BS 22 &SThe Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry series consists of a Student's Book, Boost eBook, Workbooks and Teacher's Guide with Boost Subscription. Cambridge | IGCSE™ Chemistry Fourth Edition 9781398310506 Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry Fourth Edition Boost eBook 9781398310780 Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry Workbook Third Edition 9781398310537 Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry Practical Skills Workbook 9781398310513 Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry Teacher's Guide with Boost Subscription 9781398310520 To explore the entire series, visit www.hoddereducation.com/cambridge-igcse-science Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry Teacher's Guide with Boost Subscription Created with teachers and students in schools across the globe, Boost is the next generation in digital learning for schools and colleges, bringing quality content and new technology together in one interactive website. 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Apart from any use permitted under Uk copyright law, no par of thi publiestion may a= ‘reproduced or transmitted in any frm or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and ‘recording, or held within any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing frm the publisher or under licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Liited. Further details af such ences (or reroaraphicrepradction) maybe obtained fom the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, wwwcla.co.k Cover photo © Bjon Wylezich -stock.adobescom Llustrtions by Integra Software Services Pt. Ltd, Pondicherry, Ind ‘Typeset in ITC Oficina Sane Std Book 11.5/13 by Integra Softwate Services Pvt.Ltd, Pondicherry, India Printed in Slovenia ‘catalogue record for this title Is avallale From the British Library, mix Paper trom responsible sources ESS scx cios740Contents Acknowledgements How to use this book Scientific enquiry 1 States of matter 1.1. Solids, liquids and gases 4.2 The kinetic particle theory of matter 1.3. Changes of state 1.4 The effects of temperature and pressure on the volume of a gas 1.5 Diffusion 2 Atoms, elements and compounds 2.1 Elements 2.2 Compounds 2.3 Mixtures 2.6 Inside atoms 3 Bonding and structure 3.1. Tonic bonding 3.2 Covalent bonding 3.3 Metallic bonding 4 Stoichiometry - chemical calculations 4.1 Relative atomic mass 4.2 Calculating moles 4,3. Moles and compounds 4.4 Calculating formulae 4.5 Moles and chemical equations 5 Electrochemistry 5.1. Electricity and chemistry 5.2. Electrolysis of lead(II) bromide (Teacher demonstration) 5.3 Electrolysis of aluminium oxide 5.4 Electrolysis of aqueous solutions 5.5 Electrolysis of copper(II) sulfate aqueous solution 5.6 Fuel cells 5.7 Electroplating 6 Chemical energetics 6.1. Substances from petroleum 6.2 Fossil fuels 6.3 What is a fuel? 6.6 Alternative sources to fossil fuels 6.5. Exothermic and endothermic reactions7 Chemical reactions 100 7A Reactions 100 7.2. Factors that affect the rate of a reaction 101 7.3. Enzymes 107 7. Reversible reactions and equilibrium 108 7.5. Ammonia - an important nitrogen-containing chemical 109 7.6 Industrial manufacture of sulfuric acid - the Contact process m 8 Acids, bases and salts 116 8.4. Acids and alkalis 6 8.2. Formation of salts 120 .3. Methods of preparing soluble salts aa 8.4 Preparing insoluble salts 126 8.5 Testing for different salts 126 8.6 Water of crystallisation 126 9 The Periodic Table 134 94 Development of the Periodic Table 134 9.2 Electronic configuration and the Periodic Table 137 9.3 Group I - the alkali metals 137 9.4 Group VII - the halogens ui 9.5 Group VIIE - the noble gases a5 9.6 Transition elements 5 9.7. The position of hydrogen a7 10 Metals 150 10.1. Properties of metals 150 10.2 Metal reactions 151 10.3 Reactivity of metals and their uses 153 10.4 Identifying metal ions 156 10.5 Extraction of metals 157 10.6 Metal corrosion 161 10.7 Alloys 165 11 Chemistry of the environment 170 M14 Water 170 11.2 Artificial fertilisers 175 11.3 The air 7 11.6 Atmospheric pollution 179 12 Organic chemistry 1 188 12.1 Alkanes 188 12.2 The chemical behaviour of alkanes 191 12.3. Alkenes 194 12.4 The chemical behaviour of alkenes 196 12.5 Polymers 19813 Organic chemistry 2 413.4. Functional groups 13.2 Alcohols (R-OH) 13.3 Carboxylic acids 13.4 Esters 13.5 Condensation polymers 13.6 Natural polyamides 14 Experimental techniques and chemical analysis ‘61 Apparatus used for measurement in chemistry 16.2. Separating mixtures 16.3. Qualitative analysis Theory past paper questions Alternative to Practical past paper questions Glossary Index Periodic Table of Elements 206 206 a 212 214 216 221 221 224 233 240 255 262 269 275Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Irene, Katharine, Michael and Barbara for their patience, support and encouragement throughout the production of this textbook. We would also like to thank the editorial and publishing teams at Hodder Education who have supported us on the journey over the past year. Source acknowledgements pp. 13, 38, 40, 41, 42, 189, 195, 196, 198, 199, 200 and 213 The molecular models shown were made using the Molymod® system available from Molymod® Molecular Models, Spiring Enterprises Limited, Billingshurst, West Sussex RH14 9NF England. Photo credits right, (left, t top, m middle, 6 bottom p.1 © 61 Dolphinartin/stock.adobe.com, tr © 12ee12/stock.adobe.com, br © Olaf Schubert/Image Broker/Alamy Stock Photo; p.2 1 © Donald L Fackler Jr/Alamy Stock Photo, r@ Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p.3 tl Geoscience Features Picture Library/Dr.Booth, 61 © Javier Larrea/Agefotostock/Alamy Stock Photo, br © Power And Syred/Science Photo Library; p.7 [© ‘Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, 1 @ Photiconix/Alamy Stock Vector; p.8 © Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, r © ‘Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library: p-10 © NASA/ESA/STSCI/Hubble Heritage Team/ Science Photo Library; p.11 t © Robert Harding/ Getty Images, m © FlemishDreams - Fotolia, b © Echo 23 Media/Alamy Stock Photo; p.12 tl © Bay Ismoyo/AFP/Getty Images, bl © Christie's Images / The Bridgeman Art Library, tr © BL Images Ltd / Brian Lawrence / Alamy Stock Photo; p.13 © Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p.15 © ‘Andrew Lambert Photography / Science Photo Library; p.18 tr © Galyna Andrushko - Fotolia, br © ‘Andrew Lambert Photography / Science Photo Library; p.19 © Andrew Lambert Photography/ Science Photo Library; p.20 (left column) tl © Vwita/stock.adobe.com, tr © Weyo/stock.adobe. com, bl © Shutterstock/Stay Positive, bm © Magraphics/stock.adobe.com, br sommai/stock. adobe.com, (right column) tr © Science Photo Library/Eye of Science, br © moodboard/Thinkstock; p.21 tr © Digital Instruments/Veeco/Science Photo Library; p.24 br © Henry Westheim Photography / Alamy Stock Photo; p.30 t! © Andrew Lambert Photography/ Science Photo Library, tr © Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, b © midosemsem - Fotolia; p.33 © Science Source/ Science Photo Library; p.36 1 © Martyn F. 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Science Photo Library; p.199 ti © Josie Elias/Alamy Stock Photo, tr © Andrew Lambert Photography/ Science Photo Library, br © Martyn F. Chillmaid.. Thanks to Molymod.com for providing the model; p-200 t! © Steve Cukrov - Fotolia, bl @ Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, br © ‘Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p.201 [ © smikeymikey! - Fotolia, r© Henning Kaiser/ DPA/PA Images: p.202 tl © Sally Morgan/ Ecoscene, b! © Andrew Lambert Photography/ Science Photo Library, tr © Richard Carey/stock. adobe.com; p.206 © M.studio - Fotolia; p.208 © Tan Dagnall/Alamy Stock Photo; p.209 tr © Biophoto Associates/Science Photo Library, br © Science Photo Librat 1.210 | © Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library, r © Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; p.213 tl-bl (table) © Martyn F Chillmaid. 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Chillmaid/Science Photo Library.How to use this book To make your study of Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE™ as rewarding and successful as possible, this textbook, endorsed by Cambridge Assessment International Education, offers the following important features: FOCUS POINTS Each topic starts with a bullet point summary of what you will encounter within the topic. PidNarauee ac p= | These boxes identify the key practical skils Dre Gner e rag rue i you need to understand as part of completing so that you know what to expect over the next ihe course. es Key definitions ‘These provide explanations of the meanings of key words ‘as required by the syllabus, Test yourself These questions appear regularly throughout the chapter so you can check your understanding as you ce ces Revision checklist These boxes give step-by-step guidance on how to approach different sorts of calculations, with follow-up questions so you can practise these skills. tac ‘These boxes take your learning further than is required by the Cambridge syllabus so that you have the opportunity to stratch yoursolt. Exam-style questions Each chapter is followed by exam-style questions to help familiarise learners with the style of tae Ne en Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Teacher's Guide. & Practical Answers are provided online with the accompanying These will also prove useful in consolidating your learning. Past paper questions are also provided at the end of the book. Skills Workbook is also available to further support you in developing your practical skills as part of carrying out experiments.Scientific enquiry Throughout your IGCSE Chemistry course, you will need to carry out experiments and investigations aimed at developing some of the skills and abilities that scientists use to solve real-life problems. ‘Simple experiments may be designed to measure, for example, the temperature of a solution or the rate of a chemical reaction. Longer experiments, or investigations, may be designed to allow you to actually see the relationship between two or more physical quantities such as how rate of reaction varies with temperature and concentration. Investigations are likely to come about from the topic you are currently studying in class, and your teacher may provide you with suggestions. For all ‘investigations, both your teacher and you must consider the safety aspects of the chemicals and apparatus involved. You should never simply carry ‘out a chemistry investigation without consideration of the hazards of the chemicals or getting the approval of your teacher. To carry out an investigation, you will need to: 1 Select and safely use suitable techniques, apparatus and materials ~ your aim must be to safely collect sufficient evidence using the most appropriate apparatus for the technique you have chosen. Being able to draw and label diagrams correctly to show how the equipment will be used is also important. Your techniques will need to be explained clearly to do a proper risk assessment. For example, how to carry out a titration, how you are going to follow the rate of the reaction you are using, or how to test for ions and gases. 