MAKER

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Internet
of Things Using
Single Board
Computers
Principles of IoT and
Python Programming
—
G. R. Kanagachidambaresan
 Internet of Things
Using Single Board
Computers
Principles of IoT and Python
Programming

G. R. Kanagachidambaresan
Internet of Things Using Single Board Computers: Principles of IoT and
Python Programming

G. R. Kanagachidambaresan
Chennai, India
ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-8107-9 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-8108-6
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8108-6

Copyright © 2022 by G. R. Kanagachidambaresan

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To my family, students, dear friends, and scholars
I specially dedicate this to my son, Ananthajith K
Table of Contents
About the Author�������������������������������������������������������������������������������xiii

About the Technical Reviewer������������������������������������������������������������xv

Acknowledgments����������������������������������������������������������������������������xvii
Preface����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xix

Chapter 1: An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT)

and Sensors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1
Sensors�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������2
Energy-based��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������3
Signal Output���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4
Mode of Operation�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4
Electronic Sensors�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������5
Connectivity����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7
Bluetooth���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8
Zigbee��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8
Wi-Fi����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������9
LoRa��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10
Wired Communication�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������10
Machine Intelligence�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������12
Active Management��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������14
Sensor Fusion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������15

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Smart Devices�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������16
Human-Computer Interaction������������������������������������������������������������������������16
Context Awareness���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������17
Actuators�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18
IoT and Smart City Applications��������������������������������������������������������������������������22
Automobile Sensors��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������22
Smart Home Sensors�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������23
Smart Transportation Sensors�����������������������������������������������������������������������25
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������28
References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������28

Chapter 2: IoT Sensors and Their Interfacing Protocols���������������������31

Vision and Imaging Sensors��������������������������������������������������������������������������������32
Light Rings�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������33
Shop Floor and Production Line Inspections�������������������������������������������������33
Line Scan Cameras����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������34
3D Depth Cameras�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������35
Event/Production Line Triggering�������������������������������������������������������������������35
Sensors That Measure Temperature��������������������������������������������������������������36
Thermocouples����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������36
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)��������������������������������������������������������38
Temperature Thermistor Sensors������������������������������������������������������������������39
Semiconductor Temperature Sensors�����������������������������������������������������������40
Thermometers�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������41
Radiation Sensors�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������42
Proximity Sensors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������43
Inductive Field Sensors���������������������������������������������������������������������������������44
Magnetic Field Sensors���������������������������������������������������������������������������������44
Types of Photoelectric Sensors���������������������������������������������������������������������46

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Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors�������������������������������������������������������������������������47

Pressure Sensors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������48
Position Sensors��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������49
Photoelectric Sensors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������50
Particle Sensors��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������50
Types of Particle Sensors������������������������������������������������������������������������������51
Metal Detectors���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������54
Level Sensors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������54
Leak Detectors����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������55
Humidity Sensors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������56
Gas and Chemical Sensors����������������������������������������������������������������������������56
Gas Detectors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������57
Carbon Monoxide (MQ7) Detectors����������������������������������������������������������������58
Force Sensors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������58
Force Sensor Types���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������59
Flow Sensors�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������60
Mass Flow Sensors���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������62
Velocity Flow Sensors�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������64
Flaw Sensors�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������66
Flame Detectors��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������66
Voltmeter and Ammeter Sensors�������������������������������������������������������������������67
Contact Sensors��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������67
Non-Contact Sensors�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������68
Sensor Communication Protocols�����������������������������������������������������������������69
Summary�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������69
References����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������70

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Chapter 3: Programming SBCs�����������������������������������������������������������75

Arduino Programming�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������76
Raspberry Pi��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������77
Introduction to Raspberry Pi GPIO Access����������������������������������������������������������78
Interfacing DHT���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������82
Interfacing Pi cam to Raspberry Pi zero w����������������������������������������������������84
Pi Camera Specifications������������������������������������������������������������������������������������85
Pi Camera Access�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������85
Interfacing PIR Sensor����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������86
Python�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������88
File Concepts�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������90
Spreadsheet Concepts����������������������������������������������������������������������������������92
Communication Concepts������������������������������������������������������������������������������95
Wired and Wireless Programming Concepts�������������������������������������������������99
Wired Programming Concepts���������������������������������������������������������������������101
Node-RED����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������103
Node-RED Features�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������103
Node-RED Architecture��������������������������������������������������������������������������������104
Node-RED Applications��������������������������������������������������������������������������������104
MQTT Protocols�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������105
Google Sheets Programming (gspread)������������������������������������������������������������106
Firebase Programming��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������107
Matplotlib����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������108
Getting Started��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������110
Bar Graphs���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������117
Scatter Plot��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������124
Spectrum Representation����������������������������������������������������������������������������126

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Coherence of Two Signals���������������������������������������������������������������������������129

Cross-Correlation Graph������������������������������������������������������������������������������132
Autocorreleation Graph��������������������������������������������������������������������������������133
Changing Figure Size in Different Units�������������������������������������������������������135
Scale������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������136
Pie Charts����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������138
Style Sheets������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������145
FiveThirtyEight Style Sheet��������������������������������������������������������������������������145
Solarized Light Style Sheet��������������������������������������������������������������������������146
3D Graphs���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������148
Plotting 2D Data on a 3D Plot����������������������������������������������������������������������148
Creating 2D Bar Graphs in Different Planes�������������������������������������������������150
Creating a 3D Histogram of 2D Data������������������������������������������������������������152
3D Surfaces�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������154
Animation����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������155
Live Line Graph��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������155
Oscilloscope Live�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������157
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������161

Chapter 4: Wireless Connectivity in IoT��������������������������������������������163

Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������163
Low-Power Wide-Area Networks (LPWANs)������������������������������������������������������164
RFID Protocol�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������168
XBEE Radios with Arduino���������������������������������������������������������������������������173
Bluetooth with Arduino��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������175
Arduino with a GSM Modem������������������������������������������������������������������������177
Arduino with Firebase Cloud Connectivity���������������������������������������������������180
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������184

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Chapter 5: The Internet of Things Through the Raspberry Pi�����������187

Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������187
Cluster Computing with Raspberry Pi Zero W���������������������������������������������������189
Message Passing Interface (MPI)����������������������������������������������������������������189
Networking with RPis for Simple MPI Scripts���������������������������������������������189
Simple MPI Programming����������������������������������������������������������������������������191
Types of Communication in Cluster Computing������������������������������������������������192
Persistent Communication��������������������������������������������������������������������������193
Broadcasting�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������193
Scattering���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������195
Gathering�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������196
A Simple Web Service–Based Home Automation Using a Flask Server������������197
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������199

Chapter 6: Home Electrification and Node-RED��������������������������������201

References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������208

Chapter 7: Supply Chain Management: Industry 4.0 and MQTT

Applications��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������209
Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������209
Working Principle����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������210
Publisher Source Code��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������211
Subscriber Source Code�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������218
Summary�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������223
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������223

Chapter 8: Raspberry Pi–Based Go/No-Go Kit Design Using

the RPi Camera and Image Processing Algorithms��������������������������225
Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������225
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������239

x
 Table of Contents

Chapter 9: Programming Water-­Quality Sensors������������������������������241

Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������241
References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������264

Chapter 10: IoT-Based Shrimp Farming��������������������������������������������265

References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������278

Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������281

xi
About the Author
G. R. Kanagachidambaresan completed
his PhD in Information and Communication
Engineering from Anna University, Chennai,
in 2017. He is currently an associate professor
in the CSE Department at Vel Tech Rangarajan
Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and
Technology. He is also a visiting professor at
the University of Johannesburg.
His main research interest includes the
Internet of Things, Industry 4.0, body sensor
network, and fault-tolerant wireless sensor
network. He has published several reputed articles and undertaken several
consultancy activities for leading MNC companies. He has guest-edited
several special issue volumes and books and served as an editorial review
board member for peer-reviewed journals. He is TEC committee member
in DBT, GOI, India.
He is presently working on several government-sponsored research
projects like ISRO, DBT, and DST. He is Wiley’s editor-in-chief of the Next
Generation Computer and Communication Engineering Series. He is also
the managing director for Eazythings Technology Private Limited.

xiii
About the Technical Reviewer
Massimo Nardone has more than 22 years
of experience in security, web/mobile
development, cloud, and IT architecture. His
true IT passions are security and Android.
He has been programming and teaching
how to program with Android, Perl, PHP, Java,
VB, Python, C/C++, and MySQL for more than
20 years.
He has a master of science degree in
computing science from the University of
Salerno, Italy.
He has worked as a project manager, software engineer, research
engineer, chief security architect, information security manager,
PCI/SCADA auditor, and senior lead IT security/cloud/SCADA architect
for many years.

xv
Acknowledgments
My heartfelt thanks to Apress, especially Jessica Vakili and Susan
McDermott, for helping me throughout this project.
I sincerely thank the Department of BioTechnology (DBT-India) for
their funding (BT/PR38273/AAQ/3/980/2020) on the smart aquaculture
project.
I would also like to extend thanks to my JRFs: Ms. Meenakshi KV, Mr.
M. Akash, Ms. A. V. Anandhalekshmi, and Ms. V. Sowmiya.
I give special thanks to my son Mr. Ananthajith K, my wife, Dr. Mahima
V, my parents, Mr. G. S. Ramasubramanian and Mrs. Lalitha, and
Mrs. Chandra, Mr. Venkatraman, Mrs. V. Chitra, and Mr. V. Bharath for their
timely support.

xvii
Preface
The rapid growth of technology and new smart, sustainable development
initiatives has made the Internet of Things (IoT) and edge analytics
an inevitable platform for all engineering domains. The need for a
sophisticated and ambient environment has resulted in an exponential
growth in automation and artificial intelligence. The right sensor or
actuator, a specific processor, and the correct transmission unit can offer
the best solution to any IoT problem. Lightweight machine learning
or mathematical logic can bring a good solution to existing smart-city
problems.
This book provides detailed information on sensors, their interfacing
connections, programming with single-board computers, and creating
integrated projects with a combination of sensors, processors, and
actuators. A detailed introduction to Python and Arduino-based
programming is also discussed to kindle interest in IoT programming. IoT
products’ wired and wireless connections are discussed, and programming
examples are provided.
This is a completely new textbook that reflects recent developments
while providing a comprehensive introduction to the fields of IoT, single-­
board computers, and Python programming. It is aimed at advanced
undergraduates as well as researchers and practitioners. This book deals more
with electronics and programming than simple text. It best suits outcome-
based education systems and can aid industry-ready IoT engineers.

Funding Information
The part of this book is supported by the Department of Biotechnology
funding information (BT/PR38273/AAQ/3/980/2020).

xix
CHAPTER 1

An Overview of the
Internet of Things
(IoT) and Sensors
Recent advancements in single-board computers (SBCs) [16] and boards
have made the Internet of Things (IoT) more accessible and easier to use.
The complete automation, information analysis from sensor data, and
integration of individual components with IoT systems helps to build new
Smart environment solutions. The scope of the areas is broadened with
IoT components and sensors.
IoT uses existing and emerging technology for event detection and
automation. IoT has the advantages of recent software advancements,
reducing hardware prices and available technology options. It created a
great change in product delivery and services and a major revolution in
Industry 4.0. Figure 1-1 illustrates the key features of IoT.

© G. R. Kanagachidambaresan 2022 1
G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, Internet of Things Using Single Board Computers,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8108-6_1
Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

Figure 1-1. IoT feature and data flow

Sensors
Sensors are the main data acquisition and detection system, which
converts any physical quantity (i.e., event) into a signal. In some sensors,
direct conversion takes place; in others, multiple conversions take place
to attain accuracy and quantification. Some of the sensors used in IoT and
prototyping are shown in Figure 1-2. Sensors are collectively connected
with an A/D converter to convert their signals to digital forms so that a
processor understands and can program effectively. Figure 1-2 illustrates
sensor classification (mode of operation, signal output, and energy-based).

2
 Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

Figure 1-2. Sensor type classification

Next, let’s further discuss sensor type classification.

Energy-based
Generator
Energy generation–based sensors provides conversion energy conversion,
like voltage and current, on any physical event. For example, a
piezoelectric sensor converts vibration energy to a proportional voltage.
The seebeck metal junction converts the change in temperature to
proportional energy conversion.

3
Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

Conversion
Sensors convert one mode of physical quantity to another; for example,
an anemometer converts air velocity to rotational motion, which is further
converted to electrical voltage for measurement. These sensors are
operated in a proportional zone for calibration and stable operation. Most
sensors provide linear data conversion.

Signal Output
Analog
Sensors such as anemometers provide analog conversion of data. Analog
signal from annemometer is converted to digital data with the help of an
analog-to-digital converter. The sensor’s frequency of operation should
be far greater than the frequency of the physical quantity to get clear
information after digital conversion.

Discrete
Cameras and tile-based sensors provide discrete and digital information
directly to the processor. This makes the sensor easy to integrate with any
digital processor.

Mode of Operation
Sensors are deflection- or comparison-based. Deflection happens when
sensing a physical event. This is normally an angular-based movement
between two points. Comparison-based meters normally work with
standard available data. GPS sensors provide comparison-based sensing.
• Deflection (e.g., voltage meters and current meters)

• Comparison (e.g., GPS sensors)

4
 Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

Electronic Sensors
Figure 1-3 illustrates sensor classification based on the field of operation,
such as mechanical, optical, electrical, acoustic, thermal, chemical,
radiation, biological, and magnetic.

Figure 1-3. Sensor classification based on measurand

Mechanical
• Linear and angular position

• Velocity of the subject

• Acceleration

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Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

• Force

• Viscosity, rigidness, and roughness

• Pressure and stress

• Strain

• Mass and density measurement

Optical
• Wave velocity

• Polarization and spectrum

• Wave amplitude

Electrical
• Conductivity

• Potential difference

• Charge and current density

• Field

Thermal
• Heat flux

• Thermal conductivity

Chemical
• States and identifies

• Color change

• Change in voltage

6
 Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

Radiation
• Energy

• Intensity

Biological
• Mass

• Concentration

• States

• Magnetic

• Magnetic field

• Magnetic flux

• Permeability

Connectivity
Figure 1-4 illustrates the connectivity features of IoT communication.

7
Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

Figure 1-4. IoT connectivity features

Bluetooth Low Energy, Zigbee, LoRa, and Wi-Fi are the most common
types of connectivity in an IoT environment. I2C, SPI, and Rx-Tx serial
communication protocols are examples of wired connectivity.

Bluetooth
Bluetooth network technology creates a personal area network (PAN) by
wirelessly connecting mobile devices over a short distance. The Bluetooth
architecture has its own independent model with a stack of protocols; it
does not follow the standard OSI or TCP/IP models.

Zigbee
The Zigbee 3.0 protocol [1] is an IEEE 802.15.4 specification that supports
a 2.4 GHz frequency band. The following are some of the features of
Zigbee 3.0.

8
 Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

• Low power: Devices that comply with Zigbee 3.0

consume less power and transmit data at a slower rate.
For IoT devices, long-lasting batteries are required. As a
result, the Internet of Things (IoT) network extensively
uses this standard.

• Reliable and robust: The mesh topology of the Zigbee

3.0 network eliminates single points of failure and
ensures packet delivery reliability.

• Scalable: Devices can be added to a Zigbee 3.0 network

anytime.

• It is a secure network because it employs AES-128

encryption.

• Global standard: Zigbee 3.0 devices use the 2.4 GHz

frequency band, which is widely used worldwide. As
a result, it has become the industry standard around
the world.

Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi [2] is a technology that transfers data through radio waves that can
make small gadgets exchange data connected within a small router. Wi-Fi
uses the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers’ (IEEE) 802.11
standards for effective data transmission.
IEEE 802.11 devices have the primary benefit of making it easier to
deploy local area networks (LANs) at a lower cost. They can host wireless
LANs in outdoor areas and airports, where running cables to every device
isn’t practical.

9
Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

LoRa
LoRa [3] is a long-range wireless communication technology derived from
the CSS chirp-based spread spectrum. The chirp pulses communicate
information, similar to BATS communication.

Wired Communication
I 2C
I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit) [4] is a two-wired communication protocol
(see Figure 1-5). It is a bus interface, serial communication protocol built
into devices. It has recently become a popular protocol for short-distance
communication.
Only two bidirectional open-drain lines—SDA (Serial Data) and SCL
(Serial Clock)—are used for data communication. Both lines are cranked
up. The SDA pin sends and receives data. SCL carries the clock signal.
I2C has two modes of operation: master and slave. Master mode is the
most advanced mode.
Slave mode obeys the command from the master and transmits or
receives data accordingly.
Each clock’s high to low pulse on the SCL line synchronizes each data
bit transferred on the SDA line. Figure 1-5 shows I2C communication
protocols.

Figure 1-5. I2C communication protocols

10
 Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

SPI
The data communication module uses SDA and SCL dual connection
lines. SDA receives and transmits data. Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
communication is mainly used by components such as RTC, A-to-D
converters, and other computer peripherals. SPI [5] communication uses
a full duplex synchronous communication protocol that works in serial
mode between the master and slave devices. Figure 1-6 illustrates SPI
communication protocols.

Figure 1-6. SPI communication protocols

Serial Communication
Serial communication is a straightforward and dependable way to send
data over long distances. RS-232 is a widely used serial communication
protocol. The data in this standard is sent in serial format at a preset
speed (called a baud rate/number) of bits communicated between
the sender and receiver. Common baud rates are 4800, 9600, 19200,
and 38400. Figure 1-7 shows the connection diagram for the UART
communication scheme.

11
Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

Figure 1-7. UART data communication

Machine Intelligence
Machine intelligence [14] attempts to program a computer to perform
previously human-only tasks. In general, the learning process in intelligent
machines entails gathering information about their environment,
deploying that information to build knowledge about it, and then
generalizing that knowledge base to deal with environmental uncertainty.
Two machine intelligence techniques—imitation learning and
reinforcement learning—have been developed to help machines learn.
The learning algorithms are opted based on consideration of tasks and
their characteristics. Intelligent systems are an option to collect data
from the agents and acquire knowledge about its surrounding, and the
computation is adapted for the environment. To maintain control over
a society of autonomous agents, the agents’ learning process requires a
self-organizing mechanism. It should be noted that imbuing intelligent
machines with the capacity to learn is a difficult task; however, the capacity
to learn is what defines a machine as intelligent. Figure 1-8 illustrates
machine learning classification based on input data.

12
 Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

Figure 1-8. Classical machine learning domains

The supervised learning module predicts category (classification

module) and number (regression module). Unsupervised learning
provides clustering, dimension reduction, and association modules.

13
Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

Active Management
The main components and operation of a closed-loop sensor management
system are depicted in Figure 1-9. The raw sensor data is processed for
information relevant to the sensing objective when the sensor is chosen,
and a measurement is taken. This usually requires the fusion of data from
several sensing modalities (e.g., optical and acoustic) and other properties,
as well as the addition of information from earlier measurements and
possibly other sources. Auxiliary information, such as target tracks or
choices about non-sensor manager-related concerns, may be generated by
the loop’s fusion and signal processing. For sensor management reasons,
they must generate a state of information that allows quantification
of the benefits of each feasible sensor selection in the following time
epoch. Currently, accessible quantification methodologies range from
statistical (e.g., mean risk or knowledge gain) to entirely heuristic. The
sensor management must then optimize which sensor to use for the next
measurement.

Figure 1-9. Data processing in IoT architecture

14
 Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

The sensor selector provides information from a particular sensor

module. Once data from a particular sensor is received, data fusion is
done through a sensor data fusion algorithm. The signal is processed using
algorithms. The data is corrected through closed-loop control system
algorithms.

Sensor Fusion
Sensor fusion is a technique for reducing the amount of uncertainty in a
robot’s navigation or task performance by combining data from multiple
sensors, as shown in Figure 1-10. Sensor fusion helps the robot create a
more accurate world model, which allows it to navigate and behave better.
There are three main methods for combining sensor data.

• Redundant sensors collect repeated information that is

permanently fit in sources like heaters, gates, and other
locations.

• Complementary sensors collect different information

on events happening inside the monitoring
environment.

• Coordinated sensors are logically operating sensor that

collects information about the environment.

15
Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

Figure 1-10. Sensor data aggregation and fusion process

To obtain high-quality, relevant measurement data, data fusion

combines several sources of information utilizing mathematical methods
and technical tools. Improved detectability and reliability, expanded range
of spatial-temporal perception, reduced degree of inference ambiguity,
improved detection accuracy, increased dimension of target features,
improved resolution of spatial questions, and enhanced fault-tolerant
fusion are all advantages of data fusion over independent processing of a
single source.

Smart Devices
Human-Computer Interaction
Human-computer interaction (HCI) [6] is a subfield of computer science
that investigates how people (users) interact with computers, as well
as the design, evaluation, and implementation of user interfaces for

16
 Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

computer systems that are responsive to the user’s needs and habits.
This multidisciplinary field incorporates computer science, behavioral
sciences, and design. One of the primary goals of HCI is to make
computer systems more accessible and useable. A user interface consists
of hardware and software that allows users to modify the system while
allowing the system to communicate with the user. HCI focuses on the
design, implementation, and evaluation of user interfaces. In its broadest
sense, HCI occurs when a human user and a computer system collaborate
to achieve a goal. Usability is the part of human-computer interaction
concerned with making it, among other things, successful, efficient, and
enjoyable for the user. Usability entails usability, productivity, efficiency,
effectiveness, learnability, retention, and user interest.

Context Awareness
Figure 1-11 depicts sensor data context awareness [7]. The sensor data and
context awareness provide better infrastructure and ambiance.

Figure 1-11. Data awareness schemes in IoT

17
Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

Actuators
The applications in a smart city [10]—such as health care, smart
agriculture, and other industrial applications—use actuators [8], such
as drives, motors, and other physical signal converters. A wireless sensor
and actuator network (WSAN) [9] comprises automated actuators.
Microcomputers normally link directly to tiny actuators; however, ­heavy-­
load actuators are coupled via driver circuits. Linear and rotational moving
actuators are the two types of actuators that move. A huge number of our
daily demands, such as fans and escalators, are met by these actuators.
Electric, pneumatic, and hydraulic power sources are also used to
classify them. Electric actuators are the most frequent, and PWM signals
are generated by the system control actuators like servo and stepper
motors. The significant change in the pulse width, time, and change in
frequency is reflected in the actuator’s velocity, rotational direction, and
amount of torque exerted. Most actuators in the industry are actuated
through PLC boards. This chapter showcases building prototypes with
small servos and steppers, which are often accomplished using SBCs like
Arduino and Raspberry Pi.
Table 1-1 describes the actuator types mentioned in this book,
including micro steppers, SG90, and infrared. To keep things simple,
these actuators are primarily programmed using Arduino and Raspberry
Pi ideas.

18
 Table 1-1. Actuator Types
S.No Actuator type Output Operating Power Number External Connectivity type
range required of wire battery source Analog/i2c/spi, digital/
connection required driver requirement

1 Servo motor Angular 0-5 v Less than 3 Not necessary PWM

Chapter 1

motion 1W for low power

2 Stepper motor Angular 2.55 v-2.8 v 1.68 Amps 4 Yes Drivers or DPDT relay
position

3 Oled display Digital 3.3V-5V 3.3v 12C pins yes IIC & SPI
display 20mA max

(continued)

19
An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors
20
Table 1-1. (continued)

S.No Actuator type Output Operating Power Number External Connectivity type
Chapter 1

range required of wire battery source Analog/i2c/spi, digital/

connection required driver requirement

4 Relay Mechanical 5ms-20ms 5V 3 No Both digital and analog

contacts and (unless it’s12V
solid state relay)

5 Solenoid Mechanical 5-10ms 9-65W 2 terminals External Both digital and analog
energy 15-150ms each regulator or
angular separate power
motion supply

6 IR led Light 760-1nm 1.2-3.4V 2 pins for no Both digital and analog
Max = 780- each
50nm
An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors
 7 Heat Thermal 1000°C and Not Wires not Acid batteries Tube box
exchanger 1000 bars needed needed

8 Speaker Sound 60 Hz – 100 – 2 or more No Digital

Chapter 1

pressure 18 kHz 1000 watts

level (SPL)
in dB
9 Linear Straight 5 lb – 10000 15 – 2000 4 pins DC Battery Digital
actuator line motion/ lb force pounds
mechanical
energy

21
An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors
Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

IoT and Smart City Applications

Automobile Sensors
Currently, modern automotive design can be accomplished using a variety
of sensors [12]. These are integrated into the vehicle’s engine to detect and
resolve issues such as repairs and service. Sensors in automobiles keep
an eye on the vehicle’s operation. The owner of a car has no idea how
many sensors their vehicle contains. Automobile sensors are sophisticated
sensors that can monitor and control various parameters, including oil
pressure, temperature, emission level, and coolant level. Numerous types
of sensors are used in automobiles, but it is critical to understand how they
work. To demonstrate the purpose of these sensors, the following is a list of
the most frequently found sensors in automobiles. The sensor depicted in
Figure 1-12 is used in automobile systems.

• Speed sensor for the engine

• Oxygen sensor for the exhaust manifold

• Mass airflow sensor for the exhaust manifold

• Fuel temperature sensor for the exhaust manifold

• Camshaft position sensor for the exhaust manifold

• Throttle position sensor for the exhaust manifold

• Vehicle speed sensor for the exhaust manifold

• Spark knock sensor for the exhaust manifold

• Coolant sensor for the exhaust manifold

• Voltage sensor for the exhaust manifold

22
 Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

Figure 1-12. Some important automobile sensors

Smart Home Sensors

Smarter homes are established with IoT, cloud tech, and logical event
processing. IoT allows mobile applications [11] with various sensors to be
managed and communicated remotely. Sensors can monitor and regulate
a variety of household appliances, such as air conditioning, lighting,
and other environmental controls. As a result, it integrates computer
intelligence with household equipment, allowing for temperature
monitoring indoors and outdoors and appliance operation.
Cloud technology enables expandable processing energy, memory
availability, apps for designing, administering, and operating home
services, and remote control of home equipment. A rule-based event
processing system manages an advanced smart home’s overall control
and orchestration. The term smart home refers to a domestic application

23
Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

of building automation that encompasses all embedded technology and

its control and automation. It encompasses home appliances like air
conditioning/heating systems, smart TVs, large appliances, and IP security
cameras that can talk with their owner on a time and event basis through
mobile phones and the Internet. The home electrical system is made of
switches and sensors connected to a centralized IoT system operated
by the homeowners and controlled via the cloud, GSM, and WLAN
connectivity.
The main advantages include energy efficiency, security, reduced
operating costs, and user sophistication. The convenience, cost, and
reduced operating time provide plenty of energy savings to the users.
These techs are more adaptable to changes in the needs of outpatients,
such as post-surgical people recovering in their homes. Its architecture is
frequently adaptable enough to integrate various devices from multiple
manufacturers and standards. Figure 1-13 depicts the sensors used in a
smart home system.

24
 Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

Figure 1-13. Smart home sensors

Smart Transportation Sensors

Improvements in ICT (Information and Communication Technology)
devices have enabled opportunities for intelligent and sustainable
transportation systems [13]. ICT in transportation helps sustainability,
safety integration, and high-speed, accurate responses. The primary
expectation of people using intelligent transportation like fast mobility,
environmental sustainability, and economic development through goods

25
Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

and service transportation can be done through ICT tools. The platform
used by intelligent transport systems (ITS) to access, gather and assess
precise environmental data is crucial to its operation.
There are typically two types of sensor platforms. The first is an intra-­
vehicle sensing platform that collects data about a vehicle’s condition.
The two approaches of sensing are used in ITS. An intra-vehicle sensing
platform collects data about a vehicle’s working conditions. An urban
sensing platform gathers information about traffic conditions. Sensing
technology has become essential for vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) [15] and
vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communication. The data is further
communicated to a transportation management system (TMS) for further
data analysis and prognostics. The data can offer prognostics that can be
used for decision-making, reducing pollution, emission traffic congestion,
and road reconstruction.
Non-intrusive sensors offer information like the location of the signal
acquired through GPS devices, traffic queue density through LIDAR and
traffic conditions through combined GPS information, and road and
weather conditions. Sensors, such as high traffic lights, are typically placed
in higher positions to monitor the region of interest. These sensors are also
mounted under bridges and directly beneath a surveillance zone. Some
sensors are positioned at the ground level to detect pedestrians. These
are mostly used for single lanes and unidirectional traffic due to their
vulnerability to interference from neighboring objects. Figure 1-14 shows
sensors utilized in intelligent transportation.

26
 Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

Figure 1-14. List of sensors in transportation

Non-invasive sensors can more effectively perform many intrusive

sensor duties. Weather conditions, like rain, fog, snow, and dust pollution,
significantly impact them. To make educated decisions about traffic
improvement projects, precise traffic statistics are required. Drivers are
more likely to detect non-intrusive sensors, leading to varied and faster
responses, such as slowing down and driving in the proper lane. It is
critical not only to install these sensors but also to reduce driver reaction
times based on the collected data and provide a more realistic depiction of
the context and reality of the road or avenue.

27
Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

Summary
This chapter overviewed sensors, actuators, and other communication
protocols. Various sensor usage with different applications was also
addressed in this chapter. Sensor classification and interfacing with boards
are discussed in the next chapter.

References
[1] S. Long and F. Miao, “Research on Zigbee wireless communication
technology and its application,” 2019 IEEE 4th Advanced Information
Technology, Electronic and Automation Control Conference (IAEAC),
pp. 1830–1834. doi: 10.1109/IAEAC47372.2019.8997928.

[2] K. Pahlavan and P. Krishnamurthy, “Evolution and Impact of Wi-Fi

Technology and Applications: A Historical Perspective,” International
Journal of Wireless Information Networks, vol. 28, Nov. 19, 2020, pp. 3–19.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10776-020-00501-8.

[3] U. Noreen, A. Bounceur, and L. Clavier, “A study of LoRa low power

and wide area network technology,” 2017 International Conference on
Advanced Technologies for Signal and Image Processing (ATSIP), pp. 1–6.
doi: 10.1109/ATSIP.2017.8075570.

[4] Dawoud Shenouda Dawoud and Peter Dawoud, “Design of I2C Bus
and Operation,” in Microcontroller and Smart Home Networks, River
Publishers, 2020, pp. 55–112.

[5] Dawoud Shenouda Dawoud, Peter Dawoud, “Serial Peripheral

Interface (SPI),” in Serial Communication Protocols and Standards
RS232/485, UART/USART, SPI, USB, INSTEON, Wi-Fi and WiMAX, River
Publishers, 2020, pp.191–244.

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 Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

[6] Erin T. Solovey and Felix Putze, Improving HCI with Brain Input:
Review, Trends, and Outlook, Now Publishers, 2021.

[7] P. S. Gandodhar and S. M. Chaware, “Context Aware Computing

Systems: A survey,” 2018 2nd International Conference on I-SMAC (IoT in
Social, Mobile, Analytics and Cloud), 2018, pp. 605–608.

[8] Jeffrey Wishart, Yan Chen, Steven Como, Narayanan Kidambi, Duo
Lu, Yezhou Yang, “Sensor and Actuator Hardware,” in Fundamentals of
Connected and Automated Vehicles, SAE, 2022, pp.70–89.

[9] A. Eraliev and G. Bracco, “Design and Implementation of Zigbee

Based Low-Power Wireless Sensor and Actuator Network (WSAN) for
Automation of Urban Garden Irrigation Systems,” 2021 IEEE International
IOT, Electronics and Mechatronics Conference (IEMTRONICS), 2021,
pp. 1–7. doi: 10.1109/IEMTRONICS52119.2021.9422568.

