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The Illogical Logic of Music Torture

M. J. Grant MA, PhD*

Abstract
This article draws on research into the use “Torture, an ugly word for an ugly act, evokes
of music in the context of torture – both as in most of us unpleasant, visceral reactions [...]
a technique of torture and as a means of Instinctively we turn away from the evil of
rehabilitation – to ask what types of musical torture lest it contaminate our beings (souls?)
activities and practices may constitute in some fundamental way.” 1
ill-treatment, up to and including torture. As
well as providing information on the ways Musicians and music-lovers alike no
music is used in the context of torture and doubt breathed a sigh of relief when Presi-
cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or dent Barack Obama resolved to end the
punishment (hereafter: CIDT), the article so-called ‘enhanced interrogation’ techniques
discusses responses to this issue in the used against detainees in the ‘War On
scholarly, legal and therapeutic communities. Terror’.2 These techniques famously (or
Pointing to a widespread link between musical infamously) included the use of constant
practices and humiliation of the prisoner and loud music, with ex-detainees’ reports of this
celebration of the power of those in charge music’s impact upon them leaving no doubt
over those held in detention, the author argues that it amounted to torture. Responses to the
that coerced musical practices of any sort in use of music to torture were manifold in the
detention are a cause for grave concern. She community of musicians, music-lovers and
draws on research into post-traumatic stress others. The U.K. Musicians’ Union, for
disorder (hereafter: PTSD) and the torture- example, together with the NGO Reprieve,
CIDT distinction to argue for an approach to initiated the Zero DB campaign to mobilise
the use of music in detention that places people against this form of torture. Another
primacy on the dignity of the detained person. example is the Stone Flowers project
implemented by Musicians Without Borders
Key words: Music, torture, CIDT, forced
listening, forced singing/playing
in conjunction with Freedom From Torture.
Stone Flowers is a music group made up of
“Du holde Kunst, in wieviel grauen Stunden, survivors of torture which has gone on tours
Wo mich des Lebens wilder Kreis umstrickt, and released a CD, hoping in this way both
Hast du mein Herz zu warmer Lieb' entzunden, to give voice to survivors of torture and to
Hast mich in eine beßre Welt entrückt!” raise vital funds for rehabilitation services.
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[Thou fairest art, in how many grey hours According to those behind the project,
Ensnared by the savage cycle of life however, the idea arose as a response to the
Hast thou ignited warm love in my heart use of music in torture.3 This is in some ways
Hast borne me into a better world!]a typical of the way that people react when
they hear that music has been used in

*)
University of Goettingen
a
From Franz von Schober’s (1796-1882) poem An die
Correspondence to: mjgrant@mjgrant.eu Musik. Translation: M. J. Grant.
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torture: they retreat into other forms of case studies on the British military.6-8
music and thus try to confirm to themselves A further study in its initial stages, condu-
and others that the use of music in torture is cted by members of my research group, will
but an exception to a general rule that music look in depth at cases from the Middle East.
is, first and foremost, a redemptive art. Such Often, such investigations emerge from more
is often the case, for example, when it comes general musicological investigations into the
to reflections on how music was used in Nazi role of music in military strategy, or under
concentration camps: despite extensive certain political regimes, but in so doing they
evidence to the contrary, there is a tendency frequently draw on information gathered by
to latch on to the sense of hope and dignity legal advocates and campaigning organisati-
and the promise of survival that music may ons: Physicians for Human Rights, for
have brought to victims of Nazi persecution example, was one of the first organisations to
and atrocities, as indeed in some cases it did. recognise the harm caused by musical
The only problem is that this reading of practices used in Guantánamo.9 There have
music’s role in the camps conveniently pastes been some considerations of music and
over the other aspects: its use to humiliate torture from the standpoint of legal theory,
and psychologically and physically destroy with increasing recognition that different
people, sometimes in the form of daily forms of music can constitute torture: such
routines and formalised procedures, someti- recognition comes, inter alia, in concluding
mes in the form of sadistic practices that had observations from the United Nations
not even a pretend function other than the Convention Against Torture (hereafter:
amusement of those who commanded them. UNCAT)10, and in an unequivocal statement
Studies of music in Nazi concentration from the President of the European Court of
camps, and scholarly investigations into Human Rights, in a published essay, that
exposure to music in U.S. detention camps ‘Music can amount to torture, and lyrics can
– as outlined in the introduction to this issue be the vehicle of human rights abuses’.11 (p
of Torture – form the backbone of an 371)
Even the increased willingness to submit
increasing number of investigations into the as evidence testimony relating to the use of
connection between music and cruel, musical practices against prisoners, as for
inhuman and degrading treatment and example demonstrated in documentation
punishment. While work inspired by the from the International Criminal Tribunal for
recent U.S. cases has often situated the topic Yugoslavia, points to a change in perceptions
within the idea of ‘sonic warfare’, focusing of the role of musical practices in the
on music as heard and sonic aspects of maltreatment and torture of prisoners when
musical practices e.g. 4-5, work on the U.S. compared, for example, to how such
cases lays more focus on music as an activity evidence was treated during the Torturers’
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and on ritual practice in the camps, and Trials in Greece in the 1970s and 1980s.6 In
music as a means of resistance and survival. part, such changes can be attributed to
Recent and ongoing studies have begun to improved understanding of the impact of
widen the historical and geographical remit psychological torture, though the boundary
of work on music and torture with research between psychological and physical torture is
relating to Greece (including in the present arguably nowhere more grey than in the case
volume) and Chile during periods of of practices involving music.