2 Plan your experiment ~ this is an important part of doing science and involves working out what you are going to do to try to find answers to the questions you have set yourself. Predictions based on work you have been studying or are doing in class may help you develop the investigation in terms of the number and type of observations or data needed. You will also need to be able to identify the independent and dependent variables. For example, if you are trying to find out how temperature affects the rate of a reaction, the temperature will be the independent variable, but the dependent variable might be the volume of gas collected. Other variables such as concentration need to be controlled so that they will not affect the data obtained. Most importantly, itis essential that you carry out a risk assessment before you do any practical work. Make and record observations ~ the data you need to answer the questions you have set yourself can only be found if you have planned your investigation sensibly and carefully. For example, you might start to use a measuring cylinder to collect a gas, but as you develop your ideas you may realise a burette might be more appropriate and more accurate, Be careful not to dismantle the equipment/apparatus until you have completed your analysis of the data, and you are sure you do not need to repeat any of the measurements! If you have to reset your equipment/apparatus, it may add further errors to the results you have obtained. Ensure that all your data, numeric or observational, is displayed in a clear format. This will often be in the form of headed tables with the correct units being shown to the appropriate degree of precision. Interpret and evaluate observations ~ the results you obtain from any investigation must be displayed carefully and to the accuracy of the equipment you have chosen to use. Your choice of presentation will help you interpret your evidence and make conclusions. Often your presentation will be in the form of a graph or a table. For some graphs, you may need to calculate gradients or use it to find values at a specific point during the investigation by drawing intercepts. Good chemists keep looking at the data and alter the way in which it is obtained to get more accurate results. You should be able to evaluate whether your data is good or bad. If itis good, were there any anomalous results? Why did you get them? Evaluate methods and suggest possible improvements ~ at the end of your investigation, you must be able to evaluate the equipment, methods and techniques that you have used. Think about any sources of errors that could have affected your results by the use of the wrong ‘equipment. Consider, if you were able to carry out the investigation again, what you would change. The more data you obtain, the easier it is to spot anomalous results.A written report of any chemical investigation would normally be made of these fixed components: » First, state the aim of the work at the very beginning to inform your teacher what you were doing the investigation to find out. » A list ofall items of equipment/apparatus used and a record of the smallest division of the scale of each measuring device you have used (see Chapter 14). For example, burettes can be read to two decimal places, to the nearest 0.05cm?, where the second decimal place is either a 0 if the bottom of the meniscus is on the scale division, or a5 if itis between the divisions. If the meniscus was between 24.10cm? and 24,20cm*, the reading would be 24.15¢m?. » You must show that you have considered the safety of yourself and others before you carry out any practical work. Provide a list of all the chemicals you will use, as well as the ones you will produce, and do a risk assessment to check ‘on all the hazards of the chemicals. The results of your risk assessment might indicate that you need to work in a well-ventilated room or in a fume cupboard. In some cases you may need the assistance of your teacher. If in doubt, always ask your teacher for advice. » Clearly state the details of the methods used, starting with the wearing of eye protection. The methods should be shown as numbered steps and should be made as clear as possible. Ideas of the number of measurements that will be made and their frequency should be stated. Observations should be clear and you should use changes in colour and physical state as part of your observations. » Presentation of results and calculations. If you made several measurements of a quantity, draw up a table in which to record your results. Use the column headings, or start of rows, to name exactly what the measurement is and state the units used; for example, in a rates of reaction experiment, ‘Mass of calcium carbonate/g’. Give numeric values to the number of significant figures appropriate to the equipment being used, for example, a mass could be recorded to 0.5g or 0.05g depending on the resolution of the top-pan balance you use. Take averages and remember that anomalous or non- concordant results should not be used in their calculation. If you decide to make a graph of your results, you will need at least six data points taken over as large a range as possible; be sure to label each axis of a graph with the name and unit of the quantity being plotted. Make sure that the scale you use allows the points to fill up as much of the graph paper as possible. Clearly explain the calculations involved in the interpretation of your data and give the significant figures appropriate to the equipment used. » Conclusions can be obtained from the graphs and calculations you carry out. Your conclusions from the data obtained might be different from those that you expected. Even so it is very important for any scientist to come to terms with the findings of their experimental result, good or bad! » In the evaluation you should make a comparison between the conclusions of your investigation and your expectations: how close or how different were they? You should comment on the reliability and accuracy of the observations and the data obtained. Could you have improved the method to give better or more accurate results? Would a pH probe have been better than using universal indicator to find the point of neutralisation in a titration? Were there any anomalous points on your graphs, or any unusual data or observations? Highlight these and try to give an explanation. Suggestions for investigations Some suggested investigations are outlined in this book as follows: 1 Find which vinegars contain the most acid. (Chapter 8) 2. Find the molar volume of hydrogen by reacting magnesium with hydrochloric acid. (Chapter 4) 3. Determination of the enthalpy of combustion of ethanol. (Chapter 6) 4 The effect of changing the surface area of a reactant on the rate of reaction. (Chapter 7) 5 Use the anion and cation methods of identification to find the ions present in tap water. (Chapter 14) & Show that ammonia is a weak base by measuring its pH and conductivity, and comparing your results with those from a solution of sodium hydroxide with the same concentration. (Chapter 8) 7 Determine the melting point of stearic acid. (Chapter 1) 8 How can sodium chloride be obtained from rock salt? (Chapter 14)9 What are the effects of acid rain on a variety of building materials? (Chapter 11) ‘0 Which is the best temperature, between 34 and 40°C, for the fermentation of sugar to take place? (Chapter 12) 44 What are the chemical properties of the weak organic acid, ethanoic acid? (Chapter 13) 12Do foodstuffs contain carbon? (Chapter 12) Ideas and evidence in science In some of the investigations you perform in the school laboratory, you may find that you do not interpret your data in the same way as your friends do; perhaps you will argue with them as to the best way to explain your results and try to convince them that your interpretation is right. Scientific controversy frequently arises through people interpreting evidence differently. For example, our ideas about atoms have changed ‘over time. Scientists have developed new models of atoms over the centuries as they collected new ‘experimental evidence. If we go back to the Greeks jin the 5th century ac, they thought matter was composed of indivisible building blocks which they called atomos. However, the idea was essentially forgotten for more than 2000 years. Then John Dalton published his ideas about atoms in 1800. He suggested that all matter was made of tiny particles called atoms, which he imagined as tiny spheres that could not be divided. It then took another 100 years before Joseph Thomson, Ernest Rutherford and James Chadwick carried out experiments and discovered that there was a structure within the atom. This saw the continuous development of what we know today as atomic theory. A further example involves the well-known Russian chemist Dimitri Mendeleev. He realised that the physical and chemical properties of the known elements were related to their atomic mass in a ‘periodic’ way, and arranged them so that groups of elements with similar properties fell into vertical columns in his table. However, in devising his table, Mendeleev did not conform completely to the order of atomic mass, with some elements swapped around, It took time for his ideas to gain acceptance because the increase in atomic mass was not regular when moving fram one element to another. We now know, with the development of atomic theory and a better understanding of chemical processes, that the elements in the Periodic Table are not all in atomic mass order. It took until 1934, with an understanding of atomic number and post-Russian revolution, for the Periodic Table to be finally accepted in the form you see today. There are many different types of scientists with specialties in their own areas of work such as chemistry and physics, but they all work in the same way. They come up with new theories and ideas, they carry out work to find the evidence to establish whether their ideas are correct and, if not, why. Scientists rely on other scientists checking their work, often improving the ideas of everyone and moving science forward. The use of new ideas, is often beneficial to everyone in the world, for example, the discovery of vaccines for Covid-19, or the push to improve battery manufacture for use in electric cars which would in turn help solve one of the biggest problems we have to face: global warming. Scientists are working hard to stop global warming but their ideas are not always embraced because of economic and political factors.States of matter FOCUS POINTS + What is the structure of matter? + What are the three states of matter? + How does kinetic particle theory help us understand how matter behaves? 1.1 Solids, liquids and gases Chemistry is about what matter is like and how it behaves, and our explanations and predictions of ‘its behaviour. What is matter? This word is used to cover all the substances and materials from which the physical universe is composed. There are many millions of different substances known, and all of them can be categorised as solids, liquids or gases (Figure 1.1). These are what we call the three states of matter. a Solid © Gas ‘A. Figure 1.1 Water in three different states‘1 STATES OF MATTER A solid, at a given temperature, has a definite volume and shape which may be affected by changes jn temperature. Solids usually increase slightly in size when heated, called expansion (Figure 1.2), and usually decrease in size if cooled, called contraction. A liquid, at a given temperature, has a fixed volume and will take up the shape of any container into which it is poured. Like a solid, a liquid’s volume is stightly affected by changes in temperature. A gas, at a given temperature, has neither a definite shape nor a definite volume. It will take up the shape of any container into which it is placed and will spread out evenly within it. Unlike solids and liquids, the volumes of gases are affected greatly by changes in temperature. Liquids and gases, unlike solids, are compressible. This means that their volume can be reduced by the application of pressure. Gases are much more compressible than liquids. ‘A. Figure 1.2 Without expansion gaps between the rails, the track would buckle in hot weather 1.2 The kinetic particle theory of matter The kinetic particle theory helps to explain the way that matter behaves. It is based on the idea that all matter is made up of tiny particles. This theory explains the physical properties of matter in terms of the movement of the particles from which it is made. The main points of the theory are: »» All matter is made up of tiny, moving particles, invisible to your eye. Different substances have different types of particles (atoms, molecules or ions) of varying sizes. » The particles move all the time. The higher the temperature, the faster they move on average. »» Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter ones at a given temperature. The kinetic particle theory can be used as a scientific model to explain how the arrangement of particles relates to the properties of the three states of matter, Explaining the states of matter In a solid, the particles attract one another. There are attractive forces between the particles which hold them close together. The particles have little freedom of movement and can only vibrate about a fixed position. They are arranged in a regular manner, which explains why many solids form crystals. It is possible to model such crystals by using spheres to represent the particles. For example, Figure 1.3a shows spheres built up in a regular way to represent the structure of a chrome alum crystal. The shape is very similar to that of a part of an actual chrome alum crystal (Figure 1.3b). a Amodel of a chrome alum erystalb- Anactual chrome alum crystal A Figure 1.3 Studies using X-ray crystallography (Figure 1.4) have confirmed how particles are arranged in crystal structures. When crystals of a pure substance form under a given set of conditions, the particles are always arranged (or packed) in the same way. However, the particles may be packed in different, ways in crystals of different substances. For example, common salt (sodium chloride) has its particles arranged to give cubic crystals as shown in Figure 1 ‘A. Figure 1.4A modern X-ray crystallography instrument used for studying crystal structure ic particle theory of n A. Figure 1.5 Sodium chloride crystals In a liquid, the particles are still close together but they move around in a random way and often collide with one another. The forces of attraction between the particles in a liquid are weaker than those in a solid. Particles in the liquid form of a substance have more energy on average than the particles in the solid form of the same substance. Ina gas, the particles are relatively far apart. They are free to move anywhere within the container in which they are held. They move randomly at very high velocities, much more rapidly than those in a liquid. They collide with each other, but less often than in a liquid, and they also collide with the walls of the container. They exert virtually no forces of attraction on each other because they are relatively far apart. Such forces, however, are very significant. If they did not exist, we could not have solids or liquids (see Changes of state, p. 4). The arrangement of particles in solids, liquids and gases is shown in Figure 1.6. Solid les ont vibrate about fixed sition. Regular structure quia articles have some freedom and can move around eachother Colide oven, © oes Parties move fealy and at random ina 2 ne space avalable.Colide es often than A. Figure 1.6 The arrangement of particles in solids, liquids ‘and gases‘1 STATES OF MATTER Test yourself 1. Whon a metal (such as copper! is heated, it expands. Explain what happens to the metal particles as the solid metal expands. 