology used to simulate the hydrologic system, the outputs are
generally consistent between simulation options, making postprocessing
easier to standardize. Modules and simulation options are designed such that
minimal changes to the input file formats are required. All modules are
designed as part of IWFM and integrate seamlessly into the greater model
framework.

7.2 EXTRACTING WATER BUDGET COMPONENTS FROM IWFM

This case study section provides information on how to extract water budget
components from IWFM inputs and outputs. This section does not follow the
standard case study format of a study area inclusive of data collection,
model input file development, model runs, and results analysis. Rather, it
assumes that an IWFM model is already developed for an area and provides
examples of how to extract different water budget components from model

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results using a sample model developed using IWFM-2015. As a reminder,

many applications of IWFM exist in California, however, the outputs
discussed for this sample model are from IWFM-2015 and may differ from
earlier versions. This sample model is used to present the most
comprehensive example of extracting model inputs and outputs to illustrate
development of the total water budget.

By default, the IWFM model generates water budgets at the model subregion
scale. Model subregions are defined during model development. Subregions
may represent different jurisdictional areas such as water districts, cities, or
counties; regions with different water management strategies or sources of
water; or hydrologically separated areas. An IWFM application can also be
configured to generate water budget outputs for a user-defined “water
budget zone” that is delineated as a collection of elements in the model,
which can then produce water budget outputs for the specified water budget
zone. IWFM outputs are consistent with the water budget framework as
illustrated in Figure 1-1 and described in Sections 3 through 5.

Before running IWFM, output files are specified for subregional or zone
budget areas. There are three files where the user can specify model
outputs:
• Root zone component main: User specifies output files for the land and
water use budget and the root zone moisture budget.
• Stream parameters main: User specifies output files for the stream
budget and diversion detail report. Stream budgets are specified for
predefined stream reaches or nodes, not subregions or user defined
zones.
• Groundwater component main: User specifies output for the
groundwater budget.

7.2.1 IWFM Tools Add-In for Excel

The model outputs can be exported for easier processing using the IWFM
tools Add-in for Excel plugin, which will be referred to as the IWFM Excel
tool. The plugin can be downloaded from the IWFM and IDC Support Tools
webpage. The tool allows the user to import model generated results into
MS Excel and will automatically convert the units of the results and
aggregate them to the desired time interval.

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After installing the plugin, open Excel and navigate to the “IWFM Tools” tab.
Under the “Data Import” heading, click on either “Import Budget” or “Import
Z-Budget” depending on the desired type of outputs. Then, navigate to the
desired model output file and specify units, timeseries, and timescale. A
separate water budget table will be generated for every subregion or user-
defined water budget zone, depending on budget type. All water budget
output tables in the following sections were generated using the IWFM Tools
Add-in for Excel plugin. Excel tables generated using the tool provide water
budget timeseries in user specified spatial and temporal units.

Water budget components contained in various IWFM budget tables are

listed in Table 7-1. The components are organized by the three systems
outlined in the total water budget: land system, surface water system, and
groundwater system, as illustrated in Figure 1-1 and described in Sections 3
through 5.

Components of the water budget can be extracted from IWFM through six
primary outputs:
• Land and water use budget: The total agricultural and urban areas, as
well as the agricultural potential consumptive use of applied water and
the water supply requirements are reported in the output, followed by
the components that the land and water use budget is comprised of.
The land and water use budget corresponds closely to the land system
described in this document and is available by the default model
subregion or user defined zones based on a selection of model
elements. IWFM also allows for the generation of crop specific budgets,
where the generated budget tables are separated out by crop.
• Groundwater budget: The groundwater budget reports the inflows and
outflows as well as the beginning and ending groundwater storages. In
addition to the inflows and outflows from the groundwater system, the
groundwater budget also reports the percolation of water from the root
zone to the unsaturated zone to compare to the deep percolation into
the groundwater and cumulative subsidence for informational
purposes. The groundwater budget is available by model subregion or
user defined zone. The groundwater budget output corresponds closely
with the groundwater system.
• Root zone moisture budget: The root zone moisture budget provides
information on processes that are used to compute soil moisture in the

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root zone. Agricultural areas represent lands where crops are grown;
urban areas represent both indoor and outdoor urban water uses; and
native and riparian lands represent the undeveloped area in the
subregion. For each area type (agricultural, urban, and native and
riparian vegetation), precipitation and irrigation (except for native and
riparian vegetation areas) along with direct runoff and return flows are
listed. Similar to the land and water use budget, the root zone
moisture budget is available for model subregions, user defined zones,
and separated out by individual crops.
• Lake budget: Lakes are modeled to determine their interaction with
the groundwater and stream systems. The lake budget provides the
lake water balance, lake storage, and lake surface elevation at the end
of each time interval. Lakes are reported by lake system and are not
split by elements. However, the interaction with individual model
elements can be obtained from the groundwater budget.
• Stream budget: The stream reach budget tables provide information
on the flows in and out of the reaches as well as the impacts of other
processes on stream flows such as small stream watershed flows, tile
drainage, surface runoff, return flows, diversions and bypass flows.
The mass balance check for the reach is listed in the “Discrepancy”
column. The “Diversion Shortage” column reports the difference
between simulated diversions and the user specified diversion
requirements. This term does not affect the mass balance in the reach
but is listed as an informational term. Version 5.0 of the Stream
Component in IWFM can simulate flows using kinematic wave routing
and includes a change in storage, which is reported in the stream
budget. The stream budget is available by steam reach as well as
individual stream node. The stream node budget is useful if the user
requires reporting at a scale inconsistent with the model stream reach.
• Diversion detail report: This data file reports surface water deliveries
and diversions, as well as the difference between the required and
actual deliveries and diversions for each diversion simulated in the
model. Each diversion is associated with a required diversion amount,
along with recoverable and non-recoverable losses and a required
delivery amount. The diversion detail report lists the actual diversions
and deliveries as well as the shortages. The “Actual Delivery” and
“Delivery Shortage” columns also list the delivery destinations. The

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destination can be a subregion, an element, a group of elements, or a

delivery made to outside the model domain.
• Unsaturated zone budget: The unsaturated zone budget reports the
inflows and outflows, as well as the beginning and ending moisture
storage in the unsaturated zone. The beginning and ending storage,
along with the storage terms in the root zone moisture budget,
account for the change in storage in the land system. The inflow to the
unsaturated zone is the percolation leaving the root zone above, and
the outflow is the recharge to the underlying aquifer system. The
unsaturated zone budget is available by subregion or user defined
zones.
Table 7-1 IWFM Components for Establishing Total Water Budget
Water Budget Component IWFM Budgets
Land System
Precipitation Root Zone Moisture Budget
Evapotranspiration Root Zone Moisture Budget
Surface Water Delivery Land and Water Use Budget
Land and Water Use Budget,
Groundwater Extraction
Groundwater Budget
Applied Water Reuse Root Zone Moisture Budget
Recycled Water Not Available
Recycled Water Export Not Available
Runoff Root Zone Moisture Budget
Return Flow Root Zone Moisture Budget
Change in Land System Storage Root Zone Moisture Budget
Surface Water System
Surface Water Inflow and Outflow Stream Budget
Surface Water Diversion Stream Budget
Stream Evaporation Not Available
Conveyance Evaporation Diversion Detail Report
Conveyance Seepage Diversion Detail Report
Imported Water Diversion Detail Report
Surface Water Exports Diversion Detail Report
Stream-Lake Interaction Lake Budget, Stream Budget
Lake Evaporation Lake Budget
Change in Surface Water Storage Lake Budget
Groundwater System

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Water Budget Component IWFM Budgets

Recharge of Applied Water Groundwater Budget
Recharge of Precipitation Groundwater Budget
Subsurface Inflow and Outflow Groundwater Budget
Stream-Groundwater Interaction Groundwater Budget, Stream Budget
Lake-Groundwater Interaction Groundwater Budget, Lake Budget
Managed Aquifer Recharge Groundwater Budget
Land and Water Use Budget,
Stored Water Extraction
Groundwater Budget
Land and Water Use Budget,
Groundwater Export
Groundwater Budget
Land and Water Use Budget,
Stored Water Export
Groundwater Budget
Water Release Caused by Land Subsidence Groundwater Budget
Change in Groundwater Storage Groundwater Budget

7.2.2 IWFM Model Units

IWFM budget output results are presented as timeseries. The IWFM Excel
tool allows the user to assign conversion factors to obtain the results in Excel
in the desired units. IWFM simulates in timesteps ranging between one
minute and one year. The model outputs are presented with actual dates of
simulation, and the IWFM Excel tool can aggregate results to larger
timescales if needed. The IWFM Excel tool reads the model files and
recognizes dates, and the user does not need to go into the input files to find
this. Length units are provided in individual model files, and units are
generally in feet and can be converted to other units in the IWFM Excel tool.

The examples presented in this section are based on results exported using
the IWFM Excel tool that also converts outputs to units of acre feet and a
monthly timestep.

Descriptions in the following sections focus on deriving water budget

components from an existing, calibrated IWFM application. Refer to
Section 9, “Data Resources Directory”, for reference documentation that
discusses how IWFM computes components and what input data are
required.

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7.3 LAND SYSTEM

7.3.1 Precipitation
Precipitation, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of water vapor
that falls to the earth (land and surface water systems) as rain, snow, hail,
or is formed on the earth as dew, and frost.” IWFM accounts for total volume
of precipitation in the Root Zone Moisture Budget output. For the subregions
or water budget zone of interest, find the precipitation data in the “Ag.
Precipitation”, “Urban Precipitation”, and “Native and Riparian Veg.
Precipitation” columns (Figure 7-1 through Figure 7-3). For each time step,
sum the three columns to obtain the total volume of precipitation for the
water budget zone.

Figure 7-1 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Ag. Precipitation

Figure 7-2 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Urban Precipitation

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Figure 7-3 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Native and Riparian

Vegetation Precipitation

7.3.2 Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration (ET), as defined in Section 1.3, is the “volume of water
entering the atmosphere through the combined process of evaporation from
soil and plant surfaces and transpiration from plants.” IWFM accounts for the
volumes of ET in the Root Zone Moisture Budget output. For the subregions
or water budget zone of interest, find the ET data under the “Ag. Actual ET”,
“Urban Actual ET”, and “Native and Riparian Veg. Actual ET” columns
(Figures 7-4 through 7-6). For every timestep, sum all three columns to
obtain total ET for the water budget zone.

Figure 7-4 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Agricultural Actual ET

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Figure 7-5 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Urban Actual ET

Figure 7-6 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Native and Riparian

Vegetation Actual ET

7.3.3 Applied Water

Applied water, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of water
delivered to the intake of a city water system, a factory, a farm headgate, or
managed wetlands; it includes all sources of supply (surface water,
groundwater, applied water reuse, and recycled water).” IWFM accounts for
the total volume of applied water in the Root Zone Moisture Budget output
file. Applied water is split into “Prime applied water”, which refers to the
volume of applied water without the reuse component, and “Reused Water”,
which is the reused component. Agricultural applied water is found under the
“Ag. Prime Applied Water” and “Ag Reused Water” columns (Figure 7-7). For

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each timestep, sum the two values to obtain the total volume of agricultural
applied water.

Figure 7-7 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Agricultural Prime Applied

Water and Agricultural Reused Water

Urban applied water is found under the “Urban Prime Applied Water” and
“Urban Reused Water” columns (Figure 7-8). For each timestep, sum the
two values to obtain the total volume of urban applied water.

Figure 7-8 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Urban Prime Applied Water
and Urban Reused Water

The total volume of applied water is the sum of agricultural applied water
and urban applied water.

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7.3.4 Surface Water Delivery

Surface water delivery, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
surface water delivered to a water budget zone. This does not equal the
volume of surface water diversion and imported water because the latter
also include conveyance seepage and evaporation during transport of the
water.” IWFM splits surface water into diversions, which are taken out of a
simulated stream, and imports, which come from outside the model area or
from a stream that is not explicitly simulated. The total volume of surface
water that is delivered to a zone, after conveyance losses, is reported as
“Deliveries.” IWFM accounts for the total volume of deliveries in the Land
and Water Use Budget output. For the subregions or water budget zone of
interest, the volumes of water deliveries are reported in the “Ag. Deliveries”
and “Urban Deliveries” columns (Figure 7-9). For each timestep, sum both
columns to obtain total surface water delivery to a water budget zone.

Figure 7-9 Land and Water Use Budget: Agricultural and Urban
Deliveries

7.3.5 Groundwater Extraction

Groundwater extraction, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
groundwater pumped (extracted) from the underlying aquifer(s) for use
within the water budget zone. It does not include groundwater export,
stored water extraction, and stored water export.” IWFM accounts for the
total volume of pumping in the Groundwater Budget output. For the
subregions or water budget zone of interest, the pumping volume is reported
in the “Pumping” column (Figure 7-10).

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If stored water extraction is simulated (as described in Section 5.7, “Stored

Water Extraction”), that volume will need to be subtracted to compute
groundwater extraction as defined in this handbook. Typically, groundwater
extraction is used for overlying use and not for export. If groundwater is
pumped for use elsewhere, then that volume will also need to be accounted
for and subtracted from the total groundwater pumping reported in the
Groundwater Budget output file. IWFM currently does not include separate
reporting of groundwater exports. Typically, volumes of groundwater
pumped for stored water extraction and groundwater export are measured
and readily available through reports or model input data.

Figure 7-10 Groundwater Budget: Pumping

IWFM’s Land and Water Use Budget also reports pumping for overland use
by use type. In the Land and Water Use Budget, pumping volumes for each
timestep can be found under the “Ag. Pumping” and “Urban Pumping”
columns (Figures 7-11 and 7-12). This is useful if the user wants to separate
the pumping volumes by use type rather than lumping them into a single
total value.

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Figure 7-11 Land and Water Use Budget: Agricultural Pumping

Figure 7-12 Land and Water Use Budget: Urban Pumping

7.3.6 Applied Water Reuse

Applied water reuse, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
applied water contributing to 1) lateral flow below the land surface that is
influenced by impermeable layers and re-emerges as return flow for reuse in
the land system, 2) tailwater available for reuse in the land system, or 3) a
combination of both.” The key distinction between Applied Water Reuse and
return flow is that Reuse must be reapplied to meet some form of demand.
IWFM accounts for the total volume of reuse in the Root Zone Moisture
Budget output. The total volume of reuse is reported in the “Ag. Reused
Water” and the “Urban Reused Water” columns (Figures 7-13 and 7-14).
Reuse in the “Urban Reused Water” column may include recycled water not

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specifically identified as such because recycled water is not explicitly

simulated in IWFM.

Figure 7-13 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Agricultural Reused Water

Figure 7-14 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Urban Reused Water

7.3.7 Recycled Water

Recycled water, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of water
which, as a result of treatment of waste, is suitable for a direct beneficial use
or a controlled use that would not otherwise occur within the water budget
zone. It includes wastewater that is treated, stored, distributed, and reused
or recirculated for beneficial uses.” Recycled water is not explicitly simulated
in IWFM; but, the Root Zone Moisture Budget results file reports for the
volume of reuse in the “Urban Reused Water” column (Figure 7-15). Reuse
in the “Urban Reused Water” column may include recycled water not

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specifically identified as such. Consult the model documentation to

determine whether recycled water is accounted for and can be derived from
the reuse component.

Figure 7-15 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Urban Reused Water

7.3.8 Recycled Water Export

Recycled water export, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
recycled water diverted from the land system within a water budget zone for
use outside the zone.” IWFM currently does not simulate or report recycled
water export.

7.3.9 Runoff
Runoff, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of water flowing into
the surface water system within a water budget zone from precipitation over
the land surface.” IWFM accounts for the volume of runoff in the Root Zone
Moisture Budget output file. For the subregion or water budget zone of
interest, the volume of runoff is reported in the “Ag. Runoff”, “Urban
Runoff”, and “Native and Riparian Vegetation Runoff” columns (Figures 7-16
through 7-18). For each timestep, sum all three columns to obtain total
runoff.

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Figure 7-16 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Agricultural Runoff

Figure 7-17 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Urban Runoff

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Figure 7-18 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Native and Riparian

Vegetation Runoff

7.3.10 Return Flow

Return flow, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of applied water
that is not consumptively used and flows to the surface water system. It
includes treated wastewater discharges to the surface water system.” IWFM
accounts for the volume of return flow in the Root Zone Moisture Budget
output file. For the subregion or zone corresponding to the water budget
zone of interest, the volume of return flow is reported in the “Ag. Net Return
Flow” and “Urban Net Return Flow” columns (Figures 7-19 and 7-20). For
each timestep, sum both columns to obtain total volume of return flow in the
water budget zone.

Figure 7-19 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Agricultural Net Return Flow

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Figure 7-20 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Urban Net Return Flow

7.3.11 Change in Land System Storage

Change in land system storage, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “net
change in the volume of water stored within the land system, which includes
ponded water on the land surface (not including streams, lakes, and
conveyance facilities) and soil moisture within the unsaturated zone, which
includes the root zone.” IWFM accounts for the root zone and unsaturated
zone portions of the change in land system storage through the root zone
and unsaturated zone packages. Change in storage in the ponded land areas
is not explicitly reported in IWFM. Change in ponded land area refers to
water applied to fields for ponding that has yet to evaporate, transpire
through a crop or habitat, become return flow or recharge, or any
combination thereof. While IWFM simulates the practice of ponded crops, it
does not report the volume of water remaining on the surface at each
timestep. The change in root zone storage is reported in the Root Zone
Moisture Budget output file. Agricultural, urban, and native and riparian
lands are reported separately in the Root Zone Moisture Budget. For the
subregion or water budget zone of interest, change in root zone storage for
each timestep can be calculated by subtracting the “Ending Storage” from
the “Beginning Storage” columns (Figures 7-21 through 7-23). The change
in storage in the unsaturated zone beneath the root zone is reported in the
Unsaturated Zone Budget output file. Similarly, for the subregion or water
budget zone of interest, the change in storage in the unsaturated zone for
each timestep can be calculated by subtracting the “Ending Storage” from
the “Beginning Storage” columns (Figure 7-24). The total change in storage
in the land system for each timestep is the sum of root zone change in
storage and the unsaturated zone change in storage.

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Figure 7-21 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Agricultural Beginning and

Ending Storage

Figure 7-22 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Urban Beginning and Ending
Storage

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Figure 7-23 Root Zone Moisture Budget: Native and Riparian

Vegetation Beginning and Ending Storage

Figure 7-24 Unsaturated Zone Budget: Beginning and Ending Storage

7.4 SURFACE WATER SYSTEM

7.4.1 Stream Inflow and Outflow
Stream inflow, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of water
entering through streams at the periphery of a water budget zone.” Stream
outflow refers to the “volume of water leaving through streams at the
periphery of a water budget zone.” IWFM does not report stream budgets by
subregion or by user-defined water budget zone; however, the stream
budget is available by both reach and stream node. Stream inflows and
outflows are reported at both scales. The Stream Node Budget output
reports the volume of surface water inflow in the “Upstream Inflow” column
and the volume of surface water outflow in the “Downstream Outflow”
column for each node. The first step is to identify the stream nodes at the

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periphery of the water budget zone using the model documentation and
maps of the model layout. Next, of the stream nodes at the periphery,
identify which nodes flow into the water budget zone (Upstream Inflow) and
which nodes flow out (Downstream Outflow). Finally, using the Stream Node
Budget, select the appropriate “Upstream Inflow” and “Downstream Outflow”
values at each node (Figure 7-25), and then sum the results by “Upstream
Inflow” and “Downstream Outflow” to determine the total volume of surface
water inflow and surface water outflow.

Additionally, streamflow hydrographs can be developed for every stream

node. Hydrographs of stream nodes at the periphery of a water budget zone
can be used to develop the timeseries data of surface water inflows and
outflows.

Figure 7-25 Stream Budget: Upstream Inflow and Downstream

Outflow

7.4.2 Surface Water Diversion

Surface water diversion, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
water taken from the surface water system within a water budget zone for
use within the zone.” In IWFM diversions from a stream are delivered to
user-specified areas for urban or agricultural use; however, the model does
not output diversion volumes by subregion or user-defined water budget
zone.

The Diversion Detail Report output file reports a balance for each diversion
specified in the model. The user must check the model input files to find the
elements where each diversion is delivered to; furthermore, water deliveries

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are dynamically distributed across delivery areas based on the demand

within the group of elements. Because of this, manually trying to determine
diversions is difficult and inherently inaccurate. IWFM does not currently
report surface water diversions by subregion and user-defined water budget
zone. This feature may become available in the future.

If the boundaries of the delivery areas are not in conflict with the water
budget zone, then the Diversion Detail Report can be used to determine the
surface water diversions out of a water budget zone. Identify the diversions
falling within the water budget zone of interest. The “Actual Diversion”
column reports the volume of water diverted from the stream (Figure 7-26).
For each timestep, the “Actual Diversion” volume from each diversion
leaving the water budget zone should be summed to obtain the total surface
water diversion volume.

Figure 7-26 Diversion Detail: Actual Diversion

7.4.3 Stream Evaporation

Stream evaporation, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
water evaporated into the atmosphere from streams.” IWFM currently does
not simulate or report stream evaporation.

7.4.4 Conveyance Evaporation

Conveyance evaporation, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
water evaporated into the atmosphere from conveyance facilities, other than
streams, during water delivery.” Diversions in IWFM are assigned fractions
for recoverable (seepage) and non-recoverable (evaporation) losses in the

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Diversion Specification input file, which refers to the fraction of each

diversion that enters the groundwater system as seepage or the atmosphere
as evaporation. The volume of each diversion that becomes evaporation to
the atmosphere can be obtained from the Diversion Detail report file under
the “Non-Recoverable Loss” column (Figure 7-27). Identify which diversions
occur in the water budget zone of interest and sum the “Non-recoverable
Loss” column for each relevant diversion.

The model documentation may contain details regarding the location of

diversions; if not, the user can find the diversion locations from the
Diversion Specification file (Figure 7-28). The second column in the
Diversion Specification file refers to the stream node where water is diverted
from. Using a map of model stream nodes from the model documentation,
the user can identify the diversions that occur in the water budget zone of
interest and calculate the corresponding conveyance evaporation. If a
diversion is not simulated in the model, then there will be no estimate of its
conveyance evaporation.

Figure 7-27 Diversion Detail: Non-Recoverable Loss

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Figure 7-28 IWFM Diversion Specification Input

7.4.5 Conveyance Seepage

Conveyance seepage, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
water recharged to the groundwater system from the conveyance facilities,
other than streams, during water delivery.” Diversions in IWFM are assigned
fractions for recoverable (seepage) and non-recoverable (evaporation)
losses in the Diversion Specification file, which refers to the fraction of each
diversion that enters the groundwater system as seepage or the atmosphere
as evaporation. The volume of each diversion that becomes seepage to the
groundwater system can be obtained in the Diversion Detail report file under
the “Recoverable Loss” column (Figure 7-29). Identify which diversions occur
in the water budget zone of interest and sum the “Recoverable Loss” column
for each relevant diversion.

Figure 7-29 Diversion Detail: Recoverable Loss

The model documentation may contain details regarding the location of

diversions; if not, the user can find the diversion locations from the

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Diversion Specification file (Figure 7-28). The second column in the

Diversion Specification file refers to the stream node where water is diverted
from. Using a map of model stream nodes, the user can identify the
diversions that occur in the water budget zone of interest and calculate the
corresponding conveyance seepage. If a diversion is not simulated in the
model, then there will be no estimate of its conveyance seepage.

Conveyance seepage can also be determined from the “Recharge” column in

the Groundwater Budget output file (Figure 7-30). The output contains
information by subregion or user-defined water budget zone, which may be
more convenient for developing the total water budget. The only caveat is
that the “Recharge” column also contains the volume of managed aquifer
recharge (i.e., water banking operations), if simulated. In this scenario, the
user must subtract the volume of managed aquifer recharge (Section 7.5.5)
from the “recharge” volume specified in the Groundwater Budget output file.
If a diversion is not simulated in the model, then there will be no estimate of
its conveyance seepage.

Figure 7-30 Groundwater Budget: Recharge

7.4.6 Imported Water

Imported water, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of water
brought from outside the water budget zone for use within the water budget
zone, such as State Water Project water, Central Valley Project water, water
produced from desalination of ocean water, and water produced from
desalination of deep groundwater from below the base of freshwater.” The
total volume of imported water is not explicitly reported in IWFM; rather, the

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model outputs total surface water used in a region, regardless of where the
surface water originated.

The Diversion Detail output file reports a balance for each diversion specified
in the model. The user must check the model input files to find the elements
where each diversion is delivered to; furthermore, water deliveries are
dynamically distributed across delivery areas based on the demand within
the group of elements. Because of this, manually trying to determine how
much of the diversions is imported water is difficult and inherently
inaccurate.

IWFM currently does not report surface water diversions by subregion or

user-defined water budget zone. This feature may be available in the future.

In cases where a diversion originates from outside the water budget zone
and is delivered entirely to within the water budget zone, the total volume of
imported water can be obtained from the Diversion Detail output. For the
relevant water budget zones, the volumes of imported water will be reported
in the “Actual Delivery” column (Figure 7-31). The user will need to consult
the model input files to determine stream node at which a diversion is taken
and the group of elements to which the diversion is delivered. The example
below has a column header of “Actual Delivery to Subregion 2”. Delivery
areas can also be specified as element groups, in which case the “to
subregion” heading will be absent.