[10] N. Mishra, P. Singhal, and S. Kundu, “Application of IoT Products in

Smart Cities of India,” 2020 9th International Conference System Modeling
and Advancement in Research Trends (SMART), pp. 155–157. doi: 10.1109/
SMART50582.2020.9337150.

[11] A. Eleyan and J. Fallon, “IoT-based Home Automation Using

Android Application,” 2020 International Symposium on Networks,
Computers and Communications (ISNCC), 2020, pp. 1–4. doi: ­10.1109/
ISNCC49221.2020.9297320.

[12] S. Wasnik and R. Venkatesh, “Understanding usage of IoT

Applications and its impact on consumer decision making in Indian
Automobile industry,” 2022 International Conference on Decision Aid
Sciences and Applications (DASA), 2022, pp. 1259–1264. doi: 10.1109/
DASA54658.2022.9765216.

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Chapter 1 An Overview of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Sensors

[13] Saravjeet Singh and Jaiteg Singh, “Location Driven Edge Assisted
Device and Solutions for Intelligent Transportation,” in Fog, Edge, and
Pervasive Computing in Intelligent IoT Driven Applications, IEEE, 2021,
pp.123–147. doi: 10.1002/9781119670087.ch7.

[14] Shalli Rani, R. Maheswar, G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, Sachin Ahuja,

and Deepali Gupta, Machine Learning Paradigm for Internet of Things
Applications, John Wiley & Sons, 2022.

[15] S. Kulkarni, A. Darekar, and S. Shirol, “Proposed framework for V2V

communication using Li-Fi technology,” 2017 International Conference on
Circuits, Controls, and Communications (CCUBE), 2017, pp. 187–190. doi:
10.1109/CCUBE.2017.8394163.

[16] G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, Role of Single Board Computers

(SBCs) in rapid IoT Prototyping, Springer, 2021. ­https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-3-030-72957-8.

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CHAPTER 2

IoT Sensors and Their

Interfacing Protocols
Sensors can detect specific entities or functions by looking for them in
the environment [1]. Electromechanical, optoelectrical, or electronic
equipment can all be used to create these devices. Detectors for physical
presence, such as flame or metal, can be found. Others include sensors
that monitor gas and chemical concentrations and other sorts of sensors.
There are additional varieties that can detect motion or closeness, while
others can monitor physical qualities like temperature, pressure, or
radiation, for example [3].
It depends on the application [2], but electromagnetic fields,
optics, or a mix of these can be used. It is common practice to employ
a variety of sensors, detectors, and transducers in a wide range of
industries to evaluate, monitor, and regulate machines’ processes and
functions. As the Internet of Things (IoT) becomes more widespread,
so does the demand for sensors as the main automation tool [5].
Figure 2-1 showcases different types of sensors.

© G. R. Kanagachidambaresan 2022 31
G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, Internet of Things Using Single Board Computers,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8108-6_2
Chapter 2 IoT Sensors and Their Interfacing Protocols

Figure 2-1. Types of sensors

Vision and Imaging Sensors

Figure 2-2 shows an image based display.

Figure 2-2. Image sensors

The visual perception and imaging sensors/detectors [4] are electrical

devices that detect the presence of objects or colors inside their fields of
view and convert the data into a visual image that may be displayed. The
sensor type, intended application, and any special transducer properties
are all critical specifications.

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Vision and imaging sensors are utilized in numerous manufacturing

processes for quality control, presence detection, positioning, orientation,
sorting, labeling, inspecting, gripping, and guiding, among other functions.
Touch screens for onboard programming and remote programming
capabilities may or may not be incorporated into the sensors [6]. Like other
sensors, they can transmit output signals to control systems that direct
actions on components (or not), such as ejecting a defective package. This
type of camera is often called a “smart” camera [7].
The concept of embedded vision comes in a variety of flavors, and it has
become a buzzword in the business world. There are both black-and-white
and color sensors available. Numerous tasks requiring color differentiation
can be accomplished with a monochrome machine. Color processing is a
very difficult task. Most sensors incorporate light rings around their lenses
to appropriately illuminate the optics.

Light Rings
Sometimes, additional lighting is used. Lights can be white, red, blue,
or green, depending on the imaging task. Under green light, facial
abnormalities can sometimes be noticed more clearly. Backlighting
can bring attention to features in a complex shape that might otherwise
be overlooked in front lighting. There is also infrared and ultraviolet
lighting. A variety of wide-angle and telephoto photos can be created by
changing lenses. In most cases, imaging sensors are fast enough to capture
photographs of products as they pass by. Other image sensing methods are
used for high-speed lines like printing, such as the ones described next [9].

Shop Floor and Production Line Inspections

The sensors in the photographs can be set to identify many things [14].
A missing feature in a machined object, such as a hole or numerous holes,
can be detected using an area sensor [8]. It could be used to ensure that all
blister packs are filled. Blemish sensors are used in low-light conditions to
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detect scratches on a surface or foreign substances on packaging material

and check features. Match sensors match patterns such as inscriptions to
reference patterns, double-check label positioning on packages, and double-
check the presence of a weld nut [11]. A sort sensor can orient a part by
comparing it to multiple patterns [10]. It might also be used to ensure that a
surgical kit contains all of the required components. These aren’t separate
sensors; they’re merely distinct modes of operation for the same one.
Sensors can be configured to employ any of the capturing modes.
Vision sensors are typically easy to set up and program. A reference
image of a “good” part can be recorded and used by the software to
compare varied areas of interest to the known good image. Dimensional
data can be acquired by counting pixels, allowing you to examine the
diameter of a hole or other part characteristics, for example. Many setup
stages, such as focusing, are one-time actions conducted with the camera
fixed in place for inspection. End-of-line inspection systems are no longer
the only applications for inspection systems [12]. Systems, for example,
can be used to check a correct assembly sequence at various stages of the
production process [13]. As with the camera-in-the-loop example, the
inspection system may flag an improper assembly, and the assembler may
repair the mistake before proceeding to the next phase.

Line Scan Cameras

Figure 2-3 shows a line scan camera.

Figure 2-3. Line scan camera

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Using vision sensors to check discrete parts is not the same as using
them to check fast-moving products like printed webs or sheet steel in a
continuous process. Some of these applications use area cameras, and the
resulting images are “stitched” together in software. However, you can also
use a line scan camera [15]. Using rows of pixels, these cameras are set up
to take a single-line photo at the same speed as the moving object. Using
downstream air jets, these cameras could be used to eliminate trash and
food that isn’t good enough to eat. In general, these cameras are not like
regular vision sensors and need their own image processing.

3D Depth Cameras

Figure 2-4 showcases a 3D stereo vision camera.

Figure 2-4. 3D Depth cameras

Three-dimensional cameras use stereo vision, time-of-flight, and laser

triangulation to determine what a 3D image looks like. Each one has its
own set of pros and cons. Laser triangulation works well in dim light and
on surfaces that are hard to measure, but it is slow. Time-of-flight is a good
way to measure distances and volumes and is often used in palletizing and
self-driving vehicles.

Event/Production Line Triggering

Vision sensors can be set up to take pictures in several different ways.
Triggering is how the sensors respond to an input by capturing and
analyzing an image. An internal timer, for example, could be used by the
sensor to take an image every x seconds. The sensor can be instructed to

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take a picture based on the current state of the machine by an external

source, such as a machine controller. The sensor can also be set to
run indefinitely or activated by a signal sent via industrial Ethernet or
manual input.

Sensors That Measure Temperature

An RTD based temperature sensor is shown in Figure 2-5.

Figure 2-5. Temperature sensors

Transducers are electronic devices that monitor and transmit temperature

data to the inputs of other devices, such as controllers and displays [16].
RTDs and thermistors are frequently used as temperature sensors because
they can measure temperature and convert it to a voltaic output. The type of
sensor/detector used, the maximum and minimum temperatures that can be
measured, and the diameter and length of the sensor/detector are all critical
specifications. Temperature sensors [18] are used in process industries to
determine the thermal properties of gases, liquids, and solids.

Thermocouples
Figure 2-6 shows a thermocouple used in industries for identifying the
temperature.

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Figure 2-6. Thermocouple

A thermocouple uses a probe to detect the temperature by joining two

different metals to make a junction on one end and connect the other end
to a voltmeter [17]. The hot junction end of the probe (where the metals
are connected) touches the object whose temperature is being monitored,
while the cold junction end remains at a constant temperature. The
voltmeter displays a potential difference in volts, proportionally indicating
the temperature difference between the thermocouple’s hot and cold
junctures. Table 2-1 showcases the different bimetal combinations with
their symbols.

Table 2-1. Bimetal temperature sensor and their symbols

S. No Bimetal combination Thermocouple

1 Iron/Constantan J
2 Nickel-Chromium / Nickel-Alumel K
3 Copper/Constantan T
4 Nickel-Chromium/Constantan E
5 Nicrosil / Nisil N
6 Platinum Rhodium – 10% / Platinum S
7 Platinum Rhodium –13% / Platinum R
8 Platinum Rhodium – 30% / Platinum Rhodium – 6% B

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Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

An RTD is a temperature sensor that measures the electrical resistance
of a conductor to estimate its temperature. Resistance is the ability of a
conductor, such as a metal, to conduct electricity when a particular voltage
or potential difference is applied to it. Heating a piece of metal increases its
electrical conductivity, which is measured in ohms. When a little electrical
current, typically 1–5 milliamps, passes through a resistive element
and measures the resistance, an RTD is created. Material attributes of
the resistive element can be used to translate the recorded resistance
value to a temperature value. In RTDs, platinum is the metal of choice
because of its excellent thermal stability, chemical inertness, and ability
to function across a wide temperature range. This last aspect simplifies
the process of converting electrical resistance into temperature readings.
Nickel and copper can also be used as RTD resistors. The material used
in RTDs is specified for its temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR).
This value depicts how the electrical resistance of a material change
as the temperature changes by one degree. Metals and electrically
conductive materials have a positive temperature-dependent resistivity
(TCR); semiconductors and non-metallic substances have a negative
TCR. Figure 2-7 showcases an RTD based sensor.

Figure 2-7. RTD sensor

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RTDs frequently utilize thin-film or wire-wound materials. For film-­

type RTDs, platinum is plated onto a ceramic plate and encased in glass,
but for wire-wound RTDs, platinum wire is wound around a ceramic
core and encased in glass. The most common wiring configurations
for RTDs include two-wire, three-wire, and four-wire. Using two wires
simplifies the setup but at the expense of precision, as the resistance of
the wire leads cannot be differentiated from the measured resistance
value. Two distinct measurements can be made using the three-wire
configuration, with the wire lead resistance effect reduced from the
overall resistance measurement to yield a net resistance result. Due to the
four-wire arrangement, the sensor resistance can be directly measured
without regard to the lead wires. A Wheatstone bridge design is frequently
employed to monitor resistance in conjunction with RTDs to determine
temperature values.

Temperature Thermistor Sensors

Thermistors, created from the words thermosensitive resistors, are
temperature sensors that use the electrical resistance change produced
by temperature to provide a reading of the temperature value. When the
temperature fluctuates, a precise change in electrical resistance can be
seen in these passive devices. According to their temperature coefficient,
thermometers are divided into two groups: those with a negative
temperature coefficient (NTC) and those with a positive temperature
coefficient (PTC). A thermistor with a decreasing resistance has an NTC,
whereas one with a rising temperature coefficient (PTC) has an increasing
resistance. NTC and PTC thermistors are two of the most popular
options in temperature sensing. Figure 2-8 showcases a temperature
thermistor sensor.

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Figure 2-8. Temperature thermistor sensor

Examples of protection applications include limiting inrush current

or providing surge protection for a circuit or device. Various materials,
packaging and geometries are available for thermistors depending on the
temperature range and reaction time required. They can be packaged or
encased in epoxy resin, glass, baked-on phenolic, or paint. Temperature
sensors are typically small, inexpensive, and fast-response devices with a
limited temperature range. Improved sensitivity and accuracy in readings
can be achieved due to the larger change in resistance per temperature unit.
The disadvantages of thermistors include that their temperature response
curves are non-linear and can self-heat if the excitation current is excessively
high. It is also important to note that they have a restricted temperature
range and are prone to heat instability. Furthermore, the temperature
curves of different manufacturers are different, making interchangeability
more difficult. Temperature sensors are used in a wide variety of industries,
including refrigeration, aerospace, appliances, automotive, communication,
HVAC, instrumentation, medical, and military.

Semiconductor Temperature Sensors

Semiconductor temperature sensors—also called solid-state
temperature sensors—are TO-223 and small-outline integrated circuit
(SOIC) packages that are put onto printed circuit boards (PCBs).
Figure 2-9 shows an SoIC based temperature sensor.

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Figure 2-9. Temperature sensors for semiconductors

Semiconductor diodes or transistors with voltage-current
characteristics that vary with temperature are used in the devices.
The following are some of the most common types of temperature
sensors in semiconductors.
Temperature sensors with digital output, temperature sensors with
resistance output, and temperature sensors with diode output are all
examples of temperature sensors.
To get reliable data, these temperature sensors must be correctly
calibrated. Although they have a wide temperature range, they cannot be
used to measure extremely high temperatures.

Thermometers
This type of thermometer is non-contact and does not use an analog scale
to measure temperature. It is possible to obtain a temperature reading
by measuring how much black body radiation an object emits. Through
a lens, a thermopile generates an electrical output proportional to the
amount of heat absorbed by a thermometer. The ability to record and save
data from infrared thermometers is a time-saving and process-simplifying
feature. It is common practice to use an infrared thermometer to monitor
the temperature of sensitive locations such as the tympanic membrane
(eardrum). A further benefit for firefighters is that they can analyze the
spread of a fire without manually inspecting or checking for hot spots
within a burning area using thermal imaging cameras. Figure 2-10 shows
an infrared based temperature identification sensor.

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Figure 2-10. Thermometers

Because the unit can take readings without touching anything, it can also
be used when direct contact with persons or equipment would be hazardous.

Radiation Sensors
Figure 2-11 showcases a radiation based sensor for identifying the
temperature.

Figure 2-11. Radiation sensor

When alpha, beta, or gamma particles are present, radiation sensors/

detectors detect them and send an electrical signal to counters and
displays. Sensor types, as well as minimum and maximum detectable
energies, are all important considerations. Studies and sample counting
employ radiation detectors.
Radiation detectors come in a variety of configurations.
Radiation detectors can be classified according to the type of radiation
they intend to detect or their underlying operating principles. Radiation
detectors are classified functionally as counters, spectrometers, and
radiation dosimeters.
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The following are the most frequently used types of radiation detectors.

• Radiation detectors with a gaseous filling

• Detectors of scintillation radiation

• Detectors of radiation using solid-state technology

Proximity Sensors
Figure 2-12 showcases a proximity sensor for position recognition.

Figure 2-12. Proximity sensor

Proximity sensors [20] are electronic devices that can tell when
something is close without touching it. A proximity sensor can find things
within a few centimeters and send a DC output signal to a controller.
In many manufacturing processes, proximity sensors are used to find
nearby items and machine parts. Important factors include the type of
sensor, its maximum sensing distance, minimum and maximum working
temperatures, and length and diameter. Most proximity sensors have a
short range, but some can pick up on things up to a few inches away. A
capacitive proximity sensor shows this type of sensor. This device detects
a change in capacitance caused by a decrease in the distance between
the plates of a capacitor, one of which is attached to the object under
observation. This change in capacitance is caused by a decrease in the
distance between the capacitor plates. The sensor can then tell how the
object is moving and where it is.

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There are different kinds of proximity sensors, and each has its own
way of working.

Inductive Field Sensors

Inductive proximity sensors are the greatest way to detect ferrous metals,
particularly steel thicker than 1 mm. These sensors produce a magnetic
field interrupted by metal, alerting the sensor to its presence. Shielded
inductive sensors are used to add metal to the field in a controlled manner
because any metal, even the metal in which the sensor is embedded,
affects the sensor. This enables the sensor to detect anomalies in the field
as new metal bits pass by and limits the sensor’s range. Non-shielded
sensors offer a greater range but cannot be put on or near ferrous metal.

Magnetic Field Sensors

Figure 2-13 showcases the magnetic field sensors.

Figure 2-13. Magnetometer

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Magnetic proximity [19] sensors can detect magnets through

nonferrous metals, plastic, and wood, making them helpful in clean-in-
place (CIP) systems for tracking cleaning equipment inside pipelines. In
these sensors, a hermetically sealed reed switch detects adjacent magnets.
When a magnet is present, the reed contacts stretch and make contact with
one another, producing an electrical contact and alerting the system to the
presence of a magnet.

Light Sensors/Photodetectors
Figure 2-14 showcases a light sensor and photo detector.

Figure 2-14. Photosensitive light sensor

Photoelectric proximity sensors are ideal for usage in environments
such as conveyor belts and automatic sinks and in the presence of dense
air pollutants. Photoelectric sensors transmit visible or invisible light to a
receiver and notify the system if it is blocked. They are available in dark-­
on and light-on configurations, with the system alerted when no light is
detected or when light is received.

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They are classified into three types.

• Through-beam sensors have a receiver on one side

of the area to be sensed and an emitter on the other.
These photoelectric sensors are the most dependable
but also the most expensive. They can be fooled by
more transparent or lighter-colored things that the
beam can pass through.

• Retro-reflective sensors retain the emitter and

receiver in the same spot by using a reflector on the
opposite side of the region to be detected. These are
less expensive and quicker to install, but they can be
deceived by shiny items passing through the beam.

• In diffuse sensors, the detected object acts as a

reflector. While they are obstructed by less reflecting
targets, such as dark matte materials, they can
discriminate between darker and lighter materials,
making them ideal for sorting.

Types of Photoelectric Sensors

Although they are all based on the same principle, photoelectric sensors
operate somewhat differently depending on their structure, resulting
in varied advantages and disadvantages. Through-beam photoelectric
sensors are the third most common form of sensor.
In diffuse photoelectric sensors, the emitter and receiver are one
unit. The sensor’s light is reflected to the receiver, alerting the system that
something has passed through its path. These sensors are the most difficult
to install because of their sensitivity to variations in surface texture, color,
and other environmental conditions. Multiple and transparent objects,
container fill levels, object orientation, and undesired situations can all be
detected by using these devices.

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Like diffuse photoelectric transmitters, retro-reflective photoelectric

transmitters employ a mirror in front of them to reflect light to the receiver
instead of emitting it. Objects passing in front of a sensor’s mirror notify
the system of the missing signal. Through-beam sensors are more accurate
than diffused sensors and easier to install than diffused sensors for
transparent, big, and shiny objects and moving objects.
Through-beam photoelectric sensors have a secondary receiver
located across from the transmitter. The system is only alerted when an
object interrupts the signal between the transmitter and receiver. In terms
of precision and range, these sensors top the list. However, they must be in
two sections and can’t operate in dirty conditions. They’ll pick up on it if
they’re not too big or too small or too thick or too thin or too long.

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors

An ultrasonic proximity sensor is often employed in automated
production. It can detect the presence of dark or light objects such as glass
from a distance, fluid levels, and stacks of paper and wood. They can also
be used to reduce noise. These sensors utilize transducer-pulsed sound
waves, available in the same through-beam, retro-reflective, and diffuse
types as photoelectric sensors. Ultrasonic sensors can be harmed by
unusual textures, resulting in distorted sound.

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Pressure Sensors
Figure 2-15 showcases an array based pressure sensor.

Figure 2-15. Pressure sensor

Electromechanical devices called pressure sensors [19], detectors, and

transducers can be used to measure forces per unit area in gases and liquids.
Pressure sensors and transducers often use a diaphragm and a strain gauge
bridge to determine how much force is being put on a unit area. Important
specs describe how the sensor works, its minimum and maximum operating
pressures, and its full-scale accuracy. Pressure sensors control or measure
things that need to know how much pressure gas or liquid has.

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Position Sensors
Figure 2-16 illustrates the position sensors.

Figure 2-16. Position sensors

These electronic devices sense the position of valves, doors, throttles,

etc., and provide signals to the control or display devices. It is critical to
consider the various types, functionalities, measurement ranges, and
sensor-specific features available. Control applications that require precise
location information can benefit from positioning sensors [21]. One of the
most prevalent position sensors is the string potentiometer.

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Photoelectric Sensors
Figure 2-17 shows the photoelectric sensors.

Figure 2-17. Photoelectric sensors

Objects traveling through the detecting area are detected using

photoelectric sensors, which are electrical devices that can detect color,
cleanliness, and location if necessary. These sensors use an emitter and a
receiver to detect fluctuations in light output. Automated counting, robot
picking, and doors and gates are examples of how they are used in the
manufacturing and material handling industries.

Particle Sensors
Dust and other airborne particulates are detected by sensors/detectors,
which provide signals to control and display inputs. The employment
of particle sensors [22] to monitor containers and baghouses is
commonplace. Transducer type, minimum detectable particle size, and
operational temperature range are critical specifications. In nuclear
engineering, particle detectors are used to detect radiation.

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Types of Particle Sensors

Solid, liquid, and aerosol particle sensors fall into one of these three major
groups. This chapter explains how they work and how they are put to
good use.

Aerosol Particle Sensors

Figure 2-18 illustrates a particle sensor.

Figure 2-18. Aerosol sensor

The quality of the air is determined by the amount and size of aerosol
particles in the air. Particle count in a building or the surrounding air can
be estimated using this information. Furthermore, it helps to understand
the level of cleanliness in a controlled environment. In clean rooms,
aerosol particle sensors are commonly employed. Among other industries,
clean rooms are utilized in semiconductor manufacturing, biotechnology,
pharmaceutics, and optical disc drive manufacturing. In clean rooms, the
number of particles per cubic meter is regulated. Aerosol particle counters
or sensors ensure that a cleanroom satisfies regulatory standards.

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Solid Particle Sensors

Figure 2-19 showcases a particulate matter sensor.

Figure 2-19. Dust sensor

Detection of the size of dry particles can be accomplished with solid

particle sensors. It can determine how much material comes from a rock
crusher at a quarry. Sieves are the most commonly used method in the
industry to measure the size of dry particles. The size of dry particles can
also be determined using vision-based methods. Particle sizing can be
done quickly and precisely using a vision-based method.

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Liquid Particle Sensors

Figure 2-20 shows an IR based turbidity sensor for liquid turbidity
identification.

Figure 2-20. Turbidity sensor

The quality of any fluid can be determined via liquid particle sensors.
This information helps testers determine if the liquid is clean enough
for the intended application. For example, liquid particle counters can
be used to determine the quality of drinking water or cleaning solutions
and to inspect power generation equipment or injectable medicines for
cleanliness.
Fluid particle counters also monitor hydraulic fluid cleanliness and
systems like engines and gears. Hydraulic breakdowns are likely caused by
contamination in 75% to 80% of the cases. A wide variety of sensors can be
employed on equipment, in a laboratory for oil analysis, or on a machine
at the job site to verify fluid purity. Hydraulic failures can be minimized,
uptime and machine availability increased, and oil consumption lowered
by identifying and monitoring these levels and following a maintenance
program. Hydraulic fluids can be checked for appropriate cleanliness
levels using particle monitoring after they have been cleaned with
filtration.

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Metal Detectors
Figure 2-21 shows an RF based metal detector.

Figure 2-21. Metal detector

Electronic or electromechanical metal detectors can detect metal in

many scenarios, from parcels to people. Permanent or portable metal
detectors can use various sensor technologies, the most common of which
is electromagnetic, to detect metal. As a result, a wide range of options
is available, such as handheld or fixed devices and a range of detecting
distances. For example, metal detectors can be tailored to detect metal
during sawmilling or injection molding.

Level Sensors
Figure 2-22 shows a level detection sensor.

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Figure 2-22. Level sensor

Level sensors and detectors are electrical or electromechanical devices

that send signals to control or display devices in tanks or bins to measure
the height of gases, liquids, or solids and send the information to the right
equipment. Most level sensors use ultrasonic, capacitance, vibratory, or
mechanical methods to determine a product’s height. The type of sensor,
how it works, and the maximum distance it can sense are all important
things to consider. There are two main kinds of level sensors and detectors:
those that don’t touch the liquid and those that do.

Leak Detectors
Figure 2-23 shows a leak detection sensor.

Figure 2-23. Leak sensor

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Sensors and detectors for liquid and gas leak detection and monitoring
are electronic equipment [23]. Ultrasonic technology, for example, can
detect air leaks in some leak detectors. Other leak detectors use simple
foaming agents to test the soundness of pipe junctions. Vacuum package
seals can be tested using other leak detectors.

Humidity Sensors
Figure 2-24 shows the DHT11 temperature and humidity sensor.

Figure 2-24. Humidity sensor

Humidity sensors, detectors, and transducers are electrical devices

that can operate or display various types of equipment by measuring and
converting the amount of water in the air into signals. In addition to the
lowest and highest operating temperatures, response time is a significant
feature.

Gas and Chemical Sensors

Fixed or portable electronic devices, known as sensors/detectors for gases
and chemicals, are used to detect the presence and properties of gases and
chemicals. A sensor’s or detector’s type, range, and features are important

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considerations. In confined space monitoring, leak detection, and

analytical instrumentation, gas and chemical sensors/detectors are often
utilized and are often built to detect several gases and chemicals.

Gas Detectors
Figure 2-25 showcases the gas detection MQ sensor.

Figure 2-25. Gas sensor

Gas sensors and detectors [24] are used in many applications, from
flammable gases in industrial plants to ethanol in breathalyzer tests, to
detect the presence of gases. The most common gas sensors are made of
metal oxides and can detect a wide range of gases, including butane and
hydrogen. MQ detectors come in multiple shapes and sizes. Methane and
butane, for example, are detected by MQ2 sensors. MQ138 sensors detect
benzene and toluene.
A tin oxide-coated ceramic element is at the heart of an MQ2 sensor.
The tin oxide emits free electrons when the element is heated. These
electrons combine with oxygen, causing no current to flow through
the sensor. Some electrons remain uncombined with oxygen as the
atmosphere changes due to the presence of butane, for example, and
a small current flows through the sensor. More current flows through
the device as the amount of oxygen decreases, providing a quantifiable
measure of the amount of gas in the atmosphere. The sensor element is

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usually encased in mesh to keep dust out and prevent flammable gases
from igniting the element’s heating. MQ2 methane, butane, LPG; MQ3
methane, butane, LPG; MQ4 methane; MQ3 ethanol, Butane; and MQ6
LPG are some MQ series sensors.

Carbon Monoxide (MQ7) Detectors

In addition to bare sensors and modules, MQ sensors can be purchased
in various combinations. The modules have op-amp comparators and
digital output pins to identify the presence of gases. The naked sensor
is connected to a microprocessor to obtain a precise gas concentration
reading (measured in parts per million, or ppm).
Non-dispersive infrared detection is a sensor technique that
determines the spectrum of an air sample by using infrared light and a
waveguide packaged on a small platform. CO2 monitoring in HVAC and
indoor air monitoring applications is the primary application for these
sensors. PID (photoionization detection) is another method for detecting
the presence of volatile organic compounds like ketones and aromatics.
PID detectors ionize gas with high-energy UV light, resulting in a current
proportional to the amount of VOCs (volatile organic compounds) in the
atmosphere.

Force Sensors
Figure 2-26 showcases an array based force sensor.

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Figure 2-26. Force sensor

They are digital devices that measure parameters connected with

forces such as weight, torque, load, and so on and send signals to control
or display devices’ inputs. Force sensors/transducers [25]. Force sensors
are typically built around a piezoelectric load cell, a device that alters
its resistance in response to deforming stresses. Torque and strain can
be measured in multiple ways. As a result, these criteria are critical:
sensor function, number of axes, minimum and maximum loads (or
torques), working temperatures, and sensor dimensions. Force sensors
are employed in a wide range of applications, from truck scales to bolt
tensioning devices, to determine the weight of materials.

Force Sensor Types

A wide variety of force sensors exist, each of which uses a different
technology to determine the amount of a given force and produce an
output signal. Of all force sensors, load cells and strain gauges are the most
utilized (FSRs).

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A variety of load cells may be used to measure compressive forces,

most often weight, by converting the applied force to an output signal. If
you need a load cell, you can choose from a wide selection because they
can provide an output utilizing different technologies.

• Load cells pneumatic

• Hydraulic force sensors

• Load cells based on piezoelectric crystals

• Load cells that are inductive

• Cells de charge capacitive sensors

• Load cells with magnetostrictive properties

• Load cells with strain gauge

Flow Sensors
Figure 2-27 shows a simple generator based water flow sensor/meter.

Figure 2-27. Flow sensor

Electrical or electromechanical flow sensors/detectors can send

signals to other devices to regulate or show the inputs of such devices. You
can use ultrasonic detection from outside the pipeline or a paddlewheel
that sits and spins directly in the flow stream as a flow sensor. You can

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even combine the two. Flow rate, working pressure, and minimum and
maximum operating temperatures are all critical criteria for a sensor/
detector. Flow sensors [26] are frequently utilized in the manufacturing
business. Allowing process operators to quickly see flow conditions is a
benefit of some panel mounting designs.
There are three flow sensor classifications.

• Flow sensors that detect positive displacement

• Mass flow monitoring sensors

• Sensors that measure flow velocity

Positive displacement flow sensors are distinct from other flow

sensors in that they directly measure the fluid volume moving through
the instrument. Other flow sensors monitor different characteristics
(such as pressure) and use that information to calculate or infer the flow
rate. A positive displacement flow sensor captures and delivers a known
quantity of fluid by spinning elements that successfully transfer this fluid
consecutively before allowing more fluid to enter the device.
In some ways, the procedure resembles continually filling and
emptying a water pail. As the rotating components complete a full rotation,
a known volume of fluid flows through the sensor. Calculate the amount
of fluid passed per unit of time by calculating the number of revolutions.
Since the fluid flow directly moves the rotating components, the rotational
velocity is proportional to the flow rate.
Mechanical seals confine the fluid within the flow sensor, preventing
any fluid from bypassing or slipping past the device without being
measured. The precision of positive displacement flow sensors is limited
only by the degree of slippage due to high-quality components with small
clearances. In addition, they may be able to operate with a wide variety of
fluid viscosities, require minimal maintenance, and feature a mechanical
or electrical interface. Oil, gasoline, hydraulic fluid, and domestic water
and gas metering are a few examples.

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Mass Flow Sensors

Figure 2-28 shows a mass fluid flow sensor.