dictatorship and war, as well as historical Despite this progress in recognising and
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responding to the use of music in the context generally used in conjunction with others,
of torture, the sheer scope and historical and their impact can thus only be under-
longevity of these phenomena have only stood by looking at the whole context, a
rarely been reflected in scholarly discourse. point to which I will return later. The
As a result, the importance of this topic for physical and psychological damage caused
work to prevent torture has not always been might vary significantly in each case (the lack
given due consideration. The articles in this of studies looking specifically at musical
issue of Torture Journal provide further case forms of torture and ill-treatment make it
studies on just some of the ways music has difficult to establish this with any degree of
been and is used in contexts of punishment reliability at the present time). In the case of
and detention, for both positive and negative forced singing/playing/movement to music,
ends. My aim in this article is to focus on a damage may be caused by the physical effort
central question that arises from them, involved; the damage in the case of being
namely, when the use of music in detention forced to listen does not stop at the ears but
can be considered a form of CIDT up to and may inflict further physical damage either
including torture. Given the widespread directly or indirectly, for example through
therapeutic use of music during and after loss of sleep. The psychological damage is
periods of detention, but also a significant dependent on a number of factors and
body of evidence pointing to the frequent therefore difficult to predict; what we do
conjunction of music with forms of ill-treat- know is that for some survivors, forms of
ment and torture of detainees, answering this torture involving music were viewed by them
question must be seen as a matter of some as amongst the worst they had experienced,
priority. while for others, it offered them a way to
cope.
Music as Therapy and as Torture Though the ways that music has been
Discussions of music and torture tend to used, and the contexts in which such uses
focus on exposure to constant loud music, arise, is varied, there is one common
something which is more widespread than is denominator aside from the fact that all
often assumed. However, the use of music in these practices have to do with music at one
the context of torture and CIDT also level or another. In all these cases, participa-
includes several practices involving actual or tion in a musical activity is not entered into
simulated singing/playing, and/or activities voluntarily: one is forced to listen, or one is
conducted to music created by oneself or forced to play or sing or dance. This also
others. Such practices include, but are not differentiates from the outset these practices
limited to: forced singing/playing either as a from others which ostensibly may take the
form of degradation and humiliation, or as same form, but do not involve coercion. This
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an act of physical violence where the activity distinction is of prime importance not only
of singing is prolonged or carried out in such for developing safeguards, but also if we want
a way as to cause exhaustion and/or damage to understand how music can, in the most
to the body; forcing prisoners to dance or to extreme cases, function as an instrument of
carry out extensive physical exercises to torture.
music; forcing people to sing while they are Ironic though it may seem, case study
exposed to physical beatings.12-13 Like reports from music therapists who have
exposure to loud music, these practices are worked with survivors of torture and ill-treat-
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ment or other traumatic experiences present using it in ways that very effectively breach
us with a useful way-in to understanding the the intimate sphere of the subject. Neverthe-
logic that operates when music is used for less, Dixon’s explanation of what happens in
the polar opposite reason: not to rebuild, but the therapeutic setting underlines again the
to destroy. A common characteristic of such crucial difference to the ways music is used
case study reports is that they trace a journey against prisoners and not with or for them.