1.3 Changes of state The kinetic particle theory model can be used to explain how a substance changes from one state to another. If a solid is heated, the particles vibrate faster as they gain energy. This makes them ‘push’ their neighbouring particles further away. This ‘causes an increase in the volume of the solid, such that the solid expands, and we can say that expansion has taken place, Eventually, the heat energy causes the forces of attraction to weaken. The regular pattern of the structure breaks down, and the particles can now move around each other. The solid has melted. The temperature at which this takes place is called the melting point of the substance. The temperature of a melting pure solid will not rise until it has all melted. When the substance has become a liquid, there are still very significant forces of attraction between the particles, which is why the substance isa liquid and not a gas. Solids which have high melting points have stronger forces of attraction between their particles than those which have low melting points. A list of some substances with their corresponding melting and boiling points is shown in Table 1.1. Y Table 1.1 Melting points and boiling points of substances, ‘Substance Melting point/*C | Boiling point/*C Aluminium 661 2467 Ethanol “17 np Magnesium oxide | 827 3627 Mercury 30 357 Methane 182 164 Oxygen 28 183 Sodium chloride | 801 1413 Sulfur 113 us Water a 100 Ta liquid is heated, the average energy of the particles increases and the particles will move around even faster. Some particles at the surface of the liquid have enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction between themselves and the other particles in the liquid and they escape to form a gas. The liquid begins to evaporate as a gas is formed. Eventually, a temperature is reached at which the particles are trying to escape from the liquid so quickly that bubbles of gas actually start to form inside the liquid. This temperature is called the boiling point of the substance. At the boiling point, the pressure of the gas created above the liquid ‘equals that of the air, which is atmospheric pressure. Liquids with high boiling points have stronger forces between their particles than liquids with low boiling points. When a gas is cooled, the average energy of the particles decreases and the particles move closer together. The forces of attraction between the particles now become significant and cause the gas to condense into a liquid. When a liquid is cooled, it freezes to form a solid. Energy is released in each of these changes. Changes of state are examples of physical changes. Whenever a physical change of state ‘occurs, the temperature remains constant during the change. During a physical change, no new substance is formed. Heating and cooling curves The graph shown in Figure 1.7 was drawn by plotting the temperature of water as it was heated steadily from -15°C to 110°C. You can see from the curve that changes of state have taken place. When the temperature was first measured, only ice was present. After a short time, the curve flattens showing that even though heat energy is being put in, the temperature remains constant. of 100} 7 tigi and yA {93 gud | gas ¥ | water and | = {water | 2 | sapouy | é a! 1 é ‘guid! ' tiqud | 1 a Samaaigoe ey | 1 SE (co and iad i 1 Lice) _twatep tg Timemminutes ‘A. Figure 1.7 Graph of temperature against time for the change from ice at ~15°C to water to steame Peace ey Changes of state For safe experiments/demonstrations which are related to this chapter, please refer to the Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Practical Skills Workbook, which is also part of this series. Safety © Eye protection must be worn. Take care when handling and using hot water. ‘The apparatus on the right was set up to obtain a cooling curve for stearic acid. The stearic acid was placed into a boiling tube which was then placed in a beaker of water that was heated. 10 80°C, which is above the melting point of stearic acid. ‘The boiling tube was then removed from the beaker and the temperature of the stearic acid was recorded every minute for 12 minutes using the thermometer to stir the stearic acid while it was a liquid. 1.3 Changes of state clamp Thermometer | soting tube Stearic acid | pater Warm water ‘Why was it important to remove the boiling tube with the stearic acid from the water? ‘Why was the stearic acid stirred with the thermometer? ‘Why were temperature readings taken every minute for 12 minutes? ‘The following data was obtained from the experiment 6 [7 [als jw [un |e Time/mins o {i [2a fe 7 |% |73 |70 |69 “Temperature/* 79 i 69 69 |a7 oa [6240 4 Draw and label axes for plotting this data. 5 Plot the points and draw a line of best fit 6 a Atwhat temperature did the stearic acid begin to change state? ‘How could you tell this from your graph? Explain what is happening at this temperature. You can find the melting point of a substance using the apparatus shown in Figure 1.8. The addition or presence of impurities lowers the melting point. A mixture of substances also has a lower melting point than a pure substance, and the melting point will be over a range of temperatures and not sharp.‘1 STATES OF MATTER ‘Thermometer Mating point usber bane aes oi }— sola Heat -A. Figure 1.8 If substance, such asthe solid in the melting point tube, is heated stowly, this apparatus can be used to find the melting pont of the substance In the same way, if you want to boil a liquid, such as water, you have to give it some extra energy. This can be seen on the graph in Figure 1.7, where the curve levels out at 100°C - the boiling point of water. Solids and liquids can be identified from their characteristic melting and boiling points. The reverse processes of condensing and freezing ‘occur when a substance is cooled. Energy is given ‘out when the gas condenses to the liquid and the liquid freezes to give the solid 1.4 The effects of temperature and pressure on the volume of a gas Tp A. Figure 1.9 Temperature changes the volume of the air in a balloon. Higher temperatures increase the volume of the balloon and cold temperatures reduce its volume What do you think has caused the difference between the balloons in Figure 1.9? The pressure inside a balloon is caused by the gas particles striking the inside surface of the balloon. At a higher temperature, there is an increased pressure inside the balloon (Figure 1.10). This is due to the gas particles having more energy and therefore moving around faster, which results in the particles striking the inside surface of the balloon more frequently, which leads to an increase in pressure. ‘A. Figure 1.10 The gas particles striking the surface create the pressure Since the balloon is made from an elastic material, the increased pressure causes the balloon to stretch and the volume increases. An increase in volume of a gas with increased temperature is a property of all gases. French scientist J.A.C. Charles made an observation like this in 1781 and concluded that when the temperature of a gas increased, the volume also increased at a fixed pressure. We can extend this idea to suggest that changing the pressure of a fixed volume of a gas must have an effect on the temperature of the gas. IF you have ever used a bicycle pump to blow up a Bicycle tyre then you may have felt the pump get hotter the more you used it. As you tuse the pump you increase pressure on the air in the pump. Such an increase in pressure causes the gas molecules to move closer together so the molecules to collide more frequently and more frictional forces come into play, which causes the temperature to rise. In addition, as the molecules are forced closer to one another, intermolecular bonds form, again increasing the temperature of. the gas. As the temperature of the gas increases, this also causes the molecules to move faster, causing even more collisions.1.5 Diftusion Test yourself Why do gases expand more than solids for the same increase in temperature? Ice on a car windscreen will disappear as you drive along, even without the heater on. Explain ‘why this happens. When salt is placed on ice, the ice melts. Explain why this happens. Draw and label a graph of water at 100°C being allowed to cool to -5°C. 1.5 Diffusion When you go through the door of a restaurant, you can often smell the food being cooked. For this to happen, gas particles must be leaving the pans the food is being cooked in and be spreading out through the air in the restaurant. This spreading out of a gas is called diffusion and it takes place in a haphazard and random way. Al gases diffuse to fill the space available. Figure 1.11 shows two gas jars on top of each other. Liquid bromine has been placed in the bottom gas jar (left photo) and then left for a day (right photo). The brown-red fumes are gaseous bromine that has spread evenly throughout both the gas jars from the liquid present in the lower gas jar. J = & Figure 1.11 After 24 hours the bromine fumes have diffused throughout beth gas jars Diffusion can be explained by the kinetic particle theory. This theory states that all matter is made up of many small particles which are constantly moving. In a solid, as we have seen, the particles simply vibrate about a fixed point. However, ina gas, the particles move randomly past one another, colliding with each other. whee hewn Nf + Het) —> 018) A. Figure 1.12 Hydrochloric acid (left) and ammonia (right) diffuse at different rates Gases diffuse at different rates. If one piece of cotton wool is soaked in concentrated ammonia solution and another is soaked in concentrated hydrochloric acid and these are put at opposite ends of a dry glass tube, then after a few minutes a white cloud of ammonium chloride appears. Figure 1.12 shows the position at which the two gases meet and react. The white cloud forms in the position shown because the ammonia particles are lighter; they have a smaller relative molecular ‘mass (Chapter 4, p. 54) than the hydrogen chloride particles (released from the hydrochloric acid) and so move faster, such that the gas diffuses more quickly. (See Chemistry Practical Skills Workbook for more detail of this experiment.) This experiment is a teacher demonstration only, which must be carried out in a fume cupboard. IF considering carrying out this practical, teachers should refer to the Practical Skills Workbook for full guidance and safety notes.‘1 STATES OF MATTER Diffusion also takes place in liquids (Figure 1.13) but it is a much slower process than in gases. This is because the particles of a liquid move much more slowly. A. Figure 1.13 Diffusion of green food colouring can take days to reach the stage shown on the right When diffusion takes place between a liquid and 2 gas, it is known as intimate mixing. Kinetic particle theory can be used to explain this process. Te states that collisions are taking place randomly between particles in a liquid or a gas and that there is sufficient space between the particles of one substance for the particles of the other substance to move into. Test yourself ‘When a jar of coffee is opened, people can often ‘smell it rom anywhere in the room. Use the kinetic particle theory to explain how this happens. Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the diffusion of a drop of green food colouring added to the bottom of a boakor. Explain why diffusion is faster in gases than in liquids. Revision checklistExam-style questions Exam-style questions 1a Sketch diagrams to show the arrangement of particles in: i solid oxygen fi] liquid oxygen ft] oxygen gas. fi] Describe how the particles move in these three states of matter. Bl ¢ Explain, using the kinetic particle theory, what happens to the particles in oxygen as it is cooled down. Bl 2 Explain the meaning of each of the following terms. In your answer include an example to help with your explanation. expansion Q b contraction [2] ¢ physical change 2] d diffusion (2) € random motion [2] 3. a Explain why solids do not diffuse. fl Give two examples of diffusion of gases and liquids found in your house. @ 4 Explain the following, using the ideas you have learned about the kinetic particle theory: a When you take a block of butter out of the fridge, it is quite hard. However, after 15 minutes it is soft enough to spread. fl b When you came home from school and open the door, you can smell food being cooked. [2] € A football is blown up until itis hard on a hot summer's day. In the evening the football feels softer. 2 When a person wearing perfume enters a room, it takes several minutes for the smell to reach the back of the room. @ 5 Some green food colouring was carefully added to the bottom of a beaker of water using a syringe. The beaker was then covered and left for several days. eaker { —|— water Green 000 cotourng a Describe what you would observe after: i afew hours tt] ii several days. a b Explain your answer to Question 5a using your ideas of the kinetic particle theory. [2] € State the physical process that takes place in this experiment. [1] & The apparatus shown below was set up. Stopper Whiteddoud Glass tube Cotton woo! soaked in concentrate hydrochloric acd Cotton woo soaked In concentrated ‘ammonia solution When this apparatus is used, the following things are observed. Explain why each of these is observed. a Awhite cloud is formed. a b It took a few minutes before the white cloud formed. i] ¢ The white cloud formed further from the cotton wool soaked in ammonia than that soaked in hydrochloric acid, fa] d_ Cooling the concentrated ammonia and hydrochloric acid before carrying out the experiment increased the time taken for the white cloud to form. i]Atoms, elements and compounds FOCUS POINTS + How are elements, molecules, ions, compounds and mixtures different from each other? + How do the properties of the particles in an atom lead to an atom’s structure? + What do oxidation and reduction mean? + What is an isotope? The universe is made up of a very large number oF substances (Figure 2.1), and our own part of the universe is no exception. When we examine this vast array of substances more closely, it is found that they are made up of some basic substances which were given the name elements in 1661 by Robert Boyle. ‘4. Figure 2.1 Structures in the universe, such as stars, planets and meteorites, are made of millions of substances. These are made up mainly from just 91 elements, all of which occur naturally on the Earth In 1803, John Dalton suggested that each element was composed of its own kind of particles, which he called atoms. Atoms are much too small to be seen. We now know that about 20 10° of them would stretch over a length of only 1 cm. 2.1 Elements ‘As well as not being able to be broken down into a simpler substance, each element is made up of only one kind of atom. The word atom comes from the Greek word atomos meaning ‘unsplittable’. For example, aluminium is an element which is made up of only aluminium atoms. It is not possible to obtain a simpler substance chemically from the aluminium atoms. You can only combine it with other elements to make more complex substances, such as aluminium oxide, aluminium nitrate or aluminium sulfate. One hundred and eighteen elements have now been identified. Twenty of these do not occur in nature and have been made artificially by scientists. They include elements such as curium and flerovium. Ninety-eight of the elements occur naturally and range from some very reactive gases, such as fluorine and chlorine, to gold and platinum, whichare unreactive elements. A physical property is any characteristic of a substance that we can measure. The elements have different properties that we can measure, and we can then classify them according to those properties, All elements can be classified according to their various properties. A simple way to do this is to classify them as metals or non-metals (Figures 2.2 and 2.3). Table 2.1 shows the physical property data for some common metallic and non-metallic elements. You will notice from Table 2.1 that many metals have high densities, high melting points and high boiling points, and that most non-metals have low densities, low melting points and low boiling points. Table 2.2 summarises the different properties of metals and non-metals. © These coins contain nickel & Figure 2.2 Some metals 2.1 Elements ¥ Table 2.1 Physical data for come metallic and ‘non-metallic elements at room temperature and pressure Metal or | Density/ Melting a Element non-metal |gcm? —point/°C_point/°C Aluminium (Metal | 270 660 | 2560 [Copper Metal 8921083 —~( 2567 Gold 1 [te29 104s | 2807 ‘ron Motal | 787 1895 | 2750 Lead Metal 11.346 328 | 1740 “Magnesium Metal 176 a9 | 1107 Nickel Matat—| 89014832732 | Silver Metal [oso 9622212 [Zine Metal 74 420/907 Carbon Non-metat | 2.25 | Sublimes at 2642 Hydrogen Non-metal| 00% -259 | -253 Nitrogen | Non-metal| 0.88 210-196 [Deven | Non-metat| 115° -218 | -169 [sultur—[Non-metal| 207 | 113 | 445 Source: Earl B., Wilford L.O.R. Chemistry data book. Nelson Blackie, 1991 a: at -254°C; b: at -197°C; c: at ~184°C. The elements also have chemical properties, which are characteristics or behaviours that may be observed when the substance undergoes a chemical change or reaction. A discussion of the chemical properties of some metals and non-metals is given in Chapters 9 and 10. ¥ Table 2.2 How the properties of metals and non-metals compare Property | Meta Nonemeta Physical state at | Usually solid Solid or gas raomterperture | ocastaly vi Maleaiiiy | Goed foal Dueity God sottor brite Appearance |Shinyfustrous) | Oul ‘olel : Mating point | Usual igh | Usual ow Bailing point | Usually Fgh | Usually ow | Density Usually igh | Usvaly ow Cenductty | Good Very por thermal an stiri2 ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS Test yourself 1. Using Tables 2.1 and 2.2, pick the ‘odd one out in the following group and explain why itis different from the others. zine copper oxygen _lead 2 Using Tables 2.1 and 2.2, pick the ‘odd one out in the following group and explain why itis different from the others. carbon nitrogen iron sulfur 3. Using Tables 2.1 and 2.2, pick the ‘odd one out in the following group of propertios of metals and explain why itis different from the others = high melting point ~ high density = soft or brittle = good electrical conductivity © Neon is used in advertising signs ‘A. Figure 2.3 Some non-metals Atoms - the smallest particles Everything is made up of billions of extremely small atoms. The smallest atom is hydrogen, and we represent each hydrogen atom as a sphere having a diameter of 0.00000007 mm (or 7 x 10*mm) (Table 2.3). Atoms of different elements have different diameters as well as different masses. ¥ Table 2.3 Sizes of atoms ‘Atom jiameter of atom/mm | Masses/g Hydrogen | 7 «10 167 10° ygen 12x10" 2.66% 10 Sulfur 20.810" 532% 107 Chemists use shorthand symbols to label the elements and their atoms. The symbol consists of one, two or three letters, the first of which is always a capital. The initial letter of the element’s name is often used and, where several elements have the same initial letter, another letter from the name is added. For example, C is used for carbon, Ca for calcium and Cl for chlorine. Some symbols seem to have no relationship to the name of the element, for example, Na for sodium and Pb for lead. These symbols come from their Latin names: natrium for sodium and plumbum for lead. A list of some common elements and their symbols is given in Table 2.4. b Artists often use charcoal [carbon] to produce an initial sketch2.1 Elements ¥ Table 2.4 Some common element 6 and their symbols. The Latin names of some af the elements are given in brackets Physical state at room ‘temperature and Element Symbol pressure ‘Aluminium A Solid “Argon lar Gas Barium [Ba Solid “Boron [8 _|Solid Bromine (Br Liquid “Cateium ‘ca Solid [carbon |e | sou Chlorine fot Gas Chromium cr Solid “Copper (Cupruml Cu Solid Fluorine F Gas “Germanium (Ge Solid Gold (Aurum) Au Solid “Hetium [He | Gas Hydrogen, iH Gas lodine It Solid [Iron (Ferrum) [Fe Solid ‘Lead Plumbuml Pb Solid Magnesium img | Sota [Mercury (Hydragyruml [Ho | Liquid [Neon Ne |Gas Nitrogen in Gas | Owygen i Gas Phosphorus Pe Potassium (Kalium) kK silicon ‘si ['siver targentum) [Ag Sodium [Natrium) Na [sutur is Tin Stannum) [sn [zine Tin Molecules The atoms of some elements are joined together in small groups. These small groups of atoms are called molecules. The atoms of some elements are always joined in pairs, for example, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine. They are known as diatomic molecules. In chemical shorthand the molecule of chlorine shown in Figure 2.4 is written as Cl,. The atoms of some other elements, such as phosphorus and sulfur, join in larger numbers, four and eight respectively, which we write as P, and S, The complete list of the elements with their corresponding symbols is shown in the Periodic Table on p. 135. The gaseous elements helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon (which are all gases at 0°C at sea level and atmospheric pressure) are composed of separate, individual atoms. When an element exists as separate atoms, then the molecules are said to be monatomic. In chemical shorthand these monatomic molecules are written as He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn respectively. ci—cl a Represented bya letier-and-stick model b_ Represented by a space-filling model -& Figure 2.4 A chlorine motecule2 ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS Molecules are not always formed by atoms of the same type joining together as elemental molecules. Most molecules consist of atoms of different elements, for example, water exists as molecules containing oxygen and hydrogen atoms. We will. learn more about these in the next section. Test yourself How many atoms of hydrogen would have to be placed side by side along the edge of your ruler to fillust one of the 1 mm divisions? How would you use chemical shorthand to write a representation of the molecules of iodine and fluorine? Using the Periodic Table on p. 125, write dawn the symbols for each of these elements and give their physical state at room temperature. chromium b krypton 2.2 Compounds Compounds are pure substances which are formed when two or more elements chemically combine together. A pure substance is a material that has ‘a constant composition (is homogeneous) and has consistent properties throughout. Water is a simple compound formed from the elements hydrogen and ‘oxygen (Figure 2.5). This combining of the elements can be represented by a word equation: hydrogen + oxygen = water Hydrogen ongen Hydrogen and Water a pure pure onygen med a pure clement eement together compound formed from byrogen burning in gen a. The element hydrogen reacts with the element oxygen to produce the compound water b A model of water showing 2 H atoms and one O atom. Models such as this can be built to show what a compound looks like A Figure 2.5 Water molecules contain two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen, and water has the chemical formula H,0. If there is only one atom of an element in the molecule, no number is required in the formula, only its symbol, as in the case of oxygen in the water molecule H,0. Test yourself 7. Whatis the formula for the molecule shown in the diagram which contain carbon (black sphere] and hydrogen (white spheres)? c Elements other than hydrogen will also react with oxygen to form compounds called oxides. For example, magnesium reacts violently with ‘oxygen gas to form the white powder magnesium oxide (Figure 2.6). This reaction is accompanied by a release of energy as new chemical bonds are formed.2.2Compounds {A Figure 2.6 Magnesium burns brightly in oxygen to produce magnesium oxide When a new substance is formed during a chemical reaction, a chemical change has taken place. magnesium + oxygen —> magnesium oxide When substances such as hydrogen and magnesium combine with oxygen in this way, they are said to have been oxidised, and this process is known as oxidation. Reduction is the opposite of oxidation. In this process oxygen is removed rather than added. Key definitions Oxidation is gain of oxygen. Reduction is loss of oxygen Any chemical process that involves reduction and oxidation is known as a redox reaction. For example, to extract iron from iron(IIT) oxide, the oxygen has to be removed. The reduction of iron(III) oxide can be done in a blast furnace using carbon monoxide. The iron(II) oxide loses oxygen to the carbon monoxide and is reduced to iron. Carbon monoxide is the reducing agent. teducing agent is a substance tue eal eo another substance during a redox reaction. In the reaction, carbon monoxide is oxidised to carbon dioxide by the iron(II1) oxide. In this process, ‘the iron(II) oxide is the oxidising agent. An oxidising agent is a substance which oxidises | another ‘substance during a redox reaction. We can write the redox reaction as: iron(II) oxide + carbon monoxide — iron + carbon dioxide Test yourself 8 Zinc is extracted fram its are zinc blende in a furnace by a redox reaction. What doos the term ‘redox reaction’ mean? 9 Identify the oxidising and reducing agents in each ofthe fallawing reactions: ‘copper() oxide + hydrogen — copper water ttin(I1) oxide + carbon — tin + carbon dioxide cc PbOts!