Figure 2-28. Mass flow sensor

Mass flow sensors, also known as mass air flow sensors, are commonly
used in automotive applications to measure the mass of air entering an
engine’s air intake system. Electronic engine control uses the sensor’s
output to calculate how much fuel to feed the engine to achieve the correct
fuel-air mixture for ignition.
Mass flow sensors measure energy transmission from a heated
surface to a flowing fluid. One method involves injecting a given amount
of thermal energy and watching the temperature change. In contrast,
the other involves maintaining a constant temperature for a probe and
estimating the amount of thermal energy required. A hot wire mass flow
sensor is a device that consists of a resistive wire connected to temperature
sensors through electric current. Convective heat transfer lowers the wire’s
electrical resistance as the airflow past the sensor increases. The electrical
current required to maintain the temperature of the hot wire increases
as the resistance decreases, allowing the electrical current required to

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maintain the temperature of the hot wire to be utilized as a mass flow rate
measurement. Temperature differences can be used to determine mass
flow rates in other ways.
The Coriolis flow meter is another type of mass flow sensor. As the
fluid moves through an oscillating tube, the inertia causes twisting in the
tube, which is directly proportional to the fluid’s mass flow rate, according
to this mass flow meter’s hypothesis. Using a driving coil, two tubes in the
sensor vibrate at opposite resonance frequencies to separate and direct the
process fluid. Electronic sensors in the tubes convert the oscillations into
a sine wave as they occur. No flow means that the entrance and outflow
sinusoids are in phase, indicating that the tubes are moving step by step.
The Coriolis force causes the tubes to bend in the opposite direction as
fluid flows through them. In response to this motion, the sine waves alter
in phase, indicating that the two tubes are moving at different rates.
In fluid flow, the time difference between two sine waves, given by the
symbol t, directly correlates to the mass flow rate. If you know how many
sine waves there are, you can figure out how dense the fluid in the tubes is.
On the other hand, the density of the fluid is directly related to the square
of the frequency. Denser fluids have a lower frequency of oscillation. When
the mass flow rate and fluid density are known, volumetric flow can be
easily calculated.

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Velocity Flow Sensors

Figure 2-29 shows a velocity flow sensor.

Figure 2-29. Velocity flow sensor

Flow rate is calculated using a velocity flow sensor, which measures

a fluid’s velocity as it travels past the sensor. The velocity flow sensor is
available in many shapes and sizes, such as the following.
• Mechanism-based (e.g., turbine, propeller, and
paddle wheel)
• Electromagnetic

• Ultrasonic

With mechanical flow sensors, a spinning mechanical component,

such as a paddle wheel mounted on a bearing, extends from the sensor
and rests in the flow channel. Hall effect, magnetic coil, and infrared
sensors detect the rotation of the paddle wheel in response to fluid flow.
The flow sensor’s electronics convert the rotations into an output signal,
such as a rectangular wave pulse, that can be set to represent a certain
volume output per unit time.
Paddle wheel flow sensors are inexpensive, have a straightforward
operating principle, are compact, and consume very little electricity.
These sensors are also compatible with many fluid types because their

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operation is not dependent on conductive fluid. One of the sensor’s

downsides is the inclusion of moving parts, which are susceptible to
wear and contamination by unclean fluids, obstructing performance and
necessitating maintenance. Paddle wheel flow sensors require a minimum
flow rate to function properly; otherwise, the device would be useless.
Electromatic flow sensors (also known as EMF flow sensors and
magnetic flow sensors) are governed by Faraday’s law of induction. Before
measuring the voltage created by the conductive fluid passing through
the magnetic field, the devices use a coil to create a magnetic field in the
fluid under inquiry. The fluid velocity in the pipe determines the induced
voltage. The velocity data can be converted to a volumetric flow rate if the
pipe’s cross-sectional dimensions are known.
Electromagnetic flow sensors require a minimum conductivity in
the monitored fluid and do not cause a reduction in pipe pressure. They
are effective against polluted fluids, not non-conductive fluids such as
oil, steam, or gas. Fluids likely to coat the electrodes should be avoided
while utilizing this type of sensor, as the electrodes can become coated.
Vacuum, abrasive fluids, and fluids containing ferromagnetic particles are
incompatible with magnetic flow sensors.
Ultrasonic flow sensors monitor flow using two alternative methods.
In the initial approach, a pair of ultrasonic transducers produce a signal
focused in both directions into the fluid flow. A pair of mirrors reflect each
signal emitted by a transmitter to the receiver of the other transducer. For
a portion of its journey, one signal travels in the direction of the fluid flow
while the other travels in the opposite direction.
By measuring the transit periods of the two signals, the receiver
electronics determine the time difference between them. While the fluid
is stationary, the transit times of both signals are identical; however,
when the fluid is moving, the signal traveling with the flow has a shorter
transit time. Thus, the difference in the two signals’ transit times
represents the fluid velocity. Transit time ultrasonic flow sensors are
another name for these ultrasonic flow sensors.

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Flaw Sensors
Figure 2-30 shows an ultrasonic based flaw detection sensor.

Figure 2-30. Flaw sensor

Flaw sensors and detectors are electronic devices used in many

industrial processes to find flaws on surfaces or in materials underneath,
like welds. Flaw detectors are systems that use ultrasonic, acoustic, or
other means to find flaws in materials. They can be portable or fixed. The
type of sensor, the range of faults or thicknesses that can be seen, and the
application are all important things to think about.

Flame Detectors
Figure 2-31 shows an IR based flame detection sensor.

Figure 2-31. Flame sensor

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These devices are electronic devices that detect the presence and kind
of fire and provide signals to control devices’ inputs, such as smoke and
heat detectors. A UV or infrared flame detector can be utilized in many
combustion control applications, including burners. When choosing a
detector, the type matters; under-the-hood fire suppression systems, for
example, make extensive use of flame detectors.

Voltmeter and Ammeter Sensors

Current, voltage, and other variables can be detected by electrical
devices, which then send signals to control devices or visual displays. Hall
effect detection is extensively employed in electrical sensors, but other
approaches are also used. These parameters include the sensor’s type and
purpose, as well as the sensor’s minimum and maximum measurement
ranges and operating temperature ranges. Electrical sensors are used in
anything from railway systems to fan, pump, and heater monitoring to
acquire information about the condition of electrical systems.

Contact Sensors
Figure 2-32 showcases a contact sensor.

Figure 2-32. Contact sensor

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A contact sensor is any sensor that detects a state by physical contact

between the sensor and an item. A simple touch sensor monitors doors,
windows, and other access points. A magnetic switch that sends a signal to
the alarm control unit when the door or window is closed can determine
the condition of the door or window. When a door or window is opened, a
contact sensor that informs the controller of the access point’s condition
may activate an audio siren. Contact sensors are used in robotics and other
automated machinery for temperature monitoring and proximity sensing.

Non-Contact Sensors
Figure 2-33 showcases a non-contact sensor.

Figure 2-33. Non-contact sensor

Unlike contact sensors, non-contact sensors do not require physical

contact between the sensor and the monitored object to the function.
Motion detectors, such as those seen in security lights, are examples of
this type of sensor. Non-mechanical or non-physical technologies such
as passive infrared energy, microwave radiation, ultrasonic waves, and
others are used to detect objects within the range of a motion detector.
Radar guns, employed by law enforcement to monitor vehicle speeds,

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are another non-contact sensor. Hall effect sensors, inductive sensors,

LVDTs (linear variable differential transformers), RVDTs (rotary variable
differential transformers), and eddy current sensors are non-contact.

Sensor Communication Protocols

Figure 2-34 showcases the different communication protocols between
processors.

HART

BACNET I2C
COMMON SENSOR
PROCESSOR INTERFACE
PROTOCOLS

RS485 SPI

UART

Figure 2-34. Communication protocols

Summary
Sensor classification was discussed in this chapter. Wired interfacing with
SBCs was also covered. Programming sensors and interfacing with Python
is discussed in the next chapter.

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References
[1] Jeffrey Wishart, Yan Chen, Steven Como, Narayanan Kidambi, Duo
Lu, and Yezhou Yang, “Sensor and Actuator Hardware,” Fundamentals of
Connected and Automated Vehicles, SAE, 2022, pp. 70–89.

[2] N. Mishra, P. Singhal, and S. Kundu, “Application of IoT Products in

Smart Cities of India,” 2020 9th International Conference System Modeling
and Advancement in Research Trends (SMART), 2020, pp. 155–157. doi:
10.1109/SMART50582.2020.9337150

[3] Nayla Omer, “Water Quality Parameters,” in Water Quality: Science,

Assessments and Policy, IntechOpen, 2020. doi:10.5772/intechopen.89657.

[4] Changhan Yoon and Changho Lee, “Recent Advances in Imaging

Sensors and Applications,” Sensors, vol. 21, 2021, pp. 3970. doi:10.3390/
s21123970.

[5] Mohd Javaid, Abid Haleem, Ravi Pratap Singh, Shanay Rab, and Rajiv
Suman, “Significance of sensors for industry 4.0: Roles, capabilities,
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org/10.1016/j.sintl.2021.100110.

[6] J. Kim, H. Lim, S. Han, Y. Jung, and S. Lee, “Compensation Algorithm for
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2016, pp. 1623–1628. doi: 10.1109/JDT.2016.2615678.

[7] M. O. Ali, M. M. Alam, M. F. Ahmed, and Y. M. Jang, “A New Smart-

Meter Data Monitoring System based on Optical Camera Communication,”
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ICAIIC51459.2021.9415233.

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[8] I. Jahan, M. O. Ali, M. H. Rahman, B. Chung, and Y. M. Jang, “Vision

Anomaly Detection Using Self-Gated Rectified Linear Unit,” 2022
International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Information
and Communication (ICAIIC), 2022, pp. 200–203. doi: 10.1109/
ICAIIC54071.2022.9722663.

[9] W. Qiao, L. Shen, J. Wang, Y. Cao, S. He, and Y. Dai, “A Fine-Grained

Fully Convolutional Network for Extraction of Building Along High-­
Speed Rail Lines from VHR Remote Sensing Image,” IGARSS 2019 – 2019
IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, 2019,
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[10] P. P. Ray, S. Pradhan, R. K. Sharma, A. Rasaily, A. Swaraj, and

A. Pradhan, “IoT based fruit quality measurement system,” 2016 Online
International Conference on Green Engineering and Technologies
(IC-­GET), 2016, pp. 1–5. doi: 10.1109/GET.2016.7916620.

[11] J. Baum, F. Otto, J. Kauper, T. Klein, and C. Schumann, “Fault analysis

and correction by applying process-integrated measurement in automated
production facilities,” 2017 International Conference on Engineering,
Technology and Innovation (ICE/ITMC), 2017, pp. 888–893. doi: 10.1109/
ICE.2017.8279977.

[12] H. Zhong, Z. Ling, C. Miao, W. Guo, and P. Tang, “A New Robot-­Based

System for In-Pipe Ultrasonic Inspection of Pressure Pipelines,” 2017
Far East NDT New Technology & Application Forum (FENDT), 2017,
pp. 246–250. doi: 10.1109/FENDT.2017.8584579.

[13] W. Grzechca, “Assembly line balancing problem with quality

inspection stations,” 2015 IEEE 7th International Conference on
Cybernetics and Intelligent Systems (CIS) and IEEE Conference on
Robotics, Automation and Mechatronics (RAM), 2015, pp. 89–94. doi:
10.1109/ICCIS.2015.7274602.

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[14] W. Baek and D. Y. Kim, “In-Process Noise Inspection System for

Product Fault Detection in a Loud Shop-Floor Environment,” IEEE
Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, vol. 70, 2021, pp. 1–11.
doi: 10.1109/TIM.2021.3061269.

[15] A. S. Saragih, F. Aditya and W. Ahmed, “Defect Identification and

Measurement using Stereo Vision Camera for In-Line Inspection of
Pipeline,” 2022 Advances in Science and Engineering Technology
International Conferences (ASET), 2022, pp. 1–5. doi: 10.1109/
ASET53988.2022.9735082.

[16] I. Stoev, S. Zaharieva, and A. Borodzhieva, “Internet of Things (IoT)

Application for Temperature Control in Residential Premises,” 2022 21st
International Symposium INFOTEH-JAHORINA (INFOTEH), 2022, pp. 1–5.
doi: 10.1109/INFOTEH53737.2022.9751289.

[17] Y. Karan and S. Kahveci, “Wireless measurement of thermocouple

with microcontroller,” 2015 23rd Signal Processing and Communications
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[18] Silvano Donati, “Thermal Detectors and Thermography,” in

Photodetectors: Devices, Circuits and Applications, IEEE, 2021, pp. 245–263.
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[19] W. Zhang, Q. Guo, Y. Duan, C. Xing, and Z. Peng, “A Textile

Proximity/Pressure Dual-Mode Sensor Based on Magneto-Straining and
Piezoresistive Effects,” IEEE Sensors Journal, vol. 22, no. 11, June 1, 2022,
pp. 10420–10427. doi: 10.1109/JSEN.2022.3168068.

[20] B. Bury, “Proximity sensing for robots,” IEE Colloquium on Robot

Sensors, 1991, pp. 3/1–318.

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[21] M. Sun, Y. Wang, W. Joseph, and D. Plets, “Indoor Localization Using

Mind Evolutionary Algorithm-Based Geomagnetic Positioning and
Smartphone IMU Sensors,” IEEE Sensors Journal, vol. 22, no. 7, April 1,
2022, pp. 7130–7141. doi: 10.1109/JSEN.2022.3155817.

[22] R. Jia, L. Wang, C. Zheng, and T. Chen, “Online Wear Particle Detection
Sensors for Wear Monitoring of Mechanical Equipment—A Review,” in
IEEE Sensors Journal, vol. 22, no. 4, Feb. 15, 2022, pp. 2930–2947. doi:
10.1109/JSEN.2021.3131467.

[23] M. L. Vinogradov, D. K. Kostrin, M. V. Karganov, and

V. Y. Tiskovich, “How to choose a leak detection method,” 2016 IEEE
NW Russia Young Researchers in Electrical and Electronic Engineering
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EIConRusNW.2016.7448130.

[24] Jun Jiang and Guoming Ma, “Dissolved Gases Detection with
Optical Methods,” in Optical Sensing in Power Transformers, IEEE, 2021,
pp. 65–135. doi: 10.1002/9781119765325.ch4.

[25] C. Liu and H. Li, “Design and Experimental Validation of Novel Force
Sensor,” IEEE Sensors Journal, vol. 15, no. 8, Aug. 2015, pp. 4402–4408. doi:
10.1109/JSEN.2015.2418331.

[26] Z. Fang, X. Xu, Izhar, L. Zhang, Y. Yang, and W. Xu, “An

Electrochemical Impedance-Based Flexible Flow Sensor with Ultra-Low
Limit of Detection,” in IEEE Sensors Journal, vol. 22, no. 2, Jan. 15, 2022,
pp. 1180–1187. doi: 10.1109/JSEN.2021.3131669.

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CHAPTER 3

Programming SBCs
A sensor is a device that detects the presence of a specific entity or
function. A device can be electrical, optoelectrical, or electronic and made
of specialty electronics or other sensitive materials [1,2]. Transducers are
available to detect the physical presence, such as flame or metal. Other
sensors include those that measure levels or detect gas and chemical
presence. Some types detect motion or proximity, while others measure
physical properties like temperature, pressure, or radiation. Depending
on the application, they can use electromagnetic fields, optics, or a
combination. Sensors, detectors, and transducers of various kinds are
used in numerous applications across a wide range of industries to test,
measure, and control multiple machine processes and functions as the
Internet of Things (IoT) grows in popularity. Figure 3-1 shows the I2C
NodeMCU communication protocol.

© G. R. Kanagachidambaresan 2022 75
G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, Internet of Things Using Single Board Computers,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8108-6_3
Chapter 3 Programming SBCs

Arduino Programming

Figure 3-1. I2C NodeMCU communication protocol

//Master code
#include <Wire.h>
void setup() {
  wire.begin();
   serial.begin(9600);
}

void loop() {
  wire.requestFrom(8, 6);

  while (wire.available()) {
    char c = Wire.read();
    serial.print(c);
  }
  delay(500);
}

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//Slave code
#include <Wire.h>

void setup() {
  wire.begin(8);
  wire.onRequest(requestEvent);
}

void loop() {
  delay(100);
}

Raspberry Pi
Raspberry Pi is a single-board computer with a small form factor.
Connecting the Raspberry Pi to peripherals such as a keyboard, mouse,
and display can function as a mini personal computer. Raspberry Pi is a
popular platform for real-­time image/video processing, IoT applications,
and robotics.
While the Raspberry Pi is slower than a laptop or desktop computer,
it is still a computer capable of providing all the expected features or
capabilities while consuming little power.
Raspbian OS is officially provided by the Raspberry Pi Foundation
and is based on Debian. Additionally, they offer the NOOBS OS for the
Raspberry Pi. There are a variety of third-party operating systems, such as
Ubuntu, Arch Linux, RISC OS, and Windows 10 IoT Core.
Raspbian OS is an open source operating system that is available for
free use. This operating system is optimally optimized for use with the
Raspberry Pi. Raspbian includes a graphical user interface (GUI) that
includes tools for browsing, Python programming, office, and gaming.

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You should store the OS on an SD card (a minimum of 16 GB

is recommended) (operating system). Raspberry Pi is more than a
computer because it gives developers access to the on-chip hardware,
specifically the general-­purpose input/output (GPIO). You can connect
and control devices such as LEDs, motors, and sensors via GPIO. It has a
Broadcom processor SoC based on ARM and an on-chip GPU (graphics
processing unit).
The Raspberry Pi’s CPU speed ranges from 700 MHz to 1.2 GHz.
Additionally, it features onboard SDRAM ranging from 256 MB to
1 GB. Additionally, the Raspberry Pi includes on-chip SPI, I2C, I2S, and
UART modules.
The Raspberry Pi is available in the following models.

• Model 3B+

• Model 42 GB

• Model 4 4GB

• Model 4 8GB

• Model Pi Zero

• Model Pi Zero W
• Model Pi Zero WH

Introduction to Raspberry Pi GPIO Access

GPIO pins can be used as inputs or outputs, which enables the Raspberry
Pi to communicate with other general-­purpose I/O devices.
The Raspberry Pi 3 model B removed 26 GPIO pins from the board.
These GPIOs enable the Raspberry Pi to control a wide variety of external
I/O devices. These pins serve as a physical link between the Raspberry
Pi and the rest of the world. You can program these pins to communicate

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with external devices. For instance, if you want to read the state of a
physical switch, you can assign any of the available GPIO pins as an
input and use the switch status to make decisions. Additionally, you can
configure any GPIO pin as an output to control an LED’s on/off state. The
Raspberry Pi can connect to the Internet via its built-in Wi-Fi or a Wi-Fi
USB adapter. Once the Raspberry Pi is connected to the Internet, you can
remotely control the devices connected to it.
The Raspberry Pi 3’s GPIO pinout is depicted in Figure 3-2.
GPIO pins on the Raspberry Pi 3 BCertain model’s GPIO pins are
multiplexed to perform alternate functions such as I2C, SPI, and UART. F.

Figure 3-2. Raspberry Pi 3’s GPIO pinout

Let’s define the GPIO pins used as output or input. Raspberry Pi has
two distinct methods for defining pin numbers: GPIO numbering and
physical numbering.

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In GPIO numbering, the term pin number refers to the location of a pin
on a Broadcom SoC (system-on-chip). As a result, when using GPIO pins,
you should always consider pin mapping.
While the pin number refers to the pin on the 40-pin P1 header on
the Raspberry Pi board in physical numbering. The physical numbering
scheme is straightforward, as you can simply count the pins on the P1
header and assign them to GPIO.
Now, let’s control the LED using Raspberry Pi’s switch. Here, you use
Python and C (WiringPi) to control the LEDs' ON/OFF state.
Now, let’s use Python on the Raspberry Pi to turn on and off an
LED. The switch turns the LED on and off.

#import RPi.GPIO as GPIO

LED = 32 pins as specified on the BOARD, GPIO18 as specified
on the BCM
Switch input = 29 #pins as specified on the BOARD, GPIO27 as
specified on the BCM GPIO
setwarnings(False)
#disable GPIO warnings.
setmode(GPIO.BOARD)
# initialize the GPIO pin numbering format.
setup(LED, GPIO.OUT)

To use Raspberry Pi’s GPIO pins in Python, you must import the RPi.
GPIO package, which contains GPIO-­controlling classes. On Raspbian
OS, the RPi.GPIO Python package is already installed. As a result, there is
no need to install it externally. Simply put, you should include a library in
our program to enable us to use Python functions for GPIO access. This is
detailed next.
The value of a GPIO pin is read using this function; for example, how
the GPIO pins are used in BCM and BOARD modes in the RPi package is as
follows.

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    In BCM,
            GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BCM)
            GPIO.setup(21, GPIO.OUT)
    In BOARD,
            GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BOARD)
            GPIO.setup(40, GPIO.OUT)

The following is a C-based control example program.

#include <wiringPi.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int LED = 26;                  /*  wiringPi – GPIO26, GPIO12-
BCM, 32 pin number */
int switch_input = 21;         /*  wiringPi –GPIO21, GPIO5 -
BCM, 29 Pin number */
int main(){
      wiringPiSetup();            /* initialize setup*/
      pinMode(LED,OUTPUT);        /* configuring as output */
      pullUpDnControl(switch_input, PUD_UP);
      while (1){
            if(digitalRead(switch_input))
                  digitalWrite(LED,LOW);    /* off on GPIO */
            else
                  digitalWrite(LED, HIGH); /* on on GPIO */

            }
      }

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Interfacing DHT
Figure 3-3 showcases the DHT sensors’ GPIO connections.

Figure 3-3. GPIO connections of DHT sensors

sudo python setup.py install

Assign the appropriate sensor type to this library’s sensor variable.

Here, you're going to use a DHT11 sensor.

sensor = Adafruit_DHT.DHT11

If someone is using the DHT22 sensor, you must assign Adafruit DHT.
DHT22 to the sensor variable, as shown in Figure 3-4. Then assign the pin
number to which the data pin of the DHT sensor is connected. The DHT11
sensor’s output is connected to GPIO4, as illustrated in the preceding
interface diagram.

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import Adafruit_DHT

sensor = Adafruit_DHT.DHT11
pin = 4
while True:
    humidity, temperature = Adafruit_DHT.read_
retry(sensor, pin)
    print('Temp={0:0.1f}*C  Humidity={1:0.1f}%'.
format(temperature, humidity))
if humidity is not None and temperature is not None:
    print('Temp={0:0.1f}*C  Humidity={1:0.1f}%'.
format(temperature, humidity))
else:
    print(Try again!')

The output of this program’s results are shown in Figure 3-4.

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Figure 3-4. DHT sensor output

Interfacing Pi cam to Raspberry Pi zero w

Figure 3-5 shows the RPI JATAG-based sensor.

Figure 3-5. RPI cam

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The Pi camera module is a high-definition camera that can capture still

images and video in high definition. The Raspberry Pi board features a CSI
(camera serial interface) that enables direct connection to the Pi camera
module. This Pi camera module connects via a 15-pin ribbon cable to the
Raspberry Pi’s CSI port.

Pi Camera Specifications

This chapter uses Pi camera version 1.3. The following are its
characteristics.

• Resolution: 5 megapixels

• HD Video recording

• 1080p @30 frames per second

• 720p @60 frames per second

• 960p @45 frames per second

It can capture wide, still (motionless) images with a resolution of

2592×1944 pixels via the CSI interface.

Pi Camera Access

Open the configuration file with the following command to enable the
camera on the Raspberry Pi.

sudo raspi-config

Then select the interfacing options, from which you can enable the
camera’s functionality.

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reboot

You can now access the camera on the Raspberry Pi. Now, you can
capture images and videos on the Raspberry Pi using the Pi camera.

import picamera
from time import sleep
camera = picamera.PiCamera()
camera.resolution = (1024, 768)
camera.brightness = 60
camera.start_preview()
#add text on image
camera.annotate_text = 'Hello folks'
sleep(5)
#store image
camera.capture('image1.jpeg')
camera.stop_preview()

Interfacing PIR Sensor

The PIR sensor detects infrared heat radiations. As a result, they are
advantageous for detecting moving living objects that emit infrared heat
radiations. When a PIR sensor detects motion, its output (in terms of
voltage) is high; when there is no motion, it is low (stationary object or no
object). PIR sensors are used in a variety of applications, including room
light control via human detection, human motion detection for home
security, and so on. Figure 3-6 shows the PIR sensor, and Figure 3-7 shows
the PIR sensor with an RPI connection.

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Figure 3-6. PIR sensor

Figure 3-7. PIR sensor with RPI connection

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import RPi.GPIO as GPIO

PIR_input = 29                   #read signal from pir pin

LED = 32                         #LED for acknowledgement
GPIO.setwarnings(False)
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BOARD)         #pin configuration
GPIO.setup(PIR_input, GPIO.IN)
GPIO.setup(LED, GPIO.OUT)
GPIO.output(LED, GPIO.LOW)

while True:
#when motion detected turn on LED
    if(GPIO.input(PIR_input)):
        GPIO.output(LED, GPIO.HIGH)
    else:
        GPIO.output(LED, GPIO.LOW)

Python
Python is a high-level interpreted programming language. It supports
many programming concepts, such as object-oriented and functional
programming.

print("Hello, World!")

The following shows the output.

The following are common Python keywords.

• and: A logical operator

• as: Creates an alias

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• break: Breaks out of a loop

• class: Defines a class

• continue: continue to the next iteration of a loop

• def: Defines a function

• del: Deletes an object

• elif: Used in conditional statements, same as else if

• else: Used in conditional statements

• except: Used with exceptions, what to do when an

exception occurs

• False: Boolean value, the result of comparison

operations

• for: Creates a for loop

• from: Imports specific parts of a module

• global: Declares a global variable

• if: Makes a conditional statement

• import: Imports a module

• in: Checks if a value is present in a list, tuple, etc.

• is: Tests if two variables are equal

• lambda: Creates an anonymous function

• none: Represents a none value

• not: A logical operator

• or: A logical operator

• return: Exits a function and returns a value

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• True: Boolean value, the result of comparison

operations
• try: Makes a try…except statement

• while: Creates a while loop

File Concepts
The following opens a file.

Syntax:f = open("demofile.txt", "r")

The following reads a file.

f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.read())

The following shows the output.

The following reads only parts of a file.

f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.read(5))

The following shows the output.

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The following reads a line.

f = open("demofile.txt", "r")
print(f.readline())

The following shows the output.

The following writes an existing file.

f = open("demofile2.txt", "a")
f.write("Now the file has more content!")
f.close()
#open and read the file after the appending:
f = open("demofile2.txt", "r")
print(f.read())

The following shows the output.

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The following are the most common file-handling methods.

• close(): Closes the file

• read(): Returns the file content

• readable(): Returns whether the file steam can be

read or not

• readline(): Returns one line from the file

• readlines(): Returns a list of lines from the file

• seek(): Change the file position

• seekable(): Returns whether the file allows us to change

the file position

• tell(): Returns the current file position

• truncate(): Resizes the file to a specified size

• writable(): Returns whether the file can be written

to or not

• write(): Writes the specified string to the file

• writelines(): Writes a list of strings to the file

Spreadsheet Concepts
pandas is used to work on the data. With the help of this module, you
can extract data from a database into an Excel spreadsheet, or you can
also convert an Excel spreadsheet into a programmatic format. pandas
is one of the most popular and favorite data science tools used in Python
programming for data wrangling and analysis. And pandas is a game
changer in cleaning, transforming, manipulating, and analyzing data.

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The following is the code for installing pandas.

import pandas as pd
import numpy as np

The following is the code for loading and saving data.

Pd.readfiletype()    #open a file
df=pd.read_excel(‘data.xlsx’,index_col=0)
df

The following shows the output.

Pd.dataframe()     #convert a certain Python object

(dictionary, lists   etc)
df=pd.dataframe(data=data).t
df

The following shows the output.

df.to_filetype(filename)  #save a data frame you're working

with/on to different kinds of files (like CSV, Excel, JSON and
SQL tables) df.to_csv('data.csv')

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The following shows the output.

The following methods are used for viewing and inspecting data.

• df.head(n): Returns the first n rows

• df.tail(n): Returns the last n rows

• df.shape: Returns the number of rows and columns

• df.info: Returns the index, datatype, and memory

information
• df.value_counts(dropna=false): Returns unique values
and counts for a series (like a column or a few columns)
• df.describe(): Returns summary statistics for
numerical column
• df.mean(): Returns the mean of all columns
• df.corr(): Returns the correlation between columns in a
data frame
• df.count(): Returns the number of non-null values in
each data frame column
• df.max(): Returns the highest value in each column

• df.min(): Returns the lowest value in each column

• df.median(): Returns the median of each column

• df.std(): Returns the standard deviation of each column

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The following is used in selecting data.

• (df[col]): Selects a column from the data and returs the

data with the col label as an array

• (df[[col1,col2]]): Selects a few columns and returns

columns as a new dataframe

• (s.iloc[0]): Selects by position

• (s.loc['index_one']): Selects by index

The following methods are used in filtering, sorting, and grouping data.

• df[df[year]<1987]: Filter columns

• df.sort_values(col1): Column in an ascending order

• df.sort_values(col2,ascending=false): Column in an
descending order

• df.sort_values([col1,col2],ascending=[true,false]):
Sort values by col1 in ascending order then col2 in
descending order

The following methods are used in data cleaning.

• pd.isnull(): Always checks for missing values in the data

by running

• pd.isnull()sum. pd.notnull(): Gets a sum of

null/missing values

Communication Concepts
Python provides two levels of access to network services. At a low level, you
can access the basic socket support in the underlying operating system,
allowing you to implement clients and servers for connection-oriented
and connectionless protocols.

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At a higher level, Python has libraries that provide higher-level access

to specific application-level network protocols, such as FTP, HTTP,
and so on.

Socket
Sockets are the endpoints of a bidirectional communications channel.
Sockets may communicate within a process, between processes on the
same machine, or between processes on different continents [3].

Socket Modules
To create a socket, you must use the socket.socket() function available
in the socket module, which has the following general syntax. Socket
methods are listed and described in Table 3-1.

s = socket.socket (socket_family, socket_type, protocol=0)

• socket_family is either AF_UNIX or AF_INET, as

explained earlier.

• socket_type is either SOCK_STREAM or

SOCK_DGRAM.
• protocol is usually left out, defaulting to 0.

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Table 3-1. Socket Methods

S.no Method Name Description

1 s.bind() Binds addresses to a socket

2 s.listen() Sets up and starts TCP listener
3 s.accept() Passively waits/accepts TCP client connection
4 s.connect() Actively initiates TCP server connection
5 s.recv() Receives TCP message
6 s.send() Transmits TCP message
7 s.recvfrom() Receives UDP message
8 s.sendto() Transmits UDP message
9 s.close() Closes socket
10 socket.gethostname() Returns the hostname

A Simple Server
To write Internet servers, you use the socket function available in the
socket module to create a socket object. A socket object is then used to call
other functions to set up a socket server. Call the bind(hostname, port)
function to specify a port for your service on the given host. Next, call the
accept method of the returned object. This method waits until a client
connects to the port you specified and then returns a connection object
that represents the connection to that client [4].

#!/usr/bin/python           # This is server.py file

import socket               # Import socket module

s = socket.socket()# Create a socket object

host = socket.gethostname()# Get local machine name

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port =12345# Reserve a port for your service.

s.bind((host, port))# Bind to the port

s.listen(5)# Now wait for client connection.

whileTrue:
   c, addr = s.accept()# Establish connection with
   client.print'Got connection from', addr
   c.send('Thank you for connecting')
   c.close()# Close the connection

A Simple Client
The socket.connect(hosname, port) opens a TCP connection to the
hostname on the port. Once you have a socket open, you can read from it
like any IO object. When done, close it.
The following code is a simple client that connects to a given host and
port, reads any available data from the socket, and then exits.

#!/usr/bin/python           # This is client.py file

import socket               # Import socket module

s = socket.socket()# Create a socket object

host = socket.gethostname()# Get local machine name
port =12345# Reserve a port for your service.

s.connect((host, port))
print s.recv(1024)
s.close()# Close the socket when done

The following runs server.py and client.py.

$ python server.py &

$ python client.py

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The following shows the result.