Figure 7-31 Diversion Detail: Actual Delivery

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7.4.7 Surface Water Exports

Surface water exports, as defined in Section 1.3, refer to “the volume of
water diverted from the surface water system within a water budget zone for
use outside the zone.” IWFM does not explicitly specify which diversions are
exported out of a subregion or user-defined water budget zone in the output
files.

The Diversion Detail output file reports a balance for each diversion specified
in the model. The user must check the model input files to find the elements
where each diversion is delivered to; furthermore, deliveries are dynamically
distributed across delivery areas based the demand within the group of
elements. Because of this, manually trying to determine how much of any
given diversion ends up as an export out of the water budget zone is difficult
and inherently inaccurate.

IWFM currently does not report surface water diversions by subregion or

user-defined water budget zone. This feature may be available in the future.

Similar to the Imported Water component, if a diversion originates within a

water budget zone and is delivered to an element group entirely outside the
water budget zone, the total volume of surface water exports can be found
in the Diversion Detail output file. For the relevant diversions, find the
volume of exported water in the “Actual Delivery to Subregion” column
(Figure 7-32).

Figure 7-32 Diversion Detail: Actual Delivery

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7.4.8 Stream-Lake Interaction

Stream-lake interaction, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
water exchanged between streams and lakes”, covering both the inflow and
outflow component of this interaction. Lakes are reported independently
from other surface water features. For the lakes within the water budget
zone, the stream-lake interaction can be determined from the Lake Budget
output file by summing the “Flow from Streams” and “Flow from Bypasses”
columns (Figure 7-33). Lake outflow can flow into a stream node, into a
downstream lake directly, or out of the model area. If lake outflow flows into
a stream node, “Lake Outflow” column should also be included in this
summation. A positive value means a net gain to the lake from streamflow,
while a negative value means a net loss from the lake to streamflow.

Figure 7-33 Lake Budget: Flow from Streams, Bypasses, and Lake
Outflow

7.4.9 Lake Evaporation

Lake evaporation, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
evaporation from lakes and reservoirs.” Identify lakes within the water
budget zone of interest. IWFM reports the volume of lake evaporation in the
Lake Budget output. For the relevant lakes within the water budget zone,
the total volume of lake evaporation is reported under the “Lake
Evaporation” column (Figure 7-34). If there are multiple lakes within the
water budget zone, sum the volumes from each lake to obtain the total
volume of lake evaporation.

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Figure 7-34 Lake Budget: Lake Evaporation

7.4.10 Change in Surface Water Storage

Change in surface water storage, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “net
change in the volume of water stored within the surface water system, which
includes lakes and reservoirs, streams, and conveyance facilities.”. It is
assumed that while changes in water volume contained in streams and
conveyance facilities may be important components in the daily or monthly
water budgets, they are typically negligible in annual water budgets.
Therefore, the majority of the change in surface water storage will occur in
lakes. IWFM accounts for the change in lake storage in the Lake Budget
output file. For the lakes within the water budget zone of interest, the Lake
Budget in IWFM accounts for the change in surface water storage in the
“Beginning Storage” and “Ending Storage” columns of the lake budget
output (Figure 7-35). The change in storage for a particular time step is the
difference between the beginning storage and the ending storage.

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Figure 7-35 Lake Budget: Beginning and Ending Storage

7.5 GROUNDWATER SYSTEM

7.5.1 Recharge of Applied Water and Precipitation
Recharge of applied water and precipitation, as defined in Section 1.3, refers
to the “volume of applied water and precipitation that travels vertically
through the soil/unsaturated zones and reaches the saturated zone of the
aquifer (groundwater system).” IWFM accounts for the volume of recharge in
the Groundwater Budget output file. For the subregions or water budget
zone of interest, find the volume of recharge in the “Deep Percolation”
column (Figure 7-36). IWFM does not currently report recharge by source.

Figure 7-36 Groundwater Budget: Deep Percolation

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7.5.2 Subsurface Inflow and Outflow

Subsurface inflow, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of water
entering as groundwater into a water budget zone through its subsurface
boundaries.” Subsurface outflow refers to the “volume of water leaving as
groundwater from a water budget zone through its subsurface boundaries.”
IWFM accounts for subsurface flows in the Groundwater Budget output file.
The Groundwater Budget output file accounts for the total volume of
subsurface flow in the “Boundary Inflow” and “Net Subsurface Inflow”
columns. The “Boundary Inflow” refers to the subsurface inflow resulting
from the boundary conditions. It includes subsurface inflow from small
watersheds as well as net inflows/outflows resulting from specified head or
specified flow boundary conditions. “Net Subsurface Inflow” refers to the
flow from the subregion or user-defined water budget zone to neighboring
subregions or zones. For the subregions or water budget zone of interest,
subsurface flows can be obtained by summing the “Boundary Inflow” and
“Net Subsurface Inflow” columns (Figures 7-37 and 7-38). Positive values
indicate groundwater entering the water budget zone while negative values
indicate groundwater leaving the water budget zone.

Figure 7-37 Groundwater Budget: Boundary Inflow

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Figure 7-38 Groundwater Budget: Net Subsurface Inflow

7.5.3 Stream-Groundwater Interaction

Groundwater gain from stream, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the

“volume of water entering the groundwater system from rivers and
streams.” Groundwater loss to stream refers to the “volume of water
entering rivers and streams from the groundwater system.” IWFM accounts
for stream-aquifer interactions in the Groundwater Budget output file. For
the subregions or water budget zone of interest, find the volume of stream-
aquifer interaction in the “Gain from Stream” column of the groundwater
budget (Figure 7-39). Positive values represent flow from the stream into
the groundwater system while negative values represent flow from the
groundwater system into the stream.

Figure 7-39 Groundwater Budget: Gain from Stream

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7.5.4 Lake-Groundwater Interaction

Groundwater gain from lake, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume
of water entering the groundwater system from lakes and reservoirs.”
Groundwater loss to lake refers to the “volume of water entering the lakes
and reservoirs from the groundwater system.” IWFM accounts for lake-
groundwater interactions in the Groundwater Budget output file. For the
subregions or water budget zone of interest, find the volume of lake-
groundwater interaction in the “Gain from Lake” column (Figure 7-40).
Positive values represent flow from the lake into the groundwater system
while negative values represent flow from the groundwater system into the
lake.

Figure 7-40 Groundwater Budget: Gain from Lake

7.5.5 Managed Aquifer Recharge

Managed aquifer recharge, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume
of water intentionally added to the groundwater system as part of defined
recharge and water banking programs through spreading basins, injection
wells, and other means.” IWFM does not have an explicit category for the
simulation of managed aquifer recharge. It can be simulated through
injection wells or through diversion seepage, but the Groundwater Budget
output file does not distinguish between the two because it is reported as a
combined volume for both in the “Recharge” column. Because direct
managed recharge is not internally calculated by IWFM, managed aquifer
recharge will need to be added as model input.

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Refer to Section 9, “Data Resources Directory,” for IWFM reference

documentation that discusses how IWFM computes this component and what
input data are required. Review model documentation to determine how
managed aquifer recharge is simulated. If it is simulated as injection wells,
use model documentation to identify the timeseries of injection data that are
entered into the pumping data file. Identify which timeseries are associated
with the recharge, and then find the appropriate column(s) in the pumping
data file (Figure 7-41).

Figure 7-41 IWFM Pumping Data File

Alternatively, if managed aquifer recharge is simulated through the

application of diversion seepage, use model documentation to identify which
diversions are associated with the specified recharge. The appropriate
timeseries is available in the Surface Water Diversion Data input file
(Figure 7-42).

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Figure 7-42 IWFM Surface Water Diversion Data File

For both the above cases, because data are extracted directly from the
model input file, modifications to units may be required. The heading of each
model input file will specify the factors used to convert units used for input
data to the units used by the model (Figures 7-43 and 7-44).

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Figure 7-43 IWFM Pumping Data Specification Units

Figure 7-44 IWFM Surface Water Diversion Data Specification Units

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Often there will be a comment in the data file specifying the exact unit
conversion that is used. In the example above, the input data are specified
as thousand acre-feet and then multiplied by the factor 43.56 million for
conversion to the model units of cubic feet.

In cases where there is no conveyance seepage and all recharge can be

attributed to managed aquifer recharge, IWFM accounts for the recharge
volume in the Groundwater Budget output file. For the subregions or water
budget zone of interest, the volume of managed aquifer recharge is reported
in the “Recharge” column (Figure 7-45).

Figure 7-45 Groundwater Budget: Recharge

7.5.6 Stored Water Extraction

Stored water extraction, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
groundwater pumped (extracted) from the underlying aquifer(s) through a
defined recharge and extraction program for use within the water budget
zone. For example, a water bank with dedicated extraction wells can provide
data for stored water extraction. It does not include stored water export,
groundwater extraction, and groundwater export. Groundwater extraction
and stored water extraction will be combined if stored water extraction
amounts are unknown or are not separately measured. In such a case, the
total volume of combined extractions will be reported as groundwater
extraction.” IWFM does not include a separate simulation component for
stored water extraction. If water banking operations are simulated, the
pumping will be grouped with other groundwater extraction in the “Pumping”
column in the Groundwater Budget output file. Because stored water
extraction will typically be an input parameter rather than something

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internally calculated within the model, timeseries data for stored water
extraction will need to be included as input data. These data can be
extracted from the timeseries data in the Pumping Data input file
(Figure 7-46). Use model documentation to identify which time series are
associated with stored water extraction.

Figure 7-46 IWFM Pumping Data File

In cases where the only pumping in a water budget zone is attributed to the
Stored Water Extraction, IWFM reports the pumping volume in the
Groundwater Budget. The total volume of stored water extraction is reported
in the “Pumping” column (Figure 7-47).

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Figure 7-47 Groundwater Budget: Pumping

7.5.7 Groundwater Export

Groundwater export, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
groundwater pumped (extracted) from the underlying aquifer for use outside
the water budget zone. It does not include groundwater extraction, stored
water extraction, and stored water export.” IWFM simulates groundwater
exports but does not explicitly specify the amount and destination of that
export out of a subregion or user-defined water budget zone in the output
files.

Groundwater exports can be obtained from an IWMF model using a

combination of the Groundwater Budget and Land and Water Use Budget
outputs. “Pumping” in the groundwater budget reports all pumping that
happens within a zone or subregion, regardless of the end use. The Land and
Water Use budget reports “Ag. Pumping” and “Urban Pumping”, which refer
to the volumes of groundwater in the water budget zone that are used to
meet agricultural and urban demands.

For the subregions or water budget zone of interest, find the total pumping
in the water budget zone from the “Pumping” column in the Groundwater
Budget output file (Figure 7-48). From the Land and Water Use Budget
output file, find the volume of groundwater used for overlying use through
the “Ag. Pumping” and “Urban Pumping” columns (Figures 7-49 and 7-50).
The total volume of groundwater export is the difference between the total
pumping and pumping for overlying use.

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If stored water export also exists in the water budget zone, this volume will
need to be subtracted from the previously calculated value.

Figure 7-48 Groundwater Budget: Pumping

Figure 7-49 Land and Water Use Budget: Agricultural Pumping

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Figure 7-50 Land and Water Use Budget: Urban Pumping

7.5.8 Stored Water Export

Stored water export, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
groundwater pumped (extracted) from the underlying aquifer(s) through a
defined recharge and extraction program for use outside the water budget
zone. For example, a water bank with dedicated extraction wells can provide
data for stored water export. It does not include stored water extraction,
groundwater extraction, and groundwater export. Groundwater export and
stored water export will be combined if stored water export amounts are
unknown or are not separately measured. In such a case, the total volume
of combined exports will be reported as groundwater export.” IWFM does not
include a separate simulation component for stored water export. It can be
obtained using a similar process as stored water extraction. If water banking
operations are simulated, the pumping will be grouped with other
groundwater extraction in the “Pumping” column in the Groundwater Budget
output file. Similar to stored water extraction, stored water export will
typically be an input parameter rather than something internally calculated
within the model. Timeseries data for stored water export will need to be
included as input data. For wells used for stored water export, data can be
extracted from the timeseries data in the Pumping Data input file
(Figure 7-51). Use model documentation to identify which time series are
associated with stored water export.

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Figure 7-51 IWFM Pumping Data File

In cases where the only pumping in a water budget zone is attributed to the
Stored Water Export, IWFM reports the pumping volume in the Groundwater
Budget. The total volume of stored water extraction is reported in the
“Pumping” column (Figure 7-52).

Figure 7-52 Groundwater Budget: Pumping

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7.5.9 Water Release Caused by Land Subsidence

Water release caused by land subsidence, as defined in Section 1.3 is the
“volume of water released to an aquifer on a one-time basis as a result of
land subsidence, which is caused by the inelastic consolidation of porous
fine-grained material.” IWFM accounts for the water release resulting from
both elastic and inelastic fluctuations in interbed thicknesses in the
Groundwater Budget output (Figure 7-53). The value reported in the
“Subsidence” column of the groundwater budget output is the net water
released (+) or taken up (-); currently there is no way to separate out the
volume of water released to an aquifer on a one-time basis as a result of
land subsidence.

Figure 7-53 Groundwater Budget: Subsidence

7.5.10 Change in Groundwater Storage

Change in groundwater storage, as defined in Section 1.3 is the “net change
in the volume of groundwater stored within the underlying aquifer of the
water budget zone.” IWFM accounts for the change in groundwater storage
in the Groundwater Budget output. For the subregions or water budget zone
of interest, the Groundwater Budget accounts for the change in groundwater
storage in the “Beginning Storage” and “Ending Storage” columns of the
groundwater budget output (Figure 7-54). The change in storage for a
particular time stop is the difference between the beginning storage and the
ending storage.

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Figure 7-54 Groundwater Budget: Groundwater Storage

7.6 TOTAL WATER BUDGET FROM IWFM

After individual water budget components are extracted from an IWFM

application, the total water budget can be compiled for the water budget
zone. The total water budget is an accounting of all water entering or leaving
the water budget zone, as well as components flowing between systems
within the water budget zone. Water budget tables for the land system,
surface water system, groundwater system, and total water budget are
presented in Figures 7-55 through 7-58. The tables demonstrate the
interconnectivity between the three systems and highlight the inflows and
outflows from the water budget zone. The tables are also available in
accessible Excel format on the Water Budget Handbook webpage.

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Figure 7-55 Land System Water Budget Components and IWFM Water Budget Elements
LAND SYSTEM WATER BUDGET (Acre-Feet)
Credit(+)/
Component Model Output
Debit(-)
Precipitation + Root Zone Moisture Budget: Ag. Precipitation + Native & Riparian Veg. Precipitation + Urban Precipitation
Surface Water Delivery + Land and Water Use Budget: Ag. Deliveries + Urban Deliveries
Groundwater Extraction + Land and Water Use Budget: Ag. Pumping + Urban Pumping
INFLOWS

Stored Water Extraction + Land and Water Use Budget: Ag. Pumping + Urban Pumping
Applied Water Reuse/Recycled Water Root Zone Moisture Budget: Ag. Reused Water + Urban Reused Water
Applied Water Root Zone Moisture Budget: Ag. Prime Applied Water + Ag. Reused Water + Urban Prime Applied Water + Urban Reused Water
Total Inflow
Evapotranspiration - Root Zone Moisture Budget: Ag. Actual ET + Urban Actual ET + Native & Riparian Actual ET
Runoff - Root Zone Moisture Budget: Ag. Runoff + Urban Runoff + Native & Riparian Runoff
Return Flow - Root Zone Moisture Budget: Ag. Net Return Flow + Urban Net Return Flow
OUTFLOWS

Recharge of Applied Water - Groundwater Budget: Deep Percolation

Recharge of Precipitation - Groundwater Budget: Deep Percolation
Managed Aquifer Recharge - Groundwater Budget: Recharge
Recycled Water Export -
Total Outflow
Root Zone Moisture Budget: Ag. Beginning Storage - Ag. Ending Storage
STORAGE
CHANGE

Root Zone Moisture Budget: Urban Beginning Storage - Urban Ending Storage
Change in Land System Storage
Root Zone Moisture Budget: Native&Riparian Veg. Beginning Storage - Native&Riparian Veg. Ending Storage
Unsaturated Zone Budget: Beginning Storage - Ending Storage
Land System Mass Balance Error

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Figure 7-56 Surface Water System Budget Components and IWFM Water Budget Elements
SURFACE WATER SYSTEM WATER BUDGET (Acre-Feet)
Credit(+)/
Component Model Output
Debit(-)
Stream Inflow + Stream Reach Budget: Upstream Inflow
Imported Water + Diversion Detail Report: Actual Delivery
Precipitaion on Lakes + Lake Budget: Precipitation
INFLOWS

Runoff + Stream Reach Budget: Runoff

Return Flow + Stream Reach Budget: Return Flow
Stream Gain from Groundwater + Stream Reach Budget: Gain from Groundwater (positive values)
Lake Gain from Groundwater + Lake Budget: Gain from Groundwater (positive values)
Total Inflow
Stream Outflow - Stream Reach Budget: Downstream Outflow
Surface Water Exports - Diversion Detail Report: Actual Diversion
Surface Water Diversions Stream Reach Budget: Diversion
Conveyance Evaporation - Diversion Detail Report: Non-recoverable Loss
Conveyance Seepage - Diversion Detail Report: Recoverable Loss
OUTFLOWS

Surface Water Delivery - Land and Water Use Budget: Ag. Deliveries + Urban Deliveries
Stream Loss to Groundwater - Stream Reach Budget: Gain from Groundwater (negative values)
Lake Loss to Groundwater - Lake Budget: Gain from Groundwater (negative values)
Lake Evaporation - Lake Budget: Lake Evaporation
Stream Evaporation -

Total Outflow
STORAGE
CHANGE

Change in Surface Water Storage Lake Budget: Beginning Storage - Ending Storage

Surface Water System Mass Balance Error

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Figure 7-57 Groundwater System Budget Components and IWFM Water Budget Elements
GROUNDWATER SYSTEM WATER BUDGET (Acre-Feet)
Credit(+)/
Component Model Output
Debit(-)
Recharge of Applied Water + Groundwater Budget: Deep Percolation
Recharge of Precipitation + Groundwater Budget: Deep Percolation
Managed Aquifer Recharge + Groundwater Budget: Recharge
Groundwater Gain from Stream Groundwater Budget: Gain from Stream (positive values)
INFLOWS

+
Groundwater Gain from Lake + Groundwater Budget: Gain from Lake (positive values)
Conveyance Seepage + Groundwater Budget: Recharge
Subsurface Inflow + Groundwater Budget: Net Subsurface Inflow (positive values) + Boundary Inflow
Water Release Caused by Land Subsidence + Groundwater Budget: Subsidence
Total Inflow
Groundwater Extraction - Groundwater Budget: Net Subsurface Inflow (negative values)
Stored Water Extraction - Groundwater Budget: Pumping
Groundwater Loss to Stream - Groundwater Budget: Pumping
OUTFLOWS

Groundwater Loss to Lake - Groundwater Budget: Gain from Stream (negative values)
Subsurface Outflow - Groundwater Budget: Gain from Lake (negative values)
Groundwater Export - Groundwater Budget: Pumping minus Groundwater Extraction from Land System budget
Stored Water Export - Groundwater Budget: Pumping minus Groundwater Extraction from Land System budget
Total Outflow
STORAGE
CHANGE

Change in Groundwater Storage Groundwater Budget: Beginning Storage - Ending Storage

Groundwater System Mass Balance Error

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Figure 7-58 Total Water Budget Components and IWFM Water Budget Elements
TOTAL WATER BUDGET (Acre-feet)
Credit(+)/
Component Model Output
Debit(-)
Precipitation on Land System + Root Zone Moisture Budget: Ag. Precipitation + Native & Riparian Veg. Precipitation + Urban Precipitation
Precipitation on Lakes + Lake Budget: Precipitation
Stream Inflow + Stream Reach Budget: Upstream Inflow
INFLOWS

Imported Water + Diversion Detail Report: Actual Delivery

Subsurface Inflow + Groundwater Budget: Net Subsurface Inflow (positive values) + Boundary Inflow
Water Release Caused by Land Subsidence + Groundwater Budget: Subsidence
Total Inflow
Evapotranspiration from Land System - Root Zone Moisture Budget: Ag. Actual ET + Urban Actual ET + Native & Riparian Actual ET
Stream Evaporation - Currently not simulated
Lake Evaporation - Lake Budget: Lake Evaporation
Conveyance Evaporation - Diversion Detail Report: Non-recoverable Loss
Stream Reach Budget: Downstream Outflow
OUTFLOWS

Stream Outflow -
Subsurface Outflow - Groundwater Budget: Net Subsurface Inflow (negative values)
Surface Water Export - Diversion Detail Report: Actual Diversion
Groundwater Export - Groundwater Budget: Pumping minus Groundwater Extraction from Land System budget
Stored Water Export - Groundwater Budget: Pumping minus Groundwater Extraction from Land System budget
Recycled Water Export - Currently not simulated
Total Outflow
STORAGE
CHANGE

Change in Total System Storage Change in Land System Storage + Change in Surface Water Storage + Change in Groundwater Storage

Total System Mass Balance Error

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8.CASE STUDY: ONE-WATER HYDROLOGIC

FLOW MODEL (MODFLOW-OWHM)

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8.1 MODFLOW-OWHM INTRODUCTION

MODFLOW is the USGS's three-dimensional finite difference groundwater
model. It is used for simulating and forecasting groundwater, surface water,
flow in the unsaturated zone, groundwater/surface-water interactions and
other components of the hydrologic system. Originally developed and
released solely for groundwater-flow simulation in 1984, it now includes
additional capabilities to simulate coupled groundwater/surface-water
systems, solute transport, variable-density flow, and aquifer-system
compaction and land subsidence.

The One-Water Hydrologic Flow Model (MODFLOW-OWHM) is an integrated

hydrologic model implementation based on MODFLOW). MODFLOW-OWHM
combines all the MODFLOW-2005 versions into one software. All versions of
MODFLOW-OWHM are compatible with any MODFLOW-2005 based model or
MODFLOW-NWT (Newton-Raphson formulation), with some special
considerations for the Farm Process. MODFLOW-OWHM supports features
such as the Farm Process (FMP), Subsidence package, Local Grid
Refinement, Reservoir Operations, Surface-water Routing Process, Seawater
Intrusion, and Riparian ET.

Note: USGS is currently developing MODFLOW-OWHM version 2, an update

to MODFLOW-OWHM with significant improvements to model run times,
enhanced input and output options, and includes a substantial update to the
Farm Process. Because of substantial modifications in FMP input files for
MODFLOW-OWHM version 2, MODFLOW-OWHM version 2 FMP input files are
not backward compatible. To use the advanced features of MODFLOW-
OWHM version 2 with the Farm Process, an updated FMP input file must be
created. New keyword-based input and file structure help simplify the FMP
input file conversion process.

Features of MODFLOW-OWHM version 2 are described using callout boxes in

subsequent sections, where applicable, based on input from USGS.

The modular structure of MODFLOW-OWHM allows for the use of different

packages to support a variety of model configurations for different
applications. Hydrologic budget component outputs are separated by
packages and will vary based on the specific model configuration. Users may
have to aggregate information from selected packages to determine the

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water budget framework components as conceptualized and described in

Section 1.3 of this handbook. But, most of the desired information is
contained within a few files. There are global budgets, zone budgets, and
cell-by-cell budgets for all packages. In the Farm Process, additional budgets
are available by water budget zones (i.e., water balance subregion [WBS])
and land-use. In addition, each package can output its own results, and
individual package output formats can vary. For models with the Farm
Process, agricultural, riparian and native vegetation, and urban water
demands can be pre-specified or calculated internally based on different
land-use types. Drainage network water reuse and diversions, recycled
water, tile drains, lakes or open water areas, and reservoirs can also be
modeled.

Throughout Section 8, there is some specific terminology that is used to

describe surface water networks in MODFLOW. Similar to other hydrologic
models, a surface water drainage network can be defined which may include
canals, streams, etc. In MODFLOW, the network is discretized into stream
segments that have consistent catchments or properties (e.g. stream bed
conductivity, morphology). Each model cell within a stream segment is
classified as a stream reach. Diversions can be specified from any stream
segment. If the Farm Process is used, (1) diversions can be routed to a WBS
to meet land-use water demands, and (2) return flows from WBS can be
routed to a specific segment or split among all nearby streams.

8.2 EXTRACTING WATER BUDGET COMPONENTS FROM

MODFLOW-OWHM
This case study section provides information on how to extract water budget
components from MODFLOW-OWHM inputs and outputs. This section does
not follow the standard case study format of a study area inclusive of data
collection, model input file development, model runs, and results analysis.
Rather, it assumes that a MODFLOW-OWHM application is already developed
for an area and provides examples of how to extract different water budget
components from model results. In this section, several MODFLOW-OWHM
applications are used to present the most comprehensive example of
extracting model inputs and outputs to illustrate development of the water
budget.