+H.(gl — Pbis! + H,O10. For a further discussion of oxidation and reduction see Chapter 3 (p. 31) and Chapter 5 (p. 71). Key definitions Redox reactions involve simultaneous oxidation and reduction [Gaia ipiaiaca ahaa eooaie ‘substance and is itself reduced. ‘reducing agent isa substance that reduces another substance and is isl oxidised.2 ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS Omar icies cy Heating copper For safe experiments/demonstrations which are related to this chapter, please refer to the Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry Practical Skills Workbook, which is also part of this series. Safety © Eye protection must be worn, © Take care when handling hot apparatus, ‘© Handle the copper with tongs or tweezers, not your fingers. ‘A student wants to find out what happens when copper is heated in air. In order to do this, they carried out the following experiment and recorded their results © First, they found the mass of an empty crucible @ suitably prepared beer-bottle top (metal) is, an alternative to a porcelain crucible) © They added a piece of copper to the crucible and found the mass again. © They then heated the crucible strongly for approximately two minutes © After they allowed it to cool, they then found the mass after heating, Formulae The formula of a compound is made up from the symbols of the elements that make up the compound and numbers that show the ratio of the different ‘atoms the compound is made from. Carbon dioxide has the formula CO,, which tells you that it contains ‘one carbon atom for every two oxygen atoms. The 2 in the formula indicates that there are two oxygen atoms present in each molecule of carbon dioxide. Wc eseu aC) Write the ratio of atoms in sodium sulfate - Na,SO, ‘Substance Formula _| Ratio of atoms Sodium sulfate | Na,S0, | Na:$:0. 2tek Mass of crucible = 12.90 ¢ Mass of crucible + copper = 14.18 g Mass of copper = _g Mass of crucible + contents after heating = 14.30 g Colour of contents after heating = black 1 Draw alabelled diagram of the experimental setup used in this experiment. 2 Calculate the change in mass that has taken place during the heating, Explain what has caused the change in mass, ‘What is the black substance left on the copper after heating? ‘Write a word and balanced chemical equation to show the process that has taken place. a How could you modify the experiment to ensure there was no loss of substance taking place during the heating process? b What are the other possible sources of error? Predict what would happen, in terms of mass change and colour change, if calcium were heated in air in the same way as the copper. Test yourself 10 Write down the ratio of the atoms present in the formula for each of the compounds shown in Tablo25. ‘¥ Table 2.5 Names and formulae of some common compounds ‘Compound ‘Ammonia NH, Calcium hydroxide CalOHl, Carbon dioxide co, Copper sulfate cuso, Ethanol [alcohol) Glucose ,H,0H HO, Hydrochloric acid Nitric acid Formula Sodium carbonate Sodium hydroxide Sulfuric acid2.2 Compounds The ratio of atoms within a chemical compound is usually constant. Compounds are made up of fixed proportions of elements: they have a fixed ‘composition. Chemists call this the Law of constant composition. For further discussion of formulae, see p. 35. Balancing chemical equations Word equations are a useful way of representing chemical reactions, but a better and more useful way of seeing what happens during a chemical reaction is to produce a balanced chemical equation. This type of equation gives the formulae of the substances that are reacting, the reactants, and the new substances formed during the chemical reaction, the products, as well as showing the relative numbers of each of the particles involved. Balanced equations often include symbols that show the physical state of each of the reactants and products: (6) = solid (0) = liquid (g) = gas . (aq) = aqueous (water) solution We can use the reaction between iron and sulfur as an ‘example. The word equation to represent this reaction is: iron + sulfur —* 5 iron({l) sulfide When we replace the words with symbols for the reactants and the products, and include their physical state symbols, we g Fe@+ S@) 5 FeS() Since there is the same number of each type of atom ‘on both sides of the equation, this is a balanced chemical equation. reel) Write, for the reaction between magnesium and oxygen producing magnesium oxide: 2 the word equation b_ thebalanced chemical equation, 2 The word equation is: magnesium + oxygen YS magnesium oxide b_ When we replace the words with symbole for the reactants and the products and include their physical state symbols, itis important to remember that oxygen is a diatomic molecule Mg(s) + 0,(g) > Mg0(s) Inthe equation there are two oxygen atoms on the left- hand side (0,! but only one on the right (MgO}. We cannot change the formula of magnesium oxide, so to produce the necessary two oxygen atoms on the right-hand cide, we will need 2MgQ - this means 2 « MgO formula units. The equation now becomes: Mags) +0,(@) + 2Me04s) There are now two atoms of magnesium an the right= hand side and only one on the left. To balance the ‘equation, we place a 2 in front of the magnesium, and obtain the following balanced chemical equation: 2Mg(s) + O,(2) "> 2MeO%9) This balanced chemical equation now shows us that, two atoms of magnesium react with one molecule ‘of oxygen gas when heated to produce two units of ‘magnesium oxide Test yourself 11 Write the word and balanced chemical equations for the reactions which take place between: calcium and oxygen b copper and oxygen.2 ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS Rus Instrumental techniques Elements and compounds can be detected and idontified by a variety of instrumental methods. Scientists have developed instrumental techniques that allow us to probe and discover which elements are present in a substance as well as how the atoms are arranged within the substance. Many of the instrumental methods that have been developed are quite sophisticated. Some methods are suited to identifying elements, For example, atomic absorption spectroscopy allows the element to be identified and also allows the quantity of the element that is present to be found. Some methods are particularly suited to the identification of compounds. For example, infrared spectroscopy is used to identify compounds by showing the presence of particular groupings of atoms, Infrared spectroscopy is used by the pharmaceutical industry to identify and discriminate between drugs that are similar in structure, for example, penicillin- type drugs. Used bath with organic and inerganic molecules, this methad assumes that each campound has a unique infrared spectrum. Samples can be solid, liquid or gas and are usually tiny. However, Ne, He, 0, N, or H, cannot be used. This method is also used to monitor environmental pollution and has biological uses in monitoring tissue physiology including oxygenation, respiratory status and blood-flow damage. Forensic scientists make use of both these techniques because they are very accurate, but they only require tiny amounts of sample - often only small amounts of sample are found at crime scenes. Other techniques utilised are nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and ultraviolet/visible spectroscopy. 2.3 Mixtures Many everyday things are not pure substances: they are mixtures. A mixture contains more than ‘one substance, which could be elements and/or compounds. Examples of common mixtures are: » sea water (Figure 2.7) » air, which is a mixture of elements such as ‘oxygen, nitrogen and neon, and compounds such as carbon dioxide (see Chapter 11, p. 178) » alloys such as brass, which is a mixture of copper and zinc (For a further discussion of alloys, see Chapter 10, p. 165). ‘A. Figure 2.7 Sea water is @ common mixture. tis awater solution af substances such as sodium chloride as well as gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide The difference between mixtures and compounds There are differences between compounds and mixtures, which can be seen by looking at the reaction between iron filings and sulfur. A mixture of iron filings (powdered iron) and sulfur (Figure 2.8 bottom right), looks different from either of the individual elements (Figure 2.8 top). This mixture has the properties of both iron and sulfur; for example, a magnet can be used to separate the iron filings from the sulfur (Figure 2.9). “A Figure 2.8 The elements sulfur and iran at the top of the photograph, and {below black iron(II) sulfide on the left ‘and a mixture of the two elements on the right Substances in a mixture have not undergone a chemical reaction and it is possible to separate them, provided that there is a suitable difference in their physical properties. If the mixture of iron2.3 Mintures and sulfur is heated, a chemical reaction occurs and a new substance is formed. The product of the reaction is iron(II) sulfide (Figure 2.8 bottom left), and the word equation for this reaction is: iron + sulfur —™ > iron(IP sulfide A. Figure 2.9 A magnet will separate the iron fram the mixture During the reaction, heat eneray is given out as, new chemical bonds are formed. This is called an exothermic reaction and accompanies a chemical change (Chapter 6, p. 92). The iron(II) sulfide formed has very different properties to the mixture of iron and sulfur (Table 2.6); for example, iron(II) sulfide would not be attracted towards a magnet. Some chemical reactions take in heat during the reaction, which is called an endothermic reaction (Chapter 6, p. 92). You will learn more about the different types of reactions in Chapter 6. ¥ Table 2.6 Different properties of iron, sulfur, an iron/ sulfur mixture and iron(TT sulfide Effect of dilute Effectofa | hydrochloric Substance Appearance | magnet | acid Iron Dark grey | Attracted | Very litle action ponder | toit when cold. When warm, a gasis produced with a lot of bubbling [effervescencel Sulfur Yellow None No effect when L powder hot or cold Iron/sulfur | Dirty yellow | Iron powder | iron powder mixture powder attracted | reacts as above twit Iron(I1) Black solid | Noeffect | A foul-smelling sulfide gas is produced with some effervescence In iron({I) sulfide, FeS, one atom of iron has combined with one atom of sulfur. In a mixture of iron and sulfur, no such ratio exists as the atoms have not chemically combined. Table 2.7 compares mixtures and compounds. Some common mixtures are discussed in Chapter 10 (p. 165) and Chapter 11 (p.177). Y Table 2.7 The major differences between mixtures and compounds Mixture Compound It contains two or more substances itis a single substance. The composition can vary. The composition is always the same. No chemical change takes place when a mixture is formed When the new substance is formed it involves chemical change The properties are those of the individual elements/ compounds. The properties are very different to those of the component, elements, The components may be seperated quite easily by physical The components can only be separated ay one or more chemical reactions Test yourself 12 Make alist of some other common mixtures and then use your research to find out and state what they are mixtures of. 19 Which of the following are not mixtures: milk, tin, sulfur, cough linctus, brass, gold?2 ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS DAU Rs Other types of mixtures There are mixtures which are formed by mixing two substances lor phases] which cannot mix. Gols, sols, foams and emulsions are all examples of just such mixtures. Look closely at the substances in Figure 2.10, which shows examples of these different types of mixtura, 1] a This jelly isan example of a ‘gel b_ Emulsion paint is an example of 2 sol These foams have been formed by trapping bubbles of gas in liquids 4d Emulsions are formed by mixing immiscible liquids & Figure 2.10 Composite materials are those that combine the properties of two constituents in order to get the exact properties neaded for a particular job. Glass- reinforced fibre is an example of a composite material combining the properties of two different materials. It is made by embedding short fibres af glass ina matrix of plastic, 2.4 Inside atoms Everything you see around you is made out of tiny particles, which we call atoms (Figure 2.12). When John Dalton developed his atomic theory, ‘over 200 years ago, he stated that the atoms of The glass fibres give the plastic extra strength so that it does not break when itis bent or moulded into shape. The finished material has the strength and flexibility of the glass fibres as wel as the lightness of plastic [Figure 211 a Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) consists of glass fibres [rod shapes) embedded in plastic, in this case polyester b_ The glass-reinforced plastic used to make boats like this isa composite material A Figure 2.11 any one element were identical and that each atom was ‘indivisible’. Scientists in those days also believed that atoms were solid particles, like marbles.24 Inside atoms ‘A. Figure 2.12 An electron micrograph of atoms taken using 2 very powerful microscope called an electron microscope However, in the last hundred years or so it has been proved by great scientists, such as Niels Bohr, Albert Einstein, Henry Moseley, Joseph Thomson, Emest Rutherford and James Chadwick, that atoms are in fact made up of even smaller ‘sub-atomic’ particles. Seventy sub-atomic particles have now been discovered, and the most important of these are electrons, protons and neutrons. These three sub-atomic particles are found in distinct and separate regions of the atom. The protons and neutrons are found in the centre of the atom, which is called the nucleus. Neutrons have no charge and protons are positively charged. The nucleus occupies only a very small volume of the atom and is very dense. The rest of the atom surrounding the nucleus is where electrons are found. Electrons are negatively charged and move around the nucleus very quickly at specific distances from the nucleus in electron shells or energy levels. The electrons are held in the shells within the atom by an electrostatic force of attraction between themselves and the positive charge of protons in the nucleus (Figure 2.13). Each shell can contain only a fixed number of electrons: the first shell can hold up to two electrons, the second shell can hold up to eight electrons, the third shell can hold up to 18, and so on. Nucleus, containing euitons and protons Becton shells & Figure 2.13 Diagram of an atom Electrons are tiny and relatively light; approximately 1837 electrons are equal in mass to the mass of ‘one proton or one neutron. A summary of each type of particle, its mass and relative charge is shown in Table 2.8. You will notice that the masses of all these particles are measured in atomic mass units (amu). This is because they are so light that their masses cannot be measured usefully in grams. ¥ Table 2.8 Characteristics of a proton, a neutron and an electron Relative mass/ Particle Symbol amu Relative charge Proton |p 1 a Neutron | 1 a Electron |e 4/1837, L Although atoms contain electrically charged particles, the atoms themselves are electrically neutral (they have no overall electric charge). This is because atoms contain equal numbers of electrons and protons. For example, Figure 2.14 represents the atom of the non-metallic element helium, The atom of helium possesses two protons, two neutrons and two electrons. The electrical charge of the protons in the nucleus is, therefore, balanced by the ‘opposite charge of the two electrons. ood Key @ Becrons @ Protons (© Neutrons “Figure 2.14 An atom of helium has two protons, two electrons and two neutrons Proton number and mass number The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called the proton number (or atomic number) and is given the symbol Z. The helium atom in Figure 2.14, for example, has a proton number of 2, since it has two protons in its nucleus. Each element has its own proton number and no two elements have the same proton number. For example, the element lithium has a proton number of 3 since it has three protons in its nucleus.2 ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS Neutrons and protons have a similar mass, whereas electrons possess very little mass. So the mass of any atom depends on the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. The total number Of protons and neutrons found in the nucleus of ‘an atom is called the mass number (or nucleon number) and is given the symbol A, Key definitions Proton number or atomic nurnber isthe numberof protons inthe nucleus of an atom. ‘Mass number or nucleon number is the total number of protons and neutrons inthe nucleus ofan atom, mass number = proton number + number of neutrons ca) ® The helium atom in Figure 2.14 has a mass number of 4, since it has two protons and two neutrons in its nucleus. If we consider the metallic element. lithium, it has three protons and four neutrons in its nucleus. Tt therefore has a mass number of 7. The proton number and mass number of an element are usually written in the following shorthand way: Mass ruber (A) "He — Symbol ofthe element Proton number (2) The number of neutrons present can be calculated by rearranging the relationship between the proton number, mass number and number of neutrons to give: number of neutrons = mass nmmber — proton number @ @ Meee Cy 1 What isthe number of neutrons in one atom of 2Mg? snumber ef neutrons = mass number — proton number 12= 261A) - 12121 2. What is the number of neutrons in one atom of Pb? umber of neutrons = mass mumber ~ proton number 125 = 20714) - 82121 Table 2.9 shows the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atoms of some common elements, 'Y Table 2.9 Number of protons, neutrons and elactrons in some elements Proton Number of | Number of | Number of Element | symbol number electrons protons neutrons Mass number Hydrogen | H 1 1 1 ° it Hetium: He 2 2 E 2 i Carbon 6 6 6 é [rz Nitrogen 7 7 1 7 [ie Oxygen 8 8 8 8 i Fluorine F 9 9 9 10 uy Neon Ne 10 10 10 10 (20 Sodium Na " " " 12 |23 Magnesium | Mg 2 2 2 2 [26 ‘sulfur s % % 16 16 [22 ‘Potassium K 1” 9 ” 20 (39 Calcium ca 20 20 20 20 (40 Iron Fo 26 26 % 30 [56 Zinc in 30 30 30 35 1624 Inside atoms lons ‘An ion is an electrically charged particle. When an atom loses one or more electrons, it is no longer electrically neutral and becomes a positively charged ion. This is called a cation. For example, when potassium is involved in a chemical reaction, each atom loses an electron to form a positive ion, K*. 19 protons = 19+ Ki 1B electrons = 1 Overall charge = 1+ When an atom gains one or more electrons, it becomes a negatively charged ion. This is called an anion. For example, in some of the chemical reactions involving oxygen, each oxygen atom gains two electrons to form a negative ion, 0” 8 protons = 8+ ,0* 10 electrons Overall charge = 2 The process of gaining or losing electrons is known 2s ionisation. Table 2.10 shows some common ions. You will notice that: >» some ions contain more than one type of atom, for example NO; » an ion may possess more than one unit of charge (either negative or positive), for example, AL*, O and SO”. Worked example 1. Show how the sodium ions shown in Table 2.10 are formed 11 protons = 11+ Nat 1Delactrons = Overall charge 2 Show how the sulfide ions shown in Table 2.10 are formed. 1b protons - 1+ S* _ AWelectrong = 18- Overall charge = ¥ Table 2.10 Some common ions Name Formula Lithium ion Li Sodium ion [Nae Potassium ion Ke Magnesium ion Mg Calcium ion [ca ‘Aluminium ion ic Zincion a ‘Ammonium ion NH: Fluoride ion [F [Chloride ion ic Bromide ion Hydroxide ion Oxide ion Sulfide ion Carbonate ion Nitrate ion Sulfate ion Test yourself 1h a State three differences between an electron and a proton State two similarities between a neutron and ‘a proton. ¢ Why are atoms electrically neutral? 15 Copy and complete the following table by writing the symbol for the element shown from the given ‘number of particles present. The first one is done for you. Element Symbol Nitrogen uN Particles present 1p, 70, Te Aluminium 13p, tan, 13e 19p,20n, 196 18, 22a, 18€ Potassium ‘Argon 16 Copy and complete the following table giving the charge on the ions shown, Proton Number of | Charge on Element number —_ electrons ion | Sodium 1" 10 Fluorine 10 | Magnesium 102 ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS Isotopes In some elements, not all of the atoms in a sample of the element are identical. Some atoms of the same element can contain different numbers of neutrons and so have different mass numbers. Atoms of the same element which have different neutron numbers are called isotopes. The two isotopes of chlorine are shown in Figure 2.15. e @ ya ya 7 protons @ rovewors @ A. Figure 2.18 The nuclei of two isotopes of chlorine large amounts of energy, but also certain types of dangerous radiations that can in some cases be useful to society. For example, uranium-236 is used as a source of power in nuclear reactors in nuclear power stations and cobalt-60 is used in radiotherapy treatment in hospitals (Figure 2.16); these are both radioisotopes. YY Table 2.11 Some atoms and their isotopes Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. The only effect of the extra neutron is to alter the mass of the atom and any properties that depend con it, such as density. Other examples of atoms and their isotopes are shown in Table 2.11. There are two types of isotopes: those which are stable and those which are unstable. The isotopes which are unstable, as a result of the extra neutrons in their nuclei, are radioactive and are called radioisotopes. The nuclei of these atoms break up spontaneously with the release of not only Element ‘symbol Particles present Hydrogen iH Je, 1p, On (Deuterium) 7H te.p. tn | rita) WW te, 1p,2n Carbon is ‘e, 6p, 6n Te be, 6p, 7n ae 4,49, 80 Oxygen to Be, 8p, 8n to Be, Bp, 9n to 8e, 8p, 10n Strontium se 380, 28, 48m 382, 389, 50n 386, 89, 52n Uranium 920, 92, 1439 926, 92p, 146m ‘A. Figure 2.16 Cobalt-60 is used in radiotherapy treatment. ‘beam of gamma rays produced by the radieactive isotope {directed ina the patient's body to kill tumour tissue.De The mass spectrometer How do we know isotopes exist? They were first discovered by scientists using apparatus called a mass, spectrometer (Figure 2.17]. The first mass spectrometer was built by the British scientist Francis Aston in 1919 and enabled scientists to compare the relative masses of atoms accurately for the first time Vacuum chamber Sample — — a Dit egion| Flight path ‘ume measurement lonisation Acceleration ‘A. Figure 2.17 A diagram of a mass spectrometer ‘A vacuum exists inside the mass spectrometer. A sample of the vapour of the element is injected into the ionisation chamber where itis bombarded by electrons. The collisions which take place between these electrons, and the injected atoms cause an electron to be lost from the atom, which becomes a positive ion with a +1 charge. These positive ions are then accelerated towards a negatively charged plate, in the acceleration area. Relative atomic mass The average mass of a large number of atoms of an clement is called its relative atomic mass (A,). This quantity takes into account the percentage ‘abundance of all the isotopes of an element which exist. Key definition Relative atomic mass, A, is the average mass of the isotopes of an element compared to 1/12th of the mass of an atom of "6. ‘In 1961 the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (TUPAC) recommended that the standard used for the A, scale was carbon-12. An atom of carbon-12 was taken to have a mass of 12 amu. The A of an element is the average mass of the naturally occurring atoms of an element on 2 scale where #C has a mass of exactly 12 units. average mass of isotopes of the element mass of one atom of earbon-12 T ca Note: 2 of the mass of one carbon-12 atom = 1 amu. 24 Inside atoms ‘The spectrometer is set up to ensure that when the ions leave the acceleration area they all have the same kinetic energy, regardless of the mass of the ions. This ‘means that the lighter ions travel faster than the heavier, ‘ones, and effectively separate the ions according to their mass. Having left the acceleration area, the time for the ions to reach the detector is recorded. The detactor counts the number of each of the ions which fall upon itand so a measure of the percentage abundance of each isotope is obtained. A typical mass spectrum for chlorine is shown in Figure 2.18. 