Wired and Wireless Programming Concepts

Wireless The following is a sample program.ming Concepts Seeing
a computer without an active Internet connection today is next to
impossible. The Internet has been of the utmost importance in the twenty-
first century. There are multiple ways one can connect their machine to
the Internet. The first is traditional cables (i.e., the Ethernet), and the other
is modern wireless fidelity systems—or Wi-Fi. Wi-Fi has made life easier
and faster for everyone. With a touch of the thumb or a click of the mouse,
you get connected to a limitless ocean of information and resources almost
instantaneously. This section accomplishes the same task with a high-level
modern programming language, like Python.

Connect Wi-Fi Using Python

The following imports the libraries.

import os

The following displays all the available SSIDs with the help of cmd
commands and a Python library named os.

os.system('cmd /c "netsh wlan show networks"')  

# scan available Wifi networks

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The following selects a known Wi-Fi to connect to.

name_of_router =input('Enter Name/SSID of the Wifi Network you

wish to connect to: ')    # input Wifi name

os.system(f'''cmd /c "netsh wlan connect name={

name_of_router}"''')  # connect to the given wifi network

Setting up a New Wi-Fi Network’s XML Configuration

The following is the function for the preceding concepts.

defcreateNewConnection(name, SSID, password):

    config ="""<?xml version=\"1.0\"?>
<WLANProfile xmlns="http://www.microsoft.com/networking/WLAN/
profile/v1">
    <name>"""+name+"""</name>
    <SSIDConfig>
        <SSID>
            <name>"""+SSID+"""</name>
        </SSID>
    </SSIDConfig>
    <connectionType>ESS</connectionType>
    <connectionMode>auto</connectionMode>
    <MSM>
        <security>
            <authEncryption>
                <authentication>WPA2PSK</authentication>
                <encryption>AES</encryption>
                <useOneX>false</useOneX>
            </authEncryption>
            <sharedKey>
                <keyType>passPhrase</keyType>
                <protected>false</protected>

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                <keyMaterial>"""+password+"""</keyMaterial>
            </sharedKey>
        </security>
    </MSM>
</WLANProfile>"""
    command ="netsh wlan add profile filename=\""+name+".
xml\""+" interface=Wi-Fi"
    with open(name+".xml", 'w') as file:
        file.write(config)
    os.system(command)

createNewConnection(name, name, password)

# establish new connection
connect(name, name)   # connect to the wifi network

Wired Programming Concepts

Python is a useful language thanks to its simplicity, functionality, and
platform-independent nature. This section looks at how to use Python
with serial ports so you can use it to interact with microcontrollers and
other serial-­port-­enabled devices (including those using virtual ports).
The following code installs PySerial.

pip install PySerial  #import the module in python

import serial

• The baud rate shows how quickly a COM port operates.

Arduino projects tend to operate at 115200.

• The port is the name of the port being used (find this in
the device manager).

• A parity bit is used for error correction but are not

normally used.

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• A stop bit signals the end of a frame. Only one is used

unless there are timing issues.

• A time out prevents the serial port from hanging.

serialPort = serial.Serial(port = "COM4",

baudrate=115200, bytesize=8, timeout=2,
stopbits=serial.STOPBITS_ONE)

• open() opens the serial port.

• close() closes the serial port.

• readline() reads a string from the serial port.

• read(size) reads n number of bytes from the serial port.

• write(data) writes the data passed to the function to the

serial port.

• in_waiting, a variable, holds the number of bytes in

the buffer.

The following opens a port at 9600,8,N,1 with no timeout.

>>>ser = serial.Serial('/dev/ttyUSB0')  # open serial port

>>>print(ser.name)         # check which port was really used
>>>ser.write(b'hello')     # write a string
>>>ser.close()             # close port

The following opens a port at 38400,8,E,1 with non-blocking HW

handshaking.

>>>ser=serial.Serial('COM3',38400,timeout=0,parity=serial
.PARITY_EVEN,rtscts=1) # read up to one hundred bytes
>>>s=ser.read(100)# or as much is in the buffer

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The following configures the ports later.

>>>ser=serial.Serial()
>>>ser.baudrate=19200
>>>ser.port='COM1'
>>>ser
Serial<id=0xa81c10, open=False>(port='COM1', baudrate=19200,
bytesize=8, parity='N', stopbits=1, timeout=None, xonxoff=0,
rtscts=0)
>>>ser.open()
>>>ser.is_open
True
>>>ser.close()
>>>ser.is_open
False

Node-RED
Node-RED is a programming tool for wiring together hardware devices,
APIs, and online services in new and interesting ways. It provides a
browser-based editor that makes it easy to wire together flows using a wide
range of nodes in the palette that can be deployed to its runtime in a single
click [5].

Node-RED Features
• It supports browser-based flow editing.

• As it is built on Node.js, it supports a lightweight

runtime environment along with the event-driven and
non-blocking model.

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• The flows created in Node-RED are stored using JSON,

which can be easily imported and exported for sharing
with others.

• You can run it locally (Docker support, etc.).

• It can easily fit on most devices, including Raspberry Pi,

BeagleBone Black, Arduino, and Android.

• It can run in a cloud environment, such as Bluemix,

AWS, and MS Azure.

Node-RED Architecture
• Node-RED (latest version 0.16) is fast because it is driven
by the latest supported version of Node.js (LTS 6.x).

• It is an asynchronous io and event-driven architecture.

• It has a single-threaded event queue, which supports

simplicity.

• It offers single language support for JavaScript (both

from the front end and back end).
• The complete architecture is built using Express, D3,
jQuery, and WebSockets.

Node-RED Applications
• In Bluemix, Node-RED is used to connect to IoT (with
ReST and MQTT).

• Node-RED is used to bind and connect to databases

(e.g., MongoDB).

• Node-RED stores IoT data for present and future

computation.

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Figure 3-8. Node-RED implementation

MQTT Protocols
You could use HiveMQ as an MQQT broker for this explanation. It is a
messaging platform for fast, efficient, and reliable data movement to and
from connected IoT devices and enterprise systems [6].
The following installs MQQT.

pip3 install paho-mqtt (Python 3) / pip install paho-mqtt

(Python 2)

The following is sample code.

import time
import paho.mqtt.client as paho
from paho import mqtt
def on_connect(client, userdata, flags, rc, properties=None):
     print("Connection received with code %s." % rc)
def on_publish(client, userdata, mid, properties=None):
print("mid: "+str(mid))

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def on_subscibe(client, userdata, mid, granted_qos,

properties=None):
     print("Subscribed: "+str(mid)+" "+str(granted_qos))
def on_message(client, userdata, msg):
     print(msg.topic+" "+str(msg.qos)+" "+str(msg.payload))
client = paho.Client(client_id="", userdata=None,
protocol=paho.MQTTv5)
client.on_connect = on_connect
client.tls_set(tls_version=mqtt.client.ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS)
client.username_pw_set("username","password") #Use the username
and password of the cluster which you created in hiveMQ server.
client.connect("Broker Server ID", 8883) #Use Server ID of the
cluster allocated.
client.on_subscirbe = on_subscribe
client.on_message = on_message
client.on_publish  = on_publish
client.subscibe("encyclopedia/#", qos=1)
client.publish("encyclopedia/temperature",
payload="hot", qos=1)
client.loop_forever()

The following shows the output.

Google Sheets Programming (gspread)

gspread is a Python API for Google Sheets.
The following installs gspread.

pip install gspread (Python 2) / pip3 install gspread

(Python 3)
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The following is sample code.

import gspread
import pandas as pd
from oauth2client.service_account import
ServiceAccountCredentials
# define the scope
scope = ['https://spreadsheets.google.com/feeds','https://www.
googleapis.com/auth/drive']
# add credentials to the account
creds = ServiceAccountCredentials.from_json_keyfile_
name('Script.json', scope) #Use the .json script API downloaded
from google cloud or any other cloud service.
# authorize the clientsheet
client = gspread.authorize(creds)
sheet = client.open('P2S')
sheet_instance = sheet.get_worksheet(0)
record = sheet_instance.get_all_records()
marks = sheet_instance.col_values(3)
print(record)
print(marks)

The following shows the output.

Firebase Programming
Firebase is a platform Google provides to accelerate app development. It
offers BaaS or back end as a service, which means that Firebase takes care
of cloud infrastructure and all your back-end needs. This lets you develop
and deploy faster [7].

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The following installs Firebase.

pip install firebase_admin (Python 2) / pip3 install firebase_

admin (Python 3)

The following is sample code.

from firebase import firebase

firebase = firebase.FirebaseApplication("database server
ID",None)
data = {
    'Name':' kanagachidambaresan',
    'Email':' drgrkanagachidambaresan@veltech.edu.in',
    'Phone':9564781254
}
result = firebase.post("/Customer",data)
print(result)

The following shows the output.

Matplotlib
The Matplotlib library for Python is a visualization library for creating
many types of graphs, like static graphs, animated graphs, and interactive
visualizations. Most Matplotlib utilities lie under the Pyplot submodule
and are imported under the plt alias [8].

"import matplotlib.pyplot as plt"

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Pyplot is an API for Python’s Matplotlib that effectively makes

Matplotlib a viable open source alternative. MATLAB is a propriety multi-
paradigm programming language and numeric computing environment,
which can perform data analysis, graphics, algorithm development, and
app building. MATLAB can be used in Python. Pyplot provides Matplotlib
with two main features.

• A MATLAB-style interface that allows the users who are

familiar with MATLAB to adapt to it easily.

• Statefulness, which Pyplot stores the state of an object

when you plot it. This is essential for use in the same
loop until plt.close() is encountered in the code.

Matplotlib needs to be installed in the system before everything. It can

be installed in many ways. The simplest way is to execute the following
code in the command prompt.

"pip3 install matplotlib"

It installs the latest version of Matplotlib, which contains various types

of graphs. For example, line graphs, bar graphs, markers, scatter plots, pie
charts, polar charts, animations, scales, and 3D plotting.
Matplotlib makes easy things easier and hard things possible. You can
create, customize, and extend graphs and do the following.

• Develop quality plots with just a few lines of code.

• Use interactive figures that can zoom and pan

• Take full control of line styles, font properties, axes

properties

• Export to several types of file formats.

• Explore tailored functionality provided by third-party

packages.

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Getting Started
Matplotlib plots the data on figures, the windows that contain one or more
axes (an area where points are specified in terms of x,y coordinates). A
simple graph is created using the following code.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np
x = np.array([1,2,3,4,5])
y = np.array([10,15,30,25,50])
plt.plot(x,y)
plt.show()

First, the matplotlib.pyplot and NumPy modules need to be imported.

NumPy is a module used for matrix operations. Two lists—x points and y
points—are created using the NumPy module with values ranging from
0–6 and 0–256. These two list values are then plotted in an empty figure
with x points listed as x coordinates and y points as y coordinates. Then
plt.show() function is called. This function shows the plotted graph in the
figure in a new window. The output graph of the preceding code looks
similar to Figure 3-9.

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Figure 3-9. MATLAB Plot of NumPy array elements

Thus, the simple graph is plotted with some random values of x and y
coordinates.
The simplest way of creating a figure with axes is using pyplot.subplots.
This pyplot.subplot creates subplots with the required number of axes.
Let’s create an empty figure using the plt.figure() function, as follows.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

fig = plt.figure()
plt.show()

Figure 3-10 shows the empty figure that is created.

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Figure 3-10. MATLAB plot of an empty figure

Next, let’s add axes to the empty figure.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

fig = plt.figure()
plt.plot([1,6,8,7])
plt.ylabel('some random numbers')
plt.show()

Figure 3-11 shows the output.

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Figure 3-11. MATLAB plot of random values

The preceding code used plt.plot() to plot a list of four values. The
x axis ranges from 0–3, and the y axis ranges from 1–4. If you provide a
list of values to plot, Matplotlib assumes it as a sequence of y values and
automatically generates values for x. Since the Python range generally
starts at 0, the default value of x axis starts from 0, and it has the same
length as y. So, the x values generated are [0,1,2,3]. The plt.ylabel()
function sets the label for the y axis. Similarly, plt.xlabel() function for the
x axis. The x axis and y axis values limit can also be given so that the output
graph can be plotted in a given range. It can be achieved by using plt.xlim()
and plt.ylim(). A title can be given to a figure using the plt.title() function.

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The following is sample code.

Fig = plt.figure()
plt.title("Sample Plot")
plt.plot([1, 3, 3, 4, 8, 9])
plt.ylabel('some numbers')
plt.xlabel("Python Generated Numbers")
plt.xlim(-3,3)
plt.ylim(-4,4)
plt.show()

Figure 3-12 shows the output.

Figure 3-12. MATLAB plot of Python generated numbers

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This is the output of the preceding code. The x and y axis labels are set.
The x axis and y axis ranges are given using xlim(), ylim function. Since the
range is negative to positive and the values start at 0, the graph is plotted
accordingly.

Multiple Subplots in a Figure

An entire figure can be divided into two or more subplots. Matplotlib
makes it easier by using plt.subplot(). Subplots can also be generated using
the axes function in Pyplot from Matplotlib.
The following is an example.

import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
x1 = np.linspace(0.0, 5.0)
x2 = np.linspace(0.0, 2.0)
y1 = np.cos(2 * np.pi * x1) * np.exp(-x1)
y2 = np.tan(2 * np.pi * x2)
plt.subplot(2, 1, 1)
plt.plot(x1, y1, 'o-')
plt.title('A tale of 2 subplots')
plt.ylabel('Damped oscillation')
plt.subplot(2, 1, 2)
plt.plot(x2, y2, '.-')
plt.xlabel('time (s)')
plt.ylabel('Undamped')
plt.show()

You are going to plot two subplots in a single figure. Four list values
are required to plot the graphs. Pyplot gets the values as a list and plots
it accordingly. x1, x2, y1, and y2 are the lists created with some values
generated using the NumPy array module. Then the plt.subplot(2,1,1).

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plt.subplot() has three major parameters: plt.subplot(int,int,int). plt.

subplot(1,1,1) is the default. The three integers are (nrows, ncols, index).
The subplot takes the index position on a grid with nrows rows and ncols
columns. The index starts at 1 in the upper left corner and increases to
the right.
subplot(2,1,1) defines two rows, which means two separate plots up
and down are plotted separately with the same single column. It has a
common figure title and different y labels.
Figure 3-13 shows the output.

Figure 3-13. MATLAB plot of tale of two subplots

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Alternative Method for Creating Multiple Plots

Subplots can also be generated by defining the two axes separately.
The following is an example.

import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
x1 = np.linspace(0.0, 5.0)
x2 = np.linspace(0.0, 2.0)
y1 = np.cos(2 * np.pi * x1) * np.exp(-x1)
y2 = np.tan(2 * np.pi * x2)
fig, (ax1, ax2) = plt.subplots(2, 1)
fig.suptitle('A tale of 2 subplots')
ax1.plot(x1, y1, 'o-')
ax1.set_ylabel('Damped oscillation')
ax2.plot(x2, y2, '.-')
ax2.set_xlabel('time (s)')
ax2.set_ylabel('Undamped')
plt.show()

The output is the same as the previous method; however, plt. subplot, a
Pyplot built-in function, created multiple subplots. Also, an empty figure was
created. Two axes—ax1 and ax2—were created using plt.subplots. The plotting
of these was done separately. Then, other actions, like setting the label and
axes limits—were done. Finally, the graph is shown using plt.show().

Bar Graphs
Bar graphs are best used when showing comparisons between categories.
Typically, the bars are proportional to the values they represent and can
be plotted either horizontally or vertically. One axis of the chart shows
the specific categories being compared, and the other axis represents
discrete values.

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A bar graph presents categorical data with rectangular bars. Each

bar’s height or length is proportional to the value it represents. In Python,
Matplotlib allows you to create three types of bar graphs: grouped, stacked,
and horizontal.

Grouped Bar Graphs

Grouped bar charts compare multiple data items with a single color
denoting a specific series across all sets. As with basic bar charts, vertical
and horizontal versions of grouped bar charts are available.
Let’s look at an example of a vertical grouped bar graph.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np
labels = ['G1', 'G2', 'G3', 'G4', 'G5']
men_means = [20, 34, 30, 35, 27]
women_means = [25, 32, 34, 20, 25]
x = np.arange(len(labels))  # the label locations
width = 0.35  # the width of the bars
fig, ax = plt.subplots()
rects1 = ax.bar(x - width/2, men_means, width, label='Men')
rects2 = ax.bar(x + width/2, women_means, width, label='Women')
# Add some text for labels, title and custom x-axis tick
labels, etc.
ax.set_ylabel('Scores')
ax.set_title('Scores by group and gender')
ax.set_xticks(x)
ax.set_xticklabels(labels)
ax.legend()
ax.bar_label(rects1, padding=3)
ax.bar_label(rects2, padding=3)
fig.tight_layout()
plt.show()

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The required modules are imported like every other program. A

grouped bar graph compares two or more elements. Here the comparison
made is between men_means and women_means list. An empty figure is
created using subplots with an x axis. Since you are comparing two lists
here, rects1 and rects2 are the variables that are going to represent the
data in the men_means and women_means list in the graph. After plotting
the data, the axes and the figure should be presented professionally. So,
x and y axis labels and limits are mentioned. Figure 3-14 is MATLAB plot
grouped bar graph with a legend. The legend identifies the visual elements
used to distinguish different groups of data on the graph. The legend helps
you evaluate the effects of grouping.
Figure 3-14 shows the output.

Figure 3-14. MATLAB plot of grouped bar graph

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Stacked Bar Graphs

A stacked bar graph is a graph that uses bars to show comparisons
between categories of data but with the ability to break down and compare
parts of a whole. Each bar in the chart represents a whole, and segments in
the bar represent different parts or categories of that whole.
The following is an example.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

labels = ['G1', 'G2', 'G3', 'G4', 'G5']
men_means = [25, 30, 34, 22, 20]
women_means = [30, 34, 31, 23, 25]
width = 0.35       # the width of the bars: can also be len(x)
sequence
fig, ax = plt.subplots()
ax.bar(labels, men_means, width, label='Men')
ax.bar(labels, women_means, width,  bottom=men_means,
label='Women')
ax.set_ylabel('Scores')
ax.set_title('Scores by group and gender')
ax.legend()
y_offset = -15
for bar in ax.patches:
    ax.text(
      # Put the text in the middle of each bar. get_x returns
the start
      # so we add half the width to get to the middle.
        bar.get_x() + bar.get_width() / 2,
      # Vertically, add the height of the bar to the start of
the bar,
      # along with the offset.
        bar.get_height() + bar.get_y() + y_offset,

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      # This is actual value we'll show.

        round(bar.get_height()),
      # Center the labels and style them a bit.
        ha='center',
      color='w',
      weight='bold',
      size=8
  )
plt.show()

The stacked bar graphs compare two or more categories or values

and represent them in a single bar with different colors to identify
each category. Here the men_means and women_means are the two
lists that will be compared. The program is similar to the grouped bar
graph, including only one change in the ax.bar function. The first ax.bar
represents the men_means list; the second represents the women_means
list, where “bottom” is mentioned. Bottom is a keyword and a parameter
to the ax.bar function wherein the compared categories, which category
should be at the bottom of the stack. In the bar, men_means is at the
bottom, and women_means is at the top. A “for” looping statement
marks the values of the corresponding bar and category inside its
corresponding stack.
Figure 3-15 shows the output.

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Figure 3-15. MATLAB plot of stacked bar graph

Horizontal Bar Graph

In this type, the variables or the data categories have to be written. The
rectangular bars are horizontally drawn on the y axis, and the x axis shows
the length of the bars equal to the values of different variables present in
the data.
The following is an example.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np
fig, ax = plt.subplots()
# Example data
people = ('Tom', 'Jerry', 'Doraemon', 'ShinChan', 'Pokemon')
y_pos = np.arange(len(people))

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performance = 3 + 10 * np.random.rand(len(people))
ax.barh(y_pos, performance, align='center')
ax.set_yticks(y_pos)
ax.set_yticklabels(people)
ax.invert_yaxis()  # labels read top-to-bottom
ax.set_xlabel('Performance')
ax.set_title('How fast do you want to go today?')
plt.show()

The implementation of the horizontal bar graph is simple. The figure

and axes are created. For the y axis, a list of five people is considered; for
the x axis, values are generated randomly and stored in a “performance”
list. Usually, ax.bar() represents a bar graph. But in this case, ax.barh()
plots the values in the y axis. The bars are positioned at y with the given
alignment. The horizontal baseline is left (default 0). Then plt.show()
represents the plotted graph.
Figure 3-16 shows the output.

Figure 3-16. MATLAB plot of horizontal bar graph

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S
 catter Plot
A scatter plot is a type of plot or mathematical diagram using Cartesian
coordinates to display values for typically two variables for a set of data.
Scatter plots are primarily used to observe and show relationships
between two numeric variables. The dots in a scatter plot report the values
of individual data points and patterns when the data are taken as a whole.
The following is an example.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

x = [3,5,7,7,12,7,22,19,4,1,2,9,16]
y = [89,76,97,78,101,96,113,67,64,48,87,80,81]
plt.scatter(x, y)
plt.ylabel('Y')
plt.xlabel("X")
plt.title("Scatter Plot")
plt.show()

Two lists of equal length with some values are considered. It is plotted
using plt.scatter(list1,list2), which plots the values of x and y in the
corresponding coordinates. The label and title are given, and the graph is
shown using plt.show().
Figure 3-17 shows the output.

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Figure 3-17. MATLAB plot of scatter plot with random numbers

Scatter Custom Symbol

Creating a scatter plot with a custom symbol. Many different types of
symbols can be used to plot the graph. A custom ellipse symbol is used to
plot in the scatter plot.
The following is an example.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np
# unit area ellipse
rx, ry = 6., 3.
area = rx * ry * np.pi
theta = np.arange(0, 2 * np.pi + 0.01, 0.1)
verts = np.column_stack([rx / area * np.cos(theta), ry / area *
np.sin(theta)])
x,  s = np.random.rand(2, 30)

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s *= 10**2.
fig, ax = plt.subplots()
ax.scatter(x, s, marker=verts)
plt.show()

The area of the ellipse is fixed to mark in the graph. A verts variable is
defined, where the measurements about the ellipse is stored, which is then
mentioned in the ax.scatter()as marker=verts. Then two lists—x and s—
with random values are generated and are marked in the figure.
Figure 3-18 shows the output.

Figure 3-18. MATLAB plot of scatter plot with custom symbol

S
 pectrum Representation
Matplotlib can also be used for spectrum representations. A signal is a
function of time that is represented by a series of sinusoidal components.
These sinusoidal components have different amplitudes, frequencies,

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phases, and magnitudes. Thus, the plotting of the frequency versus the
sinusoidal components’ amplitude and phase comprise a signal called a
frequency spectrum or the spectrum of a signal. The frequency spectrum of
a discrete-­time signal is calculated using a fast Fourier transform (FFT).
A Fourier analysis of a periodic function refers to the extraction of a
series of sines and cosines. This analysis is called a Fourier series. FFT is a
mathematical method for transforming a function of time into a function
of frequency. It is very useful for time-dependent phenomena. The
resulting spectrum shows the frequency component of the given input
signal [9].
The following is an example.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np
np.random.seed(0)
dt = 0.01  # sampling interval
Fs = 1 / dt  # sampling frequency
t = np.arange(0, 10, dt)
# generate noise:
nse = np.random.randn(len(t))
r = np.exp(-t / 0.05)
cnse = np.convolve(nse, r) * dt
cnse = cnse[:len(t)]
s = 0.1 * np.sin(4 * np.pi * t) + cnse  # the signal
fig, axs = plt.subplots(nrows=3, ncols=2, figsize=(7, 7))
# plot time signal:
axs[0, 0].set_title("Signal")
axs[0, 0].plot(t, s, color='b')
axs[0, 0].set_xlabel("Time")
axs[0, 0].set_ylabel("Amplitude")
# plot different spectrum types:

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axs[1, 0].set_title("Magnitude Spectrum")

axs[1, 0].magnitude_spectrum(s, Fs=Fs, color='r')
axs[1, 1].set_title("Log. Magnitude Spectrum")
axs[1, 1].magnitude_spectrum(s, Fs=Fs, scale='dB', color='k')
axs[2, 0].set_title("Phase Spectrum ")
axs[2, 0].phase_spectrum(s, Fs=Fs, color='m')
axs[2, 1].set_title("Angle Spectrum")
axs[2, 1].angle_spectrum(s, Fs=Fs, color='c')
axs[0, 1].remove()  # don't display empty ax
fig.tight_layout()
plt.show()

Figure 3-19 shows the output.

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Figure 3-19. The plots show the different spectrum graphs for a
sine signal

Coherence of Two Signals

In signal processing, coherence is the statistic value used to examine
the relationship between the two signals or data. Coherent signals are
signals that have the same phase and frequency. The coherence function
measures the correlation between two signals as a function of their
frequency components. It is thus a correlation spectrum.

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The following example shows how to plot the coherence of two signals
using Python Matplotlib.

import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
# Fixing random state for reproducibility
np.random.seed(19680801)

dt = 0.01
t = np.arange(0, 30, dt)
nse1 = np.random.randn(len(t))                 # white noise 1
nse2 = np.random.randn(len(t))                 # white noise 2

# Two signals with a coherent part at 10Hz and a random part

s1 = np.sin(2 * np.pi * 10 * t) + nse1
s2 = np.tan(2 * np.pi * 10 * t) + nse2

fig, axs = plt.subplots(2, 1)

axs[0].plot(t, s1, t, s2)
axs[0].set_xlim(0, 2)
axs[0].set_xlabel('time')
axs[0].set_ylabel('s1 and s2')
axs[0].set_title('Two signals S1 and S2')
axs[0].grid(True)

cxy, f = axs[1].cohere(s1, s2, 256, 1. / dt)

axs[1].set_ylabel('coherence')

fig.tight_layout()
plt.show()

Random values are obtained and formed as an array using the NumPy
module. Two signals with a coherent part at 10 Hz and a random part are
created and are named s1 and s2. Then an empty figure is created with two
axes subplots. Then, the axes find coherence between the signals s1 and
s2.cohere function in Matplotlib.

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The axes.cohere() function in the axes module of the Matplotlib library

plots the coherence between two signals, x and y.
Coherence is the normalized cross-spectral density.

Figure 3-20 shows the output.

Figure 3-20. Coherence of two signals

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Cross-Correlation Graph
Cross-correlation is a measurement that tracks the movements of two or
more sets of time series data relative to one another. It compares multiple
time series and determines how well they match up with each other and at
what point the best match occurs. It is also known as a sliding-dot product
or sliding-inner product. The time series data’s correlation coefficient range
is from –1 to +1. The closer the cross-correlation value is to 1, the more
likely the sets are identical.
The following is an example.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np

# Fixing random state for reproducibility

np.random.seed(196)

x, y = np.random.randn(2, 100)
fig, ax1 = plt.subplots()
ax1.xcorr(x, y, usevlines=True, maxlags=25, normed=True, lw=2)
ax1.set_title("Cross-Correlation")
ax1.set_xlabel("X values")
ax1.set_ylabel("Y values")
ax1.grid(True)

plt.show()

As usual, two sample lists with random values are created. The figure
and axes are formed. Then the values of the two lists are plotted in a
special manner using ax1.xcorr(). The Axes.xcorr() function plots the
correlation between x and y. Finally, the labels and titles are mentioned
and shown using plt.show().
Figure 3-21 shows the output.

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Figure 3-21. Cross-correlation graph

Autocorreleation Graph
Autocorrelation is a mathematical representation of the degree of
similarity between a given time series and a lagged version of itself over
successive time intervals. Autocorrelation, sometimes known as serial
correlation in the discrete-­time case, is the correlation of a signal with a
delayed copy of itself as a delay function.
The following is an example.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np
# Fixing random state for reproducibility
np.random.seed(200)

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x, y = np.random.randn(2, 100)
fig, ax1 = plt.subplots()
ax1.acorr(x, usevlines=True, normed=True, maxlags=25, lw=2)
ax1.set_title("Auto-Correlation")
ax1.set_xlabel("X values")
ax1.set_ylabel("Y values")
ax1.grid(True)
plt.show()

Figure 3-22 shows the output.

Figure 3-22. Autocorrelation graph

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Changing Figure Size in Different Units

The figure size of a figure can be changed or set to a particular value using
the plt.figure(figsize=(x,y)) function, where x, y is the size measurements
given in inches, which is the default. The figure size can be given in the
following units.

• Inches (default)

• Centimeters

• Pixels

Multiplying centimeter-based numbers with a conversion factor from

cm to inches gives the right numbers. Naming the conversion factor cm
makes the conversion almost look like appending a unit to the number,
which is nicely readable. Similarly, one can use conversion from pixels.
The following is an example.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

text_kwargs = dict(ha='center', va='center', fontsize=28,
color='m')
plt.subplots(figsize=(6, 2))
plt.text(0.5, 0.5, '6 inches x 2 inches', **text_kwargs)
cm = 1/2.54  # centimeters in inches
plt.subplots(figsize=(15*cm, 5*cm))
plt.text(0.5, 0.5, '15cm x 5cm', **text_kwargs)
px = 1/plt.rcParams['figure.dpi']  # pixel in inches
plt.subplots(figsize=(600*px, 200*px))
plt.text(0.5, 0.5, '600px x 200px', **text_kwargs)
plt.show()

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Figure 3-23 shows the output.

Figure 3-23. Changing figure size in different units

Scale
Two plots on the same axes with different left and right scales. The
trick is using two axes that share the same x axis. You can use separate
matplotlib.ticker formatters and locators as desired since the two axes are
independent. Such axes are generated by calling the Axes.twinx method.
Likewise, Axes.twiny is available to generate axes that share a y axis but
have different top and bottom scales.

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The following is an example.

import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Create some mock data

t = np.arange(0.01, 10.0, 0.01)
data1 = np.exp(t)
data2 = np.cos(2 * np.pi * t)

fig, ax1 = plt.subplots()

plt.title("Plots with different scale")

color = 'tab:red'
ax1.set_xlabel('time (s)')
ax1.set_ylabel('exp', color=color)
ax1.plot(t, data1, color=color)
ax1.tick_params(axis='y', labelcolor=color)

ax2 = ax1.twinx()  # instantiate a second axes that shares the

same x-axis

color = 'tab:blue'
ax2.set_ylabel('sin', color=color)  # we already handled the
x-label with ax1
ax2.plot(t, data2, color=color)
ax2.tick_params(axis='y', labelcolor=color)

fig.tight_layout()  # otherwise the right y-label is

slightly clipped
plt.show()

Two data lists are created using np.array. Then two subplots are
created, and the data lists are plotted in the same figure, identifying the
two graphs in different colors. The tight layout is then shown as a graph
using plt.show().

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Figure 3-24 shows the output.

Figure 3-24. Plots with different scale

Pie Charts
A pie chart is a circular statistical graphic divided into slices to illustrate
numerical proportions. In a pie chart, the arc length of each slice is
proportional to the quantity it represents. While it is named for its
resemblance to a pie that has been sliced, there are variations in how it can
be presented.
Pie charts are widely used in the business world and mass media. They
have been criticized, and many experts recommend avoiding them as
research has shown it is difficult to compare different sections of a given
pie chart or data across different pie charts. Pie charts can be replaced in
most cases by other plots, such as bar charts, box plots, and dot plots.

