NAVIGATION 01

Terrestrial and Coastal Navigation

Navigation has been defined as a process of directing the movement of a ship from
one point of the earth to the other via a shortest, convenient route that is consistent with
safety. Simply stated, the shortest route may not always be convenient and safe, or the
most convenient and safest route may not always be the shortest. This means that a
ship must be navigated across a body of water that is safe for the vessel to pass
through.

Terrestrial Navigation is a kind of navigation which makes use of landmarks such as

lighthouses, buoys, headlands, or any objects on the surface of the Earth as a means of
determining the position of the ship.

Coastal Navigation is a kind of navigation where the ship is proceeding approximately

parallel to a coastline (headland to headland) in sight of land or sufficiently often in sight
of land to fix the ship’s position by observation of land features.

Introduction to Navigation

The Art and Science of Navigation – Marine navigation is a blend of both science and
art. A key union between the knowledge of theory, the application of mathematics and
the exercise of seafaring instincts that have proven to be the crucial elements behind
successful maritime voyages for millennia.

A good navigator is one who plans each voyage carefully. As the vessel proceeds, he or
she gathers navigation information from a variety of sources and then evaluates this
information to determine the ship's position. The navigator then compares that position
against the voyage plan, operational commitments, and their pre-determined "dead
reckoning" position. A good navigator also anticipates dangerous situations well before
they arise, and always stays "ahead of the vessel," ready to address navigational
emergencies at any time. The navigator is increasingly a manager of a diverse
assortment of resources-electronic, mechanical, and human. Navigation methods and
techniques vary with the type of vessel, the conditions, and the navigator's experience.
The navigator uses the methods and techniques best suited to the vessel, its
equipment, and conditions at hand.

Some important elements of successful navigation cannot be acquired from any book or
instructor. The science of navigation can be taught, but the art of navigation must be
developed from experience.
 NAVIGATION 01
Types of Navigation
Methods of navigation have changed throughout history. New methods often enhance
the mariner's ability to complete their voyage safely and expeditiously, and make the job
easier. One of the most important judgments the navigator must make involves
choosing the best methods to use. Each method or type has advantages and
disadvantages, while none is effective in all situations. Some commonly recognized
types of navigation include:

Bathymetric Navigation uses the topography of the sea floor to acquire positioning
data. A vessel's position is determined with respects to known locations of geographic
features of the ocean bottom.

Celestial navigation involves reducing celestial measurements taken with a sextant to

lines of position using calculators or computer programs, or by hand with almanacs and
tables or using spherical trigonometry

Dead reckoning (DR) determines a predicted position by advancing a known position

for courses and distances. A position so determined is called a dead reckoning (DR)
position. It is generally accepted that only course and speed determine the DR position.
Correcting the DR position for leeway, current effects, and steering error result in an
estimated position (EP).

Piloting involves navigating in restricted waters with frequent or constant determination

of position relative to nearby geographic and hydrographic features.

Radio Navigation uses radio waves to determine position through a variety of

electronic devices.

Radar Navigation uses radar to determine the distance from or bearing to objects
whose position is known. This process is separate from radar's use in collision
avoidance.

Satellite Navigation uses radio signals from satellites for determining position.

Electronic System sand integrated bridge concepts are driving navigation system
planning.

Integrated Systems take inputs from various ship sensors, electronically and
automatically chart the position, and provide control signals required to maintain a
vessel on a preset course. The navigator becomes a system manager, choosing system
presets, interpreting system output, and monitoring vessel response.
 NAVIGATION 01
In practice, a navigator synthesizes different methodologies into a single integrated
system. He or she should never feel comfortable utilizing only one method when others
are also available.

Since each method has advantages and disadvantages, the navigator must choose
methods appropriate to each situation, and never rely completely on only one system.

With the advent of automated position fixing and electronic charts, modern navigation
has become an almost completely electronic process. The mariner is constantly
tempted to rely solely on electronic systems. But electronic navigation systems are
always subject to potential failure, and the professional mariner must never forget that
the safety of their ship and crew may depend on skills that differ little from those
practiced generations ago. Proficiency in conventional piloting and celestial navigation
remains essential.

Phases of Navigation

Four distinct phases define the navigation process. The mariner should choose the
system mix that best meets the accuracy requirements of each phase.