from initial sessions in which the patient’s He also highlights an important fact often
improvisations are marked by repetition, lack overlooked in many scholarly discussions of
of development, and lack of response to the music, but increasingly explored in more
therapist’s attempts to accompany, to recent scholarship into what has been called
musical responses that are not only more communicative musicality. This newer
inventive and varied but, crucially, demon- scholarship underlines that many of the most
strate an ability to interact musically with the significant aspects of musical communication
therapist.14-16 In the context of a discussion cannot be understood solely via the idea of
which used one such case study to explore music as a form of expression (with its
larger questions of the relationship between underlying implication of one voice transmit-
music and violence, Matthew Dixon ting in one direction) but by understanding
suggested the following: human musicality as involving particular
“Music expresses the whole range of processes of interaction, response, and
human feelings and relationships, including coordination of movements, sounds and
those that are violent [...] As far as possible, gestures.17
the therapist must ensure that the music Nevertheless, it does us no harm at all to
proceeds from the expressive needs of the consider what is being expressed when music
client, and never loses touch with those is forced on detainees, regardless of what the
needs. However, the primary agent of change music is, what type of practice is involved, or
in music therapy is a process of creative what the larger context is. It has often been
interaction, inherent in the act of making recognised that terror generally, and torture
music, whose nature is the polar opposite of specifically, has a communicative function
violence. Thus music can encompass a range – that torture, for example, is not about
of violent feelings, urges and instincts, but as gaining information or establishing guilt, but
a process it will naturally tend towards sending a message. The use of music in such
intimate and creative personal engagement. contexts is no exception to this. Fundamen-
This explains its particular relevance and tally, and whatever else may be implied by
usefulness as a treatment for the traumatic the exact repertoire of music used coercive
effects of political violence, and also suggests practices, what is always being expressed
its limitations.”14 (pp 128,129) through music is the nature of the relation-
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I would not agree with Dixon’s conclu- ship between the torturer and the victim.
sion that music implicitly tends towards This is a relationship characterised by the
intimacy and creativity, at least to the extent complete power of one over the other – an
that these are viewed as being situated at the unequal relationship which obviously always
opposite end of the spectrum of human exists between the jailer and the jailed. But
emotions from violence; I know too many there are ways to conduct this relationship
examples of people being very creative in which do not call into question the basic
their destructive use of music, including humanity of the detainee, and which do not
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celebrate the dominance of one over the In other words, those governments who
other. Such a celebration of power, which revel too much in their good track record in
not infrequently has sadistic elements, is the case of torture nevertheless have conti-
rarely far away when people deprived of their nuous responsibilities in monitoring and
liberty are forced to make music, and in taking proactive steps to prevent all other
many cases it is a key element of the way forms of ill-treatment as well, and generally
such musical practices are designed. This is have no grounds for complacency in this
what makes all forms of forced musical regard.19
activity worthy of our utmost vigilance. This issue comes into particularly sharp
focus when we consider that some of the
Forced Participation in Music: distinctions drawn between torture and
Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading apparently less harmful practices very often
Recent years have seen a growing tendency transpire to be ill-founded. Research
to critiquing the distinction often drawn undertaken over almost twenty years by
between torture and other forms of CIDT. Metin Başoğlu and colleagues into the
Attempts such as that undertaken by the connection between different forms of
Bush administration to classify certain torture and CIDT and incidences of PTSD
methods of torture as constituting ‘only’ has provided strong evidence for looking
CIDT have led several human rights again at the distinctions often drawn between
advocates to reiterate that the distinction bet- different practices generally regarded as
ween the two must not be read as, in any more or less severe. Başoğlu’s research has
way, condoning or allowing the latter. As consistently shown that distress levels
Manfred Nowak and Elizabeth McArthur experienced during torture, and levels of
described in this journal in 2006: PTSD after detention, are often linked not to
“The distinction between torture and less physical methods of torture but to particular
serious forms of ill-treatment, all of which forms of psychological ill-treatment, with the
are absolutely prohibited under Article 7 most important factor in contributing to
CCPR, other international and regional stress during detention being the subject’s