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The Matplotib API has a pie() function that generates a pie diagram
representing data in an array. The fractional area of each wedge is given by
x/sum(x).
If sum(x) < 1, then the values of x are given the fractional area directly,
and the array is not normalized.
The following is a sample program.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Pie chart, where the slices will be plotted
counter-clockwise:
labels = 'Chemistry', 'Social', 'Maths', 'Physics'
sizes = [10, 35, 43, 12]
explode = (0, 0.1, 0, 0)  # only "explode" the 2nd slice
(i.e. 'Hogs')
fig1, ax1 = plt.subplots()
ax1.pie(sizes, explode=explode, labels=labels,
autopct='%1.1f%%', shadow=True, startangle=90)
ax1.axis('equal')  # Equal aspect ratio ensures that pie is
drawn as a circle.
plt.show()

Figure 3-25 shows the output.

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Figure 3-25. MATLAB plot of pie chart

Nested Pie Charts

In this case, pie takes values corresponding to counts in a group. First, let’s
generate some fake data corresponding to three groups. In the inner circle,
treat each number as belonging to its own group. In the outer circle, plot
them as members of their original three groups.
The following is a sample program.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np
fig, ax = plt.subplots()
size = 0.3
vals = np.array([[55., 37.], [32., 45.], [24., 15.]])

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cmap = plt.get_cmap("tab20c")
outer_colors = cmap(np.arange(3)*4)
inner_colors = cmap([1, 2, 5, 6, 9, 10])
ax.pie(vals.sum(axis=1), radius=1, colors=outer_colors,
wedgeprops=dict(width=size, edgecolor='w'))
ax.pie(vals.flatten(), radius=1-size, colors=inner_colors,
wedgeprops=dict(width=size, edgecolor='w'))
ax.set(aspect="equal", title='Pie plot with `ax.pie`')
plt.show()

Figure 3-26 shows the output.

Figure 3-26. MATLAB plot of pie chart

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Labeling a Pie and a Donut

A donut chart is a variant of a pie chart. There is a hole in its center and
it displays categories as arcs rather than slices. Both charts make part-to-
whole relationships easy to understand at a glance. First, you define the
imports and create a figure with subplots.
Starting with a pie chart, let’s create the data and a list of labels from it.
Provide a function to the auto pct argument, which expands automatic
percentage labeling by showing absolute values. Calculate the latter from
relative data and the known sum of all values.
The following is a program for labeling a pie chart.

import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(6, 3),
subplot_kw=dict(aspect="equal"))
recipe = ["200 g Ice-cream",
          "80 g sugar",
          "100 g Cheese",
          "250 g milk",
          "100 g water"]
data = [float(x.split()[0]) for x in recipe]
ingredients = [x.split()[-1] for x in recipe]
def func(pct, allvals):
    absolute = int(round(pct/100.*np.sum(allvals)))
    return "{:.1f}%\n({:d} g)".format(pct, absolute)
wedges, texts, autotexts = ax.pie(data, autopct=lambda pct:
func(pct, data), textprops=dict(color="w"))
ax.legend(wedges, ingredients,
          title="Ingredients",
          loc="center left",
          bbox_to_anchor=(1, 0, 0.5, 1))

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plt.setp(autotexts, size=8, weight="bold")

ax.set_title("Matplotlib bakery: A pie")
plt.show()

Figure 3-27 shows the output.

Figure 3-27. MATLAB plot of pie chart (bakery)

The following is a program for labeling a donut chart.

import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(6, 3),
subplot_kw=dict(aspect="equal"))
recipe = ["200 g flour", "80 g sugar", "100 g butter",
"250 g milk", "100 g berries"]

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data = [float(x.split()[0]) for x in recipe]

ingredients = [x.split()[-1] for x in recipe]
def func(pct, allvals):
    absolute = int(round(pct/100.*np.sum(allvals)))
    return "{:.1f}%\n({:d} g)".format(pct, absolute)
wedges, texts, autotexts = ax.pie(data, autopct=lambda pct:
func(pct, data), textprops=dict(color="w"))
ax.legend(wedges, ingredients,
          title="Ingredients",
          loc="center left",
          bbox_to_anchor=(1, 0, 0.5, 1))
plt.setp(autotexts, size=8, weight="bold")
ax.set_title("Matplotlib bakery: A pie")
plt.show()

Figure 3-28 shows the output.

Figure 3-28. MATLAB plot of donut pie chart

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Style Sheets
A web style sheet is a form of separation of presentation and content
for web design in which the markup of a webpage contains the page’s
semantic content and structure but does not define its visual layout. There
are many types of style sheets, and two of those are explained from the
style sheets.

FiveThirtyEight Style Sheet

FiveThirtyEight, sometimes rendered as 538, is an American website
focusing on opinion poll analysis, politics, economics, and sports blogging.
The following is a sample program.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np
plt.style.use('fivethirtyeight')
x = np.linspace(0, 10)
np.random.seed(240)
fig, ax = plt.subplots()
ax.plot(x, np.sin(x) + x + np.random.randn(50))
ax.plot(x, np.sin(x) + 8.0 * x + np.random.randn(50))
ax.plot(x, np.sin(x) + 4 * x + np.random.randn(50))
ax.plot(x, np.sin(x) - 8.0 * x + np.random.randn(50))
ax.plot(x, np.sin(x) - 4 * x + np.random.randn(50))
ax.plot(x, np.sin(x) + np.random.randn(50))
ax.set_title("'fivethirtyeight' style sheet")
plt.show()

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Figure 3-29 shows the output.

Figure 3-29. MATLAB plot of FiveThirtyEight style sheet

Solarized Light Style Sheet

A solarized light style sheet is another graph for plotting values with
random lines.
The following is a sample program.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np
np.random.seed(420)
x = np.linspace(0, 10)
with plt.style.context('Solarize_Light2'):
    plt.plot(x, np.sin(x) + x + np.random.randn(50))
    plt.plot(x, np.sin(x) + 2 * x + np.random.randn(50))

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    plt.plot(x, np.sin(x) + 3 * x + np.random.randn(50))

    plt.plot(x, np.sin(x) + 4 + np.random.randn(50))
    plt.plot(x, np.sin(x) + 5 * x + np.random.randn(50))
    plt.plot(x, np.sin(x) + 6 * x + np.random.randn(50))
    plt.plot(x, np.sin(x) + 7 * x + np.random.randn(50))
    plt.plot(x, np.sin(x) + 8 * x + np.random.randn(50))
    # Number of accent colors in the color scheme
    plt.title('8 Random Lines - Line')
    plt.xlabel('x label', fontsize=14)
    plt.ylabel('y label', fontsize=14)
plt.show()

Figure 3-30 shows the output.

Figure 3-30. MATLAB plot of Solarized Light style sheet

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3D Graphs
A three-dimensional space is a geometric setting in which three values
are required to determine the position of an element. This is the informal
meaning of the term dimension. In geometry, a three-dimensional shape
can be defined as a solid figure, object, or shape with three dimensions:
length, width, and height.

Plotting 2D Data on a 3D Plot

The following is a sample program.

import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

ax = plt.figure().add_subplot(projection='3d')
# Plot a sin curve using the x and y axes.
x = np.linspace(0, 1, 100)
y = np.cos(x * 2 * np.pi) / 2 + 0.5
ax.plot(x, y, zs=0, zdir='z', label='curve in (x, y)')
# Plot scatterplot data (20 2D points per colour) on the x
and z axes.
colors = ('r', 'm', 'c', 'k')
# Fixing random state for reproducibility
np.random.seed(240)
x = np.random.sample(20 * len(colors))
y = np.random.sample(20 * len(colors))
c_list = []
for c in colors:
    c_list.extend([c] * 20)

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# By using zdir='y', the y value of these points is fixed to

the zs value 0
# and the (x, y) points are plotted on the x and z axes.
ax.scatter(x, y, zs=0, zdir='y', c=c_list, label='points in
(x, z)')
# Make legend, set axes limits and labels
ax.legend()
ax.set_xlim(0, 1)
ax.set_ylim(0, 1)
ax.set_zlim(0, 1)
ax.set_xlabel('X')
ax.set_ylabel('Y')
ax.set_zlabel('Z')
# Customize the view angle so it's easier to see that the
scatter points lie
# on the plane y=0
ax.view_init(elev=20., azim=-35)
plt.show()

Figure 3-31 shows the output.

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Figure 3-31. MATLAB plot of 3D graphs

Creating 2D Bar Graphs in Different Planes

The following is a sample program.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np

# Fixing random state for reproducibility

np.random.seed(240)
fig = plt.figure()
ax = fig.add_subplot(projection='3d')
colors = ['r', 'm', 'c', 'y']
yticks = [3, 2, 1, 0]

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for c, k in zip(colors, yticks):

    # Generate the random data for the y=k 'layer'.
    xs = np.arange(20)
    ys = np.random.rand(20)
    # You can provide either a single color or an array with
the same length as
    # xs and ys. To demonstrate this, we color the first bar of
each set cyan.
    cs = [c] * len(xs)
    cs[0] = 'c'
    # Plot the bar graph given by xs and ys on the plane y=k
with 80% opacity.
    ax.bar(xs, ys, zs=k, zdir='y', color=cs, alpha=0.8)
ax.set_xlabel('X')
ax.set_ylabel('Y')
ax.set_zlabel('Z')
# On the y axis let's only label the discrete values that we
have data for.
ax.set_yticks(yticks)
plt.show()

Figure 3-32 shows the output.

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Figure 3-32. MATLAB plot of 2D graphs

Creating a 3D Histogram of 2D Data

The following is a sample program.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import numpy as np

# Fixing random state for reproducibility

np.random.seed(240)
fig = plt.figure()
ax = fig.add_subplot(projection='3d')
x, y = np.random.rand(2, 100) * 5
hist, xedges, yedges = np.histogram2d(x, y, bins=4,
range=[[0, 4], [0, 4]])
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# Construct arrays for the anchor positions of the 16

bars.xpos, ypos = np.meshgrid(xedges[:-1] + 0.25, yedges[:-1]
+ 0.25, indexing="ij")
xpos = xpos.ravel()
ypos = ypos.ravel()
zpos = 0
# Construct arrays with the dimensions for the 16 bars.
dx = dy = 0.5 * np.ones_like(zpos)
dz = hist.ravel()
ax.bar3d(xpos, ypos, zpos, dx, dy, dz, zsort='average')
plt.show()

Figure 3-33 shows the output.

Figure 3-33. MATLAB plot of 3D histogram of 2D data

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3D Surfaces
The following is a sample program.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

from matplotlib import cm
from matplotlib.ticker import LinearLocator
import numpy as np

fig, ax = plt.subplots(subplot_kw={"projection": "3d"})

# Make data.
X = np.arange(-5, 5, 0.25)
Y = np.arange(-5, 5, 0.25)
X, Y = np.meshgrid(X, Y)
R = np.sqrt(X**2 + Y**2)
Z = np.cos(R)
# Plot the surface.
surf = ax.plot_surface(X, Y, Z, cmap=cm.coolwarm, linewidth=0,
antialiased=False)
# Customize the z axis.
ax.set_zlim(-1.01, 1.01)
ax.zaxis.set_major_locator(LinearLocator(10))
# A StrMethodFormatter is used automatically
ax.zaxis.set_major_formatter('{x:.02f}')
# Add a color bar which maps values to colors.
fig.colorbar(surf, shrink=0.5, aspect=5)
plt.show()

Figure 3-34 shows the output.

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Figure 3-34. MATLAB plot of 3D surface

Animation
Matplotlib has a very special animation function. The easiest way to make
a live animation in Matplotlib is to use the Animation classes.

Live Line Graph

In this Matplotlib Animation function, an example of how to create live
updating graphs that can update their plots live as the data-source updates.
You may want to use this for graphing real-time stock prices, or maybe you
have a sensor connected to your computer, and you want to display the live
sensor data. To do this, you use the animation functionality with Matplotlib.

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The following is an example.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import matplotlib.animation as animation
from matplotlib import style
style.use('fivethirtyeight')
fig = plt.figure()
ax1 = fig.add_subplot(1,1,1)
def animate(i):
    graph_data = open('example.txt','r').read()
    lines = graph_data.split('\n')
    xs = []
    ys = []
    for line in lines:
        if len(line) > 1:
            x, y = line.split(',')
            xs.append(float(x))
            ys.append(float(y))
    ax1.clear()
    ax1.plot(xs, ys)
ani = animation.FuncAnimation(fig, animate, interval=1000)
plt.show()

Here, the only new import is the matplotlib.animation as animation.

This is the module that allows you to animate the figure. In the animate
function, you build the data and then plot it in the figure. A notepad file
named example.txt contains the following data.
[(1,6),(2,3),(3,4),(4,7),(5,2),(6,9),(7,5),(8,9),(9,1),(10,3)]
This data is stored in the notepad and updated in real time. The graph
plots its point accordingly.
This is the function of the animate function from Matplotlib.
Figure 3-35 shows the output.

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Figure 3-35. MATLAB plot of live line graph

The values get updated from the example.txt file and the graph moves
on according to the x axis.

Oscilloscope Live
Oscilloscopes test and display voltage signals as waveforms, which are
visual representations of voltage variation over time. The signals are
plotted on a graph showing how the signal changes. The vertical (y) access
represents the voltage measurement, and the horizontal (x) axis represents
time. One of the biggest advantages of oscilloscopes is that they give real-
time analysis. This means you get the right reading once you connect the
device to a power source. This oscilloscope graph can be implemented
using Matplotlib [10].
The following is an implementation.

import numpy as np
from matplotlib.lines import Line2D
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import matplotlib.animation as animation
from IPython import display

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class Scope:
    def __init__(self, ax, maxt=2, dt=0.02):
        self.ax = ax
        self.dt = dt
        self.maxt = maxt
        self.tdata = [0]
        self.ydata = [0]
        self.line = Line2D(self.tdata, self.ydata)
        self.ax.add_line(self.line)
        self.ax.set_ylim(-.1, 1.1)
        self.ax.set_xlim(0, self.maxt)
        self.ax.set_xlabel("Time in secs")
        self.ax.set_ylabel("Voltage")
        self.ax.set_title("Live Oscilloscope")

    def update(self, y):

        lastt = self.tdata[-1]
        if lastt > self.tdata[0] + self.maxt:  # reset
the arrays
            self.tdata = [self.tdata[-1]]
            self.ydata = [self.ydata[-1]]
            self.ax.set_xlim(self.tdata[0], self.tdata[0] +
self.maxt)

            self.ax.figure.canvas.draw()

        t = self.tdata[-1] + self.dt

        self.tdata.append(t)
        self.ydata.append(y)
        self.line.set_data(self.tdata, self.ydata)
        return self.line,

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def emitter(p=0.1):
    """Return a random value in [0, 1) with probability p,
else 0."""
    while True:
        v = np.random.rand(1)
        if v > p:
            yield 0.
        else:
            yield np.random.rand(1)

# Fixing random state for reproducibility

np.random.seed(240 // 10)

fig, ax = plt.subplots()
scope = Scope(ax)

# pass a generator in "emitter" to produce data for the

update func
ani = animation.FuncAnimation(fig, scope.update, emitter,
interval=50, blit=True)
plt.show()

The entire program is divided into two parts: the main and the class,
which has a few subfunctions defined within it.
There are two functions inside the Scope class: __init__ and update.
The __init__ function is the main function, in which the subplot is created,
and the x,y limits and labels are defined.
The update function plays a major role in animation. It plots graphs
accordingly with the incoming values generated by the emitter function.
Figure 3-36 shows the output.

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Figure 3-36. MATLAB plot of oscilloscope live graph

The values are updated in the plot, and since the x axis limit is set to a
particular value, the axis is updated accordingly.
Thus, with the help of the Matplotlib library from Python, many
types of graphs have been created and explained. Matplotlib is a Python
plotting package that makes it simple to create two-dimensional and
three-dimensional plots from data stored in various data structures,
including lists, NumPy arrays, and pandas dataframes. matplotlib.pyplot
is a collection of functions that make Matplotlib work like MATLAB. Each
Pyplot function changes a figure (e.g., creates a figure, creates a plotting
area in a figure, plots some lines in a plotting area, decorates the plot with
labels, etc.).

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References
[1] N. K. Sabat, U. C. Pati, B. R. Senapati, and S. K. Das, “An IoT Concept
for Region Based Human Detection Using PIR Sensors and FRED
Cloud,” 2019 IEEE 1st International Conference on Energy, Systems
and Information Processing (ICESIP), 2019, pp. 1–4, doi: 10.1109/
ICESIP46348.2019.8938286.

[2] Gabriel Gaspar, Peter Fabo, Michal Kuba, Juraj Ďuďák, and Eduard
Nemlaha, MicroPython as a Development Platform for IoT Applications,
2020, doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-51965-0_34.

[3] Socket – Low-level networking interface, https://docs.python.org/3/

library/socket.html

[4] Network basics, https://docs.micropython.org/en/latest/esp8266/

tutorial/network_basics.html

[5] G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, “Node-Red Programming and Page GUI

Builder for Industry 4.0 Dashboard Design,” Springer, Cham, Role of Single
Board Computers (SBCs) in rapid IoT Prototyping, 2021, pp. 121–140.

[6] Biswajeeban Mishra and Attila Kertesz, The Use of MQTT in M2M and
IoT Systems: A Survey, IEEE Access, Volume 8, 2020.
[7] L. Goswami and P. Agrawal, “IOT based Diagnosing of Fault De-
tection in Power Line Transmission through GOOGLE Firebase da-
tabase,” 2020 4th International Conference on Trends in Electron-
ics and Informatics (ICOEI) (48184), 2020, pp. 415–420, doi: 10.1109/
ICOEI48184.2020.9143007.

[8] Matplotlib, https://matplotlib.org/

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[9] Spectrum Representations, https://matplotlib.org/stable/gal-

lery/lines_bars_and_markers/spectrum_demo.html

[10] W. Cai, B. Wang, and S. Zhang, "Remote Control and Data Acquisition
of Multiple Oscilloscopes Using LabVIEW," 2019 International Conference
on Smart Grid and Electrical Automation (ICSGEA), 2019, pp. 136–140,
doi: 10.1109/ICSGEA.2019.00039.

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CHAPTER 4

Wireless Connectivity
in IoT
Introduction
The Internet of Things (IoT) starts with connecting to and gathering
information on nearby devices. The connectivity is attained wired and
wirelessly. The vast and multidimensional devices follow a star, mesh,
and hybrid topology with popular IoT wireless technologies. These
connections each have advantages and disadvantages. They can be
tailored through IoT user cases. Figure 4-1 compares the cost of wireless
technologies.

© G. R. Kanagachidambaresan 2022 163

G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, Internet of Things Using Single Board Computers,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8108-6_4
Chapter 4 Wireless Connectivity in IoT

Cellular

Wi-fi
COST

Bluetooth
LTE-M
EC-GM
BLE NB-IOT
Zigbee
Z-Wave

RFID Lora

TECHNOLOGY

Figure 4-1. Tech-cost comparison of wireless

This chapter explains these wireless technologies and how to program

them through Arduino and other single-board computers [8].

Low-Power Wide-Area Networks (LPWANs)

In the Internet of Things, low-power wide-area networks (LPWANs) [1] are
fairly new. This group of technologies supports large-scale IoT networks
that span huge industrial and business campuses. They allow long-range
communication on small, cheap batteries that last for years. LPWANs
can connect to almost any kind of IoT sensor. They can be used for
many applications, such as tracking assets, monitoring the environment,
managing a building, detecting occupancy, and keeping track of

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consumables. On the other hand, LPWANs can only send small blocks of
data at a slow rate. This makes them better for applications that don’t need
a lot of bandwidth or need to be done quickly.
LPWANs aren’t all made equal. Today, there are licensed (NB-IoT,
LTE-M) and unlicensed (MYTHINGS, LoRa, Sigfox, etc.) technologies,
and each one performs differently in key network factors. For example,
licensed cellular-based LPWANs care most about how much power they
use, whereas unlicensed alternatives care more about the quality of service
and scalability. Standardization is another consideration if you want to
ensure long-term stability, security, and interoperability.
Let’s discuss what makes this group of wireless IoT technologies
important. The LoRa [2] tech stack is shown in Figure 4-2.

Application Layer

Medium Access Control (MAC) Layer

Class A Class B Class C

Physical (PHY) layer

Modulation and Radio

Radio Frequency (RF) Layer

ISM bands

Figure 4-2. LoRa tech protocol stack

Figures 4-3 and 4-4 showcase the circuit connection of the LoRa sender
with the Arduino UNO and the LoRa receiver with the Arduino Nano.

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Figure 4-3. Arduino connected with LoRa radio sender

3.3V

Figure 4-4. LoRa received connected with Arduino Nano

#include <SPI.h>
#include <LoRa.h>
int counter = 0;

void setup() {
  Serial.begin(9600);
  while (!Serial);

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  Serial.println("LoRa Sender");
  if (!LoRa.begin(433E6)) {
    Serial.println("Starting LoRa failed!");
    while (1);
  }
  LoRa.setTxPower(20);

void loop() {
  Serial.print("Sending packet: ");
  Serial.println(counter);

  // send packet

  LoRa.beginPacket();
  LoRa.print("hello ");
  LoRa.print(counter);
  LoRa.endPacket();

  counter++;

  delay(5000);
}

//receiver code

#include <SPI.h>
#include <LoRa.h>

void setup() {
  Serial.begin(9600);
  while (!Serial);

  Serial.println("LoRa Receiver");

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  if (!LoRa.begin(433E6)) {
    Serial.println("Starting LoRa failed!");
    while (1);
  }
}

void loop() {
  // try to parse packet
  int packetSize = LoRa.parsePacket();
  if (packetSize) {
    // received a packet
    Serial.print("Received packet '");

    // read packet

    while (LoRa.available()) {
      Serial.print((char)LoRa.read());
    }

    // print RSSI of packet

    Serial.print("' with RSSI ");
    Serial.println(LoRa.packetRssi());
  }
}

RFID Protocol
Passive RFID [3] tags are different from most other digital radio systems
because they have limitations. Because the tags are cheap and don’t have
much intelligence, they can’t use advanced modulations like phase-shift
keying or quadrature-amplitude modulation (QAM). Also, turning off the
power from the reader reduces the power available to the tag, so the best
modulations for the reader are those in which the power is on most of the

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time. However, these modulations are not good at using the spectrum, so
they result in channels that are wide or data rates that are slow. The phase
or amplitude of the tag reflection can be changed. However, the small
tag reflection is added to large antenna reflections and reflections from
the environment, so the signal at the reader may change when the phase
or amplitude of the tag reflection changes. You can only hope to notice
changes in the antenna’s state, not its nature. You can count the number of
edges in the tag but can’t determine the absolute or differential phase or
amplitude. These rules must be considered when choosing tag and reader
symbols. Figure 4-5 shows how RFIDs are set up and the bands they use
to talk.

Passive A ctive

Vicinity Long Range Very long Range

PROXIMITY LF& HF passive UHF 433 MHz to 5.8
968MHz-2.4GHz
135 Khz and low GHz
centimeter meter meters Kilometer

Figure 4-5. RFID configs and communication bands

This chapter mainly discusses the Arduino-based programming of

passive tags for ID verification purposes. Figure 4-6 illustrates the Arduino
and passive RFID connection through the SPI communication protocol [9].
Figure 4-6 demonstrates the RFID connection with Arduino UNO.

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Figure 4-6. RFID connection with Arduino

Arduino Code

#include <SPI.h>
#include <MFRC522.h>
constexpr uint8_t RST_PIN = 9;     // Configurable, see typical
pin layout above
constexpr uint8_t SS_PIN = 10;     // Configurable, see typical
pin layout above
MFRC522 rfid(SS_PIN, RST_PIN); // Instance of the class
MFRC522::MIFARE_Key key;

// Init array that will store new NUID

byte nuidPICC[4];

void setup() {
  Serial.begin(9600);
  SPI.begin(); // Init SPI bus
  rfid.PCD_Init(); // Init MFRC522

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  for (byte i = 0; i < 6; i++) {

    key.keyByte[i] = 0xFF;
  }

  Serial.println(F("This code scan the MIFARE Classsic

NUID."));
  Serial.print(F("Using the following key:"));
  printHex(key.keyByte, MFRC522::MF_KEY_SIZE);
}

void loop() {

  // Look for new cards

  if ( ! rfid.PICC_IsNewCardPresent())
    return;

  // Verify if the NUID has been readed

  if ( ! rfid.PICC_ReadCardSerial())
    return;

  Serial.print(F("PICC type: "));

  MFRC522::PICC_Type piccType = rfid.PICC_GetType(rfid.
uid.sak);
  Serial.println(rfid.PICC_GetTypeName(piccType));

  // Check is the PICC of Classic MIFARE type

  if (piccType != MFRC522::PICC_TYPE_MIFARE_MINI &&
    piccType != MFRC522::PICC_TYPE_MIFARE_1K &&
    piccType != MFRC522::PICC_TYPE_MIFARE_4K) {
    Serial.println(F("Your tag is not of type MIFARE
Classic."));
    return;
  }

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  if (rfid.uid.uidByte[0] != nuidPICC[0] ||

    rfid.uid.uidByte[1] != nuidPICC[1] ||
    rfid.uid.uidByte[2] != nuidPICC[2] ||
    rfid.uid.uidByte[3] != nuidPICC[3] ) {
    Serial.println(F("A new card has been detected."));

    // Store NUID into nuidPICC array

    for (byte i = 0; i < 4; i++) {
      nuidPICC[i] = rfid.uid.uidByte[i];
    }

    Serial.println(F("The NUID tag is:"));

    Serial.print(F("In hex: "));
    printHex(rfid.uid.uidByte, rfid.uid.size);
    Serial.println();
    Serial.print(F("In dec: "));
    printDec(rfid.uid.uidByte, rfid.uid.size);
    Serial.println();
  }
  else Serial.println(F("Card read previously."));

  // Halt PICC

  rfid.PICC_HaltA();

  // Stop encryption on PCD

  rfid.PCD_StopCrypto1();
}

void printHex(byte *buffer, byte bufferSize) {

  for (byte i = 0; i < bufferSize; i++) {
    Serial.print(buffer[i] < 0x10 ? " 0" : " ");
    Serial.print(buffer[i], HEX);
  }
}

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/**
* Helper routine to dump a byte array as dec values to Serial.
*/
void printDec(byte *buffer, byte bufferSize) {
  for (byte i = 0; i < bufferSize; i++) {
    Serial.print(buffer[i] < 0x10 ? " 0" : " ");
    Serial.print(buffer[i], DEC);
  }
}

The data from the passive tag can be seen in the serial monitor after
executing this code.

XBEE Radios with Arduino

Zigbee [4] is a long-range wireless protocol that can work in AT and API
(application programming interface) modes. The transparent mode (AT)
mode is mainly used to transmit one-to-one data. However, the API mode
shares GPIO signals and API commands. Figure 4-7 illustrates the basic
Zigbee protocol stack.

Zigbee
Application Layer Alliance

Network & Security

802.15.4
MAC

Physical Layer

Figure 4-7. Zigbee protocol basic stack

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Figure 4-8 is a connection diagram of Arduino UNO with an

XBee radio.

Figure 4-8. XBee radio connected with serial data transfer with
XBee radio

//Configuration

Code //
int led = 13;
int received = 0;
int i;
void setup() {
  Serial.begin(9600);
  pinMode(led, OUTPUT);
}

void loop() {
  if (Serial.available() > 0) {
received = Serial.read();

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    if (received == 'a'){

    digitalWrite(led, HIGH);
    delay(2000);
    digitalWrite(led, LOW);
    }
     else if (received == 'b'){
      for(i=0;i<5;i++){
    digitalWrite(led, HIGH);
    delay(1000);
    digitalWrite(led, LOW);
    delay(1000);
    }
  }
}
}

Once the code is executed on both the sender and receiver sides, a
blinking LED can be observed on the receiver side.

Bluetooth with Arduino

Bluetooth [5] is a WPAN technology mainly used for low-range
communication like text, voice, and in rare cases, video data. Bluetooth is
mainly used for low-distance fast communications. Figure 4-9 illustrates
the Bluetooth protocol stack.

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RFcomm SDP

L2CAP
Control and Audio
HCI

Link Manager

Baseband

Radio

Figure 4-9. Bluetooth protocol stack

Figure 4-10 illustrates the HC-05 connected to Arduino through serial

ports RX and TX.

Figure 4-10. HC-05 connection with Arduino serial communication

char inputByte;
void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
pinMode(13,OUTPUT);

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void loop() {
while(Serial.available()>0){
  inputByte= Serial.read();
  Serial.println(inputByte);
  if (inputByte=='Z'){
  digitalWrite(13,HIGH);
  }
  else if (inputByte=='z'){
  digitalWrite(13,LOW);
  }
  }
}

Arduino with a GSM Modem

GSM architecture is a layered model that allows two systems to
communicate. The lower layers guarantee the upper-layer protocols'
services. Each layer sends appropriate notifications to ensure that the data
is correctly prepared, transferred, and received. Figure 4-11 showcases the
Arduino connection with the GSM and GPS modules [6]. The GPS location
gathered is messaged to a particular programmed number through the
GSM service. The Arduino code to perform this follows Figure 4-11.

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+5V

2.2k

GND

VCC

Figure 4-11. Arduino connection with GSM and GPS module

Code for interfacing arduino with GPS and GSM sensors.

//Sharing GPS information with the user

#include <SoftwareSerial.h>
#include <TinyGPS.h>

int state = 0;
const int pin = 9;
float gpslat, gpslon;

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TinyGPS gps;
SoftwareSerial sgps(4, 5);
SoftwareSerial sgsm(2, 3);

void setup()
{
  sgsm.begin(9600);
  sgps.begin(9600);
}

void loop()
{
sgps.listen();
  while (sgps.available())
  {
    int c = sgps.read();
    if (gps.encode(c))
    {
      gps.f_get_position(&gpslat, &gpslon);
    }
  }
    if (digitalRead(pin) == HIGH && state == 0) {
      sgsm.listen();
      sgsm.print("\r");
      delay(1000);
      sgsm.print("AT+CMGF=1\r");
      delay(1000);
      /*Replace XXXXXXXXXX to 10 digit mobile number &
        ZZ to 2 digit country code*/
      sgsm.print("AT+CMGS=\"+ZZXXXXXXXXXX\"\r");
      delay(1000);

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      //The text of the message to be sent.

      sgsm.print("Latitude :");
      sgsm.println(gpslat, 6);
      sgsm.print("Longitude:");
      sgsm.println(gpslon, 6);
      delay(1000);
      sgsm.write(0x1A);
      delay(1000);
      state = 1;
    }
  if (digitalRead(pin) == LOW) {
      state = 0;
    }
      delay(100);
  }

Arduino with Firebase Cloud Connectivity

This section explains how to program NodeMCU to connect to Google
Firebase [7]. Figure 4-12 shows the Anonymous enable feature in Google
Cloud Platform (GCP).
• Create an ESP8266 Firebase Project and store data in
the Firebase Realtime Database.
• Read data from the Firebase Realtime Database with an
ESP8266.

First, perform the following steps.

1. Go to Firebase. Use a Google account to sign in.

2. Click Get Started and Add Project to start a new

project.

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3. Name your project (e.g., ESP demo).

4. Set the authentication and enable anonymous data

handling.

Figure. 4-12. Anonymous enabled in Google Firebase

Next, create a Firebase Realtime Database and start in test mode.

Set the read and write permissions to true. Copy the Web API key from
the Firebase project’s settings. Figure 4-13 showcases the NodeMCU
connection with Firebase.