 Inland Waterway Phase: Piloting in narrow canals, channels, rivers, and

estuaries.

 Harbor/Harbor Approach Phase: Navigating to a harbor entrance through bays

and sounds, and negotiating harbor approach channels.

 Coastal Phase: Navigating within 50 miles of the coast or inshore of the

200meter depth contour.

 Ocean Phase: Navigating outside the coastal area in the open sea.
The navigator's position accuracy requirements, fix intervals, and systems
requirements differ in each phase. The following table can be used as a general
guide for selecting the proper system(s)

Chart Room - Plotting Instrument

 for chart reading and plotting courses

Dividers - Measuring the distance between two points on a chart is made easier with
dividers. The dividers allow you to measure distance in nautical miles when used in
conjunction with the latitude scale of your nautical map.
 NAVIGATION 01
Parallel Ruler - Plot direction on your nautical chart with a parallel ruler. With two
straight edged hinges, a parallel ruler allows you to maintain the same angle along the
chart by alternating the moving edge and holding down the non-moving edge.

Protractor - used to lay off course or bearing, measure distance between any two
points, plot a position on a chart from a given set of coordinates, or determine
coordinates of position on a chart.

Inoue Type Nautical Triangles, a position finder for the navigator, consisting of a
danger-angle triangle and a protractor triangle made of transparent plastic, 36cm. Kent
Type Two 45* triangles provide an easy method for plotting position and doing other
chart work. Using protractor scales, the triangle is easily aligned in any direction with a
chart.

Exercises no. 1

1. Marine navigation blends both ART and SCIENCE

2. A good navigator gathers information from every available source, evaluates this
Information, determines a fix, and compares that fix with his pre-determined

dead reckoning position

3. Some important elements of successful navigation cannot be acquired from any

instructor, but the art of navigation must be developed from

experience

4. Determines position by advancing a known position for courses and distances.

Dead reckoning

5. Involves navigating in restricted waters with frequent determination of position relative

to geographic and hydrographic features.

Piloting

6. Involves measurements to lines of position using tables, spherical trigonometry, and

almanacs

Celestial navigation
 NAVIGATION 01
Chart Projection

A nautical chart represents part of the spherical earth on a plane surface. It shows
water depth, the shoreline of adjacent land, prominent topographic features, aids to
navigation, and other navigational information. It is a work area on which the navigator
plots courses, ascertains positions, and views the relationship of the ship to the
surrounding area. It assists navigators in avoiding dangers and arriving safely at their
destination. Should a marine accident occur, the nautical chart in use at the time takes
on legal significance. In cases of grounding, collision, and other accidents, charts
become critical records for reconstructing the event and assigning liability. Charts used
in reconstructing the incident can also have tremendous training value.

The Earth is an irregular oblate spheroid (a sphere flattened at the poles).

Measurements of its dimensions and the amount of its flattening are subjects of
geodesy. However, for most navigational purposes, assuming a spherical Earth
introduces insignificant error. The Earth's axis of rotation is the line connecting the north
and south geographic poles.

Great Circle, Small Circle – Parts and Measurements

A great circle is the line of intersection of a sphere and a plane through its center. This
is the largest circle that can be drawn on a sphere. The shortest line on the surface of a
sphere between two points on the surface is part of a great circle. On the spheroidal
Earth the shortest line is called a geodesic. A great circle is a near enough
approximation to a geodesic for most problems of navigation.

A small circle is the line of intersection of a sphere and a plane which does not pass
through the center.

The term meridian is usually applied to the upper branch of the half-circle from pole to
pole which passes through a given point.
The opposite half is called the lower branch. A parallel or parallel of latitude is a circle
on the surface of the Earth parallel to the plane of the equator.

It connects all points of equal latitude. The equator a great circle at latitude 0° that
bisects the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The poles are single points at latitude
90°. All other parallels are small circles.

Coordinates

Coordinates of latitude and longitude can define any position on Earth.

 NAVIGATION 01
Latitude (L, lat.) is the angular distance from the equator, measured northward or
southward along a meridian from0° at the equator to 90° at the poles. It is designated
north (N) or south (S) to indicate the direction of measurement.