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MODFLOW-OWHM produces five primary types of outputs that are useful for
developing the total water budget:
• Zone Budget: The ZONEBUDGET function in MODFLOW allows
reporting groundwater budgets for user-defined areas. MODFLOW
saves a cell-by-cell groundwater budget that accounts for every
component of the groundwater budget at the model cell scale and can
be aggregated to user desired scales. The user can specify exactly
which model cells are assigned to a zone to output groundwater
budget results for that zone. Many of the terms relevant for developing
a water budget are found in the ZONEBUDGET results. Instructions for
setting up zone budgets are available on the USGS ZONEBUDGET
webpage.
• Farm Budget: MODFLOW-OWHM outputs a Farm Budget, which
accounts for all inflows and outflows out of predefined land surface
areas otherwise known as a WBS. In this document this file is referred
to as “DetailedFarmBudget.out” but can vary depending on the user
specified file name in the farm process input file. Land uses are
defined for each WBS, and water demands are satisfied using sources
of water available to each WBS. The terms in the Farm Budget match
closely with the land system water budget depicted in this handbook.
The Detailed Farm budget does not explicitly report demands but
rather the actual inflows and outflows of a the WBS.
o Note: If an existing WBS matches the desired areas of interest
for development of water budgets, the land system water budget
can be developed using the Detailed Farm Budget output file.
WBS are initially defined during model preparation; however, the
extent of the WBS can be updated to examine different areas. If
the number of regions is kept the same and the same sources of
water remain connected to each WBS, updating the areas
associated with WBS can be modified by updating one file. If a
more complex redistribution of a WBS and its associated water
supplies are desired, more model data sets will have to be
updated. It is also important to note that values in the columns
of Detailed Farm Budget are provided as rates by timestep. To
obtain a volume for the desired budget, multiply the rate for that
budget item by the length of that timestep and sum up the
values. This yields a volumetric value in model units (e.g., cubic
feet [ft3] or cubic meters [m3]). This approach allows for

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consistent and accurate computation of volumes across

potentially variable time step lengths resulting from variation in
stress period lengths (e.g., variation in the number of days in a
timestep or stress period).
• Stream Budget: MODFLOW-OWHM simulates streams using the
Streamflow-Routing (SFR) Package, which outputs stream water
budgets for each stream model cell defined as a stream. A cell defined
as a stream in MODFLOW is called “stream reach”. The user can
compile the stream water budgets for relevant streams reaches to
develop a complete stream budget for their water budget zone.
• Lake Budget: Unlike the previous three budgets, the Lake Budget is
not a default output of MODFLOW. If the Lake Package is used to
simulate lakes in MODFLOW, the water balance for the lake will be
output in the Lake budget. The Lake Budget accounts for atmospheric,
surface water, and subsurface fluxes into and out of each lake. A
separate output is provided for each lake simulated in the model.
• Reservoir Budget: Similar to the Lake Budget, the Reservoir Budget is
not a default output of MODFLOW. If the Surface Water Operations
Package is used to simulate reservoirs in MODFLOW-OWHM, the water
balance for the reservoir will be output in the Reservoir Budget. The
Reservoir Budget accounts for atmospheric, surface water, and
releases from the reservoir. Output is provided for each reservoir
simulated in the model.

Water budget components contained in various MODFLOW-OWHM budget

tables are listed in Table 8-1. The components are organized by the three
systems outlined in the total water budget: land system, surface water
system, and groundwater system, as illustrated in Figure 1-1 and described
in Sections 3 through 5.

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Table 8-1 MODFLOW-OWHM Components for Establishing Total

Water Budget
Water Budget Framework Component MODFLOW-OWHM Budgets and Files
Land System
Precipitation Farm Budget
Evapotranspiration Farm Budget
Applied Water Farm Budget
Surface Water Delivery Farm Budget
Groundwater Extraction Farm Budget
Applied Water Reuse See Note A
Recycled Water See Note A
Recycled Water Export Not Available
Runoff Farm Budget, See Note B
Return Flow Farm Budget, See Note B
Change in Land System Storage Not Available
Surface Water System
Stream Water Inflow and Outflow Stream Budget
Surface Water Diversion Stream Budget
Stream Evaporation Stream Budget
Conveyance Evaporation Stream Budget
Conveyance Seepage Stream Budget
Imported Water Farm Budget, Zone Budget, See Note A
Surface Water Exports Stream Budget
Stream-Lake Interaction Stream Budget, Lake Budget
Lake Evaporation Stream Budget, Lake Budget
Change in Surface Water Storage Lake Budget, Reservoir Budget File
Groundwater System
Recharge of Applied Water Farm Budget, Zone Budget
Recharge of Precipitation Farm Budget, Zone Budget
Subsurface Inflow and Outflow Zone Budget
Stream-Groundwater Interaction Zone Budget, Stream Budget
Lake-Groundwater Interaction Lake Budget
Managed Aquifer Recharge Farm Budget, Zone Budget
Stored Water Extraction Zone Budget, Well Input File
Groundwater Export Zone Budget, Well Input File
Stored Water Export Zone Budget, Well Input File
Water Release Caused by Land Zone Budget
Subsidence
Change in Groundwater Storage Zone Budget
Table 8-1 Notes:
Note A: Reused water, recycled water, and imported water are specified as non-routed
deliveries for model input. Although these terms are aggregated in the Farm Budget file,
detailed budgets are available by water balance subregion (WBS), WBS and specified
land-use, and cell. Each non-routed delivery can be assigned to a specific WBS and

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specified with an order of use to meet demands and with a routing of excess delivered
water to injection wells or to a stream network.
Note B: Runoff and return flow are aggregated and routed to streams after land-use
water demands have been satisfied.

Note: In MODFLOW-OWHM, two additional farm process budgets can be

written to a user specified file and provide Farm Budget data (1) by WBS
and land-use (e.g., LandUse.Out) and (2) by WBS, Land-Use, and model cell
(e.g., LandUseDetailed.out).

In MODFLOW-OWHM version 2, the user can specify package specific

budgets to the cell-by-cell flow file that can be aggregated by zone or WBS.
Supported packages include the General Head Boundary (GHB) Package, and
the Multi-Node Well (MNW) Package. These optional budget groups are
defined by a user-specified keyword at the top of the package input file, then
the relevant items of locations associated with the desired budget group are
tagged throughout the input file. The flows from these specific items are
summed in a separate budget item for the package. Here we provide two
examples of this optional feature. The first is defining GHB cells associated
with a coastal boundary to assess sea water intrusion in layer 1 of the
model.

MODFLOW-OWHM Model Units: MODFLOW-OWHM budget output results

are presented as time series. To properly process the time series data into
meaningful results, the user must understand the differences between the
different “time” terms used in the model. There are three types of “time” in
MODFLOW-OWHM:
1. Simulation Time: It is the duration of the transient simulation. It
starts with a beginning date, it lasts for the length of simulation,
and it ends with an end date.
2. Stress Period: MODFLOW-OWHM discretizes the duration of a
transient simulation into several time periods at which the
boundary conditions are assumed to change (e.g. pumping rates)
and output data are printed (recorded). Stress periods are
specified in model units and stress period lengths can be specified
as daily, weekly, monthly, or yearly.

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Time Step: Each stress period is further divided into time steps. Time steps
are internal simulation periods upon which the calculations are performed.
For example, if the model stress periods are monthly (meaning pumping and
climate change each month), a stress period can be defined as 28-31 days.
If two time-steps are selected for each stress period, the time step length
will be 14-15.5 days each. Every budget except the Farm Budget outputs
volumetric data for each stress period. Farm process output files provide
rates for every timestep. To convert the rate in the Farm Budget to a
volume, multiply the rate by the time step length. The beginning date,
duration (length), and corresponding end date of each time period in
MODFLOW-OWHM are specified with a file extension of “.dis”, representing
the discretization file. The first line in the discretization file contains the
number of layers, rows, columns, stress periods, time unit, and length unit.
MODFLOW-OWHM does not use text to specify units; rather, it specifies flags
to indicate time units and length units, as shown in Table 8-2.

Table 8-2 MODFLOW-OWHM Time and Length Unit Flags

Time Unit Flag Time Unit Length Flag Length Unit
0 Undefined 0 Undefined
1 Seconds 1 Feet
2 Minutes 2 Meters
3 Hours 3 Centimeters
4 Days
5 Years

Further down in the discretization file, a line is included for each stress
period in the model as shown in the Figure 8-1 example. The first value in
these lines refers to the length of the stress period in the units specified in
Table 8-2. The example has a time flag of 4 (days) and length unit of
2 (meters). In the stress period section of the data file, each stress period
contains 28-31 days, indicating that the model stress period is in months.
The second value on each line of the stress period input defines the number
of timesteps. In this example, the number of timesteps is 2, meaning the
groundwater and surface water calculations will be performed two times. The
example also contains some text indicating the units, but this is not a
requirement of the input file and is not always present.

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Figure 8-1 Example MODFLOW-OWHM Discretization File Format

The following sections describe where to locate water budget components in

the MODFLOW-OWHM results files. Different versions of MODFLOW may
have different outputs or methods of simulating various water budget
components. There are numerous graphical user interfaces (GUI) for
MODFLOW, all of which contain different ways of extracting and processing
water budget information. Rather than discuss the different GUIs available
for MODFLOW, the following sections focus on extracting the relevant data
from the model output files available, regardless of which GUI is used. The
components are organized by the systems outlined in the total water budget
— land system, surface water system, and groundwater system. Volumes in
the output files will typically be provided in the default model units specified
in the discretization file. The values obtained in cubic feet (ft3) or cubic
meters (m3) can be converted to AF by multiplying by 2.2957 × 10-5 or
8.10714 × 10-4, respectively.

8.3 LAND SYSTEM

8.3.1 Precipitation
Precipitation, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of water vapor
that falls to the earth (land and surface water systems) as rain, snow, hail,
or is formed on the earth as dew, and frost.” The Farm Budget in MODFLOW-
OWHM accounts for the volume of precipitation in the
DetailedFarmBudget.out file. For the farms corresponding to the water
budget zone, find the precipitation data in the “Q-p-in” (Rate of precipitation
inflow to a water-balance subregion) column. To obtain a volume for the
desired budget component for each model timestep, multiply the rate by the
time-step length (e.g., the “Days” column if model units are days). This
yields a volumetric value in model units (e.g., cubic feet or cubic meters).

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Figure 8-2 Farm Budget: Precipitation

8.3.2 Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration (ET), as defined in Section 1.3, is the “volume of water
entering the atmosphere through the combined process of evaporation from
soil and plant surfaces and transpiration from plants.” The Farm Budget in
MODFLOW-OWHM accounts for volumes of ET in the DetailedFarmBudget.out
file. For the farms corresponding to the water budget zone of interest, ET
rates can be found under the “Q-ei-out” (rate of evaporation from irrigation
out of the farm), “Q-ep-out” (rate of evaporation from precipitation out of
the farm), “Q-egw-out” (rate of evaporation from groundwater out of the
farm), “Q-ti-out” (rate of transpiration from irrigation out of the farm), “Q-
tp-out” (rate of transpiration from precipitation out of the farm), and “Q-
tgw-out” (rate of transpiration from groundwater out of the farm) columns
(Figure 8-3). For each time step, the total ET is the sum of the values in the
previously mentioned columns for each farm of interest multiplied by the
time-step length (e.g. the “Days” column if model units are days). This
yields a volumetric value in model units (e.g., cubic feet or cubic meters).

Figure 8-3 Farm Budget: Evapotranspiration

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8.3.3 Applied Water

Applied water, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of water
delivered to the intake of a city water system, a factory, a farm headgate,
managed wetlands, or managed aquifer recharge; it includes all sources of
supply (surface water, groundwater, applied water reuse, and recycled
water).” MODFLOW-OWHM accounts for the total volume of water being
applied to the land surface in the DetailedFarmBudget.out file. Water is not
divided into use sectors within a WBS. Water deliveries in MODFLOW-OWHM
are classified as non-routed, semi-routed, and fully-routed. Non-routed
deliveries (NRD) refer to water that originates from outside the model
whereas semi-routed and fully-routed deliveries originate from streams
within the model domain. For the WBS corresponding to the water budget
zone, find the columns “Q-nrd-in” (rate of NRD into a water-balance
subregion), “Q-srd-in” (rate of semi-routed deliveries into a water-balance
subregion), “Q-rd-in” (rate of routed deliveries into a water-balance
subregion), “Q-wells-in” (rate of groundwater pumping deliveries into a
water balance subregion), and ‘Q-ext-in” (rate of external deliveries into a
water balance subregion). To obtain a volume for applied water for each
model timestep, multiply the rate by the time-step length (e.g. the “Days”
column if model units are days). This yields a volumetric value in model
units (e.g., ft3 or m3). The total applied water to all farms in the water
budget zone is the sum of these five values. Units for surface water delivery
are typically ft3 or m3 and should be verified (refer to Section 8.2).

Figure 8-4 Farm Budget: Applied Water

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8.3.4 Surface Water Delivery

Surface water delivery, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
surface water delivered to a water budget zone. This does not equal the
volume of surface water diversion and imported water because the latter
also include conveyance seepage and evaporation during transport of the
water.” MODFLOW-OWHM divides surface water delivery into three groups:
non-routed, semi-routed, and fully routed surface water inflows to the water
budget zone.

The Farm Budget in MODFLOW-OWHM accounts for the volume of surface

water delivery in the DetailedFarmBudget.out file. For the farms
corresponding to the water budget zone, find the surface water delivery data
in the “Q-nrd-in” (rate of NRD inflow into a water-balance subregion),
“Q-srd-in” (rate of semi-routed delivery inflow into a water-balance
subregion), and “Q-rd-in” (rate of fully routed delivery inflow into a water-
balance subregion) columns (Figure 8-5). To obtain a volume for surface
water deliveries for each model timestep, multiply the rate by the time-step
length (e.g. the “Days” column if model units are days). This yields a
volumetric value in model units (e.g., ft3 or m3). The total surface water
deliveries to all farms in the water budget zone is the sum of these three
values. Units for surface water delivery are typically ft3 or m3 and should be
verified (refer to Section 8.2).

Figure 8-5 Farm Budget: Surface Water Deliveries

8.3.5 Groundwater Extraction

Groundwater extraction, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
groundwater pumped (extracted) from the underlying aquifer(s) for use

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within the water budget zone. It does not include groundwater export,
stored water extraction, and stored water export.” The Farm Budget in
MODFLOW-OWHM accounts for the volume of groundwater extraction in the
DetailedFarmBudget.out file. For the farms corresponding to the water
budget zone of interest, find the groundwater extraction data in the
“Q-wells-in” (rate of groundwater well pumping deliveries) column
(Figure 8-6). To obtain a volume for groundwater extraction for each model
timestep, multiply the rate by the time-step length (e.g., the “Days” column
if model units are days). This yields a volumetric value in model units (e.g.,
cubic feet or cubic meters).

Figure 8-6 Farm Budget: Groundwater Extraction

If stored water extraction, as described in Section 5.7, “Stored Water

Extraction,” is simulated, that volume will need to be subtracted to compute
groundwater extraction as defined in this handbook. Typically, groundwater
extraction is used for overlying use and not for export. If groundwater is
pumped for use elsewhere, then that volume will also need to be accounted
for and subtracted from the total groundwater pumping reported in the Zone
Budget results file. Typically, volumes of groundwater pumped for water
bank extraction are measured and readily available through reports or model
input data. Using the maps or information in the model documentation or
any associated hydrogeologic report, find which wells in the model that
corresponds to the wells in the water budget zone. If specific wells
correspond to stored water extraction, the volumes can be obtained from the
Well input file (Figure 8-7) and subtracted from the total pumping.

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Figure 8-7 MODFLOW-OWHM WEL File

8.3.6 Applied Water Reuse

Applied water reuse, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
applied water contributing to (1) lateral flow below the land surface that is
influenced by impermeable layers and re-emerges as return flow for reuse in
the land system, (2) tailwater available for reuse in the land system, or
(3) a combination of both.” For the lateral flow component of applied water
reuse in MODFLOW-OWHM, lateral inflows to streams are not directly
accounted for. Flows from groundwater to the streams occur through the
streambed with regional groundwater flow and are accounted for in the
Stream Budget, but output values aggregate all inflows from groundwater to
each stream reach. For the second definition, tailwater is aggregated with
precipitation runoff and routed to streams after land-use demands have
been satisfied. Also, MODFLOW-OWHM combines runoff and return flow into
a single term for reporting purposes. Runoff data are provided in the
DetailedFarmBudget.out file. These data may be used to obtain estimates of
reuse. The model documentation or associated reports may provide
information on reuse processes in the water budget zone.

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8.3.7 Recycled Water

Recycled water, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of water
which, as a result of treatment of waste, is suitable for a direct beneficial use
or a controlled use that would not otherwise occur within the water budget
zone. It includes wastewater that is treated, stored, distributed, and reused
or recirculated for beneficial uses.” MODFLOW-OWHM can account for
recycled water as a NRD. Information about volumes of recycled water can
be obtained from the farm process NRD input files. The way recycled water
is accounted for using NRD will vary from model to model. The user will need
to consult the model documentation to determine how a particular model is
handling recycled water. Details for determining how NRDs work in a model
are described below.

If the only NRD to a farm can be attributed to recycled water, then the
volume can be obtained from the DetailedFarmBudget.out file. NRDs are
reported in the “Q-nrd-in” (rate of NRD inflow to a water-balance subregion
column (Figure 8-8). To obtain a volume for recycled water for each model
timestep, multiply the rate by the time-step length (e.g., the “Days” column
if model units are days). This yields a volumetric value in model units (e.g.,
cubic feet or cubic meters).

Figure 8-8 Farm Budget: Non-routed Deliveries

Note: If more than one NRD is provided for a WBS, the rank of the NRD
determines the order from which land-use water demands will be satisfied
from available NRD sources. The NRD input file can be used to determine:
volumes (NRD_Vol) of water provided from different sources such as reuse,

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wastewater, pipelines, or other off-grid sources; rank of these NRD sources

for satisfying demand (Rank); and a flag to indicate where the excess goes
(0-excess is not dispensed, 1-stream network, 2-wells) Here the NRD
distribution is provided for one stress period for WBS 1. Using the volume of
NRD from the farm budget file, the available volumes and ranks can be used
to determine the value of many hydrologic budget components simulated
using NRDs. Note that the second NRD source available to WBS 1 would not
be used until at least 1,000 cubic units of water we already delivered to the
WBS.

1 1000 1 0 10,000.0 2 0 # WBS_ID NRD1_Vol Rank Excess

NRD2_Vol Rank Excess

Using this information along with the budget information, one can determine
which NRD is associated with the recycled water use for a given WBS. This
information can be used with the budget file to determine the amount of
recycled water used. The modeling documentation or associated reports may
provide information on recycled water applications in the water budget zone.

8.3.8 Recycled Water Export

Recycled water export, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
recycled water diverted from the land system within a water budget zone for
use outside the zone.” MODFLOW-OWHM currently does not simulate or
report recycled water export.

8.3.9 Runoff
Runoff, as defined in Section .3, refers to the “volume of water flowing into
the surface water system within a water budget zone from precipitation over
the land surface.” MODFLOW-OWHM combines runoff and return flow into a
single term for reporting purposes. The Farm Budget in MODFLOW-OWHM
accounts for the volume of total runoff in the DetailedFarmBudget.out file.
For the WBS corresponding to the water budget zone, find the data in the
column “Q-run-out” (rate of total runoff outflow to a water-balance
subregion) and multiply each value by the time step length to get a volume
(Figure 8-9). Alternatively, runoff for each stream reach at each time step is
available in the “OVRLND. RUNOFF” column in the Stream Budget
(Figure 8-10). Units for runoff in the Stream Budget are typically cubic feet
or cubic meters and should be verified (refer to Section 8.2).

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Figure 8-9 Farm Budget: Runoff

Figure 8-10 Stream Budget: Runoff

8.3.10 Return Flow

Return flow, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of applied water
that is not consumptively used and flows to the surface water system. It
includes treated wastewater discharges to the surface water system.” In
MODFLOW-OWHM, return flow is grouped with precipitation runoff.
Therefore, the runoff output budget terms described in the previous section
can be used to estimate the return flow component. Model documentation or
associated hydrogeologic reports may provide additional information on
return flows in the water budget zone of interest.

8.3.11 Change in Land System Storage

Change in land system storage, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “net
change in the volume of water stored within the land system, which includes
ponded water on the land surface (not including streams, lakes, and

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conveyance facilities) and soil moisture within the unsaturated zone, which
includes the root zone.” The change in storage in ponded areas is not
explicitly reported in MODFLOW. MODFLOW accounts for the subsurface
portions of the change in land system storage through the optional
Unsaturated-Zone Flow (UZF1) Package. MODFLOW applications without the
UZF1 Package have no accounting of the change in unsaturated zone
storage. For models with the UZF1 Package, the change in land system
storage is reported in the Unsaturated Zone Budget. For every timestep, the
change in unsaturated zone storage is computed by the model and reported
under “IN — OUT” (Figure 8-11). Units for change in storage are typically
cubic feet or cubic meters and should be verified (refer to Section 8.2). Not
every MODFLOW application utilizes the UZF1 Package to simulate the
unsaturated zone. For models that do not include the UZF1 Package, the
land surface processes interact directly with the aquifer and change in land
system storage is not calculated.

Figure 8-11 Unsaturated Zone Budget

8.4 SURFACE WATER SYSTEM

8.4.1 Stream Inflow and Outflow
Stream inflow, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of water
entering through streams at the periphery of a water budget zone.” Stream

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outflow refers to the “volume of water leaving through streams at the

periphery of a water budget zone.”

Streamflow is calculated for each stream reach separately. The Stream

Budget in MODFLOW-OWHM accounts for the volume of stream inflow and
outflow for each stream reach and at each time step in the “FLOW INTO
STRM. RCH.” (Flow into Stream Reach) and “FLOW OUT OF STRM. RCH.”
(Flow Out of Stream Reach) columns (Figure 8-12). Identify which model
stream reaches correspond to the streams entering and leaving the water
budget zone of interest. For each time step, sum the “FLOW INTO STRM.
RCH.” columns for reaches entering the water budget zone to obtain stream
inflow. Similarly, sum the “FLOW OUT OF STRM. RCH.” columns for reaches
exiting the water budget zone to obtain stream outflow.

Figure 8-12 Stream Budget: Surface Water Inflows and Outflows

8.4.2 Surface Water Diversion

Surface water diversion, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
water taken from the surface water system within a water budget zone for

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use within the zone.” In MODFLOW-OWHM, semi-routed deliveries or fully-

routed deliveries refer to deliveries that originate from streams within the
model domain. The Farm Budget in MODFLOW-OWHM accounts for the
volume of surface water delivery data in the DetailedFarmBudget.out file.
For the farms inside the water budget zone, find the surface water diversion
data in the “Q-srd-in” (rate of semi-routed delivery inflow to a water-balance
subregion) and “Q-rd-in” (rate of fully routed delivery inflow into a water-
balance subregion) columns (Figure 8-13). Total surface water delivery is
the sum of each value in these two columns multiplied by their associated
time step length.

Figure 8-13 Farm Budget: Semi-routed and Routed Deliveries

8.4.3 Stream Evaporation

Stream evaporation, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
water evaporated into the atmosphere from streams.” The Stream Reach
Budget in MODFLOW-OWHM accounts for the volume of stream evaporation
in the “Stream ET” column (Figure 8-14). For each time-step, sum the
“Stream ET” for all relevant stream reaches. Units for conveyance
evaporation are typically ft3 or m3 and should be verified (refer to
Section 8.2).

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Figure 8-14 Stream Budget: Stream ET

8.4.4 Conveyance Evaporation

Conveyance evaporation, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
water evaporated into the atmosphere from conveyance facilities, other than
streams, during water delivery.” For canals simulated as streams in the
model, the Stream Reach Budget in MODFLOW-OWHM accounts for the
volume of stream and conveyance evaporation in the “Stream ET” column
(Figure 8-14). For each time-step, sum the “Stream ET” for all relevant
stream reaches. Units for conveyance evaporation are typically cubic feet or
cubic meters and should be verified (refer to Section 8.2). The user will need
to differentiate between streams and canals in the model to separate stream
evaporation from conveyance evaporation.

8.4.5 Conveyance Seepage

Conveyance seepage, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
water recharged to the groundwater system from the conveyance facilities,
other than streams, during water delivery.” For canals simulated as streams
in the model, the Stream Budget in MODFLOW-OWHM accounts for the
volume of stream and conveyance seepage for each reach in the “Flow to
Aquifer” column (Figure 8-15). A positive value means flow from the stream
reach to the groundwater system, while a negative value means the stream
reach is gaining water from the groundwater system. For each time-step,
sum the “Flow to Aquifer” for all relevant stream segments and reaches.
Units for conveyance seepage are typically cubic feet and cubic meters and
should be verified (refer to Section 8.2).

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Figure 8-15 Stream Budget: Flow to Aquifer

8.4.6 Imported Water

Imported water, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of water
brought from outside the water budget zone for use within the water budget
zone, such as State Water Project water, Central Valley Project water, water
produced from desalination of ocean water, and water produced from
desalination of deep groundwater from below the base of freshwater.” The
Farm Budget in MODFLOW-OWHM accounts for the volume of all imported
water in the DetailedFarmBudget.out file. For the farms corresponding to the
water budget zone, find the imported water data in the “Q-nrd-in” (rate of
NRD inflow to a water-balance subregion) column (Figure 8-16). Multiply the
rate for each timestep by the timestep length to obtain a volume. The total
imported water is the sum of these NRD values. Units for imported water are
typically cubic feet or cubic meters and should be verified (refer to
Section 8.2).