2.2k

Figure 4-13. NodeMCU connection with led controlled via Google

Firebase
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Figure 4-14. Firebase Realtime Database showing LEDSTATUS

The following code snippet helps NodeMCU switch the LED on

and off.

//Arduino code

#include <ESP8266WiFi.h>    
                                            // esp8266 library
#include <FirebaseArduino.h>  
                                           // firebase library

#define FIREBASE_HOST "your-project.firebaseio.com"

                         // the project name address from
firebase id
#define FIREBASE_AUTH "06dEpqanFg***************qAwnQLwLI"
                    // the secret key generated from firebase
#define WIFI_SSID "xxxxxxxxxxxxx"
                                          // input your home or
public wifi name
#define WIFI_PASSWORD "xxxxxxxxxxxxxx"
                                    //password of wifi ssid

String fireStatus = "";                 

                                    // led status received from
firebase

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int led = ­D3;                       // for external led

void setup() {
  Serial.begin(9600);
  delay(1000);
  pinMode(LED_BUILTIN, OUTPUT);
  pinMode(led, OUTPUT);
  WiFi.begin(WIFI_SSID, WIFI_PASSWORD);
                          //try to connect with wifi
  Serial.print("Connecting to ");
  Serial.print(WIFI_SSID);
  while (WiFi.status() != WL_CONNECTED) {
    Serial.print(".");
    delay(500);
  }
  Serial.println();
  Serial.print("Connected to ");
  Serial.println(WIFI_SSID);
  Serial.print("IP Address is : ");
  Serial.println(WiFi.localIP());
                           //print local IP address
  Firebase.begin(FIREBASE_HOST, FIREBASE_AUTH);
                                  // connect to firebase
  Firebase.setString("LED_STATUS", "OFF");
                                //send initial string of
led status
}

void loop() {
  fireStatus = Firebase.getString("LED_STATUS");
                                       // get ld status input
from firebase

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  if (fireStatus == "ON") {

                               // compare the input of led
status received from firebase
    Serial.println("Led Turned ON");
    digitalWrite(LED_BUILTIN, LOW);
                               // make bultin led ON
    digitalWrite(led, HIGH);
                     // make external led ON
  }
  else if (fireStatus == "OFF")
{                              // compare the input of led
status received from firebase
    Serial.println("Led Turned OFF");
    digitalWrite(LED_BUILTIN, HIGH);
                               // make bultin led OFF
    digitalWrite(led, LOW);
                               // make external led OFF
  }
  else {
    Serial.println("Wrong Credential! Please send ON/OFF");
  }
}

R
 eferences
[1] Q. M. Qadir, T. A. Rashid, N. K. Al-Salihi, B. Ismael, A. A. Kist, and
Z. Zhang, “Low Power Wide Area Networks: A Survey of Enabling
Technologies, Applications and Interoperability Needs,” IEEE Access, vol. 6,
2018, pp. 77454–77473. doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2883151.

[2] U. Noreen, A. Bounceur, and L. Clavier, “A study of LoRa low power

and wide area network technology,” 2017 International Conference on

184
 Chapter 4 Wireless Connectivity in IoT

Advanced Technologies for Signal and Image Processing (ATSIP), 2017,

pp. 1–6. doi: 10.1109/ATSIP.2017.8075570.

[3] R. Rayhana, G. Xiao, and Z. Liu, “RFID Sensing Technologies for Smart
Agriculture,” IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine, vol. 24, no.
3, May 2021, pp. 50–60. doi: 10.1109/MIM.2021.9436094.

[4] S. Long, F. Miao, “Research on ZigBee wireless communication

technology and its application,” 2019 IEEE 4th Advanced Information
Technology, Electronic and Automation Control Conference (IAEAC),
2019, pp. 1830–1834. doi: 10.1109/IAEAC47372.2019.8997928.

[5] P. Priya, V. V. Prabhu, and S. Saravanan, “Improving the Performance

Efficiency of Village Pond Cleaner Using Arduino in the Basis of Bluetooth
Controlled Process,” 2021 Second International Conference on Electronics
and Sustainable Communication Systems (ICESC), 2021, pp. 971–974. doi:
10.1109/ICESC51422.2021.9532762.

[6] Ma May Thet Htar and Ma Hnin Yu Myaing, “GSM Based Home
Automation System Using Arduino,” International Journal of Trend in
Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD), vol. 3, no. 5, August 2019,
pp. 1666–1669. https://doi.org/10.31142/ijtsrd26806

[7] Wu-Jeng Li, Chiaming Yen, You-Sheng Lin, Shu-Chu Tung, and Shih-
Miao Huang, “JustIoT Internet of Things based on the Firebase Real-time
Database,” IEEE, 2018. doi: 10.1109/SMILE.2018.8353979.

[8] Jonathan Álvarez Ariza and Heyson Baez, “Understanding the role of
single-board computers in engineering and computer science education:
A systematic literature review,” Computer Applications in Engineering
Education, 2021.

[9] Dawoud Shenouda Dawoud and Peter Dawoud, “6 Serial Peripheral

Interface (SPI),” Serial Communication Protocols and Standards
RS232/485, UART/USART, SPI, USB, INSTEON, Wi-Fi and WiMAX, River
Publishers, 2020, pp. 191–244.

185
CHAPTER 5

The Internet
of Things Through
the Raspberry Pi
Introduction
Raspberry Pi is an elegant, low-cost single-board computer mainly used
for rapid prototyping and building small IoT applications [1]. Together
with sensors and other communication modules, it can play an important
role in making decisions in a smart environment. Figure 5-1 showcases
the different Raspberry Pi configurations, communication modules, and
available ports.

© G. R. Kanagachidambaresan 2022 187

G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, Internet of Things Using Single Board Computers,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8108-6_5
Chapter 5 The Internet of Things Through the Raspberry Pi

Figure 5-1. Raspi-configurations and facilities in different versions

An individual Raspberry Pi (RPi) can be combined to form a cluster,

which divides the work and makes computing faster. This chapter focuses
on creating basic cluster computing with RPis.

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 luster Computing with Raspberry

C
Pi Zero W
Message Passing Interface (MPI)
A Message Passing Interface (MPI) [2] is a communication interface for
parallel programming. It allows several machines connected by a network
to run applications in parallel. Message passing applications often execute
identical code on many processors, which then interact with one another
through library calls that fall into a few broad categories.

• Calls for initiating, managing, and concluding

communications

• Communication requests between two distinct

operations (point-to-point)

• Communication requests among a group of procedures

(collective)

• Methods for creating custom data types

In this chapter,

• A simple two-cluster Raspberry Pi W is created.

• MPI programming with Python is discussed.

• Simple MPI loads in two clusters are executed, and

performance is monitored.

Networking with RPis for Simple MPI Scripts

Parallel computing [3] requires communication between cluster
computers [4]. This can be achieved using either a wired or a wireless
Ethernet. For cluster communications [5], the Raspberry Pi Zero W’s wireless

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LAN is utilized. Depending on the workload, a huge number of data may

be transferred and engaged in a great deal of communication between
the nodes; in this case, it may be preferable to utilize dedicated wired
connections that offer substantially higher throughput. For instance, you
can create wired connections between RPis using a Gigabit Ethernet switch.
A suitable RPi should be converted on such occasions, such as the new 4B,
which features a Gigabit Ethernet connection for wired communications.
RPi communication was covered in the previous chapters.
This chapter uses a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
configuration.
The SSH key generation is done through the following.

ssh-keygen -t rsa

The key sharing uses public keys through heterogeneous hosts.

ssh-copy-id <username@hostip>

The public keys from the host must be copied to all clients. The
preceding command is run on each client to do this. Each client’s IP
address is given on the host computer, and each client’s IP address is
returned to the host.
MPI is installed by running the following scripts.

sudo apt install mpich python3-mpi4py

The following command tests the setup.

mpiexec -n 1 hostname

In the preceding command, the hostname is run on each node, and

the result is returned. The ifconfig command finds the IP addresses for
both RPis.
The following command needs to be run on both RPis to finish testing.

mpiexec -n 2 --host <IP1,IP2>  hostname

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Simple MPI Programming

This section presents a simple example of MPI programming, specifically,
a simple Blink and Hello World program using MPI algorithms.
In C, MPI_Init and MPI_Finalize initialize and close interprocess
communications, respectively. In between, the parallel algorithm jobs and
the utilization of MPI constructs—such as size (the number of nodes in the
cluster), rank (your position within the cluster, which might serve the ID),
and node name—are performed.
The below code snippet showcase the simple MPI programming.

Listing 5-1. Simple MPI C Program

//C code

#include <mpi.h>
#include <stdio.h>

int main(int argc, char *argv[])

{
  int siz, r, length;
  char name[MPI_MAX_PROCESSOR_NAME];
#if defined(MPI_VERSION) && (MPI_VERSION>=2)
  int provided;
  MPI_Init_thread(&argc, &argv, MPI_THREAD_MULTIPLE, &
provided);
#else
  MPI_Init(&argc, &argv);
#endif

  MPI_Comm_size(MPI_COMM_WORLD, &siz);
  MPI_Comm_rank(MPI_COMM_WORLD, &r);
  MPI_Get_processor_name(name, & length);

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  printf("Hello, World! I am process %d of %d on %s.\n", r,

siz, name);
  MPI_Finalize();
  return 0;
}
Code snippet showcassing MPI program.

Listing 5-2. Simple MPI Python Program

\\ Python Script
from mpi4py import MPI
import sys

siz = MPI.COMM_WORLD.Get_size()
r = MPI.COMM_WORLD.Get_rank()
name = MPI.Get_processor_name()

sys.stdout.write("IoT, I am process %d of %d on %s.\n"

%(r,siz,name))

$ mpiexec -n 2 --host 191.168.1.110,191.168.1.111 python3

mpiiot.py
IoT, I am process 0 of 2 on proto0.
IoT, I am process 1 of 2 on proto1.

Types of Communication in Cluster Computing

Every piece of communication has tags [6] that give the receiver a way
to recognize the message so it can decide how to act. The two types of
communication between clients are blocking and non-blocking. The
differences depend on how you want them to work. Most of the time,
blocking is the communication type used between systems in a cluster.
These functions block the caller until the receiver doesn’t send back the

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data that was sent in parallel. So, the sender program won’t keep running
while it waits for the results it needs to keep going.
Generic Python objects can talk to each other through the send(),
recv(), and sendrecv() methods. On the other hand, methods like Send()
and Recv() send and receive large data arrays, such as NumPy arrays.
Some types of calculations may need to be done faster, which is achieved
by making sure that the systems can talk to each other without waiting
for a response. This means they can send and share data for calculation
without waiting for a reply.
MPI also has functions that don’t block this kind of communication.
A call-reception function starts the action, and a control function lets you
determine if such a request was completed. The functions for getting calls
are lsend() and lrecv (). These functions give back a Request object, which
is a unique way to identify the operation that was asked for. Once this
operation has been sent, you can use control functions like Test(), Wait(),
and Cancel() from the Request class to see how well it works.

Persistent Communication
Non-blocking communication requests are run repeatedly since they
are in a loop. Using persistent communications can improve the code’s
performance in these situations. Send init() and Recvinit() are the
functions of the mpi4py module that takes care of this job. They are part
of the Comm class, and when they return a request object, they make a
persistent request.

Broadcasting
In broadcasting, the master node communicates the data to all the
other connected nodes. Figure 5-2 illustrates the same copy of the data
communicated to all the nodes in the cluster.

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Figure 5-2. Broadcasting data in the cluster

Listing 5-3 is the code for broadcasting.

Listing 5-3. Broadcasting.py

from mpi4py import MPI

com = MPI.COMM_WORLD
r = comm.Get_rank()

if r == 0;
  info={'key1': [1, 2, 1+2j],
        'key2':('111','aaa')}
else:
  info = None
info = com.bcast(data, root=0)
print('from'+str(r))
print(info)

The code must be copied to all the cluster members in the network to
broadcast the data.

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Scattering
Scattering is a way for the master node to break up a data structure like
a list and send each part to a different system in the cluster as a separate
message. Figure 5-3 showcases the scattering of the data between the
clusters.

Figure 5-3. Scattering data to clusters

The code in Listing 5-4 must be copied to all the cluster members in
the network.

Listing 5-4. Scatter.py

from mpi4py import MPI

com = MPI.COMM_WORLD
siz = comm.Get_size()
r = comm.Get_rank()

if r == 0;
  info = [(i+1)**2 for i in range(siz)]
else:
  info = None
info = com.scatter(info, root=0)
assert info == (r+1)**2

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Gathering
Gathering is almost the polar opposite of scattering. In this instance, the
master node is initialized and receives all data from the other cluster
nodes. Figure 5-4 shows the gathering mechanism in clusters.

Figure 5-4. The gathering concept in a cluster

Listing 5-5 gathers all the cluster members.

Listing 5-5. Gather.py

from mpi4py import MPI

com = MPI.COMM_WORLD
siz = comm.Get_size()
r = comm.Get_rank()

info = (r+1)**2
info = com.gather(info, root=0)
if r == 0;
  for i in range(siz);
    assert info[i] == (i+1)**2
else:
  assert info is None

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 Simple Web Service–Based Home

A
Automation Using a Flask Server
Because it doesn’t require any specific tools or libraries, Flask is referred
to as a micro framework [7]. It does not have a database abstraction
layer, form validation, and other components that third-party libraries
commonly provide. However, Flask provides extensions that may extend
application functionality as if it were built-in.
This chapter uses a Raspberry Pi as a local web server to operate three
of its GPIOs programmed as output (working as actuators) and monitor
two of its GPIOs written as input via a simple webpage (sensors).
Figure showcase the simple local network based GPIO activation and
automation.

Figure 5-5. Automation using a local network

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The following installs Flask.

apt-get install python3-flask

It creates a tree folder that includes the following.

/rpiWbserver
    /stat
    /templ

Run the Python script shown in Listing 5-6 to check the button press in
the Flask web server.

Listing 5-6. Simple Flask Python Program

import RPi.GPIO as GPIO

from flask import Flask, render_template
app = Flask(__name__)
GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BCM)
GPIO.setwarnings(False)
but = 20
but = GPIO.LOW
GPIO.setup(but, GPIO.IN)

@app.route("/")
def index():
     # Read Sensors Status
     but = GPIO.input(but)
     templateData = {
      'title' : 'GPIO status',
      'button'  : but,
      }
     return render_template('index.html', **templateData)
if __name__ == "__main__":
app.run(host='0.0.0.0', port=80, debug=True)

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Listing 5-7. Simple Flask HTML Program

// Template code

<!DOCTYPE html>
<head>
<title>{{ title }}</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href='../static/style.css'/>
</head>
<body>
     <h1>{{ title }}</h1>
<h2>Button pressed:  {{ button }}</h1>
</body>
</html>

Figure 5-6 shows the code’s output.

Figure 5-6. Output in browser

References
[1] G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, “Node-Red Programming and Page
GUI Builder for Industry 4.0 Dashboard Design,” Role of Single Board
Computers (SBCs) in Rapid IoT Prototyping, Springer, 2021, pp. 121–140.

[2] Pavan Balaji, “Message Passing Interface,” Programming Models for

Parallel Computing, The MIT Press, 2015, pp.1–21.

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[3] Rajkumar Buyya and Satish Narayana Srirama, “Wiley Series on Parallel
and Distributed Computing,” in Fog and Edge Computing: Principles and
Paradigms, Wiley, 2019, pp. 1–4. doi: 10.1002/9781119525080.scard.

[4] D. Nageswari, R. Maheswar, and G. R. Kanagachidambaresan,

“Performance analysis of cluster based homogeneous sensor network
using energy efficient N-policy (EENP) model,” Cluster Computing, vol. 22,
pp. 12243–12250, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10586-­017-­1603-­z.

[5] R. Maheswar et al., “CBPR: A Cluster-Based Backpressure Routing

for the Internet of Things,” Wireless Personal Communications, vol. 118,
pp. 3167–3185, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11277-­021-­08173-­0.

[6] D. V. Gadasin, A. V. Shvedov, and A. V. Koltsova, “Cluster Model for Edge

Computing,” 2020 International Conference on Engineering Management
of Communication and Technology (EMCTECH), 2020, pp. 1–4. doi:
10.1109/EMCTECH49634.2020.9261538.

[7] A. S. Abhishek, M. Bhasker, and A. S. Ponraj, “IoT Based Control

System for Home Automation,” 2021 IEEE 2nd International Conference
on Technology, Engineering, Management for Societal impact using
Marketing, Entrepreneurship and Talent (TEMSMET), 2021, pp. 1–5. doi:
10.1109/TEMSMET53515.2021.9768686.

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CHAPTER 6

Home Electrification
and Node-RED
Node-RED [1] is a tool that uses flows and is written in Node.js. It takes
up little memory and works on the Raspberry Pi, which makes it a great
system for home automation projects [2]. Raspberry Pi comes with Node-­
RED installed, but you may need to upgrade it.
This chapter covers

• Monitoring home appliances through the IoT

dashboard [3]

• Automating and operating home appliances through

IoT devices [4]
The following command upgrades Node-RED.

bash <(curl -sL https://raw.githubusercontent.com/node-red/

linux-installers/master/deb/update-nodejs-and-nodered)

The execution of this command removes the older versions of Node-­

RED and Node.js. It updates to the latest Node-RED version and clears the
npm cache. It can also set commands to work with other services.
Once Node-RED is installed, it can start from the command prompt.
Figure 6-1 shows Node-RED starting in Raspberry Pi.

node-red start

© G. R. Kanagachidambaresan 2022 201

G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, Internet of Things Using Single Board Computers,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8108-6_6
Chapter 6 Home Electrification and Node-RED

Figure 6-1. Node-RED initialization in Raspberry Pi

The Node-RED programming board and dashboard can be

viewed within the local network. For example, if the Raspberry Pi IP is
192.169.0.101, the Node-RED programming dashboard can be viewed by
entering 192.169.0.101:1880 in any computer browser connected to the
local network. Figure 6-2 shows the programming dashboard.

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Figure 6-2. Node-RED programming dashboard

More palletes can be installed onto Node-RED from the “Manage-­

pallete” option on the right side of the programming pallete, as shown in
Figure 6-3.

Figure 6-3. Manage palette

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Figure 6-4 is a screenshot of the installation option in Node-RED.

Figure 6-4. Dashboard pallete

Once the Node-RED dashboard is installed, and the program is

deployed, it can be viewed in the browser by typing 192.169.0.101:1880/ui.
Figure 6-5 showcases the programming options in the browser.

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Figure 6-5. Another dashboard screenshot

The relays can be connected to Raspberry Pi with the proper power

configurations. This chapter presents five applications controlled through
the Node-RED platform. Figure 6-6 shows the drag-and-drop option for
home automation. The circuit is configured to connect Raspberry Pi pins
36, 37, 38, and 40.

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Figure 6-6. Drag-and-drop program

Figure 6-7 shows the home screen to control the relays connected via
a local network. The same dashboard can be synchronized with Google
Firebase or other cloud platforms to operate the device through the
Internet.

Figure 6-7. System browser dashboard view

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The user interface can also be viewed in a mobile browser connected

to the same router, as shown in Figure 6-8.

Figure 6-8. Mobile browser screen

Figure 6-9 shows relays connected to a Raspberry Pi Zero W.

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Figure 6-9. Real-time hardware connected to Raspberry Pi Zero W

References
[1] A. Rajalakshmi and H. Shahnasser, “Internet of Things using Node-RED
and Alexa,” in 2017 17th International Symposium on Communications
and Information Technologies (ISCIT), 2017, pp. 1–4. doi: 10.1109/
ISCIT.2017.8261194.

[2] M. Lekić and G. Gardašević, “IoT sensor integration to Node-RED

platform,” in 2018 17th International Symposium INFOTEH-JAHORINA
(INFOTEH), 2018, pp. 1–5. doi: 10.1109/INFOTEH.2018.8345544.

[3] G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, “Node-Red Programming and Page

GUI Builder for Industry 4.0 Dashboard Design,” in Role of Single Board
Computers (SBCs) in Rapid IoT Prototyping, Springer, 2021, pp. 121–140.

[4] R. K. Kodali and A. Anjum, “IoT-Based Home Automation Using Node-

RED,” in 2018 Second International Conference on Green Computing
and Internet of Things (ICGCIoT), 2018, pp. 386–390. doi: 10.1109/
ICGCIoT.2018.8753085.

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CHAPTER 7

Supply Chain
Management: Industry
4.0 and MQTT
Applications
Introduction
Supply chain management [1] [2] and creating transparency between
the shop floor workers and suppliers are achieved through Industry
4.0 standards. This chapter mainly deals with MQTT-based production
system monitoring and software design with the help of single-board
computers (SBCs) [3] [6]. An application is created in Python to send
live information to the assembly unit from the Original Equipment
Manufacturer (OEMs) [4] in a supply chain. A report must be generated
at the end of the shift, and an automatic email must be sent to higher
officials to maintain transparency throughout the supply chain and make
production as economical and efficient as possible. Figure 7-1 illustrates
the proposed model.

© G. R. Kanagachidambaresan 2022 209

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8108-6_7
Chapter 7 Supply Chain Management: Industry 4.0 and MQTT Applications

Figure 7-1. MQTT-based supply chain data sharing

The production line sensors are connected to the subscriber module

and transmit data via the MQTT module. This chapter showcases a single
MQTT-based publish-subscribe software that connects the OEMs in the
supply chain [4].

Working Principle
The application’s user interface is created with Python’s Tkinter library.
Individual modules are designed to complete certain tasks. The first is a
timer module that counts down the time in decrements and alerts you when
a shift is over, and an automatic email is sent to the appropriate authorities.
The shift information is in an Excel file attached to the email. The smtplib
and email packages in Python enable the automatic mail-­send module.

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A report can also be generated between shifts or before a shift ends. A

Generate Report button activates the module. The pandas package saves
the shift information in an Excel file named according to the date and time
the report was prepared.
The numbers are published to an Internet MQTT server to acquire
live updates of the good and bad counts from the manufacturing unit to
the assembly unit. The HiveMQ MQTT server [5] is used in this situation.
You can run functions and publish relevant values to the server using the
paho-mqtt module in Python. Simultaneously, the assembly unit receives
the values by subscribing to the topic in which they will be published.
The assembly unit program, which uses Tkinter as its base UI, displays
these values.

Publisher Source Code

  1.   fromtkinterimport*
  2.   fromtkinterimportttk
  3.   importtkinter as tk
  4.   importtime
  5.   importrandom
  6.   importpandas as pd
  7.   importxlsxwriter
  8.   fromdatetimeimportdate, datetime
  9.   fromdatetimeimportdatetime
10.   importgetpass
11.   importos
12.   importsmtplib
13.   fromemail.messageimportEmailMessage
14.   importpaho.mqtt.client as paho
15.   frompahoimportmqtt
16.

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17.   qwe=[0,0,0,'0']
18.
19.   defon_connect(client, userdata, flags, rc,
properties=None):
20.       print("Connection Success! Received with code
%s."%rc)
21.
22.   # with this callback you can see if your publish was
successful
23.   defon_publish(client, userdata, mid, properties=None):
24.       print("mid: "+str(mid))
25.
26.   # print which topic was subscribed to
27.   defon_subscribe(client, userdata, mid, granted_qos,
properties=None):
28.       print("Subscribed: "+str(mid) +" "+str(granted_qos))
29.
30.   defon_message(client, userdata, msg):
31.       print(msg.topic+" "+str(msg.qos) +" "+str(msg.
payload))
32.
33.   #Sends Automatic Mail once the Shift gets over
34.   defautomaticEmail():
35.       sender_email="mayoisnicee@gmail.com"
36.       sender_pass="Mayonnaise24"
37.       receiver_email="balakumarbk03@gmail.com"
38.
39.       msg=EmailMessage()
40.       msg['Subject'] ="REPORT"
41.       msg['From'] =sender_email
42.       msg['To'] =receiver_email

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43.       msg.set_content('Shift Report Has Been Attached...')

#to be filled
44.
45.
46.       #User Name
47.       user =getpass.getuser()
48.
49.       file_directory=["C:/Users/"+user +"/
Documents/"+qwe[3] +  ".xlsx"]
50.
51.       forfileinfile_directory:
52.           with open(file, 'rb') as f:
53.               file_data=f.read()
54.               file_name=qwe[3]+'.xlsx'
55.               print("filename",file_name)
56.           msg.add_attachment(file_data,
maintype='application',
57.           subtype='octet-stream', filename=file_name)
58.
59.
60.       with smtplib.SMTP_SSL("smtp.gmail.com", 465)
as smtp:
61.           smtp.login(sender_email,sender_pass)
62.           smtp.send_message(msg)
63.       Label(root, text='Report Generated!', font ='arial
15 bold').place(x=800, y=450)
64.       print("Mail Sent!")
65.
66.   defvals(count,good,bad):
67.       qwe[0] =count; qwe[1] =good; qwe[2] =bad
68.

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69.   #Generates the current report when the Generate Report

Button is clicked.
70.   defgenerateReport(): #(t,number,name,count,good,bad):
71.       #Date Time
72.       now =datetime.now()
73.       dt_string=now.strftime("%B %d %Y,%H-%M-%S")
74.       qwe[3] =dt_string
75.       #User Name
76.       user =getpass.getuser()
77.
78.       count_val,good_val,bad_val,shift_dt=[0],[0],[0],[0]
79.
80.       count_val[0] =qwe[0]
81.       good_val[0] =qwe[1]
82.       bad_val[0] =qwe[2]
83.       shift_dt[0] =dt_string
84.
85.       df=pd.DataFrame({'Shift Time':shift_dt[0],
86.                       'Shift Duration(secs)':t.get(),
87.                       'Shift Number':number.get(),
88.                       'Supervisor':name.get(),
89.                       'Production Count':count_val,
90.                       'Good Products':good_val,
91.                       'Defected Products':bad_val})
92.
93.       writer =pd.ExcelWriter(r"C:\Users\\"+ user +
"\Documents\\" + dt_string +  ".xlsx")
94.
95.       # Convert the dataframe to an XlsxWriter
Excel object.

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96.       df.to_excel(writer, sheet_
name='Sheet1',index =False)
97.       workbook  =writer.book
98.       worksheet =writer.sheets['Sheet1']
99.       worksheet.set_column('A:G',25)
100.       writer.save()
101.       print("Report Generated Successfully on "+dt_string)
102.
103.
104.
105.   #Shift Runtime
106.   defshiftRun():
107.       l =[]
108.       time_sec=int(t.get())
109.       count =0; good =0; bad =0
110.       whiletime_sec:
111.           mins, secs=divmod(time_sec, 60)
112.           timeformat='{:02d}:{:02d}'.format(mins, secs)
113.           #print(timeformat, end='\r')
114.           l.append(timeformat)
115.           #print(l[-1])
116.           count +=1
117.           ifrandom.randint(0,1):
118.               good +=1
119.           else:
120.               bad +=1
121.           Label(root, text=l[-1], font ='arial 15 bold').
place(x=800, y=50)
122.           Label(root, text="Production Count:
"+str(count), font ='arial 20 bold').
place(x=20, y=360)

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123.           Label(root, text="Good: "+str(good), font

='arial 20 bold').place(x=20, y=400)
124.           Label(root, text="Defects: "+str(bad), font
='arial 20 bold').place(x=20, y=440)
125.           client.publish("test/Bosch_
Good",payload=str(good),qos=0)
126.           time.sleep(1)
127.           time_sec-=1
128.           root.update()
129.
130.           vals(count,good,bad)
131.       Label(root, text='Shift Ended!', font ='arial 15
bold').place(x=800, y=80)
132.       generateReport()
133.       automaticEmail()
134.
135.   try:
136.       client =paho.Client(client_id="", userdata=None,
protocol=paho.MQTTv5)
137.       client.on_connect=on_connect
138.
139.       # enable TLS
140.       client.tls_set(tls_version=mqtt.client.ssl.
PROTOCOL_TLS)
141.
142.       client.username_pw_set("industry4.0", "Qwerty@123")
143.       client.connect("1d1587d792b6466fa8f2db432d9d3db2.
s1.eu.hivemq.cloud", 8883)
144.
145.       client.on_message=on_message
146.       client.on_subscribe=on_subscribe

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147.       client.on_publish=on_publish
148.
149.       root =Tk()
150.       root.geometry('1000x500')
151.       #production_name = input("Production Name(Eg: Bulb/
Indicator/Housing/Electrical): ")
152.       Label(root, text ='Indicator Production', font
='arial 20 bold').pack()
153.
154.       #Starting Protocols
155.       Label(root, font ='arial 15 bold', text ='Set
Time').place(x =20,y =50)
156.       t =Entry(root,width=15)
157.       t.place(x=180, y=55)
158.       Label(root, font ='arial 15 bold', text ='Shift
Number').place(x =20,y =80)
159.       number =Entry(root,width=15)
160.       number.place(x=180, y=85)
161.       Label(root, font ='arial 15 bold', text
='Supervisor').place(x =20,y =110)
162.       name =Entry(root,width=15)
163.       name.place(x=180,y=115)
164.
165.       #Start Button
166.       Button(root, text='START', bd='5', command
=shiftRun, font ='arial 10 bold').place(x=80, y=160)
167.
168.       #Generate Report Button
169.       Button(root, text='Generate Report', bd='5',
command =generateReport, font ='arial 10 bold').
place(x=800, y=400)
170.

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171.
172.       #Quit Button
173.       ttk.Button(root, text="Quit", command=root.destroy).
place(x=450,y=450)
174.       root.mainloop()
175.       print("Press 'Ctrl+C' to close the application.")
176.       client.loop_forever()
177.
178.
179.   exceptKeyboardInterrupt:
180.           print("Byeeee!!")
181.           pass

Subscriber Source Code

1.   importtime
2.   importpaho.mqtt.client as paho
3.   frompahoimportmqtt
4.   fromtkinterimport*
5.   fromtkinterimportttk
6.   importtkinter as tk
7.
8.
9.
10.   # setting callbacks for different events to see if it
works, print the message etc.
11.   defon_connect(client, userdata, flags, rc,
properties=None):
12.       print("Connection Success! Received with code %s."%rc)
13.