treaty provisions as well as customary perception of helplessness and loss of control
international law, was introduced because in the face of extreme fear.20-22 (This finding
some of the specific State obligations laid is corroborated by and helps explain the
down in CAT were meant to apply to torture impact of exposure to music among some of
only (above all, the obligation to criminalize the U.S. detainees, who talked specifically
acts of torture and to apply the principle of about the horror of not knowing when the
universal jurisdiction in this regard). Other music would start again, or if and when it
obligations aimed at prevention, in particular would stop).23 Başoğlu’s research, which
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by means of education and training, by involved analysis and comparison of testi-

systematically reviewing interrogation rules mony from almost five hundred survivors of
and practices, by ensuring a prompt and torture from Turkey and the former Yugosla-
impartial ex officio investigation, and by via, is interesting for the present topic not
ensuring an effective complaints mechanism, only for providing further evidence for the
as laid down in Articles 10 to 13, must be widespread use of exposure to loud music
equally applied to other forms of ill-treat- (about one half of survivors of torture in the
ment as well.”18 (p 148) case of Turkey, and around a third in the case
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of the former Yugoslavia, reported being in Detention” in Göttingen in March 2013,

exposed to loud music), but for the conclusi- those of us researching this topic are well
ons he draws about the connections between used to being asked (or provoked) to explain
different forms of ill-treatment in contribu- what it is about music ‘itself ’ that can be
ting to severe trauma.b He argues that firstly, used to torture, and what kinds of music are
there is compelling evidence that some types used – a question that often presupposes that
of practices in detention which themselves the suitability of music for torture is based
are not normally classified as torture may in on structural characteristics of the music
fact exacerbate the stress and pain felt by the used, whereas most evidence from actual
detainee to the point at which such a cases currently points instead to the choice
distinction is academic at best; and secondly, of music being politically motivated. We are
and in consequence, that more attention also used to the kinds of excuses raised that,
needs to be paid to the interaction between since musical forms of torture and ill-treat-
certain types of treatment (or, in his discus- ment are never used on their own, it is not
sion, certain types of stressor), and the the music, but something else, which is doing
context of captivity itself. For the traumatic the real damage. Another excuse often heard
impact of particular stressors, he argues: is that any type of sound could be used, ergo,
“... is also dependent on contextual it is not the specifically musical qualities of
processes. Thus, contextual factors need music that are important in torture, but
primary attention in any consideration of other things, such as the volume at which it
what constitutes torture. A focus solely on is played. But taking the music out of the
particular methods not only detracts music torture simply does not explain its
scientific, legal, and public attention from impact, or why it is used at all. On the
this important issue, but also misleads many contrary, as I have explored in more detail
people into thinking that it is possible to elsewhere, understanding the history and
single out a particular captivity event and
decide on whether or not it constitutes
torture simply by imagining its impact or
extrapolating from own life experiences with
b
ostensibly similar events. Indeed, even Exposure to loud music is the only type of musical ill-
treatment specifically listed in the categories used by
experimental evidence, to the extent that it Başoğlu; there is, however, evidence from other sources
exists, might be misleading in this respect, as relating to both contexts of extensive use of forced
controlled experimental conditions do not singing (in the case of former Yugoslavia) and of forced
singing and the use of extensive periods of military-style
wholly reflect far more complex real life drill to music in the case of Turkey. To understand the
situations.”22 (p 142) contexts and impact of music in these cases, it would be
The type of disaggregation of practices necessary to further differentiate the data on some of
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the other types of torture and ill-treatment discussed,

that Başoğlu is criticising here, principally and possibly to specifically include forced singing and
referring to general debates and also other types of coerced musical activities in future
jurisprudence on what does and does not studies. For information on former Yugoslavia see
Annex VIII of the Final report of the United Nations
constitute torture, bears an uncanny Commission of Experts established pursuant to security
resemblance to the way that music is often council resolution 780 (1992), currently available from:
approached when the subject of music in http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/comexpert/anx/VIII-01.htm
[19 August, 2013]. For information on Turkey see e.g.
detention and captivity is raised. As Suzanne Amnesty International. Turkey: Testimony on Torture.
Cusick also noted at the conference “Music London: Amnesty International; 1985.