Figure 8-16 Farm Budget: Non-Routed Deliveries

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8.4.7 Surface Water Exports

Surface water exports, as defined in Section 1.3, refer to “the volume of
water diverted from the surface water system within a water budget zone for
use outside the zone.” Water deliveries in MODFLOW-OWHM are classified as
non-routed, semi-routed, and fully-routed. NRDs refer to water that
originates from outside the model whereas semi-routed and fully-routed
deliveries originate from streams within the model domain. The Farm Budget
in MODFLOW-OWHM accounts for the volume of all surface water deliveries
in the DetailedFarmBudget.out file. For the farms corresponding to the water
budget zone, find the surface water export data in the “Q-srd-out” (rate of
semi-routed delivery outflow from a water-balance subregion) and “Q-rd-
out” (rate of fully routed delivery out of a water-balance subregion) columns
(Figure 8-17). Total surface water exports volumes are the sum of each
value in these two columns multiplied by the associated time step length.
Units for surface water exports are typically in cubic feet or cubic meters but
should be verified (refer to Section 8.2).

Figure 8-17 Farm Budget: Exported Water

8.4.8 Stream-Lake Interaction

Stream-lake interaction, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
water exchanged between streams and lakes”, covering both the inflow and
outflow component of this interaction. The Lake Package in MODFLOW
accounts for the volume of stream-lake interaction (inflow and outflow) in
the “Surface Water Inflow” and “Surface Water Outflow” columns
(Figure 8-18). Sum the inflow and outflow for all lakes in the water budget
zone. Units for inflows and outflows are typically cubic feet or cubic meters
but should be verified (see Section 8.2).

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Figure 8-18 Lake Budget: Stream Lake Interaction

Note: Reservoirs can be simulated in MODFLOW-OWHM version 2. The

seepage to groundwater from the reservoir is not directly simulated but
reservoir stage, storage, release, and spill to the stream network along with
inflow, precipitation, evaporation, and transfers into the reservoir are
provided in the Reservoir Budget. Similar to the Farm Budget, volumes are
obtained by multiplying each value in the column of interest by its time step
length and then summing them to obtain a total volume in units of cubic feet
or cubic meters. The only exception to this is the reservoir storage term,
which is already a volume and does not need to be multiplied.

8.4.9 Lake Evaporation

Lake evaporation, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
evaporation from lakes and reservoirs.” The Lake (LAK) Package in
MODFLOW-OWHM simulates lakes and allows the head in the lakes to rise
and fall. Implementation of a lake water budget requires a set of input
parameters including the rate of lake evaporation. Lake evaporation is thus
input data in MODFLOW-OHWM, and EVAPLK contains the rate of
evaporation per unit area from the surface of a lake. Lake evaporation data
may be exported from Lake Budget if the Lake Package is used; otherwise,
lake evaporation will need to be calculated and implemented outside of
MODFLOW-OWHM and cannot be obtained from the model files.

The Lake Budget in MODFLOW-OWHM contains a water balance for the lake
system for each timestep. The volume of lake evaporation is in the EVAP
column (Figure 8-19). Sum the EVAP column for all lakes in the water

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budget zone. Units for lake evaporation are typically cubic feet or cubic
meters but should be verified (refer to Section 8.2).

Figure 8-19 Lake Budget: Lake Evaporation

Note: If reservoirs are simulated using the Surface Water Operations

Package available in MODFLOW-OWHM version 2, then reservoir evaporation
can be computed by multiplying each value in the EVAP column in the
Reservoir Budget file by its time step length and then summing them to
obtain a total volume.

8.4.10 Change in Surface Water Storage

Change in surface water storage, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “net
change in the volume of water stored within the surface water system, which
includes lakes and reservoirs, streams, and conveyance facilities.”. It is
assumed that while changes in water volume contained in streams may be
important components in the daily or monthly water budgets, they are
typically negligible in annual water budgets. Therefore, the majority of the
change in surface water storage will occur in lakes. MODFLOW-OWHM
accounts for the change in lake storage in the Lake Budget output file. For
the lakes within the water budget zone of interest, the Lake Budget accounts
for the change in surface water storage in the Updated Volume column. The
difference between the Updated Volume terms between two timesteps is the
change in surface water storage.

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Figure 8-20 Lake Budget: Change in Storage

8.5 GROUNDWATER SYSTEM

8.5.1 Recharge of Applied Water and Precipitation
Recharge of applied water and precipitation, as defined in Section 1.3, refers
to the “volume of applied water and precipitation that travels vertically
through the soil/unsaturated zones and reaches the saturated zone of the
aquifer (groundwater system).” In MODFLOW-OWHM, recharge of applied
water and precipitation is defined as recharge, which is the areal infiltration
of precipitation and applied water for irrigation.

Two values are written for inflows to the subsurface for each cell and water-
budget subregion: (1) the amount of water that enters the soil zone (deep
percolation) and may become recharge, and (2) the amount of Farm Net
Recharge that is the deep percolation minus ET. The Farm Net Recharge is
the term most useful for developing groundwater budgets.

The deep percolation for each WBS is provided in the Q-dp-out (rate of deep
percolation out of the farm) column of the DetailedFarmBudget.out file
(Figure 8-21). Multiply the rate for each timestep by the timestep length to
obtain a volume. Units for recharge of applied water and precipitation are
typically cubic feet or cubic meters but should be verified (refer to Section
8.2). MODFLOW-OWHM does not currently separate recharge by source.

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Figure 8-21 Farm Budget: Deep Percolation

The total recharge is the Farm Net Recharge (FARM NET RECH.) column in
the Zone Budget (Figure 8-22). The Zone Budget in MODFLOW-OWHM
accounts for the volume of recharge of applied water and precipitation. The
Zone Budget lists inflows and outflows from the perspective of the
groundwater system. Use the data in the first occurrence of the FARM NET
RECH column, which accounts for Farm Net Recharge entering the aquifer.
MODFLOW-OWHM outputs ET from groundwater as Farm Net Recharge
leaving the aquifer, which is in the second occurrence of FARM NET RECH
columns. The column order may be different in model files; for example,
there will not be a column for recharge in the Zone Budget if a recharge
package is not used in the model. Units for recharge of applied water and
precipitation are typically cubic feet or cubic meters but should be verified
(refer to Section 8.2).

Figure 8-22 Zone Budget: Farm Net Recharge

It is uncommon for a MODFLOW-OWHM application to use the Recharge

Package because recharge is computed for the whole model domain using
the farm process. But, if additional recharge is specified using the Recharge

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Package, the Zone Budget in MODFLOW-OWHM accounts for the volume of

that recharge in the RECH column.

8.5.2 Subsurface Inflow and Outflow

Subsurface inflow, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of water
entering as groundwater into a water budget zone through its subsurface
boundaries.” Subsurface outflow refers to the “volume of water leaving as
groundwater from a water budget zone through its subsurface boundaries.”
In MODFLOW-OWHM, subsurface flows from each zone are the summation of
flows across the boundaries.

The Zone Budget in MODFLOW-OWHM includes the volume of boundary flow

for calculating subsurface inflows and outflows. For the water budget zone of
interest, find the subsurface inflow data in the following two columns within
the first block of columns: CONSTANT HEAD and HEAD DEP BOUNDS; total
inflow is the sum of these two columns. If there are multiple zones in the
Zone Budget results, then an additional column corresponding to flow
between zones will appear in the output file in the first block of columns.
Add the values from From Other Zones column in the subsurface inflow
summation to get the total subsurface inflow (Figure 8-23).

Figure 8-23 Zone Budget: Subsurface Inflows

Next, find the subsurface outflow data in the following two columns within
the second block of columns: CONSTANT HEAD and HEAD DEP BOUNDS;
total outflow is the sum of these two columns. If there are multiple zones in
the Zone Budget results, then an additional column corresponding to flow

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between zones will appear in the output file in the second block of columns.
Add the values from To Other Zones column in the subsurface outflow
summation to get the total subsurface outflow (Figure 8-24).

Figure 8-24 Zone Budget: Subsurface Outflows

Note: If MODFLOW-OWHM version 2 is used, individual budget group names

can be defined for groups of cells associated with boundaries of interest. In
this case, the flows for that subset of cells are aggregated for analysis. For
example, if the custom budget was assigned to the GHB, the GHB associated
with sea level for layer 1 (GHB_SEA_L1) can be obtained from column G in
the Zone Budget output. This can be useful for distinguishing boundary
conditions meant to represent different physical features.

8.5.3 Stream-Groundwater Interaction

Groundwater gain from stream, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the
“volume of water entering the groundwater system from rivers and
streams.” Groundwater loss to stream refers to the “volume of water
entering rivers and streams from the groundwater system.” The Zone
Budget in MODFLOW-OWHM accounts for gain from and loss to stream in the
“stream leakage” column. For the zones corresponding to the water budget
zone of interest, find the gain from stream data in the first occurrence of the
STREAM LEAKAGE column. Next, find the loss to stream data under the
second occurrence of the STREAM LEAKAGE column. Units for the stream-
groundwater interaction are typically cubic feet or cubic meters but should
be verified (refer to Section 8.2). The stream-aquifer interaction is also

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reported in the Stream Budget, but it is generally easier to obtain the values
for a water budget zone through the Zone Budget rather than manually
aggregating the relevant stream reaches.

Figure 8-25 Zone Budget: Stream-Groundwater Interaction

8.5.4 Lake-Groundwater Interaction

Groundwater gain from lake, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume
of water entering the groundwater system from lakes and reservoirs.”
Groundwater loss to lake refers to the “volume of water entering the lakes
and reservoirs from the groundwater system.” If the lakes are simulated by
the model, identify which lakes in the model corresponds to the lakes in the
water budget zone of interest. If reservoirs are simulated using the Surface
Water Operations (SWO) Package, then the seepage to groundwater from
the reservoir is not simulated.

The Lake Budget in MODFLOW-OWHM contains a water balance for the lake
system for each timestep. The lake-aquifer interaction results are in the
“Inflow” and “Outflow” columns under the “Groundwater” heading
(Figure 8-26). These numbers are from the lake perspective, so inflow refers
to flow from the groundwater system into the lake and outflow refers to flow
from the lake into the groundwater system. Units for the lake-groundwater
interaction are typically cubic feet or cubic meters but should be verified
(refer to Section 8.2).

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Figure 8-26 Lake Budget: Lake-Groundwater Interaction

Alternatively, the lake aquifer interaction is reported in the Zone Budget

under the heading “Lake”.

8.5.5 Managed Aquifer Recharge

Managed aquifer recharge, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume
of water intentionally added to the groundwater system as part of defined
recharge and water banking programs through spreading basins, injection
wells, and other means.” Using the maps in the model documentation or
associated hydrogeologic reports, find information on zones with similar
recharge values (recharge zones), and determine which recharge zones in
the model correspond to the water budget zone of interest. If managed
aquifer recharge data have not been incorporated into the model, data such
as the rate and areal extent of recharge may be obtained and added to the
model using the Recharge Package in MODFLOW-OWHM.

In MODFLOW-OWHM, direct recharge is specified using the Recharge

Package. The Zone Budget in MODFLOW-OWHM accounts for the volume of
direct recharge in the RECH column. It lists inflows and outflows from the
perspective of the groundwater system. The columns order may be different
in the model files; for example, there will not be a column for a specific
feature in the Zone Budget file if that feature is not used in the model. Units
for the direct managed recharge are typically cubic feet or cubic meters but
should be verified (refer to Section 8.2).

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Note: In MODFLOW-OWHM version 2, a direct recharge option was

developed where an array of recharge rates by stress period can be
specified. If this option is used, the direct recharge component (Q-drch-out)
of total recharge (i.e., Farm Net Recharge) is provided in the
DetailedFarmBudget.out file. For each time step, the total direct recharge is
the sum of the values in the previously mentioned columns for each WBS of
interest multiplied by the time-step length. This yields a volume in model
units of ft3 or m3.

8.5.6 Stored Water Extraction

Stored water extraction, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
groundwater pumped (extracted) from the underlying aquifer(s) through a
defined recharge and extraction program for use within the water budget
zone. For example, a water bank with dedicated extraction wells can provide
data for stored water extraction. It does not include stored water export,
groundwater extraction, and groundwater export. Groundwater extraction
and stored water extraction will be combined if stored water extraction
amounts are unknown or are not separately measured. In such a case, the
total volume of combined extractions will be reported as groundwater
extraction.” If water banking operations do not exist in the water budget
zone of interest, then this term can be ignored.

There are two ways that stored water extraction can be specified in
MODFLOW-OWHM, either as (1) a specified pumping rate from a well,
represented by the Well (WEL) or Multi Node Well (MNW) packages or, (2) a
demand driven calculated pumping rate based on land-use water demands.

In cases where the stored water extraction is an input parameter, the

pumping volume can be obtained from the input file that is identified with a
file extension of “.wel or .MNW” (Figure 8-27). This file contains a timeseries
of pumping volumes by timestep by well. Identify the relevant wells in the
water budget zone and sum the pumping volumes to compute the stored
water extraction.

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Figure 8-27 MODFLOW-OWHM WEL File

Note: To set up a demand driven option where land use water demands can
be used to compute withdrawals, define the well(s) or non-routed deliveries
in the farm process input that will be used for supply in the associated WBS.
This can be specified using a specific well in the farm process or using an
option to provide a well as a source for a non-routed delivery.

Budgets for the stored water extraction can be summed from the Well
Package input or specified as a specific budget item for output to the Zone
Budget in MODFLOW-OWHM version 2 as indicated in Section 8.2. If the
demand driven options for computing stored water extraction are used, then
the computed pumping rates for the wells associated with the stored water
operation can be summed in the standard Farm Well output file whose name
is specified in the farm process input.

8.5.7 Groundwater Export

Groundwater export, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
groundwater pumped (extracted) from the underlying aquifer for use outside
the water budget zone. It does not include groundwater extraction, stored
water extraction, and stored water export.” In MODFLOW-OWHM,
groundwater export can be simulated by assigning pumping but no water
application in the Well (WEL) or Multi-node Well (NMW) packages. If

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groundwater export data are not incorporated into the model, data such as
the extraction rate and location of wells may be obtained and added to the
model using the Well Package. Because groundwater exports are typically
measured and reported, inclusion in the model means explicitly adding these
values as input data. Well pumping rates can be found in the Well Package
input files labeled with a file extension of “.wel” or “.MNW”. Find these files,
identify the wells used for groundwater exports, and sum the volumes for
the appropriate timesteps. Well extractions are reported as negative
numbers in the Well Package files. Units for groundwater export are typically
cubic feet or cubic meters but should be verified.

Figure 8-28 MODFLOW-OWHM WEL File

Alternatively, groundwater exports can be obtained from a MODFLOW

application using a combination of the Zone Budget and Farm Budget
outputs. The pumping terms in the Zone Budget include all pumping that
happens in the zone regardless of end use. The Farm Budget reports the
pumping that is used to meet demands within the zone.

For the areas corresponding to the water budget zone of interest, first find
the total pumping in the water budget zone by summing up the various
“Well” columns in the Zone Budget (Figure 8-29). From the Farm Budget,
find the volume of groundwater for overlying use through the Q-well-in

326 | Section 8. Case Study: One-Water Hydrologic Flow Model

 Handbook for Water Budget Development

column (Figure 8-30). The total volume of the groundwater export is the
difference between total pumping and pumping for overlying use.

If stored water export also exists in the water budget zone, this volume will
need to be subtracted from the previously calculated value.

Figure 8-29 Zone Budget: Groundwater Extraction

Figure 8-30 Farm Budget: Groundwater Extraction

Note: If MODFLOW-OWHM version 2 is used, a specific budget item for

these wells can be specified (refer to Section 8.2).

8.5.8 Stored Water Export

Stored water export, as defined in Section 1.3, refers to the “volume of
groundwater pumped (extracted) from the underlying aquifer(s) through a
defined recharge and extraction program for use outside the water budget
zone. For example, a water bank with dedicated extraction wells can provide

Section 8. Case Study: One-Water Hydrologic Flow Model | 327

Handbook for Water Budget Development

data for stored water export. It does not include stored water extraction,
groundwater extraction, and groundwater export. Groundwater export and
stored water export will be combined if stored water export amounts are
unknown or are not separately measured. In such a case, the total volume
of combined exports will be reported as groundwater export.” If water
banking operations do not exist in the water budget zone of interest, then
this term can be ignored.

There are two ways that stored water exports can be specified in MODFLOW-
OWHM, either as (1) a specified pumping rate from a well, represented by
the Well (WEL) or Multi Node Well (MNW) packages or, (2) a demand driven
calculated pumping rate based on land-use water demands.

In cases where the stored water extraction is an input parameter, the

pumping volume can be obtained from the input file that is identified with a
file extension of “.wel or .MNW” (Figure 8-31). This file contains a timeseries
of pumping volumes by timestep by well. Identify the relevant wells used for
stored water export in the water budget zone and sum up the pumping
volumes to compute the stored water export.

Figure 8-31 MODFLOW-OWHM WEL File

328 | Section 8. Case Study: One-Water Hydrologic Flow Model

 Handbook for Water Budget Development

8.5.9 Water Release Caused by Land Subsidence

Water release caused by land subsidence, as defined in Section 1.3 is the
“volume of water released to an aquifer on a one-time basis as a result of
land subsidence, which is caused by the inelastic consolidation of porous
fine-grained material.” MODFLOW-OWHM simulates the groundwater flow
from interbeds using the Subsidence (SUB) package. Values for the
groundwater flow to and from clay interbeds are provided in the Zone
Budget (Figure 8-32).

Eight values for the groundwater flow to and from clay interbeds are
provided in the cell-by-cell groundwater budget as shown in Table 8-3.
Water release caused by land subsidence refers to the SUB_INST_IN_IN and
SUB_DELAY_IN_IN terms.

Table 8-3 MODFLOW-OWHM Data Columns Related to Subsidence

Column Heading Column Description
Instantaneous elastic flow to the groundwater system from
SUB_INST_EL_IN
interbeds
Instantaneous elastic flow from the groundwater system to
SUB_INST_EL_OUT
interbeds
Instantaneous inelastic flow to the groundwater system
SUB_INST_IN_IN
from interbeds
Instantaneous inelastic flow from the groundwater system
SUB_INST_IN_OUT
to interbeds
Delayed elastic flow to the groundwater system from
SUB_DELAY_EL_IN
interbeds
Delayed elastic flow from the groundwater system to
SUB_DELAY_EL_OUT
interbeds
Delayed inelastic flow to the groundwater system from
SUB_DELAY_IN_IN
interbeds
Delayed inelastic flow from the groundwater system to
SUB_DELAY_IN_OUT
interbeds
Note on SUB_INST_IN_OUT and SUB_DELAY_IN_OUT: These terms are included
to be consistent with the MODFLOW-OWHM budget format, but they are always zero
because inelastic flow from interbeds is irreversible, so inelastic flow back to the
interbeds is not possible.

Section 8. Case Study: One-Water Hydrologic Flow Model | 329

Handbook for Water Budget Development

Figure 8-32 Zone Budget: Subsidence

8.5.10 Change in Groundwater Storage

Change in groundwater storage, as defined in Section 1.3 is the “net change
in the volume of groundwater stored within the underlying aquifer of the
water budget zone.” MODFLOW-OWHM accounts for the change in
groundwater storage in the Zone Budget output. The Zone Budget reports
storage as an inflow and outflow. For zones corresponding to the water
budget zone of interest, find the storage data in the “Storage” columns
(Figure 8-33). The total change in groundwater storage for any particular
timestep is the difference between storage inflow and storage outflow.

Figure 8-33 Zone Budget: Storage

330 | Section 8. Case Study: One-Water Hydrologic Flow Model

 Handbook for Water Budget Development

8.6 TOTAL WATER BUDGET FROM MODFLOW-OWHM

After individual water budget components are extracted from a MODFLOW-
OWHM application, the total water budget can be compiled for the water
budget zone. The total water budget is an accounting of all water entering or
leaving the water budget zone, as well as components flowing between
systems within the water budget zone. Water budget tables for the land
system, surface water system, groundwater system, and total water budget
are presented in Figure 8-34 through Figure 8-37. The tables demonstrate
the interconnectivity between the three systems and highlight the inflows
and outflows from the water budget zone. The tables are also available in
accessible Excel format on the Water Budget Handbook webpage.

Section 8. Case Study: One-Water Hydrologic Flow Model | 331

Handbook for Water Budget Development

Figure 8-34 Land System Water Budget Components and MODFLOW-OWHM Water Budget
Elements
LAND SYSTEM WATER BUDGET (Acre-Feet)
Credit(+)/
Component Model Output
Debit(-)
Precipitation + Detailed Farm Budget: Q-p-in
Surface Water Delivery + Detailed Farm Budget: Q-nrd-in + Q-srd-in + Q-rd-in
Groundwater Extraction + Detailed Farm Budget: Q-wells-in
INFLOWS

Stored Water Extraction + Detailed Farm Budget: Q-wells-in

Applied Water Reuse/Recycled Water N/A
Applied Water Detailed Farm Budget: Q-nrd-in + Q-srd-in + Q-rd-in + Q-wells-in
Total Inflow
Evapotranspiration - Detailed Farm Budget: Q-ei-out + Q-ep-out + Q-egw-out + Q-ti-out + Q-tp-out + Q-tgw-out
Runoff - Detailed Farm Budget: Q-run-out
Return Flow - Detailed Farm Budget: Q-run-out
OUTFLOWS

Recharge of Applied Water - Detailed Farm Budget: Q-dp-out

Recharge of Precipitation - Detailed Farm Budget: Q-dp-out
Managed Aquifer Recharge - Detailed Farm Budget: Q-dp-out
Recycled Water Export -
Total Outflow
STORAGE
CHANGE

Change in Land System Storage Unsaturated Zone Budget: In - Out

Land System Mass Balance Error

332 | Section 8. Case Study: One-Water Hydrologic Flow Model

 Handbook for Water Budget Development

Figure 8-35 Surface Water System Budget Components and MODFLOW-OWHM Water Budget
Elements
SURFACE WATER SYSTEM WATER BUDGET (Acre-Feet)
Credit(+)/
Component Model Output
Debit(-)
Stream Inflow + Stream Budget: Flow into Strm. Rch.
Imported Water + Detailed Farm Budget: Q-nrd-in
Precipitaion on Lakes + Lake Budget: Precip
INFLOWS

Runoff + Stream Budget: Ovrlnd Runoff

Return Flow + Stream Budget: Ovrlnd Runoff
Stream Gain from Groundwater + Zone Budget: Stream Leakage
Lake Gain from Groundwater + Lake Budget: Groundwater Inflow
Total Inflow
Stream Outflow - Stream Budget: Flow Out of Strm. Rch.
Surface Water Exports - Detailed Farm Budget: Q-srd-out+ Q-rd-out
Surface Water Diversions Detailed Farm Budget: Q-srd-in + Q-rd-in
Conveyance Evaporation - Stream Budget: Stream ET
Conveyance Seepage - Stream Budget: Flow to Aquifer (positive values)
OUTFLOWS

Surface Water Delivery - Detailed Farm Budget: Q-srd-in + Q-rd-in + Q-nrd-in

Stream Loss to Groundwater - Zone Budget: Stream Leakage
Lake Loss to Groundwater - Lake Budget: Groundwater Outflow
Lake Evaporation - Lake Budget: Evap
Stream Evaporation - Steram Budget: Stream ET
Total Outflow
STORAGE
CHANGE

Change in Surface Water Storage Lake Budget: Updated Volume minus Volume from previous timestep

Surface Water System Mass Balance Error

Section 8. Case Study: One-Water Hydrologic Flow Model | 333

Handbook for Water Budget Development

Figure 8-36 Groundwater System Budget Components and MODFLOW-OWHM Water Budget
Elements
GROUNDWATER SYSTEM WATER BUDGET (Acre-Feet)
Credit(+)/
Component Model Output
Debit(-)
Recharge of Applied Water + Zone Budget: Farm Net Recharge
Recharge of Precipitation + Zone Budget: Farm Net Recharge
Managed Aquifer Recharge + Zone Budget: Recharge
Groundwater Gain from Stream Zone Budget: Stream Leakage
INFLOWS

+
Groundwater Gain from Lake + Lake Budget: Groundwater Outflow
Conveyance Seepage + Stream Budget: Flow to Aquifer (positive values)
Subsurface Inflow + Zone Budget: Constant Head + Head Dep Bounds + From Other Zones
Water Release Caused by Land Subsidence + Zone Budget: Instantaneous Elastic Flow + Instantaneous Inelastic Flow + Delayed Elastic Flow + Delayed Inelastic Flow
Total Inflow
Groundwater Extraction - Zone Budget: Constant Head + Head Dep Bounds + To Other Zones
Stored Water Extraction - Zone Budget: Wells
Groundwater Loss to Stream - WEL input file
OUTFLOWS

Groundwater Loss to Lake - Zone Budget: Stream Leakage

Subsurface Outflow - Lake Budget: Groundwater Inflow
Groundwater Export - Zone Budget: Wells
Stored Water Export - Zone Budget: Wells
Total Outflow Zone Budget: Storage In - Storage Out
STORAGE
CHANGE

Change in Groundwater Storage Groundwater Budget: Beginning Storage - Ending Storage

Groundwater System Mass Balance Error

334 | Section 8. Case Study: One-Water Hydrologic Flow Model

 Handbook for Water Budget Development

Figure 8-37 Total Water Budget Components and MODFLOW-OWHM Water Budget Elements
TOTAL WATER BUDGET (Acre-feet)
Credit(+)/
Component Model Output
Debit(-)
Precipitation on Land System + Detailed Farm Budget: Q-p-in
Precipitation on Lakes + Lake Budget: Precip
Stream Inflow + Stream Budget: Flow into Strm. Rch.
INFLOWS

Imported Water + Detailed Farm Budget: Q-nrd-in

Subsurface Inflow + Zone Budget: Constant Head + Head Dep Bounds + From Other Zones
Water Release Caused by Land Subsidence + Zone Budget: Instantaneous Elastic Flow + Instantaneous Inelastic Flow + Delayed Elastic Flow + Delayed Inelastic Flow
Total Inflow
Evapotranspiration from Land System - Detailed Farm Budget: Q-ei-out + Q-ep-out + Q-egw-out + Q-ti-out + Q-tp-out + Q-tgw-out
Stream Evaporation - Steram Budget: Stream ET
Lake Evaporation - Lake Budget: Evap
Conveyance Evaporation - Stream Budget: Stream ET
Stream Budget: Flow Out of Strm. Rch.
OUTFLOWS

Stream Outflow -
Subsurface Outflow - Zone Budget: Constant Head + Head Dep Bounds + To Other Zones
Surface Water Export - Detailed Farm Budget: Q-srd-out+ Q-rd-out
Groundwater Export - Zone Budget: Wells
Stored Water Export - Zone Budget: Wells
Recycled Water Export -
Total Outflow
STORAGE
CHANGE

Change in Total System Storage Change in Land System Storage + Change in Surface Water Storage + Change in Groundwater Storage

Total System Mass Balance Error

Section 8. Case Study: One-Water Hydrologic Flow Model | 335

Handbook for Water Budget Development

336 | Section 8. Case Study: One-Water Hydrologic Flow Model

 Handbook for Water Budget Development

9.DATA RESOURCES DIRECTORY

Section 9. Data Resources Directory | 337

Handbook for Water Budget Development

9.1 Introduction
This data resources directory provides a starting point for water budget
practitioners to review and evaluate many of the data sources referenced in
Sections 3, 4, and 5 for applicability to their own water budgets. This list is
not exhaustive, and some resources may be duplicative, covering the same
information but in different formats or time scales. While an attempt has
been made to curate these resources, and verify links and metadata, users
of this inventory do so at their own risk and are responsible for
independently verifying any information presented here.