100 351 759%), Abundances Hci 259%) 2 0300 Mass ‘A. Figure 2.18 The mass spectrum for chlorine ‘Bel acl Sb abundance 6 Ej Test yourself 17 Calculate the number of neutrons in the follwing atoms: 2 zal © lr dos.2 ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS The arrangement of electrons in atoms The nucleus of an atom contains the heavier sub- atomic particles - the protons and the neutrons. The electrons, the lightest of the sub-atomic particles, move around the nucleus at great distances from the nucleus relative to their size. They move very fast in electron shells, very much like the planets orbit the Sun. It is not possible to give the exact position of an electron in an electron shell. However, we ‘can state that electrons can only occupy certain, definite electron shells and that they cannot exist between them. Also, as mentioned earlier, each of the electron shells can hold only a certain number of electrons. » Fist shell holds up to two electrons. » Second shell holds up to eight electrons. » Third shell holds up to 48 electrons. There are further electron shells which contain increasing numbers of electrons. The third electron shell can be occupied by a maximum of 18 electrons. However, when eight electrons have occupied this shell, a certain stability is given to the atom and the next two electrons go into the fourth electron shell, and then the remaining ten electrons complete the third shell. The electrons fill the electron shell starting from the shell nearest to the nucleus, which has the lowest energy. When this is full (with two electrons), the next electron goes into the second electron shell. When this shell is full with eight electrons, then the electrons begin to fill the third and fourth shells as stated above. For example, a 0 atom has a proton number of 8 and therefore has eight electrons. Two of the eight electrons enter the first electron shell, leaving six to occupy the second electron shell, as shown in Figure 2.19. The electronic configuration for oxygen can be written in a shorthand way as 2,6. There are 118 elements, and Table 2.12 shows the way in which the electrons are arranged in the first 20 of these elements. The way in which the electrons are distributed is called the electronic configuration (electronic structure). Figure 2.20, shows the electronic configuration of a selection of atoms. “A. Figure 2.19 Arrangement of electrons in an oxygen atom, & Figure 2.20 Electronic contigurations of hydrogen, Lithium, sodium, argon and potassium24 Inside atoms ¥ Table 2.12 Electronic configuration ofthe iret 20 elements “Element symbol Protonnumber | Number of electrons | Electronic configuration Hydrogen H 1 1 i Hetium He 2 2 2 Lithium ui 3 3 2 Berylium Be & 4 22 Boron 8 5 5 23 Carbon c 6 6 24 Nitrogen N 7 7 25 Onygen o 8 8 26 Fluorine F ? ° 27 Neon Ne 0 10 28 Sodium Na 1 u 28.1 Magnesium Ma 2 2 282 ‘Aluminium aL 1” 2 2.02 ‘Silicon Si 1% 1“ (284 Phosphorus P 15 5 2.85 Sulfur s 16 6 2.86 Chiorine cl 7 ” 287 ‘Argon a 18 18 2.88 Potassium lk 1° " 28.8.1 Calcium ca 20 20 2.88.2 From Table 2.12 you can see helium has a full outer chemical bonding, which we will discuss further in shell of two electrons, and neon has a full outer —_the next chapter. shell of 8 electrons. These two elements are very unreactive for this reason. In Chapter 9 we will see Test yourself that the number of outer shell electrons is related to he position in the Periodic Table. Helium and neon |"? Low many elecons may be accommodated in the posil each of the first three electron shells? are part of a group of elements known as the noble | 20 What isthe some sbout the electronic or inert gases and they are generally very stable and configurations of- unreactive (p. 145). This is linked to their full outer 2 lithium, sodium and potassium? shells. When elements react to form compounds, beryllium, magnesium and calcium? 21 An element X has a proton number of 13. What is the electronic configuration of x? they do so to achieve full electron shells, and this idea forms the basis of the electronic theory of2 ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS Vy ma Tre dts w State that isotopes of the same element have fame electronic configuration and so have the same chemical properties. ¥ Calculate the relative atomic mass (A, of an element from given date of the relative masses and abundance of their different isotopes,Exam-style questions 1 3 4 a Define the terms: i_ proton By neutron (2 iii electron. By b An atom X has a proton number of 19 and relative atomic mass of 39. i How many electrons, protons and neutrons are there in atom X? B] ji, How many electrons will there be in the outer electron shell of atom X? ie iii What is the electronic configuration of atom X? ol Define the following terms using specific examples to help with your explanation: a element (2 b metal B] ¢ non-metal ial d_ compound 2) e molecule [2] f mixture. fl State which of the substances listed below are: a metallic elements b non-metallic elements © compounds d_ mixtures. silicon, sea water, calcium, argon, water, air, carbon monoxide, iron, sodium chloride, diamond, brass, copper, dilute sulfuric acid, sulfur, cil, nitrogen, ammonia f17] Exam-style questions 5 State, at room temperature and pressure (tt.p.), which of the substances listed below is/are: a b c d e f a solid element a liquid element a gaseous mixture a solid mixture a liquid compound a solid compound. bromine, carbon dioxide, helium, steel, air, oil, marble, copper, water, sand, tin, bronze, mercury, salt fu] How many atoms of the different elements are there in the formulae of these compounds? vi phenol, 'C,H,0H vii ammonium sulfate, (NH,),50, i nitric acid, HNO, 3] ii_ methane, CH, 2) iii copper nitrate, Cu(NO,), 3] iv ethanoic acid, CH,COOH BI ¥_ sugar, C,H.0,, Bl (3) 4 Balance the following equations. i Zn(2) + 0,(q) > Zn0(s) 2] ii Fe(e) + L(g) — FeCl. (6) {3} iii Lig + 0,{9) L,066) ia iv H,(@) +0,(@) — #,0(@) 2 Vv Mg{s) + CO,(g) —> MgQ(s) + C(s) 2Bonding and structure FOCUS POINTS + In what different ways do elements combine to form compounds? x How do the bonds within a compound affect its properties? ® What is a redox reaction? ret ee eke em tec teace hac both metal and non-metal elements are ee ee ue ek ue Onin) compounds. In this chapter you will look more closely at how different elements combine, or Pe a kunt a eee generally, when elements combine they can form either ionic bonds with one another and Be ata masa a covalent bonds with one another and are known as covalent compounds. You will also look at a third type of bonding, found in metals only, called metallic bonding. You will find out how the type of bonding affects en a en eekerr ere creer also learn more about formulae and how they can be obtained from given data and you will obtain an understanding of redox reactions and Rig meee ic heaucas 3.1 lonic bonding Tonic bonds are usually found in compounds that contain metals combined with non-metals. é Alte When this type of bond is formed, electrons are ‘A. Figure 3.1 The properties of salt are very different from transferred from the metal atoms to the non-metal those ofthe sodium and chiorine it was made from, To atoms during the chemical reaction. In doing this, Se, Sat i sour cae year would oat ext soem ar Bele the atoms become more stable due to their full outer shells. For example, consider what happens when Sodium has just one electron in its outer shell sodium and chlorine react together and combine to (,,Na 2,8,1). Chlorine has seven electrons in its outer make sodium chloride (Figure 3.1). shell (,,Cl2,8,7). When these two elements react, the sodium + chlorine —» sodium clovide ‘outer electron of each sodium atom is transferred to the outer shell of a chlorine atom (Figure 3.2).In this way both the atoms obtain full outer shells and become ‘like’ the noble gas nearest to them in the Periodic Table (see Figure 9.3, p. 135). One way of showing this transfer of electrons is by using a dot-and-cross diagram. In these diagrams, = Sodium atom Chlorine atom (Na) o A Figure 3.2 lonic bonding in sodium chloride Key definitions: Oxidation involves loss of electrons. Reduction involves gain of electrons. Redox reactions involve simultaneous oxidation ‘and reduction. 3.1 lonic bonding the electrons from one atom are shown as crosses and those of the other atom as dots. In the reaction the sodium atom has become a sodium ion, in a process known as ionisation. This sodium ion has an electronic configuration like the noble gas neon. Sodium ion Chior on ary cw H protons = 114 17 protons WDelecions — 102 twelacvons — | Overal charge= “T= Overal charge = T= Only the outer electrons are important in bonding, 50 we can simplify the diagrams by missing out the inner shells (Figure 3.3). The charges on the sodium and chloride ions are equal but opposite. They balance each other and the resulting formula for sodium chloride is NaCl. These oppositely charged ions attract each other and are pulled, or bonded, to one another by strong electrostatic forces. This type of bonding is called ionic bonding. ‘An ionic bon between oppositely charged ions, a strong electrostatic attraction All students should be able to describe the formation of ionic bonds between elements of Group Tand Group VIL and draw dot-and-cross diagrams. Extended learners should be able to do this for any metallic and non-metallic element, including drawing dot-and-cross diagrams. CS oo Sodium chloride (NaC) & Figure 3.3 Simplified diagram of ionic bonding in sodium chloride3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE _ 7\ A “Magnesium onde (MoO) Figure 3.6 Simplified diagram of fonic bonding in magnesium oxide Figure 3.4 shows the electron transfers that Magnesium obtains 2 full outer shell by losing take place between a magnesium atom and an two electrons. These are transferred to the oxygen ‘oxygen atom during the formation of magnesium atom. In magnesium oxide, the Mg?* and O® are oxide. oppositely charged and are attracted to one another. The formula for magnesium oxide is MgO. oO © x — = ca a a Calcium chide (CaCl) & Figure 3.5 The transfer of electrons that takes place during the formation of calcium chloride When calcium and chlorine react, the calcium formed containing two chloride ions (Ct) for each atom gives each of the two chlorine atoms one calcium ion (Ca’*). The chemical formula is CaCl,.. electron (Figure 3.5). In this case, a compound is Test yourself Define the term ‘ionic bond’. lithium chloride (Lic Why do inert noble) gases not bond with themselves and ther elements? € magnesium fluoride (MoF, Draw diagrams to represent the bonding in each calcium oxide (Ca0}, ‘of the following ionic compounds: a potassium fluoride KF]De Scientists, using X-ray diffraction [Figure 3.4a], have ‘obtained photographs that indicate the way in which the ions are arranged [Figure 3.6bl. The eleciron density map of sodium chloride is shown in Figure 9.6. Figure 3.6d shows the structure of sodium chloride as determined by the X-ray diffraction technique. The study of crystals using X-ray diffraction was pioneered by Sir William Bragg and his son Sir Lawrance Bragg in 1912. X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation. They have a much shorter wavelength than light therefore it Difracton pattern (on a photographic fim Xray diftaction technique (© Electron densty map of sodium cherie & Figure 3.6 3.1 onic bonding is possible to use them ta investigate extremely small structures. When X-rays are passed through a crystal of sodium chloride, for example, you get a pattern af spots called a diffraction pattern [Figure 3.6b). This pattern can be recorded on photographic film and used to work ‘out how the ions or atoms are arranged in the crystal. Crystals give particular diffraction patterns depending ‘on thoir structure, and this makos X-ray diffraction a particularly powerful technique inthe investigation of crystal structures. < Nat surounded by 6CI- ions The stuctxe of soaium chloride i+ surounded boy 6Nat ions3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE lonic structures Tonic structures are solids at room temperature and have high melting and boiling points. The fons are packed together in a regular arrangement called a lattice. Within