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14.   # with this callback you can see if your publish was
successful
15.   defon_publish(client, userdata, mid, properties=None):
16.       print("mid: "+str(mid))
17.
18.   # print which topic was subscribed to
19.   defon_subscribe(client, userdata, mid, granted_qos,
properties=None):
20.       print("Subscribed: "+str(mid) +" "+str(granted_qos))
21.
22.   # print message, useful for checking if it was successful
23.   defon_message(client, userdata, msg):
24.       print(msg.topic+" "+str(msg.qos) +" "+str(msg.
payload))
25.       topic =msg.topic
26.       payload =msg.payload
27.       if'Crompton_Good'intopic:
28.           #print("Update Crompton Label: ",payload)
29.           Label(root, text ='Crompton Production:
'+str(payload) , font ='arial 20 bold').
place(x=40,y=200)
30.
31.       elif'Bosch_Good'intopic:
32.           #print("Update Bosch Label: ",payload)
33.           Label(root, text ='Bosch Production:
'+str(payload), font ='arial 20 bold').
place(x=40,y=80)
34.       root.update()
35.
36.
37.   # using MQTT version 5 here, for 3.1.1: MQTTv311,
3.1: MQTTv31

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38.   # userdata is user defined data of any type, updated by

user_data_set()
39.   # client_id is the given name of the client
40.   client =paho.Client(client_id="", userdata=None,
protocol=paho.MQTTv5)
41.   client.on_connect=on_connect
42.
43.   # enable TLS for secure connection
44.   client.tls_set(tls_version=mqtt.client.ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS)
45.   # set username and password
46.   client.username_pw_set("industry4.0", "Qwerty@123")
47.   # connect to HiveMQ Cloud on port 8883 (default for MQTT)
48.   client.connect("1d1587d792b6466fa8f2db432d9d3db2.s1.eu.
hivemq.cloud", 8883)
49.
50.   # setting callbacks, use separate functions like above
for better visibility
51.   client.on_subscribe=on_subscribe
52.   client.on_message=on_message
53.   client.on_publish=on_publish
54.
55.   # subscribe to all topics of encyclopedia by using the
wildcard "#"
56.   client.subscribe("sensor1/#", qos=0)
57.
58.   root =Tk()
59.   root.geometry('1000x500')
60.   #production_name = input("Production Name(Eg: Bulb/
Indicator/Housing/Electrical): ")
61.   Label(root, text ='Assembly Unit', font ='arial 20
bold').pack()

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62.
63.   #ttk.Button(root, text="Quit", command=root.destroy).
place(x=450,y=450)
64.   client.loop_forever()

A simple Python-based dashboard is created with Tkinter, and MQTT

is created [7]. Figure 7-2 shows the publisher, providing the production
value to the centralized dashboard through the MQTT approach. The data
is shared through the IPv4 protocol via the HiveMQ MQTT server. The
production data for every shift is mailed, and the same can be downloaded
as a PDF through this Python application.

Figure 7-2. Supplier dashboard showcasing production activity

Figure 7-3 shows the full dashboard of the host industries. The
production count, including both the good and the defective products, is
tabulated to provide the shop floor output.

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Figure 7-3. Production and consumer dashboard

Figure 7-4 shows the round-trip time it takes to update the consumer
dashboard through 3G and 4G communication modules.

5RXQGWULSWLPHLQPVHF











* *

Figure 7-4. Round-trip time execution between 3G and 4G

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Summary
This chapter discussed Python-based supply chain management through
the MQTT protocol. The data is shared in 3G and 4G modules, and the
response time is recorded for delay analysis. Image processing–based kit
design for Industry 4.0 is discussed in the next chapter.

References
[1] Devendra A. Patil, “The Study of Industry 4.0 and Its Impact on Supply
Chain Management,” International Research Journal of Engineering and
Technology, vol. 7, 2020.

[2] Abhijeet Ghadge, Merve Er Kara, Hamid Moradlou, and Mohit

Goswami, “The impact of Industry 4.0 implementation on supply chains,”
Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, March 2020.

[3] G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, Role of Single Board Computers (SBCs) in

Rapid IoT Prototyping, Springer, 2021.

[4] Gourinath Banda, Chaitanya Krishna Bommakanti, and Harsh Mohan,

“One IoT: an IoT protocol and framework for OEMs to make IoT-enabled
devices forward compatible,” Journal of Reliable Intelligent Environments,
vol. 2, 2016, pp. 131–144.

[5] Biswajeeban Mishra and Attila Kertesz, “The Use of MQTT in M2M and
IoT Systems: A Survey,” IEEE Access, vol. 8, 2020.

[6] Jonathan Álvarez Ariza and Heyson Baez, “Understanding the role of
single-board computers in engineering and computer science education:
A systematic literature review,” Computer Applications in Engineering
Education, 2021.

[7] G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, “Node-Red Programming and Page

GUI Builder for Industry 4.0 Dashboard Design,” in Role of Single Board
Computers (SBCs) in Rapid IoT Prototyping, Springer, 2021, pp. 121–140.

223
CHAPTER 8

Raspberry Pi–Based
Go/No-Go Kit Design
Using the RPi Camera
and Image Processing
Algorithms
Introduction
Image-based recommendation systems [1] [2] are widely used in
many industries to approve completed products and validate the
products supplied by their suppliers. These consumer industries share
specifications, and in many cases, they share the precise tool to operate
and measure so that the quality of the product is high. High-quality
products provide a high mean time to fail, often increasing customer
and consumer trust. The devices and products in industries differ, and
it is difficult to design an image processing–based recommendation
system. With improvements in single-board computers and with the help
of Python programs [3], it is easy to build a custom tool to monitor and
validate production activities.

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CHAPTER 8 RASPBERRY PI–BASED GO/NO-GO KIT DESIGN USING THE RPI CAMERA
AND IMAGE PROCESSING ALGORITHMS
Although a visual inspection with the naked eye is possible, it is
often error-prone and costly: eyes tire, and working time is expensive.
On the other hand, a mechanical test is often accompanied by complex
calibration, which entails setting up and adjusting all software and
hardware parameters to detect every error. Furthermore, changes to the
product or materials necessitate recalibration. With the traditional rule-­
based approach, a programmer or an image processor must create custom
rules for a system to explain how to detect errors. This is a difficult and
often unsolvable Herculean task with a high variance of errors. All of this
can take a significant amount of time and money. A quality inspection
should be as efficient, simple, dependable, and cost-effective as possible.
In artificial vision [4], defect detection and classification are two
subjects that must be approached as different challenges. Most digital
image processing challenges come when researchers seek to imitate or
replace human vision and decision-making techniques with artificial
approaches. The overall purpose of replicating human vision is to detect
and classify a subject; these two goals are interdependent. The two
primary areas of artificial visual processing literature are visual processing
algorithms, which are re-creations of human vision, and classifiers, which
are redesigned human decision-making approaches. This book addresses
both categories. But, instead of providing a comprehensive overview of
all visual processing methods, the focus is on specific solutions that are
closely related to visual processing methods, namely visual inspection
techniques for metallic, ceramic, and textile surfaces in industrial
applications.
In an industrial production line, quality monitoring is of the utmost
importance [5]. Currently, numerous methods are utilized to evaluate
the quality of a product or the outcome of a process. As depicted in
Figure 8-1, quality control procedures can be classed as destructive or non-­
destructive, depending on the approach employed to discover a fault on a
surface or volume. Non-destructive testing (NDT) observes a component

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AND IMAGE PROCESSING ALGORITHMS
to find a problem without taking samples or harming it irreparably.
The classifications of NDTs are a visual-based method, dye penetrant
inspection, radiography, ultrasonic testing, eddy current technique, and
thermography. They are predominantly employed in the realm of aviation.
Artificial intelligence, fuzzy math, expert systems, and fault tree
analysis are classical fault detection methods derived from signal
processing. The sensor embedded in the signal acquisition card limits
the data quality for those approaches. In a real-world scenario, external
elements such as heat, humidity, and electromagnetic radiation affect the
sensor. As a result, sensor failure is one of the most common reasons for
system failure in industrial robots [6].
In the automotive industry, industrial robots are used for welding,
spraying, handling, and other applications. For each type of robot,
manufacturers from Japan, Germany, the United States, and China provide
a variety of models. Robot communication protocols are inherently
complicated, and no single consistent standard exists.
Furthermore, because the interior environment’s electromagnetic
interference shielding is often disregarded, thermal radiation and other
influences might cause erroneous measurements with the monitoring
system embedded in the execution system. Other variables that contribute
to robot failure, besides signal interference, include device aging, metal
fatigue, and a lack of maintenance.
Industrial robots [7] [8] are a significant production tool for
intelligent manufacturing and advanced industry. India is a significant
manufacturing nation with many industrial robots in use. Unfortunately,
industrial robots may mistakenly hurt surrounding workers while
functioning at high intensity, high workload, and for lengthy periods
of time, resulting in irreversible losses. The typical defect detection
approach for robots mostly depends on the sensors, signal processing, and
mathematical analysis.

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AND IMAGE PROCESSING ALGORITHMS
The following are the disadvantages of such a system due to it being
pricey and sensitive to sensor readings.

• The external environment can disrupt sensor data.

Dust, water vapor, electromagnetic radiation, aging,
and shell corrosion can cause sensor misinterpretation
and failure.

• The communication protocols of various types of

robots are complex and inconsistent. Industrial robots
are available in a wide range of shapes, sizes, and
brands. Because each manufacturer has designed its
own communication protocol, it’s impossible to design
a general detection approach that applies to most types
of industrial robots.

• Because the monitoring and execution systems are

interconnected, the two systems regularly interact,
resulting in oversizing, hybridity, and system
interference.

• Industrial robot motors, arms, end effectors, and other

locations have many sensors, resulting in expensive
robot repair and maintenance costs.

Figure 8-1 illustrates an Industry 4.0–based specification validation

system. The suppliers’ products are moved in a conveyer mechanism and
verified in a camera-based chamber. The camera chamber is connected to
the Raspberry Pi and RPi camera to photograph the supplier’s products.
The products are photographed using the OpenCV-Python platform, and
the specifications are validated with the standard image specifications.
This chapter features car accessories milled and drilled by a supplier for
further processing.

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AND IMAGE PROCESSING ALGORITHMS

Figure 8-1. Image processing–based go/no-go kit for Industry 4.0

Figure 8-2 provides the GUI design and user interface to classify the
drill hole with standard-size coins. The permissible amount of tolerance
to accept the job piece is 0.9%. When the image-based classification
identifies the amount of tolerance with a 96% confidence level, the output
is communicated to the servo mechanism with GPIO pins to move the job
piece further into the conveyer system for additional machining/assembly.
The GUI is designed with the Tkinter package. Figure 8-2 shows the size of
the hole measured by the classification model.

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AND IMAGE PROCESSING ALGORITHMS

Figure 8-2. GUI design using Python

Below code illustrates the python code for dimension verification.

Listing 8-1. Support module 1

import sys

try:
    import Tkinter as tk
except ImportError:
    import tkinter as tk

try:
    import ttk
    py3 = False

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AND IMAGE PROCESSING ALGORITHMS
except ImportError:
    import tkinter.ttk as ttk
    py3 = True

import industry_support
def vp_start_gui():
    '''Starting point when module is the main routine.'''
    global val, w, root
    root = tk.Tk()
    top = Toplevel1 (root)
    industry_support.init(root, top)
    root.mainloop()

w = None
def create_Toplevel1(rt, *args, **kwargs):
    '''Starting point when module is imported by
another module.
       Correct form of call: 'create_Toplevel1(root, *args,
**kwargs)' .'''
    global w, w_win, root
    #rt = root
    root = rt
    w = tk.Toplevel (root)
    top = Toplevel1 (w)
    industry_support.init(w, top, *args, **kwargs)
    return (w, top)

def destroy_Toplevel1():
    global w
    w.destroy()
    w = None

231
CHAPTER 8 RASPBERRY PI–BASED GO/NO-GO KIT DESIGN USING THE RPI CAMERA
AND IMAGE PROCESSING ALGORITHMS
class Toplevel1:
    def __init__(self, top=None):
        '''This class configures and populates the
toplevel window.
           top is the toplevel containing window.'''
        _bgcolor = '#d9d9d9'  # X11 color: 'gray85'
        _fgcolor = '#000000'  # X11 color: 'black'
        _compcolor = '#d9d9d9' # X11 color: 'gray85'
        _ana1color = '#d9d9d9' # X11 color: 'gray85'
        _ana2color = '#ececec' # Closest X11 color: 'gray92'
        top.geometry("600x450+342+122")
        top.minsize(116, 1)
        top.maxsize(1284, 782)
        top.resizable(1, 1)
        top.title("New Toplevel")
        top.configure(background="#d9d9d9")

        self.Canvas1 = tk.Canvas(top)
        self.Canvas1.place(relx=0.217, rely=0.067,
relheight=0.518, relwidth=0.588)
        self.Canvas1.configure(background="#d9d9d9")
        self.Canvas1.configure(borderwidth="2")
        self.Canvas1.configure(insertbackground="black")
        self.Canvas1.configure(relief="ridge")
        self.Canvas1.configure(selectbackground="blue")
        self.Canvas1.configure(selectforeground="white")

        self.Label1 = tk.Label(top)
        self.Label1.place(relx=0.067, rely=0.778, height=21,
width=100)
        self.Label1.configure(background="#d9d9d9")

232
 CHAPTER 8 RASPBERRY PI–BASED GO/NO-GO KIT DESIGN USING THE RPI CAMERA
AND IMAGE PROCESSING ALGORITHMS
        self.Label1.configure(disabledforeground="#a3a3a3")
        self.Label1.configure(foreground="#000000")
        self.Label1.configure(text='''GO COUNT   20''')

        self.Label1_1 = tk.Label(top)
        self.Label1_1.place(relx=0.7, rely=0.778, height=21,
width=100)
        self.Label1_1.configure(activebackground="#f9f9f9")
        self.Label1_1.configure(activeforeground="black")
        self.Label1_1.configure(background="#d9d9d9")
        self.Label1_1.configure(disabledforeground="#a3a3a3")
        self.Label1_1.configure(foreground="#000000")
        self.Label1_1.configure(highlightbackground="#d9d9d9")
        self.Label1_1.configure(highlightcolor="black")
        self.Label1_1.configure(text='''NO- GO COUNT   1''')
if __name__ == '__main__':
    vp_start_gui()

Below code shows the python code support module for size verification.

Listing 8-2. Supporting module 2

#! /usr/bin/env python
#  -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
#
# Support module generated by PAGE version 5.4
#  in conjunction with Tcl version 8.6
#    Dec 16, 2021 10:34:30 PM +0530  platform: Windows NT

import sys

try:
    import Tkinter as tk
except ImportError:
    import tkinter as tk

233
CHAPTER 8 RASPBERRY PI–BASED GO/NO-GO KIT DESIGN USING THE RPI CAMERA
AND IMAGE PROCESSING ALGORITHMS
try:
    import ttk
    py3 = False
except ImportError:
    import tkinter.ttk as ttk
    py3 = True

def init(top, gui, *args, **kwargs):

    global w, top_level, root
    w = gui
    top_level = top
    root = top

def destroy_window():
    # Function which closes the window.
    global top_level
    top_level.destroy()
    top_level = None

if __name__ == '__main__':
    import APRESS9
    industry.vp_start_gui()

Listing 8-3. Dimension Verification Module

# import the necessary packages

from scipy.spatial import distance as dist
from imutils import perspective
from imutils import contours
import numpy as np
import argparse
import imutils
import cv2
def midpoint(ptA, ptB):

234
 CHAPTER 8 RASPBERRY PI–BASED GO/NO-GO KIT DESIGN USING THE RPI CAMERA
AND IMAGE PROCESSING ALGORITHMS
     return ((ptA[0] + ptB[0]) * 0.5, (ptA[1] + ptB[1]) * 0.5)
# construct the argument parse and parse the arguments
ap = argparse.ArgumentParser()
ap.add_argument("-i", "--image", required=True,
     help="path to the input image")
ap.add_argument("-w", "--width", type=float, required=True,
     help="width of the left-most object in the image (in
inches)")
args = vars(ap.parse_args())

# load the image, convert it to grayscale, and blur it slightly

image = cv2.imread(args["image"])
scale_percent = 60 # percent of original size
width = int(image.shape[1] * scale_percent / 100)
height = int(image.shape[0] * scale_percent / 100)
dim = (width, height)

# resize image
image = cv2.resize(image, dim, interpolation = cv2.INTER_AREA)

gray = cv2.cvtColor(image, cv2.COLOR_BGR2GRAY)

gray = cv2.GaussianBlur(gray, (7, 7), 0)
# perform edge detection, then perform a dilation + erosion to
# close gaps in between object edges
edged = cv2.Canny(gray, 50, 100)
edged = cv2.dilate(edged, None, iterations=1)
edged = cv2.erode(edged, None, iterations=1)
# find contours in the edge map
cnts = cv2.findContours(edged.copy(), cv2.RETR_EXTERNAL,
     cv2.CHAIN_APPROX_SIMPLE)
cnts = imutils.grab_contours(cnts)
# sort the contours from left-to-right and initialize the

235
CHAPTER 8 RASPBERRY PI–BASED GO/NO-GO KIT DESIGN USING THE RPI CAMERA
AND IMAGE PROCESSING ALGORITHMS
# 'pixels per metric' calibration variable
(cnts, _) = contours.sort_contours(cnts)
pixelsPerMetric = None

# loop over the contours individually

for c in cnts:
     # if the contour is not sufficiently large, ignore it
     if cv2.contourArea(c) < 100:
          continue
     # compute the rotated bounding box of the contour
     orig = image.copy()
     box = cv2.minAreaRect(c)
     box = cv2.cv.BoxPoints(box) if imutils.is_cv2() else cv2.
boxPoints(box)
     box = np.array(box, dtype="int")
     # order the points in the contour such that they appear
     # in top-left, top-right, bottom-right, and bottom-left
     # order, then draw the outline of the rotated bounding
     # box
     box = perspective.order_points(box)
     cv2.drawContours(orig, [box.astype("int")], -1, (0,
255, 0), 2)
     # loop over the original points and draw them
     for (x, y) in box:
          cv2.circle(orig, (int(x), int(y)), 5, (0, 0, 255), -1)
          # unpack the ordered bounding box, then compute the
midpoint
     # between the top-left and top-right coordinates,
followed by
     # the midpoint between bottom-left and bottom-right
coordinates
     (tl, tr, br, bl) = box

236
 CHAPTER 8 RASPBERRY PI–BASED GO/NO-GO KIT DESIGN USING THE RPI CAMERA
AND IMAGE PROCESSING ALGORITHMS
     (tltrX, tltrY) = midpoint(tl, tr)
     (blbrX, blbrY) = midpoint(bl, br)
     # compute the midpoint between the top-left and top-­
right points,
     # followed by the midpoint between the top-righ and
bottom-right
     (tlblX, tlblY) = midpoint(tl, bl)
     (trbrX, trbrY) = midpoint(tr, br)
     # draw the midpoints on the image
     cv2.circle(orig, (int(tltrX), int(tltrY)), 5, (255,
0, 0), -1)
     cv2.circle(orig, (int(blbrX), int(blbrY)), 5, (255,
0, 0), -1)
     cv2.circle(orig, (int(tlblX), int(tlblY)), 5, (255,
0, 0), -1)
     cv2.circle(orig, (int(trbrX), int(trbrY)), 5, (255,
0, 0), -1)
     # draw lines between the midpoints
     cv2.line(orig, (int(tltrX), int(tltrY)), (int(blbrX),
int(blbrY)), (255, 0, 255), 2)
     cv2.line(orig, (int(tlblX), int(tlblY)), (int(trbrX),
int(trbrY)), (255, 0, 255), 2)

     # compute the Euclidean distance between the midpoints

     dA = dist.euclidean((tltrX, tltrY), (blbrX, blbrY))
     dB = dist.euclidean((tlblX, tlblY), (trbrX, trbrY))
     # if the pixels per metric has not been initialized, then
     # compute it as the ratio of pixels to supplied metric
     # (in this case, inches)

237
CHAPTER 8 RASPBERRY PI–BASED GO/NO-GO KIT DESIGN USING THE RPI CAMERA
AND IMAGE PROCESSING ALGORITHMS
     if pixelsPerMetric is None:
          pixelsPerMetric = dB / args["width"]

     # compute the size of the object

     dimA = dA / pixelsPerMetric
     dimB = dB / pixelsPerMetric
     # draw the object sizes on the image
     cv2.putText(orig, "{:.1f}mm".format(dimA),
          (int(tltrX - 65), int(tltrY + 35)), cv2.FONT_HERSHEY_
SIMPLEX, 0.65, (255, 255, 255), 2)
     cv2.putText(orig, "{:.1f}mm".format(dimB),
          (int(trbrX - 60), int(trbrY)), cv2.FONT_HERSHEY_
SIMPLEX, 0.65, (255, 255, 255), 2)
     # show the output image
     cv2.imshow("Image", orig)
     cv2.waitKey(0)

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Figure 8-3. Comparison of execution time in different devices

238
 CHAPTER 8 RASPBERRY PI–BASED GO/NO-GO KIT DESIGN USING THE RPI CAMERA
AND IMAGE PROCESSING ALGORITHMS
Figure 8-3 compares the execution time of the code in different
Raspberry Pi models. The Raspberry Pi 4 with 4 GB RAM executes fastest,
and the Raspberry Pi 3 executes slower than the other models.
A smart farming–based project with single-board computers is
discussed in the next chapter. Different water quality sensors and
interfacing with the single-board computers and calibrations are also
discussed.

References
[1] P. Yin and L. Zhang, “Image Recommendation Algorithm Based on
Deep Learning,” IEEE Access, vol. 8, 2020, pp. 132799–132807. doi: 10.1109/
ACCESS.2020.3007353.

[2] F. Ullah, B. Zhang, and R. U. Khan, “Image-Based Service

Recommendation System: A JPEG-Coefficient RFs Approach,” IEEE Access,
vol. 8, 2020, pp. 3308–3318. doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2962315.

[3] A. Saxena, M. Tyagi, and P. Singh, “Digital Outing System Using RFID
And Raspberry Pi with MQTT Protocol,” 2018 3rd International Conference
on Internet of Things: Smart Innovation and Usages (IoT-SIU), 2018,
pp. 1–4. doi: 10.1109/IoT-SIU.2018.8519923.

[4] Y. Li and Y. Zhang, “Application Research of Computer Vision

Technology in Automation,” 2020 International Conference on Computer
Information and Big Data Applications (CIBDA), 2020, pp. 374–377. doi:
10.1109/CIBDA50819.2020.00090.

[5] A. Kazemian, X. Yuan, O. Davtalab, and B. Khoshnevis, “Computer

vision for real-time extrusion quality monitoring and control in robotic
construction,” Automation in Construction, vol. 101, May 2019, pp. 92–98.

239
CHAPTER 8 RASPBERRY PI–BASED GO/NO-GO KIT DESIGN USING THE RPI CAMERA
AND IMAGE PROCESSING ALGORITHMS
[6] Karthick Thiyagarajan, Sarath Kodagoda, Linh Van Nguyen, and
Ravindra Ranasinghe, “Sensor Failure Detection and Faulty Data
Accommodation Approach for Instrumented Wastewater Infrastructures,”
IEEE Access, vol. 6.

[7] Tadeusz Mikolajczyk, “Manufacturing Using Robot,” Advanced

Materials Research, March 2012. doi: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/
AMR.463-­464.1643.

[8] Wanek Golnazarian and Ernest Hall, “Intelligent Industrial

Robots,” IMTS 2002 Manufacturing Conference, Sept. 2002. doi:
10.1201/9780203908587.ch6.5.

240
CHAPTER 9

Programming
Water-­Quality Sensors
Introduction
Water quality [1] is mainly determined by various water quality
parameters, such as the following.

• pH

• DO

• Turbidity

• Salinity

• TDS
• Water Temperature

Figure 9-1 showcases a pH sensor.

© G. R. Kanagachidambaresan 2022 241

G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, Internet of Things Using Single Board Computers,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8108-6_9
Chapter 9 Programming Water-­Quality Sensors

Figure 9-1. Single board computer adaptable pH sensor

Table 9-1 provides the specifications of a pH sensor.

The optimum levels in the parameters [2] listed in Table 9-1 make
water more suitable for drinking and other purposes.

Table 9-1. pH sensor specifications

Measuring Range: 0 to 14.00 pH
Sensitivity: 0.002 pH
Stability: 0.02 pH per 24 hours, non-cumulative
Wetted Materials: PEEK, ceramic, titanium, glass, Viton, EDPM
(optional: 316 stainless steel with 316SS body)
Temperature Compensation: Pt1000 RTD
Sensor Cable: 6 conductors (5 are used) plus 2 shields, 15 ft (4.6 m) length standard
Temperature Range: –5°C to +95°C (23°F to 203°F)
Pressure Range: 0 to 100 psig
Maximum Flow Rate: 10 ft (3 m) per second
Distance: 3,000 ft (914 m)
Sensor Body Options: 1″ NPT convertible, 1¼″ insertion, 1½″ or 2″ sanitary-style
Weight: 1 lb (0.45 kg)

242
 Chapter 9 Programming Water-­Quality Sensors

Ideal drinking water conditions are listed in Table 9-2.

Table 9-2. Water Quality Parameters for Drinking Water

S.No. Parameters Drinking water IS 10500 : 2012
Permissible Limit Maximum Limit
1 Odor Agreeable Agreeable
2 Taste Agreeable Agreeable
3 pH 6.5 to 8.5 No relaxation
4 TDS (mg/l) 500 2000
5 Hardness (as CaCO3) (mg/l) 200 600
6 Alkalinity (as CaCO3) (mg/l) 200 600
7 Nitrate (mg/l) 45 No relaxation
8 Sulfate (mg/l) 200 400
9 Fluoride (mg/l) 1 1.5
10 Chloride (mg/l) 250 1000
11 Turbidity (NTU) 5 10
12 Arsenic (mg/l) 0.01 0.05
13 Copper (mg/l) 0.05 1.5
14 Cadmium (mg/l) 0.003 No relaxation
15 Chromium (mg/l) 0.05 No relaxation
16 Lead (mg/l) 0.01 No relaxation
17 Iron (mg/l) 0.3 No relaxation
18 Zinc (mg/l) 5 15
19 Fecal Coliform (cfu) 0 0
20 E. Coli (cfu) 0 0

(Source: http://iitk.ac.in/iwd/wq/drinkingwater.htm )

243
Chapter 9 Programming Water-­Quality Sensors

The water quality parameters suitable for irrigation purposes are listed
in Table 9-3.

Table 9-3. Irrigation Water Quality Parameters

Figure 9-2 showcases a DO sensor which can be read through arduino

and other single board computers.

Figure 9-2. DO sensor for single board computers

Figure 9-3. Temperature sensor

244
 Chapter 9 Programming Water-­Quality Sensors

Figure 9-4. Turbidity sensor

Figure 9-5. TDS sensor

Monitoring the important parameters of the water with sensor through
arduino is discussed in Table 9-4.
Table 9-5 shows the water quality sensor interfacing with the
Raspberry Pi and other python based single board computers.

245
 Table 9-4. Programming water quality sensors with arduino

246
Sensors Sensor Image Voltage Connectivity Detection Pin Arduino Code
Chapter 9

Range Range Configuration

pH +5V Analog 0.0-14.0 pH VCC-VCC int pH_Value;

GND-GND float Voltage;
A0-A0
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
p inMode(pH_Value,
INPUT);
}

void loop()
Programming Water-­Quality Sensors

{
p H_Value =
analogRead(A0);
V oltage = pH_Value *
(5.0 / 1023.0);
S erial.
println(Voltage);
delay(500);
}
 DO +3.3V- Analog 0-20mg/L VCC-3.3V #include <Arduino.h>
+5.5V GND-GND
#define VREF
Analog
5000//VREF(mv)
output-A1
#define ADC_RES
1024//ADC Resolution

uint32_t raw;

void setup()
{
S erial.
begin(115200);
Chapter 9

void loop()
{
r aw=analogRead(A1);
Serial.
println("raw:
\t"+String(raw)+"\
tVoltage(mv)"+String
(raw*VREF/ADC_RES));
delay(1000);
}

247
Programming Water-­Quality Sensors

(continued)
 Table 9-4. (continued)

248
Sensors Sensor Image Voltage Connectivity Detection Pin Arduino Code
Chapter 9

Range Range Configuration

Turbidity +5V Analog 0% - 3.5%(0 VCC-5V void setup() {

-4550NTU) GND-GND Serial.begin(9600);
Analog }
output-A0 void loop() {
i nt sensorValue =
analogRead(A0);
f loat voltage =
sensorValue * (5.0 /
1024.0);
Programming Water-­Quality Sensors

S erial.println
("Sensor Output
(V):");
S erial.println
(voltage);
Serial.println();
delay(1000);
}
 Salinity 5V Analog 0-50ppt (0- VCC-5V int potPin = 0;
50,000ppm) GND-GND float refvoltage = 5.0;
A0-A0
voidsetup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
S erial.println("Sal
sensor ");
}

voidloop()
{
Chapter 9

int samples = 20;

int aRead = 0;

for (int i = 0; i <

samples ; i++)
{
a Read +=
analogRead(potPin);
}
float voltage =
refvoltage * aRead/
(1023 * samples);

249
Programming Water-­Quality Sensors

(continued)
 Table 9-4. (continued)

250
Sensors Sensor Image Voltage Connectivity Detection Pin Arduino Code
Chapter 9

Range Range Configuration

float ppt = 16.3 *

voltage;

Serial.print("Analog
in reading: ");
Serial.print(aRead);

Serial.print(" -
voltage: ");
Serial.
println(voltage , 3);
Programming Water-­Quality Sensors

Serial.print(" -
Calculated ppt: ");
S erial.println(ppt,
2);
delay(500);
}
 TDS 3.3V-5.5V Analog 0-1000ppm VCC-5V #include <EEPROM.h>
GND-GND #include "GravityTDS.h"
Analog output-
#define TdsSensorPin A1
any analog
GravityTDS gravityTds;
output
float temperature =
25,tdsValue = 0;

void setup()
{
    Serial.begin(115200);
    gravityTds.
Chapter 9

setPin(TdsSensorPin);
    gravityTds.
setAref(5.0);
//reference voltage
on ADC, default 5.0V
on Arduino UNO
    gravityTds.
setAdcRange(1024);
//1024 for 10bit ADC;
4096 for 12bit ADC
(continued)

251
Programming Water-­Quality Sensors
 Table 9-4. (continued)

252
Sensors Sensor Image Voltage Connectivity Detection Pin Arduino Code
Chapter 9

Range Range Configuration

gravityTds.begin();
//initialization
}

void loop()
{
//temperature =
readTemperature();
//add your temperature
sensor and read it
Programming Water-­Quality Sensors

gravityTds.set
Temperature
(temperature);
// set the temperature
and execute temperature
compensation
gravityTds.update();
//sample and calculate
 tdsValue = gravityTds.
getTdsValue();
// then get the value
Serial.
print(tdsValue,0);
Serial.
println("ppm");
delay(1000);
}

Temperature 3V – 5V Digital 0 -50°C VCC- 5V #include <DHT.h>

GND-GND
Chapter 9

//Constants
Data-D2
#define DHTPIN 2
// what pin we're
connected to
#define DHTTYPE DHT11
// DHT 11 (AM2302)
// Initialize DHT
sensor for normal
16mhz Arduino
DHT dht(DHTPIN,
DHTTYPE);

253
Programming Water-­Quality Sensors

(continued)
 Table 9-4. (continued)

254
Sensors Sensor Image Voltage Connectivity Detection Pin Arduino Code
Chapter 9

Range Range Configuration

//Variables
int chk;
float hum; //Stores
humidity value
float temp; //Stores
temperature value

void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
Programming Water-­Quality Sensors

dht.begin();
}

void loop()
{
//Read data and
store it to variables
hum and temp
hum = dht.
readHumidity();
 temp= dht.
readTemperature();
//Print temp and
humidity values to
serial monitor
Serial.
print("Humidity: ");
Serial.print(hum);
Serial.print(" %,
Temp: ");
Serial.print(temp);
Chapter 9