Data resources are organized alphabetically. To help users navigate through

the Data Resources Directory, Figure 9-1 lists individual water budget
components and directs users to appropriate data resources where
information helpful to estimating those components can be found.

For each identified resource, a summary metadata sheet has been prepared
containing the following information:
• Developer/author/owner.
• Source for water budget components.
• Available information.
• Brief description.
• Data link (or contact).
• Metadata link.
• Period of record.
• Coverage.
• Temporal resolution.
• Spatial resolution.
• Format.
• Software requirements.
• Tips to access/download.

The metadata sheets contain either direct quotes or paraphrased information

from the sources referenced in the sheet. The information provided in the

338 | Section 9. Data Resources Directory

 Handbook for Water Budget Development

metadata sheets is for convenience of use and should be confirmed by

visiting the data links for the source.

Suggested improvements to the characterization or content of the resource

sheets are invited and will be included through the errata process. This
section was last updated on July 1, 2019. As a print-ready document, many
links will quickly become outdated; if the information has moved since the
above date, the links provided may not function properly. An updated errata
sheet will be provided on the Water Budget Handbook webpage when
updated links are made available. If you find a broken link and the corrected
link is not available in the errata sheet, please email Paul Shipman with
information on the broken link, and if possible, provide an updated link.

Disclaimer

The authors of the Water Budget Handbook make no guarantees as to the

accuracy, appropriateness, completeness, or availability of the data at the
URLs specified in this section.

Section 9. Data Resources Directory | 339

Figure 9-1 Key to Sources and Related Water Budget Components

Resources

Handbook Chapter Reference

Title of Resource
9.2 Agricultural Water Management Plans
9.3 ALEXI: Atmosphere-Land Exchange Inverse Model
9.4 BCM: Basin Charactization Model
9.5 California Department of Finance
9.6 California Department of Transportation's Highway Design Manual
9.7 California Nevada River Forecast Center
9.8 California Pesticide Information Portal
9.9 California Water Plan - Water Portfolios
9.10 CALSIM 2
9.11 CALSIM 3
9.12 Cal-SIMETAW
9.13 CASGEM: California Statewide Groundwater Elevation Monitoring
9.14 CDEC: California Data Exchange Center
9.15 CHRS: Center for Hydrometeorology & Remote Sensing Data Portal
9.16 CIMIS: California Irrigation Management Information System
9.17 CIMIS (Spatial): California Irrigation Management Information System
9.18 County Agricultural Commissioner Crop Reports
9.19 CVHM: Central Valley Hydrologic Model
9.20 C2VSIM Coarse Grid Model
9.21 C2VSIM Fine Grid Model
9.22 DWR - Agricultural Land and Water Use Estimates
9.23 DWR Bulletin 73: Evaporation from Water Surfaces in California (1979)
9.24 DWR Bulletin 113: Crop Water Use
9.25 DWR Bulletin 118: Groundwater Report
9.26 DWR Bulletin 132: Management of the California State Water Project
9.27 DWR Demographic Data
9.28 DWR Irrigation Methods Survey
9.29 DWR Land Use Survey Data
9.30 DWR Land Use Viewer
9.31 DWR SGMA Data Viewer
9.32 DWR Water Data Library: Surface Water and Groundwater Data
 ●
●
●
Precipitation

●
● ●
● ●
● ●
●

● ●
●
●
● ●
Evapotranspiration

● ● ●
● ●
●
●
●
● ●

●
● ● ●
● ● ●
● ●
Applied Water

●
Surface Water Delivery

●
Groundwater Extraction

●
● ● ● ●
● ● ● ●
● ● ● ●
Applied Water Reuse
Water Budget Components

● ● ● ● ● ●
Recycled Water Use

● ● ●

● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
Recycled Water Export

●
●
Runoff

●
Return Flow

●
●
● ● ●
● ● ●
●
●
●
●

● ● ●
● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
● ●
Stream Inflow and Outflow

●
●
●
●
●
Stream Evaporation

●
●
●
Surface Water Diversion

●
●
●
●
●
Conveyance Evaporation
Conveyance Seepage
Imported Water

● ● ● ● ●
● ●

● ● ● ● ●
● ● ● ● ●
● ● ● ● ●
● ● ● ● ●
● ● ● ● ●
Surface Water Export

●
●
Stream-Lake Interaction

●
●
●
●
Lake Evaporation

●
Change in Surface Water Storage

●
●

●
●
Recharge of Applied Water and Precip.

●
●
●
Subsurface Inflow and Outflow

●
●

● ● ●
● ● ●
● ● ●
Stream-Groundwater Interaction
Lake-Groundwater Interaction
Managed Aquifer Recharge
Stored Water Extraction

● ● ●
● ● ●
● ● ●
● ● ●

Groundwater Export
Stored Water Export

●
●
●
●
● ● ● ● ●

Change in Groundwater Storage

● ●
● ●
● ●
Water Release Caused by Land Sub.
 Resources

Handbook Chapter Reference

Title of Resource
9.33 GRACE: Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment
9.34 IDC: IWFM Demand Calculator
9.35 ITRC Evapotranspiration Data
9.36 ITRC METRIC
9.37 IWFM: Integrated Water Flow Model
9.38 METRIC-EEFLUX
9.39 MOD16: MODIS Global Evapotranspiration Project
9.40 MODFLOW-OWHM: One Water Hydrologic Flow Model
9.41 NLCD: National Land Cover Database
9.42 NLDAS-2: North American Land Data Assimilation System
9.43 NOAA National Centers For Environmental Information - Climate Data Online
9.44 NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information - Climatological Data Pubs.
9.45 NWS Climate Prediction Center Evaporation
9.46 PRISM Gridded Precipitation Data
9.47 SSEBop: Operational Simplified Surface Energy Balance
9.48 SWRCB Water Conservation Portal
9.49 SWRCB Water Rights Information (eWRIMS)
9.50 TOPS-SIMS: Satellite Irrigation Management Support
9.51 United States Census
9.52 Urban Water Management Plans
9.53 USBR Central Valley Operations (including Central Valley Project)
9.54 USDA County Ag Commissioner's Data Listing
9.55 USDA CropScape
9.56 USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Geospatial Web Soil Survey
9.57 USGS Publications
9.58 USGS Surface-Water Data for California
9.59 Validated Water Loss Reporting
9.60 VegScape: Vegetation Condition Explorer
9.61 Water Recycling Survey (2015)
9.62 WUCOLS: Water Use Classification of Landscape Species
 ●
●
●
●
●
Precipitation

●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Evapotranspiration

●
● ●
● ●
●

● ●
● ●
●
●
Applied Water

●
Surface Water Delivery
Groundwater Extraction

●
Applied Water Reuse
Water Budget Components

● ● ● ● ●
● ● ● ● ●
● ● ● ● ●
Recycled Water Use

● ●
● ● ● ● ● ●
Recycled Water Export
Runoff

●
● ●
Return Flow

● ● ●
● ● ●
● ● ●
● ● ●
Stream Inflow and Outflow

●
●
●
Stream Evaporation

●
●
●
Surface Water Diversion

●
●
●
Conveyance Evaporation

●
Conveyance Seepage
Imported Water

● ● ● ● ●
● ●
Surface Water Export

● ● ●
●
Stream-Lake Interaction

●
●
●
Lake Evaporation

●
Change in Surface Water Storage

●
●
●

●
● Recharge of Applied Water and Precip.
Subsurface Inflow and Outflow

● ●
Stream-Groundwater Interaction
Lake-Groundwater Interaction
Managed Aquifer Recharge
Stored Water Extraction
Groundwater Export
Stored Water Export
Change in Groundwater Storage
● ●

● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Water Release Caused by Land Sub.

Handbook for Water Budget Development

9.2 Agricultural Water Management Plans

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Source for Water Budget Evapotranspiration, Applied Water, Applied Water
Components: Reuse, Recycled Water, Recycled Water Exports,
Recharge of Applied Water and Precipitation
Available Information: Water supply information, irrigation efficiency,
evapotranspiration, agricultural land use by crop type,
irrigation methods
Brief Description: The Water Conservation Act of 2009 (SB X7-7)
requires agricultural water suppliers serving more
than 25,000 irrigated acres (excluding recycled water
deliveries) to adopt and submit to DWR an
agricultural water management plan (AWMP). These
plans had to include specific content, including
reporting on the implementation status of specific
efficient water management practices (EWMPs) that
were required under SB X7-7. In 2015, under the
Drought Emergency Executive Order B-29-15,
agricultural water suppliers serving 10,000 to 25,000
irrigated acres were also required to prepare and
submit an AWMP to DWR. Additionally, all agricultural
water suppliers had to include more information in
their AWMPs than required by SB X7-7.
Data Link: Water Use Efficiency Data:
https://wuedata.water.ca.gov/
Metadata Link: Agricultural Water Use Efficiency:
https://water.ca.gov/Programs/Water-Use-And-
Efficiency/Agricultural-Water-Use-Efficiency
Period of Record: Varies depending on the agricultural water
management plan. At minimum, includes 5 years of
record.
Coverage: Statewide coverage by agricultural water suppliers.
Temporal Resolution: Varies, typically monthly or annual data.
Spatial Resolution: By agricultural water supplier.
Format: XLS and PDF
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software.
Tips to Access/Download: Individual AWMPs are available for download through
the “View 2015 AWMPs” link. Relevant data can be
found within the individual PDFs.

344 | Section 9. Data Resources Directory

 Handbook for Water Budget Development

9.3 Atmosphere-Land Exchange Inverse Model

Developer/Author/Owner: NOAA Office of Satellite and Product Operations
Source for Water Budget
Evapotranspiration
Components:
Available Information: Actual ET
Brief Description: GOES Evapotranspiration and Drought (GET-D)
products are derived from the Atmosphere-Land
Exchange Inversion model (ALEXI). ALEXI computes
principle surface energy fluxes, including
Evapotranspiration (ET), which is a critical boundary
condition for weather and hydrologic modeling, and a
quantity required for regional water resource
management. ALEXI ET estimates have been
rigorously evaluated in comparison with ground-
based data and perform well over a range in climatic
and vegetation conditions. The GET-D system is
designed to generate ET and drought maps
operationally. ALEXI ET is retrieved over clear-sky
pixels daily and ALEXI drought product is generated
over 1- to 6-month compositing periods each day.
Data Link (or Contact): Servir Global Evaporative Stress Index:
http://catalogue.servirglobal.net/Product?product_id=
198
GOES Image Viewer:
https://www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/GOES/index.php
Metadata Link: Hydrology and Earth System Sciences:
https://www.hydrol-earth-syst-
sci.net/15/223/2011/hess-15-223-2011.pdf
Period of Record: 1 month is available online.
Coverage: Contiguous United States.
Temporal Resolution: Daily, with 2-, 4-, 8-, and 12-week composites.
Spatial Resolution: Not available
Format: Low-quality image (PNG) is available online.
Software Requirements: Unknown
Tips to Access/Download: This product is not being archived, although it may be
archived in the future by the National Centers for
Environmental Information (NCEI). For additional
information please contact the NCEI satellite division
at ncei.sat.info@noaa.gov. For any questions
regarding what Comprehensive Large Array-data
Stewardship System (CLASS) has in the archive,
please contact class.help@noaa.gov.

Section 9. Data Resources Directory | 345

Handbook for Water Budget Development

9.4 Basin Characterization Model

Developer/Author/Owner: U. S. Geological Survey (USGS)
Source for Water Budget Precipitation, Evapotranspiration, Runoff, Recharge of
Components: Applied Water and Precipitation, Stream-Groundwater
Interaction
Available Information: View model documentation for complete listing of all
related data.
Brief Description: The Basin Characterization Model (BCM) can
translate fine-scale maps of climate trends and
projections into the hydrologic consequences, to
permit evaluation of the impacts to water availability
at regional, watershed, and landscape scales, as
caused by changes in temperature and precipitation.
The BCM was developed at a 270-m spatial
resolution, using monthly data, and has been
supported by numerous federal, State, and local
agencies, and international organizations. The BCM
uses historical climate data from 1896 through 2010,
and an ensemble of 18 future climate projections that
were used to develop hydrologic output such as
snowpack, recharge, runoff, and climatic water deficit.
To produce this dataset, digital maps of soils and
geology for the California hydrologic region were
integrated with monthly maps of climate and
hydrology, to generate average water year and
30-year water year maps for the historical record
(1951–1980 and 1981–2010) and future projections
(2010–2039, 2040–2069, and 2070–2099).
Data Link: USGS California Basin Characterization Model:
https://ca.water.usgs.gov/projects/reg_hydro/basin-
characterization-model.html
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link.
Period of Record: Historical record (1981–2010) and projections (2010–
2099).
Coverage: Statewide coverage
Temporal Resolution: Monthly and annual input data, output statistics
calculated on 30-year periods.
Spatial Resolution: 270-m grid cells
Format: ASCII grid file (.asc)
Software Requirements: GIS

346 | Section 9. Data Resources Directory

 Handbook for Water Budget Development

9.5 California Department of Finance

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Finance
Source for Water Budget
Applied Water
Components:
Available Information: Population
Brief Description: The California Department of Finance provides
population estimates for historical years and future
projections of population in five-year increments
through 2060. Population estimates and projections
are available at the city and county level.
Data Link: California Department of Finance Demographics:
http://www.dof.ca.gov/Forecasting/Demographics/
Metadata Link: California Department of Finance Projections:
http://www.dof.ca.gov/Forecasting/Demographics/proj
ections/
Click on “Methodology”
Period of Record: Historical estimates (1940–2017) and projections
(2010–2060)
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: Not available
Spatial Resolution: City, county, or state
Format: XLS
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software
Tips to Access/Download: Click on “Estimates” under “Data” to see historical
and current year population estimates.
Click on “Projections” under “Data” to see historical
and current year population estimates.

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9.6 California Department of Transportation’s Highway Design

Manual
Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Transportation (Caltrans)
Source for Water Budget
Stream Inflow, Stream Outflow, Runoff
Components:
Available Information: Runoff coefficient
Brief Description: This manual was prepared for Caltrans by the
Division of Design for use on the California State
highway system.
Tables 819.2A and 819.2B provide runoff coefficients
for different land use types.
Data Link: Caltrans Highway Design Manual:
https://dot.ca.gov/programs/design/manual-highway-
design-manual-hdm
Metadata Link: Not available
Period of Record: Last Updated December 14, 2018
Coverage: Not available
Temporal Resolution: Not available
Spatial Resolution: Not available
Format: PDF
Software Requirements: Acrobat Reader
Tips to Access/Download: Refer to Tables 819.2A and 819.2B in the “Hydrology”
chapter of PDF linked above.

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9.7 California Nevada River Forecast Center

Developer/Author/Owner: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) and National Weather Service (NWS)
Source for Water Budget
Stream Inflow, Stream Outflow, Precipitation
Components:
Available Information: Stream Flow, Precipitation
Brief Description: Contains current flow data for river and reservoir
gauge throughout California
Data Link (or Contact): NOAA California Nevada River Forecast Center:
http://www.cnrfc.noaa.gov/
Metadata Link: NOAA River/Reservoir Data:
http://www.cnrfc.noaa.gov/river_data.php
Period of Record: Observed precipitation available monthly starting
October 1996, other data available four hours
previous.
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: Monthly or hourly depending on dataset.
Spatial Resolution: Gauge location
Format: Web viewer
Software Requirements: None
Tips to Access/Download: Find the appropriate gauge location on the map
interface and click on it to bring up flow data.

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9.8 California Pesticide Information Portal

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Pesticide Regulation
Source for Water Budget
Applied Water, Evapotranspiration
Components:
Available Information: Pesticide application dates, crop type that pesticide
was applied to, acreage of land treated
Brief Description: The California Pesticide Information Portal (CalPIP)
provides access to a collection of pesticide use
information. At the heart of CalPIP is a data warehouse
that serves up pesticide data produced, maintained,
and used by a variety of programs within DPR. CalPIP
can be used to determine and refine estimation of crop
planting periods as well as spatial coverage of different
crop types by examining the distribution of pesticide
applications.
Data Link: CalPIP Application Home:
https://calpip.cdpr.ca.gov/main.cfm
Metadata Link: CalPIP Help/User Guide:
https://calpip.cdpr.ca.gov/infodocs.cfm?page=helpdoc1
Period of Record: 1990–2016
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: Daily
Spatial Resolution: Meridian/township/range/section (including ranch
maps).
Format: Text file
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet software
Tips to Access/Download: You can query for pesticide use statistics categorized
by the use date (year), application location (county,
meridian/township/range/section, zip code), site or
crop treated, pesticide product name, and chemical
name (active ingredient). These categories appear on
the left side of the screen. Under each major category,
there are subcategories of data to narrow the search to
the information of specific interest. Once selections are
complete, click on the “Format Output” option and click
the “Submit Query” button.
Tips for navigating the resource are available at
Navigating CalPIP for First Time Users:
https://calpip.cdpr.ca.gov/infodocs.cfm?page=navigate

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9.9 California Water Plan — Water Portfolios

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources
Source for Water Budget Evapotranspiration, Applied Water, Precipitation,
Components: Surface Water Delivery, Groundwater Extraction,
Applied Water Reuse, Recycled Water, Recycled
Water Export, Return Flow, Stream Inflow, Stream
Outflow, Surface Water Diversion, Conveyance
Evaporation, Conveyance Seepage, Imported Water,
Surface Water Export, Lake Evaporation, Recharge of
Applied Water and Precipitation, Managed Aquifer
Recharge, Stored Water Extraction, Groundwater
Export, Change in Groundwater Storage
Available Information: The spreadsheet “DataParam” contains a complete
listing of all related data for the Water Portfolios. A
partial list of available categories of information
includes Agricultural Water Use, Urban Water Use,
Precipitation Volume, Surface Water Supply,
Recycled Water, Groundwater Supply, and
Environmental Flow Requirements.
Brief Description: Water use and water supply estimates developed by
the California Water Plan for years 2002–2015
Data Link: Water Portfolios:
https://water.ca.gov/Programs/California-Water-
Plan/Water-Portfolios
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link
Period of Record: 2002–2015
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: Annual
Spatial Resolution: Planning Area, Hydrologic Region, Statewide.
DAUCO data are available upon request.
Format: XLS
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software
Tips to Access/Download: Click on the link for the Water Supply and Balance
Data Interface (Zip).

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9.10 CALSIM 2
Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Source for Water Budget Surface Water Diversion, Imported Water, Surface
Components: Water Export, Stream Inflow, Stream Outflow
Available Information: Surface water diversion, SWP/CVP deliveries,
reservoir outflows, rim inflow, stream flow
Brief Description: The CalSim 2 model was developed using the Water
Resource Integrated Modeling System (WRIMS),
which is a generalized water resources modeling
system for evaluating operational alternatives of
large, complex river basins. CalSim 2 is the model
used by DWR to simulate California State Water
Project (SWP)/Central Valley Project (CVP)
operations. CalSim2 simulates the hydrology of the
Central Valley, including the water resources
infrastructure of the Sacramento and San Joaquin
river systems, as well as the water operations of the
CVP, SWP, and the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta.
CalSim 2 operates on a monthly time step for Water
Years 1922 through 2003.
Data Link: CalSim2:
https://water.ca.gov/Library/Modeling-and-
Analysis/Central-Valley-models-and-tools/CalSim-2
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link
Period of Record: Current and future levels of development using
hydrology from October 1922 through September
2003.
Coverage: CVP-SWP Water System
Temporal Resolution: Monthly
Spatial Resolution: Model node location
Format: HEC-DSS
Software Requirements: HEC-DSS data can be accessed using the free
software HEC-DSSVue:
http://www.hec.usace.army.mil/software/hec-dssvue/
Tips to Access/Download: Recommend using Delivery Capability Report and
Studies 2017:
https://water.ca.gov/Library/Modeling-and-
Analysis/Central-Valley-models-and-tools/CalSim-
2/DCR2017
Download and unzip the CalSim 2 study. Input files
are in the Common/DSS folder; output files are in the
CONV/DSS folder.

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9.11 CALSIM 3
Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources
Source for Water Budget Evapotranspiration, Applied Water, Precipitation,
Components: Surface Water Delivery, Groundwater Extraction,
Applied Water Reuse, Recycled Water, Recycled
Water Export, Return Flow, Runoff, Stream Inflow,
Stream Outflow, Surface Water Diversion,
Conveyance Evaporation, Conveyance Seepage,
Imported Water, Surface Water Export, Recharge of
Applied Water and Precipitation, Managed Aquifer
Recharge, Stored Water Extraction, Groundwater
Export
Available Information: The “CalSim 3 Draft Report” contains a complete
listing of the input and output data.
Brief Description: CalSim 3 is the next generation of the CalSim 2
model. Major improvements and enhancements in
CalSim 3 include finer model spatial resolution, better
water supply and demand estimation, improved
groundwater representation and simulation, enhanced
model validation, extended model spatial and
temporal domain, advanced model engine (WRIMS
2.0), thorough model documentation, and model
supporting tools.
Data Link: CalSim3:
https://water.ca.gov/Library/Modeling-and-
Analysis/Central-Valley-models-and-tools/CalSim-3
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link
Period of Record: Current and future levels of development using
hydrology from October 1922 through September
2015.
Coverage: CVP-SWP Water System
Temporal Resolution: Monthly
Spatial Resolution: Model node location
Format: HEC-DSS
Software Requirements: HEC-DSS data can be accessed using the free
software HEC-DSSVue:
http://www.hec.usace.army.mil/software/hec-dssvue/
Tips to Access/Download: Download and unzip the CalSim 3. Input files are in
the Common/DSS folder; output files are in the
CONV/DSS folder.