the lattice, ‘oppositely charged ions attract one another strongly. Figure 3.6d shows only a tiny part of a small crystal of sodium chloride. Many millions of sodium fons and chloride fons would be arranged in this way in a crystal of sodium chloride to make up the giant ionic lattice structure. Each sodium ion in the lattice is surrounded by six chloride ions, and each chloride ion is surrounded by six sodium ions. CCU oe Not all ionic substances form the same structures. Caesium chloride [CsCl), for example, forms a different structure due to the larger size of the caesium ion compared with that of the sodium ion. This ives rise to the structure shown in Figure 3.7, which is called a body-centred cubic structure. Each caesium ion is surrounded by eight chloride ions and, in turn, each chloride ion is surrounded by eight caesium ions. 2 The arrangement of ons (st surounded by 8 C- fons Inthe same way, each cr” Issurounded by & Cs ions b Theunitcel ‘A Figure 3.7 The structure of caesium chloride Properties of ionic compounds Tonic compounds have the following properties. »» They are usually solids at room temperature, with high melting and boiling points. This is due to the strong electrostatic forces holding the crystal lattice together. A lot of energy is therefore needed to separate the ions and melt the substance. »» They are usually hard substances. » They mainly dissolve in water. This is because water molecules are able to bond with both the positive and the negative ions, which breaks up the lattice and keeps the ions apart. Figure 3.8 shows the interaction between water molecules (the solvent) and sodium and chloride ions from sodium chloride (the solute). For a further discussion of the solubility of substances see, Chapter 8, p. 120. » They usually conduct electricity when in the molten state or in aqueous solution. The forces of attraction between the ions are weakened and the ions are free to move to the appropriate electrode. This allows an electric current to be passed through the molten ‘compound (see Chapter 5, p. 71). » They usually cannot conduct electricity when solid, because the ions are not free to move. @. a, *@e eo ° ° ® ‘A. Figure 3.8 Salt lan ionic compoundl dissolving in waterTest yourself 3.1 lonic bonding 4. Link the terms in the boxes on the Loft with the dafinitions on the right. Oxidation Reduction lonic bond ‘An atom ar graup of atoms which has lost one or more electrons Involves loss of electrons ‘Astrong electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions Involves gain of electrons Involves both exidation and reduction ‘An atom ar graup of atams which has gained ane or mare electrons Formulae of ionic substances We saw previously (see p. 31) that ionic compounds contain positive and negative ions, whose charges balance. For example, sodium chloride contains one Na* ion for every Cl ion, giving rise to the formula NaCl. This method can be used to write down formulae which show the ratio of the number of ions present in any ionic compound. The formula of magnesium chloride fs MgCl. This formula is arrived at by each Mg? ion combining with ‘two CL ions, and once again the charges balance. The use of oxidation numbers is useful when working out the formula of a compound. An oxidation number shows how oxidised or reduced an ion is compared to its atom. Na* has an oxidation number of +1 because itis formed by the loss of one electron (Chapter 5, p. 71) from a sodium atom but Mg? has an oxidation number of +2 because it is formed when a magnesium atom loses two electrons (Table 3.1). Na* can bond (combine) with ‘only one Cl ion, whereas Mg can bond with two Ct ions. A chloride ion has an oxidation state of -1 because it is formed when a chlorine atom gains one extra electron. Some elements, such as copper and iron, possess, two ions with different oxidation numbers. Copper can form the Cut ion and the Cu** ion, with oxidation numbers of 1 and 2 respectively. Therefore it can form two different compounds with chlorine, CuCl and CuCl. We can also distinguish the difference by using Roman numerals in their names: CuCl is copper(I) chloride and CuCL, is copper(II) chloride. Similarly, iron forms the Fe and Fe* ions and so can also form two different compounds with, for example, chlorine: FeCl, (iron(II) chloride) and FeCl, (iron(II1) chloride). Table 3.1 shows the oxidation numbers of a series of ions you will normally meet in your study of chemistry. You will notice that Table 3.1 includes groups of atoms which have net charges. For example, the nitrate ion is a single unit composed of one nitrogen atom and three oxygen atoms, and has ‘one single negative charge. The formula, therefore, of magnesium nitrate would be Mq(NO,),. You will notice that the NO, has been placed in brackets with a , outside the bracket. This indicates that there are two nitrate ions present for every magnesium ion. The ratio of the atoms present is therefore: Mg (N05), Mg : 2N : 60, Y Table 3.1 Oxidation numbers (valencies) of some elements lions) and groups of atoms. ji Oxidation numbers (valencies) 1 l 2 3 Metals Lithium (Ul Magnesium [Mg Aluminium (ae Sodium (Natl Calcium (Cal ron) (Fe) Potassium (Kl Copperitt) tc") Silver lagi [Zine (zn Coppertt} (Cul tronttt Ire) Lead 1Pbe| Barium 183")3 BONDING AND STRUCTURE Oxidation numbers (valences] 5 : : | Non-metals | Fluoride fe Oxide (or) Chloride (ck) Sulfide 1 | Bromide (er | [syarogen wl laaawaner Tinea oe one ma Nitrate (NOs) Sulfate (5071 ‘Ammonium (NH;] | Dichromate{VIl (cr,071 Hydrogencarbonete _(HCO;] | “/Mongonate ill —_{Mn0;1 Oxidation number Each atom in an element or compound is assigned an oxidation number to show how much it is reduced or oxidised. The following points should be remembered when using oxidation numbers. »» Roman numerals (I, II, II, IV, V, VI, VIL, VII) are used in writing the oxidation number of an element. » This number is placed after the element that it refers to. For example, the name for FeCl, is iron(II) chloride and not iron(3) chloride. » The oxidation number of the free element is always 0, for example, in metals such as zinc and copper. » In simple monatomic ions, the oxidation number is the same as the charge on the ion. So iodine has an oxidation number of 0 in I, but an oxidation number of -1 in I. » Compounds have no charge overall. Hence the oxidation numbers of all the individual elements in a compound must add up to 0. The oxidation numbers of elements in compounds can vary, as seen in Table 3.1. It is possible to recognise which of the different oxidation numbers a metal element is in by the colour of its compounds (Figure 3.9). Key definitions Oxidation involves an increase in oxidation number. Reduction involves a decrease in oxidation number. During a redox reaction, the substance that brings about oxidation is called an oxidising agent and is itself reduced during the process. A substance that brings about reduction is a reducing agent and is itself oxidised during the process. Figure 3.9 iron(II} sulfate is pate green, while iron(II) sulfate is yellow {An increase in the oxidation number, for example, from +2 to +3 as in the case of Fe* to Fe’, is oxidation. However, a reduction in the oxidation number, for example, from +6 to +3 as in the case of Cr (in Cr0#>) to Cr°*, is reduction.3.1 lonic bonding For example, if a dilute solution of acidified potassium manganate(VII) (pale purple) is added to a solution of iron({I) sulfate, a colour change takes place as the reaction occurs (Figure 3.10). The iron(II) sulfate (pale green) changes to pale yellow, showing the presence of iron(III) ions. i tat \ aS 1 ow / / ‘a. Figure 3.10 Manganate(VII ions loxidising agent] and ironfll} ions (reducing agent} are involved ina redox reaction when mixed In this reaction, the iron(II) ions have been oxidised to iron(IIf) ions (increase in oxidation number) and the manganate(VII) ions have been reduced to manganese(II) ions (decrease in oxidation number), which are very pale pink. Hence the manganate(VII) ions are the oxidising agent and the iron(II) ions are the reducing agent. Potassium iodide is a common reducing agent. When it is oxidised, a colour change is also produced. The iodide ion (I°) is oxidised to iodine(1,). The colour of the resulting solution will change from colourless to yellow-brown. IF you then add starch indicator, a test to show the presence of iodine, it will turn blue-black. Hence if potassium iodide solution is added to a solution of iron(IIl) solution followed by the starch indicator, then a blue-black colour will be seen as shown in Figure 3.11. This shows that the iron({II) ions must have been reduced to iron(II) ions as the iodide ‘ions are oxidised to iodine. Key definitions ‘An oxidising agont isa substance that oxdises another substance and is itself reduced ‘A. Figure 3.11 The blue-black colour shows the presence of ironltIt] ions Its possible to recognise redox processes by looking at the oxidation numbers on the two sides of the chemical equation for a reaction. For example, in the reaction between magnesium and dilute sulfuric acid, the magnesium dissolves and hydrogen gas is produced. Both magnesium metal and hydrogen gas are free elements and so have an oxidation number of 0. In sulfuric acid, hydrogen has an oxidation number of #1 since the overall charge on the sulfate ion is 2, Similarly, the oxidation number of magnesium in magnesium sulfate is +2. ‘magnesium + sulfuric > magnesium + hydrogen acid sulfate Mg) +H,SO,(aq) > MgS0,(aq) + H,(®) 0 a 2 0 The sulfate ions are unchanged by the reaction and so can be ignored. As you can see, the oxidation number of magnesium has increased from 0 to +2. Therefore the magnesium has been oxidised by the sulfuric acid and so sulfuric acid is the oxidising agent. The oxidation number of hydrogen has decreased from #1 in the sulfuric acid to 0 in the free element. Therefore the hydrogen has been reduced by the magnesium and so. magnesium is the reducing agent. ‘Arreducing agent is 2 substance that reduces another substance and is itself oxidised‘9 BONDING AND STRUCTURE Test yourself Identity the oxidising and reducing agents in the following reactions, a Zn{s) + H,S0,(oq) > Zn50,(aq) + H,(a) b Cue laa) + Znls) > Cuts) + Zn?lea) € Magls] + CutNO,),{aq) +> MgINO,},faq] + Cuts) Fels) + H,S0,(aq) + FeS0,laq] + H,(o) Using the information in Table 3.1, write the formulae for: a copperlll oxide potassium zine phosphate manganetelVI1) € ironftlI} chloride sodium 4 load{ttl bromide dichromatelvil. Using the formulae in your answer to question 6, write down the ratio of atoms present for each of the compounds. DAU Ree The ‘cross-over’ method A less scientific but simpler method to work out the formulae of compounds is called the ‘cross-over’ method. in this method itis only necessary to ‘swap! the numerical valve of the oxidation number of the laments or groups of atoms (or radicals} concerned. This is easily done by ‘crassing over" the numerical value of their oxidation numbers, by placing tho numerical value of the oxidation number of the first, ‘alment after the symbol of the sacond and placing the numerical value of the oxidation number of the second ‘element or radical after the symbol ofthe first. For example, in aluminium sulfide the oxidation numbers of the elements are: Al=3 and S=2 Hence the chemical formula is Al,S, Simitarly, in sodium sulfate the oxidation numbers are: Na=1 and S0,=2 Hence the chemical formula is Na,SO,. 3.2 Covalent bonding Another way in which atoms can form stable ‘compounds is by sharing the electrons in their ‘outer shells. This occurs between non-metal atoms, and the bond formed is called a covalent bond. During the bond formation, the atoms involved gain the stability of the noble (inert) gas electronic configuration. The simplest example of this type of bonding can be seen by considering the hydrogen molecule, Hp. is formed when a pair of electrons. is shared between two atoms Leading to noble gas ‘electronic configurations. Each hydrogen atom in the molecule has one electron. In order to obtain a full outer shell and gain an electronic configuration that is the same as the noble gas helium, each of the hydrogen atoms must have two electrons. To do this, the outer shells of the two hydrogen atoms overlap (Figure 3.12a). A molecule of hydrogen is formed, with two hydrogen atoms sharing a pair of electrons (Figure 3.12a, 6). This shared pair of electrons is known as a single covalent bond and is represented by a single line as, in hydrogen: H-H 2 hydrogen atoms Hydrogen molec H,) a Theelectron sharing to form the single covalent bond in H, molecules: 1b Model of a hydragen molecule & Figure 3.12 AA similar example exists in the diatomic halogen molecule chlorine, Cl, (Figure 3.13).