Serial.println("
Celsius");
delay(2000);
//Delay 2 sec.
}

255
Programming Water-­Quality Sensors
 Table 9-5. Python based interface for water quality sensors

256
Sensors Python Code
Chapter 9

pH import json, time, conf

from boltiot import Bolt, Sms #Import Sms and Bolt class from boltiot library

value1 = 0
value2 = 6.5
value3 = 7.5
value4 = 14

mybolt = Bolt(conf.API_KEY, conf.DEVICE_ID) #Create object to fetch data

sms = Sms(conf.SID, conf.AUTH_TOKEN, conf.TO_NUMBER, conf.FROM_NUMBER)
#Create object to send SMS
Programming Water-­Quality Sensors

response = mybolt.serialRead('10')
print response

while True:
print("Reading Sensor Value")
response = mybolt.serialRead('10') #Fetching the value from Arduino
data = json.loads(response)
ph_value = data['value'].rstrip()
print("pH Valueis:"+str(data['value']))
 try:
if ph_value > value1 and ph_value < value2:
print("Making request to send SMS")
r esponse = sms.send_sms("The liquid is ACIDIC. pH value of the liquid
is:"+str(ph_value))
print("Response recieved:"+ste(response.status))
elif ph_value > value2 and ph_value < value3:
print("Making request to send SMS")
r esponse = sms.send_sms("The liquid is NEUTRAL. pH value of the
liquid is:"+str(ph_value))
Chapter 9

print("Response recieved:"+ste(response.status))
elif ph_value > value3 and ph_value < value4:
print("Making request to send SMS")
r esponse = sms.send_sms("The liquid is ALKALINE. pH value of the
liquid is:"+str(ph_value))
print("Response recieved:"+ste(response.status))
except Exception as e:
print("Error occured: Below are the details")
print(e)
time.sleep(100) #reads sensor value for every 100 seconds
(continued)

257
Programming Water-­Quality Sensors
 Table 9-5. (continued)

258
Sensors Python Code Chapter 9

DO
turbidity Importtime
importboard
importbusio
importadafruit_ads1x15.ads1015asADS
fromadafruit_ads1x15.analog_inimportAnalogIn
# Create the I2C bus
i2c=busio.I2C(board.SCL,board.SDA)
# Create the ADC object using the I2C bus
ads=ADS.ADS1015(i2c)
Programming Water-­Quality Sensors

# Create single-ended input on channel 0

chan=AnalogIn(ads,ADS.P0)
# Create differential input between channel 0 and 1
# chan = AnalogIn(ads, ADS.P0, ADS.P1)
print("{:>5}\t{:>5}".format("raw","v"))
whileTrue:
print("{:>5}\t{:>5.3f}".format(chan.value,chan.voltage))
time.sleep(0.5)
 Salinity
TDS import math
import sys
import time
from grove.adc import ADC

class GroveTDS:

def __init__(self, channel):

self.channel = channel
self.adc = ADC()
Chapter 9

@property
def TDS(self):
value = self.adc.read(self.channel)
if value != 0:
voltage = value*5/1024.0
t dsValue = (133.42/voltage*voltage*voltage-255.86*voltage*voltage+857
.39*voltage)*0.5
return tdsValue
else:
return 0
(continued)

259
Programming Water-­Quality Sensors
 Table 9-5. (continued)

260
Sensors Python Code
Chapter 9

Grove = GroveTDS

def main():
if len(sys.argv) < 2:
print('Usage: {} adc_channel'.format(sys.argv[0]))
sys.exit(1)

sensor = GroveTDS(int(sys.argv[1]))
print('Detecting TDS...')

while True:
print('TDS Value: {0}'.format(sensor.TDS))
Programming Water-­Quality Sensors

time.sleep(1)

if __name__ == '__main__':
main()
 Temperature import serial
import re
import csv
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from drawnow import *

# Set path to my Arduino device

portPath = "/dev/tty.usbmodemfa411"
baud = 9600
sample_time = 0.1
Chapter 9

sim_time = 10

# Initializing Lists
# Data Collection
data_log = []
line_data = []
(continued)

261
Programming Water-­Quality Sensors
 Table 9-5. (continued)

262
Sensors Python Code
Chapter 9

# Establishing Serial Connection

connection = serial.Serial(portPath,baud)

# Calculating the length of data to collect based on the

# sample time and simulation time (set by user)
max_length = sim_time/sample_time

plt.ion() #Tell matplotlib you want interactive mode to plot live data

# Create a function that makes our desired plot

def makeFig():
plt.ylim(15,35)
Programming Water-­Quality Sensors

plt.title('Temperatur Sensor Data')

plt.grid(True)
plt.ylabel('Temperatur C')
plt.plot(data_log, 'ro-', label='Degrees C')

# Collecting the data from the serial port

while True:
line = connection.readline()
line_data = re.findall('\d*\.\d*',str(line))
 line_data = filter(None,line_data)
line_data = [float(x) for x in line_data]
if len(line_data) > 0:
print(line_data[0])
if float(line_data[0]) > 0.0:
drawnow(makeFig)
plt.pause(.000001)
data_log.append(line_data)
if len(data_log) > max_length - 1:
break
Chapter 9

# Storing data_log in data.csv

with open('data.csv','w', newline='') as csvfile:
for line in data_log:
csvwrite = csv.writer(csvfile)
csvwrite.writerow(line)

263
Programming Water-­Quality Sensors
Chapter 9 Programming Water-­Quality Sensors

Creating water quality–based aquaculture is discussed in the next

chapter. Water quality–based farming improves the feed conversion ratio
and farmers’ productivity, allowing lower risk/higher profits for farmers.

References
[1] A. N. Prasad, K. Mamun, F. Islam, and H. Haqva, “Smart Water Quality
Monitoring System,” IEEE, 2015. doi: 10.1109/APWCCSE.2015.7476234.

[2] Nayla Omer, “Water Quality Parameters,” in Water Quality: Science,

Assessments and Policy, IntechOpen, 2020. doi:10.5772/intechopen.89657.

264
CHAPTER 10

IoT-Based Shrimp
Farming
Shrimp farming is an aquaculture business [1] that can occur in saltwater
or freshwater [2]. Ocean shrimp farming is a very old industry popular
in many Asian countries. Prior to ten years ago, shrimp were usually
considered a second crop in traditional fish farming systems. The shrimp
caught in salt beds, coastal paddy fields, or brackish water fishponds are
left to grow until they are big enough to sell, and then they are harvested
as a secondary crop. But in recent years, farmers have started growing
shrimp as their main crop. Many farmers have made shrimp farms in their
rice fields, fish ponds, and salt beds. Nowadays, most shrimp farmers [3]
use modern methods to raise shrimp. A small piece of land can be used to
make a lot of food.
Shrimp farming [4] in freshwater is also growing in popularity. In 2010,
about 670,000 tons of freshwater prawns were raised around the world, the
majority in China.
The influencing factors of shrimp farming are shown in Figure 10-1.

© G. R. Kanagachidambaresan 2022 265

G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, Internet of Things Using Single Board Computers,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8108-6_10
Chapter 10 IoT-Based Shrimp Farming

Figure 10-1. Shrimp farming factors and parameters

The key points of land selection include avoiding residential areas and
accessibility to good electricity, water, and transportation. There are many
ways to raise shrimp: in ponds made of soil, concrete tanks, plastic tanks,
or any other type of water reservoir.
Organizations like the Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture
(CIBA) provide guidelines for shrimp pond setup [1]. Shrimp farming
works best in a simple pond with enough water depth. Before preparing
land for shrimp production, the types and texture of the soil in the chosen
region must be studied. Soil samples from arbitrary locations (preferably
up to a depth of 0.5 meters) are collected. Physical and chemical tests are
conducted to evaluate the soil’s acidity, organic load, fertility level, and
physical makeup.

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The presence of sufficient clay in the soil is essential for shrimp

production. Sandy clay or sandy loam soil is regarded as suitable for
agricultural development.
It’s also important for a shrimp farming business [5] to keep the water
clean. The physical, chemical, and biological properties of water are all
part of its quality. The right pH level is a very important for a business
that grows shrimp. The water should have a pH between 7.5 and 8.5.
The dissolved oxygen level should not fall below 4 ppm. Shrimp feeding,
breeding, and other management can be monitored through expertise and
an automation process via IoT. This chapter focuses on the continuous
monitoring of water-quality parameters [6].
A NodeMCU-based continuously monitoring [7] data buoy is
constructed in this chapter. The device’s architecture is illustrated in
Figure 10-2.

Figure 10-2. The architecture of the design

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Chapter 10 IoT-Based Shrimp Farming

Figure 10-2 shows the data buoy constructed for continuous water-­
quality monitoring.

Figure 10-3. Data buoy designed for monitoring water-quality

parameters

Figure 10-3 Prototype developed for monitoring Aqua ponds. A KiCad-

based simple circuit board is designed for a water buoy. It includes an
ADS1115 module for collecting analog signals, an SD card reader for data
acquisition, and an OLED display for monitoring purposes. The OLED, SD
card reader, and RTC are connected via I2C communication. The analog
water-quality sensors are connected to the ADS1115 module. A DS18B20
digital temperature sensor is connected via digital GPIO pins to a 4.7K
ohm transistor. Figure 10-4 provides the KiCad design for the data buoy.

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 Chapter 10 IoT-Based Shrimp Farming

Figure 10-4. KiCad PCB design

A KiCad 3D view of the designed PCB board is shown in Figure 10-5.

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Chapter 10 IoT-Based Shrimp Farming

Figure 10-5. Kicad 3D view

The sensor discussed in the previous chapter is mounted with a

3D-printed housing module. The waterproof 3D printed module provides
water isolation between the electronics and the sensors. Figure 10-6
showcases the 3D design and the printed mounting module.

Figure 10-6. 3D printed sensor housing module

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 Chapter 10 IoT-Based Shrimp Farming

The following is the firmware code.

//nodemcu code
#include <Arduino.h>
#include <ESP8266WiFi.h>
#include "HTTPSRedirect.h"
#define SensorPin A0
#include "DHT.h"
#define DHTPIN D4
#define DHTTYPE DHT11
DHT dht(DHTPIN, DHTTYPE);
#include <SPI.h>
#include <Wire.h>
#include <Adafruit_GFX.h>
#include <Adafruit_SSD1306.h>
Adafruit_SSD1306 display = Adafruit_SSD1306(128, 32, &Wire);
#include <OneWire.h>
#include <DallasTemperature.h>
#define ONE_WIRE_BUS D3
OneWire oneWire(ONE_WIRE_BUS);
DallasTemperature sensors(&oneWire);
float Celcius=0;
unsigned long int avgValue;
float b;
int buf[10],temp;
#include <Wire.h>
#include <Adafruit_ADS1X15.h>
const char* ssid     = "IoT";
const char* password = "IoT@1234";
//const char* ssid     = "Akash";
//const char* password = "Akash@1234";
Adafruit_ADS1015 ads1115;

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Chapter 10 IoT-Based Shrimp Farming

// Enter Google Script Deployment ID:

const char *GScriptId =
"***********************************bGnLR5aoXjCBJgehgkIlrA";
// Enter command (insert_row or append_row) and your Google
Sheets sheet name (default is Sheet1):
String payload_base =  "{\"command\": \"insert_row\", \"sheet_
name\": \"Data\", \"values\": ";
String payload = "";

// Google Sheets setup (do not edit)

const char* host = "script.google.com";
const int httpsPort = 443;
const char* fingerprint = "";
String url = String("/macros/s/") + GScriptId + "/exec";
HTTPSRedirect* client = nullptr;

// Declare variables that will be published to Google Sheets

float value0 = 0;
float value1 = 0;
float value2 = 0;
float value3 = 0;
float value4 = 0;
float value5 = 0;
float value6 = 0;
void setup() {

  Serial.begin(9600);
  delay(10);
  Serial.println('\n');
  ads1115.begin();
  sensors.begin();
  dht.begin();
  display.begin(SSD1306_SWITCHCAPVCC, 0x3C);

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 Chapter 10 IoT-Based Shrimp Farming

  display.display();
  delay(1000);
  display.clearDisplay();
  display.display();
  display.setTextSize(0.5);
  display.setTextColor(SSD1306_WHITE);
  display.setCursor(0,0);
  display.print("DBT Brackish Water");
  display.display();
  // Connect to WiFi
  WiFi.begin(ssid, password);
  Serial.print("Connecting to ");
  Serial.print(ssid); Serial.println(" ...");

  while (WiFi.status() != WL_CONNECTED) {

    delay(1000);
    Serial.print(".");
  }
  Serial.println('\n');
  Serial.println("Connection established!");
  Serial.print("IP address:\t");
  Serial.println(WiFi.localIP());

  // Use HTTPSRedirect class to create a new TLS connection

  client = new HTTPSRedirect(httpsPort);
  client->setInsecure();
  client->setPrintResponseBody(true);
  client->setContentTypeHeader("application/json");

  Serial.print("Connecting to ");
  Serial.println(host);

  // Try to connect for a maximum of 5 times

  bool flag = false;

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Chapter 10 IoT-Based Shrimp Farming

  for (int i=0; i<5; i++){

    int retval = client->connect(host, httpsPort);
    if (retval == 1){
       flag = true;
       Serial.println("Connected");
       break;
    }
    else
      Serial.println("Connection failed. Retrying...");
  }
  if (!flag){
    Serial.print("Could not connect to server: ");
    Serial.println(host);
    return;
  }
  delete client;    // delete HTTPSRedirect object
  client = nullptr; // delete HTTPSRedirect object
}

void loop() {
int16_t adc1, adc2, adc3;
  adc1 = ads1115.readADC_SingleEnded(1);
  adc2 = ads1115.readADC_SingleEnded(2);
  adc3 = ads1115.readADC_SingleEnded(3);
  for(int i=0;i<10;i++)       //Get 10 sample value from the
sensor for smooth the value
  {
    buf[i]=analogRead(SensorPin);
    delay(10);
  }
  for(int i=0;i<9;i++)        //sort the analog from small
to large

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 Chapter 10 IoT-Based Shrimp Farming

  {
    for(int j=i+1;j<10;j++)
    {
      if(buf[i]>buf[j])
      {
        temp=buf[i];
        buf[i]=buf[j];
        buf[j]=temp;
      }
    }
  }
  avgValue=0;
  for(int i=2;i<8;i++)                      //take the average
value of 6
center sample
    avgValue+=buf[i];
  float phValue=(float)avgValue*5.0/1024/6; //convert the
analog into
millivolt
  phValue=3.5*phValue;                      //convert the
millivolt into
pH value
  Serial.print("    pH:");
  Serial.print(phValue,2);
  Serial.println(" ");
  Serial.print("AIN1: "); Serial.println(adc1);
  delay(300);

  sensors.requestTemperatures();
  Celcius=sensors.getTempCByIndex(0);
  float h = dht.readHumidity();
  float t = dht.readTemperature();

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Chapter 10 IoT-Based Shrimp Farming

// create some fake data to publish

value0 = phValue;
value1 = adc1;
value2 = adc2;
value3 = adc3;
value4 = h;
value5 = t;
value6 = Celcius;

display.display();
display.println(value0);
display.println(value1);
display.println(value2);
display.println(value3);
display.println(value4);
display.println(value5);
display.println(value6);
display.display();

static bool flag = false;

if (!flag){
    client = new HTTPSRedirect(httpsPort);
    client->setInsecure();
    flag = true;
    client->setPrintResponseBody(true);
    client->setContentTypeHeader("application/json");
  }
  if (client != nullptr){
    if (!client->connected()){
      client->connect(host, httpsPort);
    }
  }

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 Chapter 10 IoT-Based Shrimp Farming

  else{
    Serial.println("Error creating client object!");
  }

  // Create json object string to send to Google Sheets

  payload = payload_base + "\"" + value0 + "," + value1 + ","
+ value2 + "," + value3 + "," + value4 + "," + value5 + "," +
value6  + "\"}";

  // Publish data to Google Sheets

  Serial.println("Publishing data...");
  Serial.println(payload);
  if(client->POST(url, host, payload)){
    // do stuff here if publish was successful
  }
  else{
    // do stuff here if publish was not successful
    Serial.println("Error while connecting");
  }

// a delay of several seconds is required before

publishing again
delay(5000);
}

Figure 10-7 shows that the sensor data is collected in a corresponding

Google Sheets programmed in NodeMCU. The data is updated every 10
seconds.

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Chapter 10 IoT-Based Shrimp Farming

Figure 10-7. Google Sheets screenshot

References
[1] Mahesh Salunke, Amol Kalyankar, Chandraprakash D. Khedkar,
Mahesh Shingare, and Gulab D. Khedkar, “A Review on Shrimp
Aquaculture in India: Historical Perspective, Constraints, Status and
Future Implications for Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystem and Biodiversity,”
Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture, vol. 28:3, pp. 283–302. doi:
10.1080/23308249.2020.1723058.

[2] Anjani Kumar, Pratap Birthal, and A. Badruddin, “Technical Efficiency

in Shrimp Farming in India: Estimation and Implications,” Indian Journal
of Agricultural Economics, vol. 59, Jul–Sep 2004, pp. 413–420.

[3] Ravi Patel and Bhanu Sharma, “Shrimp farming,” June 2022.

[4] Shiv Malvi, “A Study on Shrimp Farming and Surveillance,”

IJRASET, 2022.

278
 Chapter 10 IoT-Based Shrimp Farming

[5] João Guimarães, “Shrimp Culture and Market Incorporation: A

Study of Shrimp Culture in Paddy Fields in Southwest Bangladesh,”
Development and Change, vol. 20, October 2008, pp. 653–682. doi: 10.1111/
j.1467-7660.1989.tb00361.x.

[6] Gurkan Tuna, Orhan Arkoc, and Kayhan Gulez, “Continuous

Monitoring of Water Quality Using Portable and Low-Cost Approaches,”
International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks, June 2013. doi:
10.1155/2013/249598.

[7] Yogendra Singh Parihar, “Internet of Things and Nodemcu A review

of use of Nodemcu ESP8266 in IoT products,” JETIR, vol. 6, June 2019,
pp. 1085.

279
Index
A Blemish sensors, 33
Bluetooth, 8, 175–177
Aerosol particle sensors, 51
Broadcasting data, 193, 194
Animation function
classes, 155
live line graph, 155–157 C
oscilloscopes live, 157, 159, 160
Camera serial interface (CSI), 85
Application-level network
Carbon monoxide (MQ7), 58
protocols, 96
Cartesian coordinates, 124
Application programming interface
Central Institute of Brackishwater
(API), 173
Aquaculture (CIBA), 266
Arduino programming, 76
Coherence, 131
GSM/GPS modules, 177–180
Communication protocols, 8, 10,
serial communication, 176
11, 28, 69, 75, 76, 227, 228
Autocorrelation graph, 133, 134
Contact sensors, 67–68
Automobile systems, 22, 23
Coriolis flow meter, 63
axes.cohere() function, 131
Cross-correlation graph, 132, 133
Axes.twinx method, 136
Axes.xcorr() function, 132
D
Data lists, 137
B
Detectors, 31, 32, 36, 42, 43, 48, 50,
Bar graphs
54–57, 60, 66, 68
categorical data, 118
Dimension, 16, 59, 65, 148
grouped bar, 118, 119
Donut chart, 142–144
horizontal bar, 122, 123
Dust sensor, 52
proportional, 117
Dynamic Host Configuration
stacked bar, 120, 121
Protocol (DHCP), 190

© G. R. Kanagachidambaresan 2022 281

G. R. Kanagachidambaresan, Internet of Things Using Single Board Computers,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8108-6
INDEX

E H
Electromagnetic flow sensors, 65 Horizontal bar graph, 122, 123
Human-computer interaction
(HCI), 16, 17
F Humidity sensors, 56
Fast Fourier transform
(FFT), 127
Figure size, 135, 136 I, J, K
Firebase, 107, 108, 180, 181, 206 I2C NodeMCU communication
FiveThirtyEight style sheet, protocol, 76
145, 146 Image processing algorithms
Flame sensor, 66, 67 artificial intelligence, 227
Flaw sensors and detectors, 66 artificial vision, 226
Flow sensors, 60–62 automotive/industrial
Force sensor, 58, 59 robots, 227
Fourier analysis, 127 comparison, 238
Fourier series, 127 dimension verification,
Frequency spectrum, 127 234–236, 238
disadvantages, 228
high-quality products, 225
G industrial production, 226
Gas/chemical sensors/ industrial robots, 227
detectors, 57 module source code, 230–233
General-purpose input/output support module code, 233, 234
(GPIO), 78 visual inspection, 226
Google Cloud Platform (GCP), 180 visual processing
Google Firebase, 181–185, 206 algorithms, 226
Google Sheets Programming Imitation learning, 12
(gspread), 106, 107 Inductive proximity sensors, 44
GPIO numbering, 79, 80 Industry 4.0, 1, 228, 229
Graphical user interface Industry 4.0 standards, 209
(GUI), 77, 229 Information and Communication
Grouped bar graph, 118, 119, 121 Technology (ICT), 25–27

282
 INDEX

Institute of Electrical and LPWANs, 164–184

Electronics Engineers’ machine intelligence, 12, 13
(IEEE) 802.11 standards, 9 shrimp farming, 265–278
Intelligent transport systems wired communication (see
(ITS), 26 Wired communication
Interfacing DHT sensors protocol)
Adafruit DHT.DHT22, 82
GPIO connections, 82
program output, 83, 84 L
Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C), 10 Leak detection/monitoring, 56
Internet, 99 Live line graph, 155–157
Internet of Things (IoT), 31, 75, Local area networks (LANs), 9
163, 187 Low-power wide-area networks
active management (LPWANs)
components/operation, 14 Arduino connection, 166
data aggregation/fusion Bluetooth, 175–177
process, 16 circuit connection, 165–168
data processing definition, 164
architecture, 14 Firebase cloud
methods, 15 connectivity, 180–184
sensor fusion, 15 GSM architecture, 177–180
actuators, 18–21 LoRa tech protocol, 165
advantages, 1 RFID protocol, 168–173
classical machine learning, 13 Zigbee protocol stack, 173–175
connectivity, 8
features, 7
LoRa, 10
M
Wi-Fi, 9 Machine intelligence
context awareness, 17 techniques, 12
data awareness schemes, 17 Mass air flow sensors, 62, 63
feature and data flow, 2 MATLAB, 109, 111–114, 116, 119,
human-computer 122, 123, 126
interaction, 16, 17 MATLAB-style interface, 109

283
INDEX

Matplotlib Mechanical flow sensors, 60, 64

animation function, 155–160 Message Passing Interface (MPI)
autocorrelation graph, 133 broad categories, 189
bar graphs, 117–123 Gigabit Ethernet
changing figure size, 135, 136 connection, 190
cross-correlation graph, 132 networking, 189, 190
data plots, 110 programming, 191, 192
empty figure, 112 Python program, 192
graphs, 109 Message queuing telemetry
installing, 109 transport (MQTT),
matplotlib.pyplot, 110 209–223
multiple plots, alternative Metal detectors sensor, 54
method, 117 MQQT protocol, 105, 106
multiple subplots, 115, 116
NumPy, 110, 111
pie chart, 138–142 N
plt.plot(), 113 Negative temperature coefficient
Pyplot, 109 (NTC), 39
pyplot.subplots, 111 Nested pie chart, 140, 141
python generated numbers, 114 Node-RED
Python plotting package, 160 applications, 104
random values, 111, 113 architecture, 104
scales, 136–138 command, 201
scatter custom symbol, 125, 126 dashboard, 204, 205
scatter plot, 124 definition, 103
signals coherence, 129–131 drag-and-drop program,
simple graph, 110 205, 206
spectrum representations, features, 103, 104
126, 127 home automation projects, 201
style sheets, 145–147 implementation, 105
3D graphs, 148–154 initialization, 202
visualization library, 108 installation option, 204
matplotlib.animation, 156 mobile browser screen, 207
matplotlib.ticker formatters, 136 palette management, 203

284
 INDEX

programming dashboard, pH sensor specifications, 242–244

202, 203 Physical numbering, 79
real-time hardware, 207, 208 Pi camera access, 85, 86
system browser, 206 Pi camera module, 85
Non-contact sensor, 68 Pi camera specifications, 85
Non-destructive testing (NDT), 226 Pie chart
Non-invasive sensors, 27 description, 138
NumPy module, 110, 130 donut, 142
fractional area, 139
labeling, 142
O MATLAB plot, 140
Oscilloscopes live graph, 157, nested, 140, 141
159, 160 replacement, 138
Oscilloscopes test, 157 Pin number, 80
PIR sensor, 87
applications, 86
P infrared heat radiations
Paddle wheel flow sensors, 64, 65 detection, 86
Pandas RPI connection, 86, 87
data cleaning, 95 plt.figure() function, 111
data filtering, sorting and plt.plot(), 113
grouping, 95 plt.show() function, 110
data science tools, 92 plt.title() function, 113
data selecting methods, 95 plt.xlabel() function, 113
data viewing and inspecting plt.xlim() function, 113
methods, 94 plt.ylabel() function, 113
installing, 93 plt.ylim() function, 113
loading and saving data, 93 Position sensors, 49
Particle sensors, 50–53 Positive temperature coefficient
Personal area network (PAN), 8 (PTC), 39
Photoelectric proximity Pressure sensors, 48
sensors, 45, 46 Printed circuit boards (PCBs), 40
Photoelectric sensors, 45–47, 50 Proximity, 75
Photoionization detection (PID), 58 Proximity sensors, 43, 44

285
INDEX

Pyplot, 109, 117, 160 communication, 192, 193

Pyplot submodule, 108 CPU speed ranges, 78
pyplot.subplots, 111 definition, 77
Python programming, 92 features/capabilities, 77
communication flask server, 197–199
concepts, 95–99 gathering concepts, 196
file concepts, 90, 91 HTML program, 199
file-handling methods, 92 image-based systems,
flask program, 198 225–239
image processing image processing
algorithms, 230 algorithms, 228–240
keywords, 88 message passing
message passing applications, 189–192
interface, 192–195 models, 78
programming concepts, 88 Node-RED, 201–208
spreadsheet concepts, 92, 94, 95 on-chip hardware, 78
wired and wireless peripherals, 77
programming, 99–102 persistent communications, 193
Raspi-configurations/facilities,
187, 188
Q scattering, 195
Quadrature-amplitude Raspberry Pi 3 model, 78
modulation (QAM), 168 Raspberry Pi Foundation, 77
Raspberry Pi GPIO
BCM and BOARD modes, 80
R C-based control, 81
Radiation detectors, 42, 43 depiction, 79
Radio-Frequency Identification external I/O devices, 78
(RFID), 168–173 LED’s on/off state, 79
Random values, 111, 113, 126, multiplexed, 79
130, 132 pin numbers, 79, 80
Raspberry Pi (RPi) Python and C (WiringPi), 80
broadcasting, 193, 194 Raspbian OS, 77, 80
browser, 199 Reinforcement learning, 12

286
 INDEX

Resistance Temperature smart homes, 23–25

Detector (RTD), 38, 39 transportation systems, 25–27
Retro-reflective sensors, 46 type classification, 3
RPI camera, 84, 226 vision and imaging sensors
RPI JATAG-based sensor, 84 (see Vision and imaging
sensors)
Serial Data (SDA)/Serial
S Clock (SCL), 10
Scatter custom symbol, 125, 126 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI), 11
Scattering data, 195 Serial-port-enabled devices, 101
Scatter plot, 109, 124–125 Shrimp farming system
Semiconductor temperature aquaculture business, 265
sensors, 40, 41 design architecture, 267
Sensors, 75 factors and parameters, 266
analog conversion, 4 firmware code, 271–276
automation tool, 31, 32 Google sheet, 278
automobile, 22, 23 Kicad 3D view, 270
conversion, 4 KiCad-circuit board, 268, 269
data acquisition/detection land selection, 266
system, 2 NodeMCU, 267
deflection/comparison, 4 properties, 267
discrete and digital 3D design, 270
information, 4 water-quality monitoring, 268
electronic operation Single-board computers (SBCs), 1,
classification, 5 77, 187, 225, 239
measurand, 5 Sinusoidal components, 126, 127
mechanical mode, 5 Small-outline integrated circuit
optical/electrical option, 6 (SOIC), 40
radiation/biological mode, 7 Smart home sensors, 25–27
thermal/chemical mode, 6 socket.connect(hosname, port), 98
energy conversion, 3 Sockets
generation, 3 definition, 96
IoT (see Internet of Things (IoT)) methods, 97
monitor physical qualities, 31 modules, 96

287
INDEX

Sockets (cont.) Temperature thermistor

simple client, 98 sensors, 39, 40
simple server, 97 Thermometers, 41, 42
socket.socket() function, 96 3D graphs
Solarized light style 2D bar graphs, 150, 151
sheet, 146, 147 3D histogram, 2D data, 152, 153
Solid particle sensors, 52 plotting 2D data, 3D plot,
Solid-state temperature sensors, 148, 149
see Semiconductor Three-dimensional shape, 148
temperature sensors Three-dimensional space, 148
Spectrum representations, 3D surfaces, 154, 155
126, 127, 129 Through-beam sensors, 46, 47
Stacked bar graph, 120–122 Traditional cables, 99
Style sheets Transducers, 75
definition, 145 Transportation management
FiveThirtyEight, 145 system (TMS), 26
solarized light, 146, 147 Transportation sensors, 25–27
types, 145 Turbidity sensor, 53
Supervised learning module, 13 2D graphs, 152
Supply chain management, 209
data sharing, 210
principle, 210, 211 U
production activity, 221 Ultrasonic flow sensors, 65
production and consumer Ultrasonic proximity sensor, 47
dashboard, 222 Unsupervised learning, 13
production system, 209
publisher source code, 211–218
round-trip time execution, 222
V
subscriber source code, 218–222 Velocity flow sensor, 64, 65
Vision and imaging sensors
aerosol particle, 51
T carbon monoxide, 58
Temperature coefficient of chemical/gas sensors/
resistance (TCR), 38 detectors, 57

288
 INDEX

communication protocols, 69 resistance temperature

contact, 67 detector, 38, 39
electrical devices, 32 semiconductor
electrical/electromechanical temperature, 40, 41
devices, 55 shop floor/production line
embedded vision, 33 inspections, 33, 34
event/production line smart camera, 33
triggering, 35 thermistors, 39, 40
flame sensor, 66, 67 thermocouple, 37
flaw sensors/detectors, 66 thermometer, 41, 42
force sensor, 59 3D Depth cameras, 35
gas sensors, 57, 58 ultrasonic proximity, 47
humidity, 56 velocity flow sensor, 64, 65
image, 32 voltmeter/ammeter, 67
image sensing methods, 33 Vision sensors, 34
inductive proximity, 44 Volatile organic compounds
leak, 55 (VOCs), 58
level sensors/detectors, 55
light rings, 33
line scan camera, 34, 35 W
liquid particle, 53 Water quality sensors
magnetometer, 44 DO sensor, 244
mass flow sensor, 62, 63 drinking water, 243
measure temperature, 36 irrigation process, 244
metal detectors, 54 parameters, 241
non-contact, 68 pH specification, 242–244
particle, 50 TDS sensor, 245
photoelectric light, 45, 46 temperature sensor, 244
photoelectric sensors, 46, 50 turbidity sensor, 245
position, 49 Wi-Fi connection, Python, 99
pressure, 48 Wi-Fi network’s XML
proximity sensors, 43, 44 configuration, 100
radiation sensor, 42, 43 Wi-Fi technology, 9

289
INDEX

Wired communication protocol Wireless programming

I2C communication concepts, 99, 100
protocols, 10 Wireless sensor and actuator
serial communication, 11 network (WSAN), 18
SPI communication, 11
UART data communication, 11
Wired programming X, Y
concepts, 101–103 XBee radio connection,
Wired/wireless connectivity 173–175
LPWANs (see Low-power
wide-area networks
(LPWANs)) Z
tech-cost comparison, 163 Zigbee 3.0 protocol, 8, 9
Wireless fidelity systems, 99 Zigbee protocol, 173–175

290