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9.12 Cal-SIMETAW Unit Values

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
and University of California, Davis
Source for Water Budget Evapotranspiration, Stream Evaporation, Conveyance
Components: Evaporation, Applied Water, Precipitation
Available Information: ETo, ETc, ETaw, applied water, precipitation,
effective precipitation, Kc, irrigation periods, irrigation
efficiency
Brief Description: The Cal-SIMETAW model was developed to compute
soil water balance to estimate crop evapotranspiration
(ETc), evapotranspiration of applied water (ETaw),
and applied water (AW) for California water resources
planning. Computations are made at a 4km
resolution; output is compiled by DAUCO. Model
inputs include PRISM climate data, U.S. National
Climate Data Center climate stations, Spatial CIMIS,
and SSURGO. This Cal-SIMETAW Unit
Values dataset contains cumulative monthly unit
values (per acre) of ETc, AW, and six other
parameters for the period 2000–2015. Unit values
from the overlying DAUCO can be multiplied by land
use acreages to compute total ETc or AW for a given
study area. Along with ET estimates, DWR has
published the model assumptions for each DAUCO
(LUCI files), including growth periods and Kc values
for each crop.
Data Link: Cal-SIMETAW Unit Values
https://data.cnra.ca.gov/dataset/cal-simetaw-unit-
values
For additional data and/or a daily resolution, contact:
Morteza.Orang@water.ca.gov
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link
Period of Record: 2000–2015; earlier years dating to 1922 may be
available upon request (see contact above)
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: Monthly
Spatial Resolution: Detailed Analysis Unit by County (DAUCO)
Format: CSV
Software Requirements: Recommended: Text editor and Excel or similar
spreadsheet software
Optional: GIS

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Tips to Access/Download: Download “Cal-SIMETAW Unit Et Values” CSV file for

unit (per acre) ETc, AW, and ETo values. Because of
the large number of records in this CSV file, a text
editor is necessary to split the file prior to opening in
Excel (maximum rows: 1,048,576).

Download “Cal-SIMETAW’s Land Use and Crop

Information (LUCI) input file for each DAUCO, zipped
by DWR Region Office” (Region Office boundaries
can be viewed on the Water Management Planning
Tool: https://gis.water.ca.gov/app/boundaries/) for Kc
and growth dates.
Download the Readme file for more information
including a key to the output and input file headers.

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9.13 California Statewide Groundwater Elevation Monitoring

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Source for Water Budget Subsurface Inflow, Subsurface Outflow, Change in
Components: GW Storage
Available Information: Groundwater levels
Brief Description: In accordance with the Water Code, DWR developed
the California Statewide Groundwater Elevation
Monitoring (CASGEM) program. The intent of the
CASGEM program is to establish a permanent,
locally-managed program of regular and systematic
monitoring in all of California's alluvial groundwater
basins. The CASGEM program will rely and build on
the many, established local long-term groundwater
monitoring and management programs. DWR's role is
to coordinate the CASGEM program, to work
cooperatively with local entities, and to maintain the
collected elevation data in a readily and widely
available public database. DWR will also continue its
current network of groundwater monitoring as funding
allows.
Data Link: Groundwater Monitoring (CASGEM):
https://water.ca.gov/Programs/Groundwater-
Management/Groundwater-Elevation-Monitoring--
CASGEM
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link
Period of Record: 1901 to present, varies by well.
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: Intermittent readings, or daily (varies by well).
Spatial Resolution: Well location
Format: CSV, XLS
Software Requirements: Excel or similar spreadsheet software is
recommended.
Tips to Access/Download: The CASGEM online portal
(https://www.casgem.water.ca.gov/OSS/) requires
login for full access (free).
Data can be downloaded at user defined spatial and
temporal scales from the “Reports” tab of the website.

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9.14 California Data Exchange Center

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources
Source for Water Budget Stream Inflow, Stream Outflow, Stream-Lake
Components: Interaction, Precipitation, Change in Surface Water
Storage
Available Information: Reservoir operations, reservoir summary reports,
precipitation, snow water content, river stage and
discharge
Brief Description: The California Data Exchange Center (CDEC)
provides a centralized database to store, process,
and exchange real-time hydrologic information
gathered by various cooperators throughout the state.
The data collected by CDEC enable forecasters to
prepare flood forecasts and water supply forecasts;
reservoir and hydroelectric operators to schedule
reservoir releases; and water suppliers to anticipate
water availability. The two main entities that collect
and manage data related to flood forecasting and
response for California are CDEC and the NWS
California-Nevada River Forecast Center (CNRFC).
Collection efforts by the CNRFC are centered on data
necessary to fulfill its mission of flood forecasting.
CDEC’s original data collection efforts revolved
around supporting the State-Federal Flood
Operations Center, but since have grown into
managing hydrometeorological data statewide for a
variety of resource management uses.
Data Link: California Data Exchange Center
http://cdec.water.ca.gov/
Metadata Link: California Data Exchange Center General Information
http://cdec.water.ca.gov/general.html
Period of Record: Variable
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: Hourly, daily, or monthly
Spatial Resolution: Gauge location
Format: Text file, CSV
Software Requirements: Recommended using text reader such as TextPad or
Microsoft Excel.
Tips to Access/Download: To download individual timeseries, under Query Tools
click Historical Data: CSV Format. From there, the
user can search and download data by station,
sensor type, and date range.

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9.15 Center for Hydrometeorology and Remote Sensing Data

Portal
Developer/Author/Owner: Center for Hydrometeorology and Remote Sensing
(CHRS) at the University of California (UC), Irvine
Source for Water Budget
Precipitation
Components:
Available Information: Precipitation
Brief Description: CHRS Data Portal is an archive for global satellite
precipitation data and information produced by the
PERSIANN, PERSIANN-CCS, and PERSIANN-CDR
systems developed by CHRS and directed by Dr.
Soroosh Sorooshian at UC Irvine. The portal allows
users to visualize and download spatiotemporal
statistics of global regular-interval satellite
precipitation from the PERSIANN, PERSIANN-CCS,
and PERSIANN-CDR systems.
Data Link and Contacts: CHRS Data Portal: http://chrsdata.eng.uci.edu/
Dr. Soroosh Sorooshian (soroosh@uci.edu) or Dr.
Phu Nguyen (ndphu@uci.edu)
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link.
Period of Record: PERSIANN: March 2000 –Present
PERSIANN-CCS: January 2003–Present
PERSIANN-CDR: January 1983–April 2017
Coverage: Global
Temporal Resolution: PERSIANN: 1-, 3-, and 6-hourly, daily, monthly,
yearly
PERSIANN-CCS: 1-, 3-, and 6-hourly, daily, monthly,
yearly
PERSIANN-CDR: daily, monthly, yearly
Spatial Resolution: PERSIANN: 0.25° × 0.25°
PERSIANN-CCS: 0.04° × 0.04°
PERSIANN-CDR: 0.25° × 0.25°
Format: ArcGrid, TIF, NETCDF
Software Requirements: GIS
Tips to Access/Download: A tutorial is available on the data portal home page.

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9.16 California Irrigation Management Information System

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Source for Water Budget Evapotranspiration, Conveyance Evaporation, Lake
Components: Evaporation, Stream Evaporation, Precipitation
Available Information: Precipitation, reference evapotranspiration, other
weather data
Brief Description: The California Irrigation Management Information
System (CIMIS) includes more than 145 weather
stations used to assist irrigators in managing their
water resources more efficiently. CIMIS station data
include measured parameters such as solar radiation,
air temperature, soil temperature, relative humidity,
wind speed, and wind direction; and derived
parameters such as vapor pressure, dew point
temperature, and reference evapotranspiration (ETo).
Data Links: CIMIS: http://www.cimis.water.ca.gov/
Evapotranspiration Zone Maps:
https://cimis.water.ca.gov/App_Themes/images/etozo
nemap.jpg
Bulk data download: ftp://ftpcimis.water.ca.gov/pub2/
Metadata Link: CIMIS Stations:
http://www.cimis.water.ca.gov/Stations.aspx
Period of Record: Varies with station; earliest station date is 5-30-1982
Coverage: Statewide (agricultural areas)
Temporal Resolution: Hourly, daily, monthly
Spatial Resolution: Variable (151 active stations; 102 inactive)
Format: HTML (website) and CSV (bulk)
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar software, GIS.
Tips to Access/Download: Full Access requires a login (Free).
1. Use Station Location Map tab to find stations in
area of interest.
2. Use Station List to discover period of record for
specific stations.
3. Go to “Data” tab and select “Run Report” for those
stations at desired time step. Output will be an html
file. From Internet Explorer, right click and select
“Export to Microsoft Excel” and use the tool to import
the data one table at a time.
4. The ftp site includes a station list with coordinates
that can be imported into GIS.

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9.17 CIMIS (Spatial): California Irrigation Management

Information System
Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
and University of California, Davis
Source for Water Budget Evapotranspiration, Conveyance Evaporation, Lake
Components: Evaporation, Stream Evaporation
Available Information: Reference evapotranspiration, Precipitation, other
weather data
Brief Description: Many areas of California are not sufficiently covered
by the network of CIMIS stations. Recognizing these
spatial data gaps, CIMIS, in cooperation with the UC
Davis, developed a daily ETo (reference
evapotranspiration) map known as Spatial CIMIS.
The ETo maps are generated using complex sets of
models. The input parameters to these models are
combinations of data from satellites and ground
measurements. Spatial CIMIS data consists of ETo
and solar radiation only. Daily reference
evapotranspiration (ETo) at a 2-km spatial resolution
are calculated statewide using the American Society
of Civil Engineers version of the Penman-Monteith
equation (ASCE-PM). Daily solar radiation is
generated from the visible band of the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA)
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite
(GOES) using the Heliosat-II model.
Data Link: CIMIS Spatial Data:
https://cimis.water.ca.gov/SpatialData.aspx
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link
Period of Record: 2003–present
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: Daily, monthly
Spatial Resolution: 2-kilometer
Format: XML, CSV, PDF
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software; Acrobat Reader
Tips to Access/Download: Create a (free) login to access spatial CIMIS data.
After that, ET estimates can be obtained for anywhere
in the state using Spatial CIMIS. Navigate to the
Spatial Report Tab to obtain ETo and solar radiation
data for user specified points.

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9.18 County Agricultural Commissioner Crop Reports

Developer/Author/Owner: California Agricultural Commissioners
Source for Water Budget
Applied Water, Evapotranspiration
Components:
Available Information: Agricultural land use by crop type
Brief Description: California Department of Food and Agriculture
provides links to the various county annual crop
reports. Crop reports can also be accessed directly
from the agricultural commissioners in each county.
As required by the California Food and Agriculture
Code, the county agricultural commissioner compiles
and records information in the annual crop and
livestock report regarding the gross production and
value of the county’s commodities.
Data Link: County Crop Reports:
https://www.cdfa.ca.gov/exec/county/CountyCropReports.
html
Metadata Link: None
Period of Record: Varies by county.
Coverage: Statewide: agricultural lands only.
Temporal Resolution: Annual
Spatial Resolution: County: agricultural lands only.
Format: PDF
Software Requirements: Acrobat Reader
Tips to Access/Download: Select county of interest to be redirected to a
webpage listing annual crop reports. Relevant data is
found within tables in the PDF crop reports.

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9.19 CVHM: Central Valley Hydrologic Model

Developer/Author/Owner: United States Geological Survey
Source for Water Budget The Central Valley Hydrologic Model (CVHM)
Components: contains information relevant to almost all water
budget components. For more detailed information
about which components CVHM addresses, please
see Figure 9-1
Available Information: View model documentation for complete listing of all
related data.
Brief Description: CVHM is a MODFLOW-FMP (Farm Process)
application developed by the USGS to simulate the
historical hydrology of California’s Central Valley.
CVHM simultaneously accounts for changing water
supply and demand across the landscape and
simulates surface water and groundwater flow across
the Central Valley. Hydraulic properties were
assigned to the CVHM grid based on a lithologic
texture analysis of available driller’s logs (Faunt,
Belitz, and Hanson 2009). It is built upon knowledge
from USGS and other federal, State, and local
studies.
Data Link: Central Valley Hydrologic Model (CVHM):
https://ca.water.usgs.gov/projects/central-
valley/central-valley-hydrologic-model.html
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link.
Period of Record: October 1961–September 2003
Coverage: California Central Valley
Temporal Resolution: Monthly
Spatial Resolution: 1 square mile
Format: Text files
Software Requirements: Recommended using text reader such as TextPad,
Excel, MODFLOW GUI
Tips to Access/Download: From the right side of the CVHM webpage, under
“Data,” download the “Central Valley Hydrologic
Model Database” and the “Numerical Model Data
files” (Input and Output).
After downloading and unzipping the model, refer to
the modeling section of this document for more
detailed instructions on extracting data from
MODFLOW models.

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9.20 C2VSIM Coarse Grid Model

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources
Source for Water Budget The California Central Valley Groundwater-Surface
Components: Water Simulation Model (C2VSim) contains
information relevant to almost all water budget
components. For more detailed information about
relevant components, see Figure 9-1
Available Information: View model documentation for complete listing of all
related data.
Brief Description: C2VSim is an integrated numerical model that
simulates water movement through the linked land
surface, groundwater and surface water flow systems
in California’s Central Valley using the Integrated
Water Flow Model (IWFM) modeling platform.
C2VSim contains monthly historical stream inflows,
surface water diversions, precipitation, and land use
(including crop acreage) from October 1921 through
September 2009. C2VSim dynamically calculates
crop applied water, allocates contributions from
precipitation, soil moisture, and surface water
diversions, and calculates the groundwater
extractions required to meet the remaining demand.
The model simulates the historical response of the
Central Valley’s groundwater and surface water flow
system to historical stresses and can also be used to
simulate the response to projected future stresses.
Data Link: C2VSim:
https://www.water.ca.gov/Library/Modeling-and-
Analysis/Central-Valley-models-and-tools/C2VSim
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link.
Period of Record: October 1921–September 2009
Coverage: California Central Valley
Temporal Resolution: Monthly
Spatial Resolution: 14 square mile average (range from 2.1 to 33 square
miles)
Format: Text file, Spreadsheet
Software Requirements: Recommend using text reader such as TextPad or
Microsoft Excel to view input/output files.
Tips to Access/Download: After downloading and unzipping the model, refer to
the modeling section of this document for detailed
instructions on extracting data from IWFM models.

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9.21 C2VSIM Fine Grid Model

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources
Source for Water Budget The California Central Valley Groundwater-Surface
Components: Water Simulation Model (C2VSim) contains
information relevant to almost all water budget
components. For more detailed information about
relevant components, see Figure 9-1.
Available Information: View model documentation for listing of related data.
Brief Description: The beta version of the C2VSim fine grid model
(C2VSimFG Beta) simulates water movement through
the linked land surface, groundwater, and surface
water flow systems using the Integrated Water Flow
Model Version 2015. C2VSimFG Beta contains
monthly historical stream inflows, surface water
diversions, precipitation, evapotranspiration, and land
use acreages. C2VSimFG Beta dynamically
calculates crop applied water, allocates contributions
from precipitation, soil moisture and surface water
diversions, and calculates the groundwater extraction
required to meet the remaining demand. It simulates
the historical response of the Central Valley’s
groundwater and surface water flow system to
historical stresses and can also be used to simulate
the response to projected stresses.
Data Link (or Contact): C2VSim FG Beta Model:
https://data.cnra.ca.gov/dataset/c2vsimfg-beta-model
Metadata Link: The model is currently in development. Details are
available in this factsheet:
https://water.ca.gov/-/media/DWR-Website/Web-
Pages/Programs/ Groundwater-Management/Data-
and-Tools/Files/ FAQ-and-Fact-Sheets/C2VSim-FG-
Fact-Sheet.pdf
Period of Record: Simulation period is October 1973–September 2015.
Coverage: California Central Valley
Temporal Resolution: Monthly
Spatial Resolution: Ranges from 0.006 to 2.8 square miles.
Format: Text file, Spreadsheet
Software Requirements: Recommended using text reader such as TextPad or
Microsoft Excel
Tips to Access/Download: After downloading and unzipping the model, refer to
the modeling section of this document for more
instructions on extracting data from IWFM models.

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9.22 DWR Agricultural Land and Water Use Estimates

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Source for Water Budget Evapotranspiration, Applied Water, Precipitation,
Components: Lake Evaporation, Stream Evaporation, Conveyance
Evaporation
Available Information: Irrigated crop acreages, crop evapotranspiration
(ETc), evapotranspiration of applied water (ETAW),
effective precipitation (EP), and applied water (AW),
evaporation pan data (Ep), irrigation efficiency
(referred to as consumed fraction [CF])
Brief Description: DWR estimates irrigated crop acreages, crop
evapotranspiration (ETc), evapotranspiration of
applied water (ETAW), effective precipitation (EP),
and applied water (AW) for 20 crop categories each
year using the California Agricultural Water Used
Model (Ag Model). Inputs to the Ag Model include
evaporation pan data (Ep), planting and harvest
dates, crop development over time (crop coefficients),
soil characteristics, rooting depths, and precipitation.
Applied water (AW) estimates reflect irrigation
efficiencies as well as the water required for cultural
practices such as the ponding of water in rice fields or
the leaching of accumulated salts from the soil.
Data Link: Agricultural Land and Water Use Estimates:
https://water.ca.gov/Programs/Water-Use-And-
Efficiency/Land-And-Water-Use/Agricultural-Land-
And-Water-Use-Estimates
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link.
Period of Record: 1998–2010
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: Annual
Spatial Resolution: Detailed analysis unit by county (DAUCO)
Format: XLS
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software
Tips to Access/Download: To download, expand the menu under Statewide,
County, Hydrologic Region (HR), or Detailed Analysis
Unit (DAU), click on a year and select "Save As."
(County, HR, or DAU boundaries can on the Water
Management Planning Tool:
https://gis.water.ca.gov/app/boundaries/ )

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9.23 DWR Bulletin 73: Evaporation from Water Surfaces in

California (1979)
Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Source for Water Budget Lake Evaporation, Stream Evaporation, Conveyance
Components: Evaporation
Available Information: Pan Evaporation
Brief Description: Bulletin 73-79 summarizes all readily available data
on evaporation pan measurements in California up to
1979. It reports monthly total evaporation data from
478 stations, dating back to the 1880s.
Data Links: Bulletin 73-69 Evaporation from Water Surfaces in
California:
http://wdl.water.ca.gov/waterdatalibrary/docs/historic/
Bulletins/Bulletin_73/Bulletin_73__1979.pdf
Metadata Links: Same as Data Links.
Period of Record: Varies by station: 1913–1979
Coverage: Statewide (individual stations)
Temporal Resolution: Monthly
Spatial Resolution: Individual stations
Format: Scanned PDF
Software Requirements: Acrobat Reader

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9.24 DWR Bulletin 113: Crop Water Use

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Source for Water Budget
Evapotranspiration
Components:
Available Information: ETc, ETAW, crop coefficients
Brief Description: Bulletin 113-4: Crop Water Use in California (April
1986) is the fourth in a series of DWR publications
that provides the basis for estimating per-acre ET of
water and the quantities of water applied by irrigation.
The data presented was collected from 1973 through
1983.
Bulletin 113-3: Vegetative Water Use in California,
1974 (April 1975) is the third in a series of DWR
publications on the rate of water use by crops. The
report is based on field studies conducted from 1954
to 1972 and expands the previously published data. It
summarizes growing season ET and ETAW water for
principal crops.
Data Links: Bulletin 113-4 Crop Water Use in California:
http://wdl.water.ca.gov/waterdatalibrary/docs/historic/
Bulletins/Bulletin_113/Bulletin_113-4__1986.pdf
Bulletin 113-3 Vegetative Water Use in California:
http://wdl.water.ca.gov/waterdatalibrary/docs/historic/
Bulletins/Bulletin_113/Bulletin_113-3__1975.pdf
Metadata Link: Same as Data Links.
Period of Record: 1973–1983, 1954–1972
Coverage: Statewide agricultural areas
Temporal Resolution: Seasonal, annual
Spatial Resolution: Not available (per acre unit values by crop type).
Format: PDF
Software Requirements: Acrobat Reader

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9.25 DWR Bulletin 118: California’s Groundwater

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Source for Water Budget Subsurface Inflow, Subsurface Outflow, Change in
Components: Groundwater Storage
Available Information: Aquifer Parameters
Brief Description: Bulletin 118 is California’s official statewide
compendium on the occurrence and nature of
groundwater. Bulletin 118 defines the boundaries and
describes the hydrologic characteristics of California’s
groundwater basins. Bulletin 118 also provides
information on groundwater management and
recommendations for the future.
With the passage of SGMA in 2014, Bulletin 118 now
serves an additional role by providing groundwater
sustainability agencies with three critical pieces of
information regarding groundwater basins: critical
conditions of overdraft, basin boundaries, and basin
priority.
Data Link: Bulletin 118:
https://water.ca.gov/Programs/Groundwater-
Management/Bulletin-118
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link.
Period of Record: N/A
Coverage: Statewide, groundwater basin
Temporal Resolution: Not available
Spatial Resolution: Hydrologic Region
Format: PDF
Software Requirements: Acrobat Reader
Tips to Access/Download: From the data link, access is available to statewide
reports, regional reports, basin descriptions, and
bulletin updates.

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9.26 DWR Bulletin 132: Management of the California State Water

Project
Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Source for Water Budget Surface Water Delivery, Surface Water Diversion,
Components: Conveyance Evaporation, Conveyance Seepage,
Imported Water, Surface Water Export
Available Information: State Water Project (SWP) surface water diversions
and deliveries, SWP water transfers
Brief Description: Bulletin 132 is an annual series of reports describing
SWP status, operations and water deliveries. Each
report updates project costs and financing, water
supply planning, power operations and significant
events that affect SWP management. Hydrologic
information for the water year, capital construction
information for the fiscal year, and water delivery,
operations, maintenance and other activities for the
calendar year are included as well. The complete
report series, beginning in 1963, is available in PDF
format.
Data Link: Bulletin 132:
https://water.ca.gov/Programs/State-Water-
Project/Management/Bulletin-132
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link.
Period of Record: 1963–2016
Coverage: SWP systems
Temporal Resolution: Monthly, annual
Spatial Resolution: By SWP contractor
Format: PDF
Software Requirements: Acrobat Reader
Tips to Access/Download: Each version of Bulletin 132 contains deliveries to
each SWP contractor for one calendar year. In recent
years, delivery water transfer data can be found in
Chapter 9. Historical versions of B-132 can be
accessed at
http://wdl.water.ca.gov/waterdatalibrary/docs/historic/
bulletins.cfm.

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9.27 DWR Demographic Data

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Source for Water Budget
Applied Water
Components:
Available Information: Population
Brief Description: DWR develops annual demography data for
California Water Plan Updates based on U.S.
Census, American Community Survey and California
Department of Finance (DOF) data. The population
data are computed at the various resolutions for use
by DWR in planning studies for hydrologic regions,
planning areas, and detailed analysis units (DAUs) —
a DAU is the smallest study area. Each county
consists of multiple DAUs. The DAUs are often split
by two or more counties.
DWR updates regional population data every year
using GIS to allocate census year block level
population into DAU population estimates for each of
California’s 58 counties. For years that fall between
census years, DWR uses DOF's county and city total
numbers.
Data Link and Contact: Economic Modeling and Analysis Tools:
https://www.water.ca.gov/Library/Modeling-and-
Analysis/Statewide-models-and-tools/Economic-
Modeling-and-Analysis-Tools
Contact: Salma.Kibrya@water.ca.gov
Metadata Link: Embedded with data
Period of Record: 2000–one year behind the current year
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: Annual
Spatial Resolution: DAU
Format: XLS
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software
Tips to Access/Download: Census data aggregated by DWR region office:
County, HR, planning area, and DWR region office
boundaries. Spreadsheet data by DWR region offices
are available for download from the data link. The GIS
boundaries can be viewed with the Water
Management Planning Tool (https://gis.water.ca.gov/
app/boundaries/).

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9.28 DWR Irrigation Methods Survey

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Source for Water Budget Applied Water, Recharge of Applied Water and
Components: Precipitation, Return Flow, Applied Water Reuse
Available Information: Irrigation method by crop type
Brief Description: Approximately every 10 years, a one-page irrigation
survey form is mailed to California growers to update
records on irrigation system methods. A statewide
survey of current irrigation methods was conducted
during 2011 to determine which irrigation methods
were used in California during 2010. The 1991, 2001,
and 2010 studies were conducted by mailing
questionnaires to growers who were randomly
selected. A list of approximately 58,000 growers in
California from the California Department of Food and
Agriculture was used to determine the mailing list. All
rice-only, non-irrigation, and livestock-only growers
were excluded from the list. Growers were asked to
state the main county in which they farmed and the
acreages they had planted during 2001 and 2010 to
each of 20 possible crop categories, by irrigation
method, within that county.
Data Link: Statewide Irrigation Systems Methods Surveys:
https://water.ca.gov/Programs/Water-Use-And-
Efficiency/Land-And-Water-Use/Statewide-Irrigation-
Systems-Methods-Surveys
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link
Period of Record: 1991, 2001, and 2010
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: Not available
Spatial Resolution: Statewide, Hydrologic Region
Format: XLS
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software
Tips to Access/Download: Request the survey from DWR’s Land and Water Use
Program.