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uses of music in military discipline and in music may not evince such bad average
political communication, not to mention the responses as a number of other methods of
plurality of practices that link musical torture: his published data does not however
communication with shaming, mockery and allow for differentiation between different
humiliation, is essential to understanding types of exposure to loud music, nor does it
why musical practices so often arise in the explicitly name other types of maltreatment
context of torture and CIDT.12 where music is known to have been a factor,
It is here, too, that the seemingly illogical including forced singing and playing.
use of music in connection with torture Secondly, however, even if the number of the
starts to become very logical indeed. If we severest cases of music torture were found to
understand musical activities from the point be limited, or the negative impact of music to
of view of the type of relationships they be less on the majority of survivors than
express or help emerge, we are also led to other forms, the very fact of resorting to the
very different conclusions about the use of use of forced participation in musical acts,
music in detention and, specifically, the use and the use of music to humiliate prisoners,
of any form of enforced musical practice in a is a sufficiently serious sign to warrant our
situation where people are deprived of their attention to, and our condemnation of these
liberty. While there are some forms of practices, for the very reason of what they
enforced participation in music that consti- reveal about the attitude towards the detaine-
tute torture, and some that do not constitute es on the part of those responsible.
torture, I am increasingly convinced that all These remain preliminary analyses and
forms of enforced musical practice in preliminary conclusions, but they do point
conditions of detention need to be treated the way forward for more research on these
seriously. As celebrations of power over the issues, and indicate how this research could
detained person, as attempts to ‘re-educate’ be of use in improving safeguards for all
her or him, and, as is so frequent, as practi- people in situations of detention, up to and
ces that are often humiliating by design, they including the prevention of torture. We will
point to an underlying disregard for the never prevent torture solely by stopping
detainee’s dignity which is a symptom of a exports of weapons used, be they batons,
much larger evil indeed, and which in turn is electric shock devices, or loudspeakers, no
practically a prerequisite for tolerating or matter how important such steps may be. We
inflicting more serious forms of ill-treatment, will however make torture increasingly
whether or not such do in fact transpire. difficult if we validate, time and again, the
basic and inviolable principle of the dignity
The Way Forward of every single human being. If this inherent
If I were to draw conclusions from the dignity of all people is accepted as the single
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analysis above, they would be two-fold. most important benchmark for the treatment
Firstly, attention to the ways music can be of others, it quickly becomes clear that all
used against prisoners in detention is uses of music to humiliate or poke fun at
important not least because of significant people held in institutions and other contexts
evidence from some survivors of the distress of shorter- or longer-term detention are not
and damage this caused them. The evidence to be tolerated. All musical activities,
supplied by Başoğlu’s studies suggests that, whether listening or performing or moving in
approached statistically, exposure to loud time with music, which are not entered into
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on a voluntary basis and do not incorporate right to rehabilitation, to name just a few
basic safeguards for the physical and areas, demonstrating that the damage
psychological health of the detainees, must wrought by music can be at least as great as
be seen as an issue of great concern. other methods of torture is essential if we are
Preventing the worst abuses of physical to promote the rights of survivors and to
and mental integrity that can be inflicted prevent future abuses. The media attention
through music begins with the much more given to this issue through the techniques
simple act of removing the sheen from used in U.S. detention camps and prisons in
musical activities as in some way intrinsically the ‘War on Terror’ has highlighted a practice
beneficial and morally good. We need to face established as a contravention of the absolute
up to both the possible negative health ban on torture no later than the 1990s, in the
effects of different musical practices and the UN CAT’s concluding observations on the
long-standing conjunction between music periodic report submitted by Israel.10 By the
and processes of humiliation and shaming. same token, this media attention is also in
As a minimum standard, it may be useful to danger of overseeing the much more
promote a general guideline that any musical widespread and long-standing use of music
activities and practices in a context of in this and in many other ways in the context
detention must be non-coercive, temporally of torture. This is most critical where
limited, and must not constitute an attack at organisations and musicians who initially
any level on the detainee's dignity. Setting spearheaded the public outcry against music
out and ensuring the application of such torture have increasingly laid down their
principles should not occur at arms’ length banners in the period since Obama came to
from other initiatives to promote the human power. At best we can blame this on a lack of
rights of detainees and in particular to knowledge and understanding about the
protect them from all forms of CIDT. general scale of the problem. The more
Indeed, it is my personal conviction, not least cynical view would be that for many who
on the basis of several years' research on were so outraged, it was the perceived attack
music and torture, that human rights on music rather than on the tortured
advocates would do well to place greater individual which was the real motivation for
emphasis on the primacy of human dignity their actions. But cynicism does not get us
not only as a convincing moral and legal far in the fight against torture, and we can
argument against torture, but as a value only hope, instead, that a re-energised fight
which is under attack in many other forms of against music torture will emerge that will
punishment and treatment in detention as help disseminate knowledge on the nature
well. and impact of torture and CIDT as a whole,
Such an approach to prevention does not and, not least through this, will attract more
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absolve us from the responsibility of recog- and more constituencies into this fight.