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9.29 DWR Land Use Survey Data

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Source for Water Budget Evapotranspiration, Applied Water, Surface Water
Components: Delivery, Groundwater Extraction, Applied Water
Reuse, Recycled Water
Available Information: Agricultural land use by crop type. Urban land use,
managed wetlands land use by habitat type, and
native vegetation land use (i.e., undeveloped land) -
acreage tracked varies by survey. Water source
identified for fields in select surveys.
Brief Description: Since 1950 DWR has conducted more than 250 land
use surveys of all or parts of California's 58 counties.
Early land use surveys were recorded on paper maps
of U.S. Geological Survey 7.5' quadrangles. In 1986,
DWR began to develop georeferenced digital maps of
land use survey data. The main emphasis of DWR's
land use surveys is the mapping of agricultural land.
More than 70 different crops or crop categories are
included in the surveys. Irrigation methods and water
sources have also been mapped in some surveys.
Urban and native vegetation (undeveloped) areas are
mapped but not in the detail of agricultural land. DWR
staff visit and visually identify land uses on more than
95 percent of the developed agricultural areas within
each survey area.
Data Link: Land Use Surveys:
https://water.ca.gov/Programs/Water-Use-And-
Efficiency/Land-And-Water-Use/Land-Use-Surveys
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link.
Period of Record: 1976–2015 (website); contact DWR for 1950–1976
data
Coverage: Approximately two counties are surveyed each year.
Temporal Resolution: Summer. Approximately two to four counties are
surveyed each year, some counties have been
surveyed only once since 1950, others multiple times.
Spatial Resolution: County
Format: Shapefile (1976–2015)
Software Requirements: GIS
Tips to Access/Download: Click on the survey of interest and select "Save" to
download the data to your computer.

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9.30 DWR Land Use Viewer

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Source for Water Budget
Evapotranspiration, Applied Water
Components:
Available Information: Agricultural land use by crop type. Urban and native
vegetation land use tracked by category, managed
wetlands land use by habitat type
Brief Description: The Land Use Viewer allows groundwater
sustainability agencies (GSAs) and the public to
easily access both statewide (2014 crop data) and
county land use datasets (same datasets as provided
above in the DWR Land Use Survey data) that have
been collected over the last 30 years. The viewer also
includes a variety of tools that allow users to
download and analyze land use data. The viewer
provides consistent, centralized land use data to
improve coordination across the state and help GSAs
meet the requirements of SGMA and regulations for
groundwater sustainability plans.
Data Link: Land Use Viewer:
https://gis.water.ca.gov/app/CADWRLandUseViewer/
Metadata Link: See “About this application” on the Data Link.
Period of Record: 1976–2015
Coverage: Agricultural lands primarily; statewide for 2014,
variable (by county) for other years.
Temporal Resolution: Summer snapshot
Spatial Resolution: Field-scale (>2 acres)
Format: Geodatabase, Shapefile
Software Requirements: GIS
Tips to Access/Download: Turn on County Land Use Download Layer in the
Layer List
Select a County of interest by clicking on map (it will
be highlighted).
A popup will appear. Click the gray arrow to expand
the box to show all available past land use datasets
for download.
Note: Only individual crop types from historic land use
surveys can be viewed in the Land Use Viewer. Entire
historic land use data sets cannot be viewed.

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9.31 DWR Sustainable Groundwater Management Act Data Viewer

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Source for Water Budget Evapotranspiration, Applied Water, Precipitation,
Components: Groundwater Extraction, Surface Water Diversion,
Stream Inflow, Stream Outflow, Groundwater Gain
from Stream, Groundwater Loss to Stream, Change
in Groundwater Storage
Available Information: Groundwater level measurements, land subsidence
data, CDEC surface water information, agricultural
land use by crop type, climate change information
including precipitation, diversions, and streamflow
change factors, soil and geologic maps
Brief Description: The purpose of the SGMA Data Viewer is to compile
and display regional and statewide groundwater
information so groundwater sustainability agencies
and related stakeholders can efficiently access this
information during groundwater sustainability plan
development and implementation.
Data Link: SGMA Data Viewer:
https://sgma.water.ca.gov/webgis/?appid=SGMAData
Viewer#gwlevels
Metadata Link: SGMA Data Viewer factsheet:
https://water.ca.gov/-/media/DWR-Website/Web-
Pages/Programs/Groundwater-Management/Data-
and-Tools/Files/FAQ-and-Fact-Sheets/SGMA-Data-
Viewer-Fact-Sheet.pdf
Period of Record: Varies by dataset
Coverage: Statewide as applicable for the individual dataset
Temporal Resolution: Varies by dataset
Spatial Resolution: Varies by dataset
Format: XLS, Shapefile
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software, GIS
Tips to Access/Download: Click on the information button (looks like an “i" inside
a circle) to be directed to more information on the
layers. If a download option is available for those
layers, there should be a link to download them from
the California Natural Resources Agency Open Data
platform (https://data.cnra.ca.gov/).

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9.32 DWR Water Data Library: Surface Water and Groundwater

Data
Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Source for Water Budget Stream Inflow, Stream Outflow, Surface Water
Components: Diversion, Subsurface Inflow, Subsurface Outflow,
Change in Groundwater Storage
Available Information: Streamflow, groundwater levels, water quality
Brief Description: The Water Data Library contains hydrologic data for
surface water flow and water levels (more than 250
stations), groundwater level data and some
groundwater quality data for more than 35,000
California wells, water quality data, historical DWR
reports, and data collected by DWR region offices
and dozens of federal and local cooperators.
Data Link: Water Data Library:
http://wdl.water.ca.gov/waterdatalibrary/
Metadata Link: Not available
Period of Record: 1901 to present
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: Intermittent readings, daily time step
Spatial Resolution: Surface water station, well location, water quality
sampling location
Format: CSV
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software
Tips to Access/Download: A bulk data download of all groundwater levels
(compressed file) is available from the California
Natural Resources Agency Open Data platform
(https://data.cnra.ca.gov/).

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9.33 GRACE: Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment

Developer/Author/Owner: National Aeronautics and Space Administration —
Earth System Science Pathfinder Program
Source for Water Budget
Change in Groundwater Storage
Components:
Available Information: Measurement of changes in mass redistribution in the
Earth system
Brief Description: Launched in March 2002, the GRACE mission is to
accurately map variations in Earth's gravity field.
GRACE consists of two identical satellites that fly
approximately 220 kilometers (137 miles) apart in a
polar orbit of 500 kilometers (310 miles) above Earth.
The Earth's gravity field is mapped by making
accurate measurements of the distance between the
two satellites, using GPS and a microwave ranging
system. The results from this mission are yielding
crucial information about the distribution and flow of
mass within Earth and its surroundings.
The gravity variations studied by GRACE include:
changes caused by surface and deep currents in the
ocean, runoff and ground water storage on land
masses, exchanges between ice sheets or glaciers
and the ocean, and variations of mass within Earth.
Another goal of the mission is to create a better
profile of Earth's atmosphere.
Data Link: GRACE:
https://grace.jpl.nasa.gov/
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link.
Period of Record: 2002–present
Coverage: Worldwide
Temporal Resolution: Monthly
Spatial Resolution: 1-degree global grids
Format: NetCDF, GEOTIFF
Software Requirements: GIS

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9.34 IDC: IWFM Demand Calculator

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Source for Water Budget Evapotranspiration, Applied Water, Applied Water Reuse,
Components: Runoff, Return Flow, Recharge of Applied Water and
Precipitation
Available Information: Calculation methods for estimating evapotranspiration,
applied water, applied water reuse, return flow, runoff, and
recharge of applied water and precipitation are based on
relevant input files including land use acreage and
precipitation.
Brief Description: The Integrated Water Flow Model Demand Calculator
(IDC) is the stand-alone executable version of the root
zone component of the Integrated Water Flow Model
(IWFM). It calculates agricultural, urban, managed
wetlands, and native vegetation water uses at a river-
basin scale under user-specified climatic, soil and land-
use characteristics. It also routes precipitation and
irrigation water through the root zone and simulates land-
surface and root zone flow processes. It can be linked to
finite-element as well as finite-difference type integrated
hydrologic models. IDC uses a computational grid to
represent spatial distribution of land use, climatic, soil and
farm management properties.
Data Link: IDC:
https://water.ca.gov/Library/Modeling-and-
Analysis/Modeling-Platforms/Integrated-Water-Flow-
Model-Demand-Calculator
Metadata Link: IWFM Demand Calculator User’s Manual:
http://baydeltaoffice.water.ca.gov/modeling/hydrology/IDC/
IDCv4_0_226/downloadables/IDCv4.0_Documentation.pdf
Period of Record: Varies depending on application
Coverage: Varies depending on application
Temporal Resolution: Hourly, daily, or monthly
Spatial Resolution: Varies depending on application
Format: Text file
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet software
Tips to Access/Download: IDC is a modeling platform, not a specific application. The
data in a specific modeling application will vary depending
on assumptions and scale of the model. The user manual,
available from the Data Link, will provide information
regarding the data contained in various model files.

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9.35 Irrigation Training and Research Center Evapotranspiration

Data
Developer/Author/Owner: Irrigation Training and Research Center, Cal Poly,
San Luis Obispo
Source for Water Budget Evapotranspiration
Components:
Available Information: Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc)
Brief Description: The Irrigation Training and Research Center (ITRC)
provides estimates of crop and soil unit (per acre)
evapotranspiration values for 1997–1999 for specific
irrigation methods and precipitation amount in
different zones within California. ITRC offers ET data
for two purposes: water balance, and irrigation
scheduling and design. The monthly ET data for
different land cover (23 crop types) are provided for
13 of the 18 ETo zones.
Data Link: California Evapotranspiration Data:
http://www.itrc.org/etdata/index.html
Metadata Link: California Crop and Soil Evapotranspiration:
http://www.itrc.org/reports/pdf/californiacrop.pdf
Period of Record: 1997–1999
Coverage: 13 of 18 ETo Zones (see map via Data Link above)
Temporal Resolution: Monthly
Spatial Resolution: ETo Zone (see map via Data Link above)
Format: PDF or Spreadsheet
Software Requirements: Excel or similar software; Acrobat Reader
Tips to Access/Download: 1. Data type: Water Balance includes adjustments
for bare spots and reduced vigor, and therefore
estimates lower ETc values compared to Irrigation
Scheduling and Design.
2. Irrigation method: A crop with a higher irrigation
frequency or a soil surface with higher wetting
percentage should have a higher multiplier.
3. Precipitation year (1997 typical year, 1998 wet
year, 1999 dry year): The terms typical, wet, and
dry are relative, and should be based on the
actual amount of the precipitation during the year.
4. ET0 Zone (see map via Data Link above).
Output contains monthly precipitation, reference
evapotranspiration (ET0), and crop evapotranspiration
(ETc) for different crops, in inches per acre.

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9.36 ITRC METRIC

Developer/Author/Owner: Irrigation Training and Research Center, Cal Poly,
San Luis Obispo
Source for Water Budget
Evapotranspiration
Components:
Available Information: Evapotranspiration
Brief Description: Irrigation Training and Research Center (ITRC) uses
a modified Mapping of Evapotranspiration with
Internal Calibration (METRIC) procedure to compute
actual evapotranspiration using LandSAT Thematic
Mapper data. The original METRIC procedure was
developed by Dr. Richard Allen (University of Idaho).
ITRC has made many modifications to the original
procedures including using a grass reference
evapotranspiration instead of alfalfa, a semi-
automated calibration procedure, spatially
interpolated ETo, modifications to the aerodynamic
resistance and albedo computations for certain crops.
Data Link: ITRC-Metric:
http://www.itrc.org/projects/metric.htm
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link.
Period of Record: Varies depending on application
Coverage: Varies depending on application
Temporal Resolution: Varies depending on application
Spatial Resolution: 30 x 30 meter
Format: PDF
Software Requirements: Acrobat Reader
Tips to Access/Download: ITRC METRIC is a methodology for mapping ET, not
a data source. The data derived from the
methodology will vary depending on application.

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9.37 IWFM: Integrated Water Flow Model

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources
Source for Water Budget IWFM can be used to generate almost all the water
Components: budget components. For information about components
addressed by IWFM, see Figure 9-1.
Available Information: Calculation methods for estimating almost all water
budget components based on relevant input files. Refer
to the modeling section of this document for information
on what IWFM models provide.
Brief Description: IWFM is a computer program used for water resources
management and planning within a basin. It calculates
groundwater flows, soil moisture movement in the
topsoil, stream flows, land surface flows, and flow
exchange between groundwater, streams, and land
surface as generated by precipitation, agricultural
irrigation, and municipal and industrial water use. IWFM
also calculates agricultural applied water based on crop
types, crop acreages, soil types, irrigation methods and
rainfall rates, as well as the municipal and industrial
applied water based on population and per-capita water
use rates. IWFM can help water managers understand
the historical evolution of the surface and subsurface
water flows within their basin and plan the use of
groundwater and surface water to meet future applied
water needs.
Data Link: Integrated Water Flow Model:
https://water.ca.gov/Library/Modeling-and-
Analysis/Modeling-Platforms/Integrated-Water-Flow-
Model
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link.
Period of Record: Varies depending on application
Coverage: Varies depending on application
Temporal Resolution: Hourly, daily, or monthly
Spatial Resolution: Varies depending on application
Format: Text file
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet software
Tips to Access/Download: IWFM is a modeling platform, not a specific application.
The data included in a specific modeling application will
vary depending on assumptions and scale of the model.
The user manual, available from the Data Link, will
provide information regarding the data contained in
various model files.

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9.38 METRIC-EEFLUX
Developer/Author/Owner: University of Nebraska-Lincoln, University of Idaho,
and Desert Research Institute with funding support by
Google
Source for Water Budget
Evapotranspiration
Components:
Available Information: Evapotranspiration
Brief Description: Earth Engine Evapotranspiration Flux (EEFlux) is a
version of METRIC that operates on the Google Earth
engine system. The Mapping Evapotranspiration at
High Resolution with Internalized Calibration
(METRIC) model, uses satellite-based image
processing to calculate actual ET (ETa). Landsat
satellite images are used to calculate actual ET as a
residual of the surface energy balance. EEFlux uses
North American Land Data Assimilation System and
GridMET gridded weather data to calibrate the
surface energy balance in the U.S. The model also
uses STATSGO soils data, National Land Cover
Database land use data, PRISM precipitation data,
and U.S. Geological Survey Digital Elevation Models.
Data Link: EEFlux:
http://eeflux-level1.appspot.com/
Metadata Link: Operational remote Sensing of ET and Challenges:
http://www.intechopen.com/books/evapotranspiration-
remote-sensing-and-modeling/operational-remote-
sensing-of-et-and-challenges
Google Earth Engine — EEFlux:
https://landsat.usgs.gov/sites/default/files/documents/
Allen_UNL_DRI_UI_EEFlux_update_LST_meeting_J
uly_8_2015c.pdf
Satellite-Based Energy Balance for METRIC Model:
http://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/%28ASCE%290733
-9437%282007%29133%3A4%28380%29
Satellite-Based Energy Balance for METRIC
Applications:
http://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/%28ASCE%29
0733-9437%282007%29133%3A4%28395%29
A scientific description of SEBAL procedure:
http://www.waterwatch.nl/fileadmin/bestanden/Tools/
A_scientific_description_of_SEBAL_procedure.pdf
Period of Record: 1984–present
Coverage: Global

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Temporal Resolution: Point in time based on eight-day Landsat imagery

Spatial Resolution: 30-meter
Format: TIFF
Software Requirements: GIS (EEFlux uses Google Earth Engine to produce
ET in a raster format)
Tips to Access/Download: Time consuming to download, process, and
aggregate data. Highly technical.
Only one scene and date can be downloaded at a
time.
Aggregating into monthly ET: “If total (integrated) ET
over a time period, such as one month or one growing
period or one year is desired, then one will need to
process multiple images and then conduct a time-
integration using a spline or similar model as
described in Allen et al., (2007) (ASCE J. Irrig. Drain.
Engrg.) and Kilic in Intech. This is done by using the
spline function to interpolate between the
instantaneous ETrF images over the time period of
interest, producing an ETrF estimate for every day
during that period from the spline, and multiplying that
ETrF value by the reference ET (tall reference) for
every day during that period. The daily ET values are
then summed over the period of interest, for example,
over one month. Prior to the splining, mitigation for
clouds may be required (see FAQ 5).”
Addressing cloud cover: “[Clouds can be mitigated] by
interpolating between 'adjoining' image dates that
have valid ETrF values for the pixel of interest. During
the interpolation, some adjustment for background
evaporation caused by rainfall events may be needed
to produce a more 'seamless' patching of ETrF data,
as described in Kjaersgaard et al., 2011 (Hydrological
Processes). If adjustment for background evaporation
is not needed, then the spline or linear interpolation
can be run, where it is forced to pass through the
cloud and cloud shadow 'holes' and to the next
available image.”

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9.39 MOD16: MODIS Global Evapotranspiration Project

Developer/Author/Owner: National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Source for Water Budget
Evapotranspiration
Components:
Available Information: Evapotranspiration
Brief Description: The MOD16 evapotranspiration (ET) datasets are
estimated using Mu et al.’s improved ET algorithm
(2011) over previous Mu et al.’s paper (2007a). The
ET algorithm is based on the Penman-Monteith
equation (Monteith 1965). Surface resistance is an
effective resistance to evaporation from land surface
and transpiration from the plant canopy. Terrestrial
ET includes evaporation from wet and moist soil, from
rain water intercepted by the canopy before it reaches
the ground, and the transpiration through stomata on
plant leaves and stems.
Data Link: MODIS:
http://files.ntsg.umt.edu/data/NTSG_Products/MOD16
Metadata Link: MODIS Project Summary:
http://www.ntsg.umt.edu/project/modis/mod16.php
Period of Record: 2000–2014
Coverage: Global — vegetated areas only
Temporal Resolution: Eight day, monthly, and annual
Spatial Resolution: 1 kilometer; 500 meter is available for 8-day interval
Format: HDF-EOS (http://hdfeos.org/software/library.php), an
extension of HDF4
Software Requirements: GIS
Tips to Access/Download: Special fill values are assigned to excluded land use
types, e.g. water bodies, barren land, snow and ice,
wetlands, urban, and other “non-vegetated’ areas.
(listed in user guide available from the metadata link).

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9.40 MODFLOW-OWHM: One Water Hydrologic Flow Model

Developer/Author/Owner: U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
Source for Water Budget The One-Water Hydrologic Flow Model (MF-OWHM)
Components: can be used to generate almost all the water budget
components. For more information about the
components MF-OWHM addresses, see Figure 9-1.
Available Information: Calculation methods for estimating almost all water
budget components based on relevant input files.
Refer to the modeling section of this document for
more information on what can be obtained from
MODFLOW-OWHM models.
Brief Description: MF-OWHM is a MODFLOW-based integrated
hydrologic flow model. MF-OWHM allows the
simulation, analysis, and management of nearly all
components of human and natural water movement
and its use in a physically-based supply-and-demand
framework. The supply-constrained and demand-
driven framework combined with the linkages
between packages and processes provides relations
of water use and movement and helps to prevent
mass loss to an open system, thus facilitating the
accounting for “all of the water everywhere and all of
the time."
Data Link: One Water Hydrologic Flow Model:
https://ca.water.usgs.gov/modeling-software/one-
water-hydrologic-model.html
Metadata Link: USGS Techniques and Methods:
https://pubs.usgs.gov/tm/06/a51/
Period of Record: Varies depending on application.
Coverage: Varies depending on application.
Temporal Resolution: Hourly, daily, or monthly
Spatial Resolution: Varies depending on application.
Format: Text file
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software
Tips to Access/Download: MF-OWHM is a modeling platform, not a specific
application. The data included in a specific modeling
application will vary depending on assumptions and
scale of the model. The user manual, available from
the Data Link, will provide information regarding the
data contained in various model files.

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9.41 National Land Cover Database

Developer/Author/Owner: Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics (MRLC)
Consortium
Source for Water Budget
Evapotranspiration, Applied Water
Components:
Available Information: Continuous land use coverage by aggregated land
use categories
Brief Description: As with two previous National Land Cover Database
(NLCD) land cover products, NLCD 2011 keeps the
same 16-class land cover classification scheme that
has been applied consistently across the United
States at a spatial resolution of 30 meters. NLCD
2011 is based primarily on a decision-tree
classification of circa 2011 Landsat satellite data.
Data Link: National Land Cover Database:
https://www.mrlc.gov/data?f%5B0%5D=category%3Al
and%20cover
U.S. Geological Survey National Map:
https://viewer.nationalmap.gov/basic/
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link.
Period of Record: 1992, 2001, 2006, and 2011
Coverage: Contiguous United States
Temporal Resolution: Every 5–8 years
Spatial Resolution: 30-meter
Format: ERDAS (version Imagine 9.3) IMG file
Software Requirements: GIS
Tips to Access/Download:

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9.42 NLDAS-2: North American Land Data Assimilation System

Developer/Author/Owner: National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Source for Water Budget
Evapotranspiration
Components:
Available Information: Precipitation, Evaporation, and Evapotranspiration.
Evaporation components: Total ET, Transpiration,
Canopy water evaporation, Sublimation (evaporation
from snow), direct evaporation from bare soil
Brief Description: The goal of the North American Land Data
Assimilation System (NLDAS) is to construct quality-
controlled, and spatially and temporally consistent,
land-surface model (LSM) datasets from the best
available observations and model output to support
modeling activities. Specifically, this system is
intended to reduce the errors in the stores of soil
moisture and energy which are often present in
numerical weather prediction models, and which
degrade the accuracy of forecasts. NLDAS is
currently running in near real-time on a 1/8th-degree
grid over central North America; retrospective NLDAS
datasets and simulations extend back to January
1979. NLDAS constructs a forcing dataset from
gauge-based observed precipitation data (temporally
disaggregated using Stage II radar data), bias-
correcting shortwave radiation, and surface
meteorology re-analyses to drive several different
LSMs to produce model outputs of surface fluxes, soil
moisture, and snow cover.
Phase 2 of NLDAS is referred to as NLDAS-2 and
covers the period of January 2, 1979 to the present.
Data Link: NLDAS Project Goals:
http://ldas.gsfc.nasa.gov/nldas
Metadata Link: Metadata is included with downloaded data.
Documentation is in this ReadMe file (https://hydro1.
gesdisc.eosdis.nasa.gov/data/NLDAS/README.NLD
AS2.pdf) including a brief description of three land
use models: Mosaic, Noah, and VIC.
Period of Record: January 2, 1979 to present
Coverage: North America
Temporal Resolution: 3-hour, monthly
Spatial Resolution: 1/8th degree (Note: 0.125 degrees ~ 8.6 miles ~
13.9kilometers)

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Format: HDF, NetCDF, ASCII, and KMZ

Software Requirements: GIS
Tips to Access/Download: Mosaic dataset:
https://disc.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/datasets/NLDAS_MOS0
125_M_V002/summary
Five variables: Total ET, transpiration, canopy water
evaporation, sublimation (evaporation from snow),
and direct evaporation from bare soil.
Noah:
https://disc.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/datasets/NLDAS_NOAH
0125_M_V002/summary
In addition to five variables listed above (for Mosaic),
Noah also outputs potential ET.
VIC:
https://disc.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/datasets/NLDAS_VIC01
25_M_V002/summary
Same five outputs as Mosaic (see above).

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9.43 NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information —

Climate Data Online
Developer/Author/Owner: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration —
Cooperative Observe Program (COOP) Weather
Stations
Source for Water Budget Evapotranspiration, Precipitation, Runoff, Recharge of
Components: Applied Water and Precipitation, Lake Evaporation,
Stream Evaporation, Conveyance Evaporation,
Available Information: Precipitation, temperature, pan evaporation, soil
temperature
Brief Description: COOP stations data are collected from a variety of
sources including National Weather Service reporting
stations, volunteer cooperative observers, Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA), and utility companies.
Data Link: NOAA Climate Data:
https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cdo-web/
Metadata Link: Hourly Precipitation Data Documentation:
https://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/cdo/documenta
tion/PRECIP_HLY_documentation.pdf

15 Minute Precipitation Data Documentation:

https://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/cdo/documenta
tion/PRECIP_15_documentation.pdf
Period of Record: Varies with station
Coverage: United States (208 stations in California)
Temporal Resolution: 15 minute, hourly
Spatial Resolution: Station
Format: DAT, CSV
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software
Tips to Access/Download: Period of record in the map interface is incorrect.
The Mapping Tool (https://gis.ncdc.noaa.gov/
maps/ncei/) is a superior interface to the Search Tool
mapping interface included in the Data Link.
The most recent seven days of select station data
(http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/GIS/GIS_DA
TA/JAWF/) are also available.

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9.44 NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information —

Climatological Data Publications
Developer/Author/Owner: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration —
National Centers for Environmental Information
Source for Water Budget Evapotranspiration, Precipitation, Recharge of
Components: Applied Water and Precipitation, Lake Evaporation,
Stream Evaporation, Conveyance Evaporation
Available Information: Precipitation, temperature, pan evaporation, soil
temperature, snowfall, and snow on ground
Brief Description: The climate data publications are a compilation of
observations from weather sites supervised by
NOAA/National Weather Service and received at the
National Centers for Environmental Information
(NCEI). Monthly editions contain station daily
maximum and minimum temperatures and
precipitation. Some stations provide daily snowfall,
snow depth, evaporation, and soil temperature data.
Each issue also contains monthly summaries for
heating and cooling degree days. The July issue also
contains monthly heating degree days and snow data
for the preceding July through June. The annual issue
contains monthly and annual averages of
temperature, precipitation, temperature extremes,
freeze data, soil temperatures, evaporation, and a
recap of monthly cooling degree days.
Data Link: NOAA Climatological Data Publications:
https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/IPS/cd/cd.html
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link
Period of Record: 1891–6 months prior present day
Coverage: Individual stations across the United States
Temporal Resolution: Hourly, daily, monthly, annual
Spatial Resolution: Various stations throughout California
Format: CSV, PDF
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software
Tips to Access/Download: Select the Data Access tab, and choose from Land-
Based Station, Satellite, Radar, etc. options.
For Land Based Stations data, select Datasets and
Products to find Local Climatological Data (LCD) or
Cooperative Observer Network (COOP), then query
the dataset using maps or entering state, years of
interest, etc.

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9.45 NWS Climate Prediction Center Evaporation

Developer/Author/Owner: National Weather Service (NWS) Climate Prediction
Center
Source for Water Budget Evapotranspiration, Lake Evaporation, Stream
Components: Evaporation, Conveyance Evaporation
Available Information: Evaporation, Potential Evaporation
Brief Description: A series of maps showing current month and most
recent 12 month’s average evaporation and
anomalies; previous 12 month’s
percentiles; evaporation climatology and 1- and 2-
week outlooks. This evaporation is computed from a
soil moisture balance model that uses precipitation
and temperature as inputs.
Data Link: National Weather Service image viewer:
http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/soilmst/e.shtml
National Weather Service text file:
ftp://ftp.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/wd51yf/us
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link
Period of Record: 1931–2012
Coverage: Contiguous United States
Temporal Resolution: Daily, monthly
Spatial Resolution: Seven California Climate Divisions:
https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/monitoring-
references/maps/us-climate-divisions.php
Format: Text file
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software
Tips to Access/Download: Select “e.1931_2012.friendly” (e stands for
evaporation) from the text file link above. Years are in
first column with months of evaporation listed from left
to right. Data are listed by climate division
(https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/monitoring-
references/maps/us-climate-divisions.php). Climate
Divisions 1 through 7 are in California.

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9.46 PRISM Gridded Precipitation Data

Developer/Author/Owner: PRISM Climate Group, Oregon State University
Source for Water Budget
Precipitation
Components:
Available Information: Precipitation
Brief Description: Parameter elevation Regression on Independent
Slopes Model (PRISM) Gridded Precipitation is the
result of sophisticated climatological modeling of a
large network of historic and active weather stations
and radar data. The PRISM model accounts for
complex climatological factors including orography,
rain shadows, temperature inversions, slope aspect,
coastal proximity, and others. PRISM climate data are
widely used for modeling and analysis at multiple
scales.
Data Link: PRISM Climate Group:
http://www.prism.oregonstate.edu/
Metadata Link: Included in data download package.
Period of Record: 1895–Present
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: Daily and monthly for 1981–present; monthly for
1895–1980
Spatial Resolution: 4-kilometer grid (free), 800-meter grid (for purchase)
Format: GIS file formats: BIL, ASC
Software Requirements: GIS
Tips to Access/Download: For Monthly Precipitation Data for years
1981–present, navigate to “Recent Years.” Choose
climate variable “Precipitation” and Temporal period
“Monthly”. For years 1895–1980, navigate to
“Historical Past”.
Bulk downloads (http://prism.oregonstate.edu/
documents/PRISM_downloads_FTP.pdf) are also
available.

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9.47 SSEBop: Operational Simplified Surface Energy Balance

Developer/Author/Owner: U.S. Geological Survey
Source for Water Budget
Evapotranspiration
Components:
Available Information: Evapotranspiration
Brief Description: Actual ET (ETa) is produced using the operational
Simplified Surface Energy Balance (SSEBop) model
(Senay and others 2013) for the period 2000–2015.
The SSEBop setup is based on the Simplified Surface
Energy Balance (SSEB) approach (Senay and others
2007, 2011) with unique parameterization for
operational applications. It combines ET fractions
generated from remotely sensed MODIS thermal
imagery, acquired every eight days, with reference ET
using a thermal index approach. The unique feature
of the SSEBop parameterization is that it uses pre-
defined, seasonally dynamic, boundary conditions
that are unique to each pixel for the hot/dry and
cold/wet reference points.
Data Link: U.S. SSEBop Evapotranspiration:
https://earlywarning.usgs.gov/useta
Metadata Link: Actual Evapotranspiration Modeling Using the
Operational Simplified Surface Energy Balance
(SSEBop) Approach:
https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2013/5126/
SSEBop ET Products:
https://earlywarning.usgs.gov/docs/SSEBopETreadm
e.pdf
Period of Record: 2000–2015
Coverage: Contiguous US
Temporal Resolution: 2000–2015
Spatial Resolution: 1 kilometer
Format: NetCDF, PDF, PNG. TIF maps also available.
Software Requirements: GIS, Acrobat Reader
Tips to Access/Download: Data available from NCSS for Grids:
https://cida.usgs.gov/thredds/ncss/ssebopeta/monthly
/dataset.html
Help page on using the NetCDF file type:
https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/data/gridded/help.html
#netcdf

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9.48 State Water Resources Control Board’s Water Conservation

Portal
Developer/Author/Owner: California State Water Resources Control Board
Source for Water Budget Applied Water, Groundwater Extraction, Surface
Components: Water Delivery, Applied Water Reuse, Recycled
Water
Available Information: Urban water use, water supply information
Brief Description: The State Water Resources Control Board has been
collecting water production information from urban
water suppliers since the July 2014 board action to
adopt an emergency water conservation regulation. In
November 2017, the emergency water conservation
regulation expired, and monthly reporting is now
voluntary.
Data Link: Water Conservation and Production Reports:
https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/water_issues/progra
ms/conservation_portal/conservation_reporting.shtml

California Open Data Portal:

https://data.ca.gov/dataset/drinking-water-public-
water-system-operations-monthly-water-production-
and-conservation
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link
Period of Record: July 2014 to present
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: Monthly
Spatial Resolution: Urban water supplier
Format: XLS, CSV, JSON, RDF
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software
Tips to Access/Download: Click on the most recent release of the “Urban Water
Supplier Report Dataset" for water production,
conservation, and monthly water use in gallons per
capita day (gpcd).

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9.49 State Water Resources Control Board’s Water Rights

Information (eWRIMS)
Developer/Author/Owner: California State Water Resources Control Board
Source for Water Budget Surface Water Diversion, Imported Water, Surface
Components: Water Export
Available Information: Surface water diversions, downstream water rights
Brief Description: The Electronic Water Rights Information Management
System (eWRIMS) is a computer database developed
by the State Water Resources Control Board to track
information on water rights in California. eWRIMS
contains information on statements of water diversion
and use that have been filed by water diverters. There
is also registrations, certificates, and water right
permits and licenses that have been issued by the
State Water Resources Control Board and its
predecessors.
Data Link: eWRIMS:
https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/waterrights/water_iss
ues/programs/ewrims/index.html
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link.
Period of Record: 1914 to present
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: Varies
Spatial Resolution: By water right
Format: Web-based report, XLS
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software
Tips to Access/Download: Open the eWRIMS Database System and use the
Water Rights Record Search and Water Rights Web
Mapping Application to find water rights in a water
budget zone. Water rights information can be
accessed in Web-based report or Excel format.

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9.50 TOPS-SIMS: Satellite Irrigation Management Support

Developer/Author/Owner: National Atmospheric and Space Administration —
Ames Research Center, California Department of
Water Resources, California State University
(Monterey Bay and Fresno), and U.S. Department of
Agriculture — Agricultural Research Service
Source for Water Budget
Evapotranspiration
Components:
Available Information: ETcb (basal crop ET), Kcb (basal crop coefficient)
Brief Description: Different than other remote sensing ET models,
Satellite Irrigation Management Support (SIMS) is
based on vegetation indices, rather than the energy
balance (e.g., METRIC-EEFLUX, MOD16, etc.). SIMS
captures vegetation growth (amount of green biomass)
but cannot capture changes in crop temperature
caused by stress because, unlike the energy balance
methods, SIMS does not use thermal information.
SIMS also doesn’t account for evaporation from wet
bare soil. The advantage of SIMS is that it can use
more satellites which results in more frequent
observations, at higher resolution.
Data Link and Contact: SIMS:
https://ecocast.arc.nasa.gov/simsi/about/
Thee datasets should be considered provisional. They
are distributed for research, demonstration, and
evaluation purposes only. Please send questions and
comments to forrest.s.melton@nasa.gov.
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link.
Period of Record: 2010–present
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: Daily
Spatial Resolution: 30-meter grid
Format: CSV
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet software
Tips to Access/Download: To download the seasonal ETcb for a point of interest,
type in the address or latitude and longitude for a field
of interest. Adjust the map so that the field boundaries
can be clearly seen. Click on the center of the field, a
location which is representative of the overall field
condition. Click on the 'Download as CSV' link to save
the file. Delete data prior to and after the
planting/harvest date and sum the remaining entries.

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9.51 United States Census

Developer/Author/Owner: U.S. Census Bureau
Source for Water Budget
Applied Water
Components:
Available Information: Population
Brief Description: The U.S. Census Bureau provides population estimates
for historical years and future projections of population
through 2060. Population estimates and projections are
available at the city and county level.
Data Link: Population and Housing Unit Estimates (Historical):
https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/popest.html

Population Projections:
https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/popproj.html

Metadata Link: Population and Housing Unit Estimates (Technical

Documentation):
https://www.census.gov/programs-
surveys/popest/technical-documentation.html

Population Projections (Technical Documentation):

https://www.census.gov/programs-
surveys/popproj/technical-documentation.html
Period of Record: Historical estimates from 1970–2016; future projections
from 2010–2060.
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: Not Applicable
Spatial Resolution: City, county, state
Format: Web-based report, CSV
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet software
Tips to Access/Download: On the left side of the website, navigate to Data and
click on Datasets. From there, access is available to
various data for different years and spatial resolutions.

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9.52 Urban Water Management Plans

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Source for Water Budget Applied Water, Surface Water Delivery, Groundwater
Components: Extraction, Applied Water Reuse, Recycled Water,
Recycled Water Export
Available Information: Urban water use, population, water supply information
Brief Description: Urban water management plans (UWMPs) are
prepared by urban water suppliers every five years.
These plans support the suppliers’ long-term resource
planning to ensure that adequate water supplies are
available to meet existing and future water
needs. Every urban water supplier that either
provides more than 3,000 acre-feet of water annually
or serves more than 3,000 urban connections is
required to submit an UWMP.
Urban water includes the following uses:
• Drinking
• Toilets and showers
• Landscaping
• Car washing
• Businesses
• Industrial processes
Data Link: Water Use Efficiency Data:
https://wuedata.water.ca.gov/
Metadata Link: Urban Water Management Plans:
https://water.ca.gov/Programs/Water-Use-And-
Efficiency/Urban-Water-Use-Efficiency/Urban-Water-
Management-Plans
Period of Record: Historical data from 2006–2010, with projected data
through 2035
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: Annual
Spatial Resolution: By urban water supplier
Format: XLS, PDF
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software; Acrobat Reader
Tips to Access/Download: PDF reports of individual UWMPs can be downloaded
from the “View 2010 UWMPs” and “2010 and 2005
UWBPs” links. Tables from the 2015 UWMPs
(aggregated for all submitted UWMPs) can be
downloaded from the “2015 UWMP Data” link.

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9.53 U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Central Valley Operations

(including Central Valley Project)
Developer/Author/Owner: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation)
Source for Water Budget Surface Water Delivery, Surface Water Diversion,
Components: Conveyance Evaporation, Conveyance Seepage,
Imported Water, Surface Water Export, Change in
Surface Water Storage
Available Information: Central Valley Project (CVP) - surface water
diversions, water transfers
Brief Description: Website contains operational reports for CVP
operations.
Data Link: Reclamation’s Central Valley Operations Office:
https://www.usbr.gov/mp/cvo/index.html
Metadata Link: Not available
Period of Record: 1985–present
Coverage: Central Valley Project system
Temporal Resolution: Monthly, annual
Spatial Resolution: By contractor
Format: PDF
Software Requirements: Acrobat Reader
Tips to Access/Download: For CVP delivery data, click on “Water Deliveries.”
This goes to a page with monthly delivery tables for
the current year. Click on the links at the bottom for
delivery data from previous years.

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9.54 USDA County Ag Commissioner’s Data Listing

Developer/Author/Owner: U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) — National
Agricultural Statistics Service, California Field Office
(Part of the Pacific Regional Field Office)
Source for Water Budget
Applied Water, Evapotranspiration
Components:
Available Information: Agricultural land use by crop type.
Brief Description: This summary, which is published annually, is based
on the annual crop reports compiled by the California
County Agricultural Commissioners. These reports
provide the most detailed annual data available on
agricultural production by county. As of crop year
2011, the summary and data reports are combined
into one publication.
Data Link: USDA’s National Agricultural Statistics Service:
https://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/Califor
nia/Publications/AgComm/index.php
Metadata Link: California County Agricultural Commissioner’s Annual
Crop Report Manual:
https://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/Califor
nia/Publications/AgComm/CCAC_Annual_Crop_Repo
rt_Manual_r2012.pdf
Period of Record: 1980–2015
Coverage: Statewide — agricultural lands only.
Temporal Resolution: Annual
Spatial Resolution: County — agricultural lands only.
Format: PDF, XLS, CSV
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software; Acrobat Reader
Tips to Access/Download: Open as a CSV file to be able to sort by county and
crop type. While these spreadsheets provide a good
starting place, users should independently verify that
values in these summary sheets against the original
crop reports.
Note: Many county agricultural reports are corrected
the year after submission, which are based on
investigation of this database. Those corrections are
not always reflected in the USDA’s composite
products.

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9.55 U.S. Department of Agriculture CropScape

Developer/Author/Owner: U. S. Department of Agriculture — National
Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS)
Source for Water Budget
Applied Water, Evapotranspiration
Components:
Available Information: Crop acreage
Brief Description: The U. S. Department of Agriculture has produced a
remotely sensed crop data layer (CropScape) that is
publicly available for California for 2007 through 2016.
These data are a gridded dataset with 30-meter by
30-meter pixels each with a single crop identified.
CropScape can generally differentiate classifications
of land coverage (permanent crops vs. annual crops
vs. urban). But, it has difficulty accurately
distinguishing between native grassland and irrigated
pasture, as well as between different types of
orchards. Additionally, the individual land use
identified is often not consistent between years.
Data Link: CropScape:
https://nassgeodata.gmu.edu/CropScape/
Metadata Link: CropScape and Cropland Data Layer:
https://www.nass.usda.gov/Research_and_Science/C
ropland/metadata/meta.php
Period of Record: 2007–2016
Coverage: Contiguous United States
Temporal Resolution: Annual
Spatial Resolution: 30 meter
Format: Grid (TIF), CSV
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software; GIS
Tips to Access/Download: A boundary shapefile may be imported into the
interface using the “Import Area of Interest” button.
Once an area of interest is defined, data can be
exported as a CSV file (“Export Table as a CSV file”)
or as a TIF (“Export the selected crops for mapping”).
Bulk download:
To download data for California, do not define an area
of interest. Instead, select the rightmost button
“download data for area of interest,” and it will ask
whether to download all data for the selected year by
state as a compressed (tar.gz) file.

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9.56 U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resources

Conservation Service Geospatial Web Soil Survey
Developer/Author/Owner: U. S. Department of Agriculture — Natural Resources
Conservation Service (NRCS)
Source for Water Budget Applied Water, Recharge of Applied Water and
Components: Precipitation, Return flow
Available Information: Soil properties (including depth of soils), hydraulic soil
type, hydraulic conductivity
Brief Description: Web Soil Survey (WSS) provides soil data and
information produced by the National Cooperative
Soil Survey. NRCS has soil maps and data available
online for more than 95 percent of the nation’s
counties; it anticipates having 100 percent in the
future. The site is updated and maintained online as a
single authoritative source of soil survey information.
Data Link: Web Soil Survey:
https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/HomePa
ge.htm
Metadata Link: Soils:
https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/ca/so
ils/
Period of Record: Current
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: Not available
Spatial Resolution: User defined area of interest
Format: Web viewer
Software Requirements: None
Tips to Access/Download: • Click the “Start WSS” button at the top of the
page.
• Use the Area of Interest tab to define an area
of interest.
• Click the Soil Map tab to view or print a soil
map, and detailed descriptions of the soils in
your area of interest.
• Click the Soil Data Explorer tab to access soil
data for an area and determine the suitability of
the soils for a particular use.
• Use the Shopping Cart tab to get a custom
printable report.

Section 9. Data Resources Directory | 401

Handbook for Water Budget Development

9.57 U.S. Geological Survey Publications

Developer/Author/Owner: U. S. Geological Survey (USGS)
Source for Water Budget Surface Water Diversions, Stream Inflow, Stream
Components: Outflow, Stream-Lake Interaction, Subsurface Inflow,
Subsurface Outflow, Runoff, Return Flow,
Groundwater Gain from Stream, Groundwater Loss to
Stream
Available Information: Stream flows, surface water flow conditions,
subsurface flow conditions
Brief Description: Many USGS reports on water resources are available
online. Most publications located at this site and other
USGS sites can be located by subject, author, date,
USGS series or publication series number by using
the reports and thematic maps.
Data Link (or Contact): Water-Resources Investigation Reports:
https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/

Scientific Investigations Reports:

https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/

USGS Water Resources Mission Area Publications:

https://www.usgs.gov/mission-areas/water-
resources/publications

USGS Publications Warehouse:

https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/
Metadata Link: Not applicable.
Period of Record: Varies depending on publication.
Coverage: Varies depending on publication.
Temporal Resolution: Varies depending on publication.
Spatial Resolution: Varies depending on publication.
Format: PDF
Software Requirements: Acrobat Reader

402 | Section 9. Data Resources Directory

 Handbook for Water Budget Development

9.58 U.S. Geological Survey Surface-Water Data for California

Developer/Author/Owner: U. S. Geological Survey (USGS)
Source for Water Budget Stream Inflow, Stream Outflow, Surface Water
Components: Diversion, Stream-Lake Interaction, Imported Water,
Surface Water Export, Runoff, Return Flow, Change
in Surface Water Storage
Available Information: Surface water flow, surface water diversion, lake
storage
Brief Description: The USGS’s National Water Information System
(NWIS) is a comprehensive and distributed
application that supports the acquisition, processing,
and long-term storage of water data. “Water Data for
the Nation” serves as the publicly available portal to a
geographically seamless set of much of the water
data maintained within NWIS.
Nationally, USGS surface-water data includes more
than 850,000 station years of time-series data that
describe stream water levels, streamflow (discharge),
lake levels, surface-water quality, and precipitation.
The data are collected by automatic recorders and
manual field measurements at installations across the
nation. The data relayed through the Geostationary
Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) system
are processed automatically in near real time, and in
many cases, current data are online within minutes.
Once a complete day of readings are received from a
site, daily summary data are generated and made
available online. USGS finalizes data at individual
sites on a continuous basis as environmental
conditions and hydrologic characteristics permit.
Data Link: USGS Surface-Water Data for California:
https://waterdata.usgs.gov/ca/nwis/sw
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link.
Period of Record: January 1, 1838–present
Coverage: Statewide
Temporal Resolution: 15-minute, daily, monthly, or annual
Spatial Resolution: Gauge location
Format: Graph, table, or tab-separated
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software
Tips to Access/Download: Select “Daily Data” and search for appropriate gauge
locations

Section 9. Data Resources Directory | 403

Handbook for Water Budget Development

9.59 Validated Water Loss Reporting

Developer/Author/Owner: California Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Source for Water Budget Conveyance Seepage, Recharge of Applied Water
Components: and Precipitation
Available Information: Water loss estimations
Brief Description: Water loss audits evaluate real water losses (leaks)
and apparent water losses (e.g., data errors, water
theft) occurring in a potable water distribution system.
Water loss audit submissions are reviewed by
validators. The reviews followed the validation
methodology detailed in Water Research Foundation
Project 4639: Level 1 Water Audit Validation. Level 1
water audit validation aims to:
1. Identify and, where possible, correct
inaccuracies in water audit data and
application of methodology.
2. Evaluate and communicate the uncertainty
inherent in water audit data.
Data Link: Water Use Efficiency Data:
https://wuedata.water.ca.gov/
Metadata Link: Validated Water Loss Reporting:
https://water.ca.gov/Programs/Water-Use-And-
Efficiency/Urban-Water-Use-Efficiency/Validated-
Water-Loss-Reporting
Period of Record: 2016–present
Coverage: Statewide coverage by water district
Temporal Resolution: Annual
Spatial Resolution: By water district
Format: XLS and PDF
Software Requirements: Recommended: Excel or similar spreadsheet
software; Acrobat Reader
Tips to Access/Download: Water loss spreadsheets for each water supplier can
be downloaded from the data link from the “View
Water Audit Reports” link. Water loss information may
also be reported within urban water management
plans.

404 | Section 9. Data Resources Directory

 Handbook for Water Budget Development

9.60 VegScape: Vegetation Condition Explorer

Developer/Author/Owner: U. S. Department of Agriculture — National
Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS)
Source for Water Budget
Evapotranspiration, Applied Water
Components:
Available Information: Vegetation indices including NDVI and VCI
Brief Description: The vegetation condition refers to the density of
vegetation, which changes through a plant’s growth
cycles.
Vegetation indices available:
• Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI)
products — Current Vegetation Condition
Explorer can provide daily, weekly, and
biweekly NDVI products from 2000 to 2013.
• Vegetation Condition Index (VCI) products —
represents the weather condition or the
vegetation condition. Currently, Vegetation
Condition Explorer can provide weekly and
biweekly VCI products from 2000 to 2013.
The annual crop condition can be plotted from
downloaded data or using the interface.
Data Link: VegScape Vegetation Condition Explorer:
https://nassgeodata.gmu.edu/VegScape/
Metadata Link: VegScape User Guide:
https://nassgeodata.gmu.edu/VegScape/help/help.ht
ml
Period of Record: 2000–2013
Coverage: Contiguous United States
Temporal Resolution: Daily (NDVI only), weekly, biweekly
Spatial Resolution: 30 meter
Format: Grid (TIF)
Software Requirements: GIS
Tips to Access/Download: Use map interface to select area of interest and
download data for period of interest.
The shapefile of the boundary of an area of interest
may be imported into the interface using the “Import
Area of Interest” button. Once an area of interest is
defined, data can be downloaded as a TIF (“Export
the selected crops for mapping”).

Section 9. Data Resources Directory | 405

Handbook for Water Budget Development

9.61 Water Recycling Survey (2015)

Developer/Author/Owner: California State Water Resources Control Board
(Water Board) in collaboration with the California
Department of Water Resources (DWR)
Source for Water Budget
Recycled Water, Recycled Water Exports
Components:
Available Information: Total RW used by location and beneficial reuse types
Brief Description: The 2015 data set contains data from a Water Board
survey of wastewater agencies and the 2015 urban
water management plans. The merging and validation
of the data were conducted jointly by both agencies.
Only treated municipal wastewater, originating in
whole or in part from a domestic source and directly
used for beneficial reuse, was included. The data set
includes direct agricultural application and has been
checked to remove duplication from overlapping
reporting by producers, wholesale distributors, and
users. In-plant process water use within a wastewater
treatment plant was considered part of treatment
plant operations and was not included as recycled
water. Discharges required by the treatment plant
permit to maintain habitat or instream flows or to
complete treatment were considered a permit
requirement and not recycled water. Groundwater
recharge was only included in the data set if the
project is permitted by a regional water quality control
board. This data set is considered the most accurate
and inclusive for recycled water use in California.
Data Link: Municipal Wastewater Recycling Survey:
https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/water_issues/progra
ms/grants_loans/water_recycling/munirec.shtml
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link.
Period of Record: Main survey of 2015; other surveys in 1970, 1977,
1987, 2001, and 2009.
Coverage: Statewide coverage
Temporal Resolution: Data for specific years
Spatial Resolution: By general region and location (jurisdiction) of use
Format: PDF
Software Requirements: Acrobat Reader
Tips to Access/Download: Table 3 details, “Beneficial Reuse for Agencies
Submitting Water Recycling Data for 2015.”

406 | Section 9. Data Resources Directory

 Handbook for Water Budget Development

9.62 Water Use Classification of Landscape Species: Water Use

Classification of Landscape Species
Developer/Author/Owner: University of California Cooperative Extension,
California Department of Water Resources
Source for Water Budget
Evapotranspiration, Applied Water
Components:
Available Information: Method to estimate Kc for landscape
Brief Description: Water Use Classification of Landscape Species
(WUCOLS) IV provides evaluations of the irrigation
water needs for more than 3,500 taxa (taxonomic
plant groups) used in California landscapes. It is
based on the observations and extensive field
experience of 36 landscape horticulturists and
provides guidance in the selection and care of
landscape plants relative to their water needs.
Data Link: Water Use Classification of Landscape Species:
http://ucanr.edu/sites/WUCOLS/
Metadata Link: Same as Data Link.
Period of Record: Varies depending on application.
Coverage: Varies depending on application.
Temporal Resolution: Varies depending on application.
Spatial Resolution: Varies depending on application.
Format: PDF
Software Requirements: Acrobat Reader
Tips to Access/Download: From the homepage, plants can be searched by
region using the “Plant Search Database” link. The
entire plant list can be downloaded from the
“Download WUCOLS IV Plant List” link.

Section 9. Data Resources Directory | 407

Handbook for Water Budget Development

408 | Section 9. Data Resources Directory

 Handbook for Water Budget Development

10.REFERENCES

Section 10. References | 409

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Allen, R.G., Tasumi, M., Morse, A., Trezza, R., Wright, J.L., Bastiaanssen,
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Handbook for Water Budget Development

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