nising that music can be and is used as an And it is sadly not that case that music
instrument of torture in the stricter sense as no longer features in the punishment of those
well. Given that torture is recognised as a men still illegally detained in Guántanamo
particularly brutal attack on human dignity, Bay, four years after Obama made his
and thus as a category of great importance commitment to justice and an end to torture
with regard to legal redress, prosecution of there. Papers released between work on the
the perpetrators, asylum procedures and the first and second drafts of the present article
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reveal a number of practices used against attention in a way that they don’t for many
those Guántanamo captives who commenced other people, with the exception of musicians
a hunger strike earlier this year to protest at and some other music professionals. More-
their continued incarceration although they over, by virtue of our professional back-
had been cleared for release. Testimony ground, we have access to resources that can
presented in the form of an animation help us understand and contextualise what is
developed by British newspaper The happening in different musical situations.
Guardian in conjunction with the organisa- By extension, however, this is not
tion Reprieve, which represents many research we can conduct on our own. What
current and former inmates of Guantánamo, we know about how music affects people in
details practices including but not limited to the context of torture and other forms of
forced feeding intended to break the will of cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment, is
those on hunger strike. One prisoner refers wholly dependent on survivor testimony. If
to the concerted use of noise to harass the we are to build a convincing case for taking
hunger strikers in Camp V: ‘They are this issue seriously we need to gather more
stumbling up and down the tiers, talking, information and we need to make public the
singing. They have brought in a big fan to scale of the problem. This is where we are so
make noise’.24 Given the public outcry dependent on readers of this journal and the
surrounding exposure to loud recorded wider community of all engaged in the fight
music as a method of torture, such recourse against torture and ill-treatment. Post-Bush,
to other methods of sonic terror against there is a real danger that the issue of music
prisoners is highly cynical as well as demon- torture could disappear from the radar,
strably illegal. simply because of the misplaced idea that
One final point needs to be stressed. this method is more or less unique to the
Başoğlu’s research underlines the importance case of the ‘War on Terror’. The essays in this
of looking at torture and CIDT in context, volume, and others already published or in
focusing less on the supposed impact of print by these authors and some others
individual methods as such and more on the besides, are just one indication that almost
combination of conditions and practices. By the opposite is true. I would not want to
this analysis, it might seem that focusing on overstate the incidence of music used in the
what has been called music torture is context of torture, or to generalise, but my
problematic since here, too, we are focusing experience to date has been that once we
on one method (or group of methods) alone. scratch the surface all manner of examples
This would be true if the research were to emerge. From the point of view of musicolo-
stop at the issue of music and if musical gists, we have opened a Pandora’s Box. There
scholars were to do what they have too often are too many people eager to close that box
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done in the past, namely, conduct their and all that it reveals. But as in the myth,
affairs in such a way that interaction with what we would leave inside if we did so,
scholars from other disciplines is neither would be hope: the hope of finally recog-
possible nor truly desirable. But musicolo- nising this form of ill-treatment and torture
gists, or at least musicologists of a particular for what it is, and taking action accordingly.
kind, do have one great advantage. We see This is a duty we bear to all those who have
the world musically; musical activities and experienced it.
practices stick out at us and draw our
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Acknowledgments 12. Grant, MJ. Pathways to Music Torture. Trans-

I gratefully acknowledge a number of useful positions: Musiques et sciences sociales, special
issue Music and Armed Conflict since 1945. On-
suggestions and pointers to further sources line, forthcoming 2014.
provided by two anonymous reviewers of an 13. Testimony from ICTY in the case against Slavko
earlier draft of this article. Dokmanović. Excerpt available from: http://www.
icty.org/sid/192 [24 October, 2013].
14. Dixon M. Music and Human Rights. In: Sutton,
JP (ed.). Music, Music Therapy and Trauma:
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