The difference of latitude (l, D Lat.) between two places is the angular length of arc of
any meridian between their parallels. It is the numerical difference of the latitudes if the
places are on the same side of the equator; it is the sum of the latitudes if the places are
on opposite sides of the equator. It may be designated north (N) or south (S) when
appropriate.

The middle or mid-latitude (Lm) between two places on the same side of the equator
is half the sum of their latitudes. Mid-latitude is labeled N or S to indicate whether it is
north or south of the equator.

The expression may refer to the mid-latitude of two places on opposite sides of the
equator. In this case, it is equal to half the difference between the two latitudes and
takes the name of the place farthest from the equator.

Longitude (l, long.) is the angular distance between the prime meridian and the
meridian of a point on the Earth, measured eastward or westward from the prime
meridian through 180°. It is designated east (E) or west (W) to indicate the direction of
measurement.

The difference of longitude (D Lo) between two places is the shorter arc of the parallel
or the smaller angle at the pole between the meridians of the two places. If both places
are on the same side (east or west) of Greenwich, D Lo is the numerical difference of
the longitudes of the two places; if on opposite sides, D Lo is the numerical sum unless
this exceeds 180°, when it is 360°minus the sum. The distance between two meridians
at any parallel of latitude, expressed in distance units, usually nautical miles, is called
departure (p, Dep.).
It represents distance made good east or west as a craft proceeds from one point to
another. Its numerical value between any two meridians decreases with increased
latitude, while D Lo is numerically the same at any latitude. Either D Lo or p may be
designated east (E) or west (W) when appropriate.

Distance on the Earth

Distance, as used by the navigator, is the length of the rhumb line connecting two
places. This isa line making the same angle with all meridians. Meridians and parallels
which also maintain constant true directions may be considered special cases of the
rhumb line. Any other rhumb line spirals toward the pole, forming a loxodromic curve
or loxodrome.
 NAVIGATION 01
Distance along the great circle connecting two points is customarily designated great-
circle distance. For most purposes, considering the nautical mile the length of one
minute of latitude introduces no significant error. Speed (S) is rate of motion, or
distance per unit of time. A knot (kn.), the unit of speed commonly used in navigation,
is a rate of 1nautical mile per hour. The expression speed of advance (SOA) is used to
indicate the speed to be made along the intended track. Speed over the ground (SOG)
is the actual speed of the vessel over the surface of the Earth at any given time. To
calculate speed made good (SMG)between two positions, divide the distance between
the two positions by the time elapsed between the two positions.

Exercises no. 2

1. Is the line of intersection of a sphere and a plane through its center.

great circle

2. Can define any position on earth.

Coordinates

3. Is the line of intersection of a sphere and a plane which does not pass through the
center.

small circle

4. Is the angular distance from the equator, measured along a meridian.

Latitude

5. Is a circle on the surface of the earth parallel to the plane of the equator.

parallel of latitude

6. It represents distance made good east or west as a craft proceeds from one point to
another.

Departure

7. Is the angular distance East or West of the Greenwich meridian measured along the
equator to the meridian passing through the place.

difference of longitude
 NAVIGATION 01
8. Are great circles drawn to the poles.

Equator

7. The arc of the equator contained between the meridian passing through two places.

difference of longitude

Datum and Navigation

One of the most serious impacts of different datums on navigation occurs when a
navigation system provides a fix based on a datum different from that used for the
nautical chart. The resulting plotted position may be different from the actual location on
that chart. This difference is known as a datum shift.

Modern electronic navigation systems have software installed that can output positions
in a variety of datums, eliminating the necessity for applying corrections.

Chart

A nautical chart represents part of the spherical earth on a plane surface. It shows water
depth, the shoreline of adjacent land, prominent topographic features, aids to
navigation, and other navigational information. It is a work area on which the navigator
plots courses, ascertains positions, and views the relationship of the ship to the
surrounding area. It assists navigators in avoiding dangers and arriving safely at their
destination. Should a marine accident occur, the nautical chart in use at the time takes
on legal significance. In cases of grounding, collision, and other accidents, charts
become critical records for reconstructing the event and assigning liability. Charts used
in reconstructing the incident can also have tremendous training value. Originally hand-
drawn on sheepskin, traditional nautical charts have for generations been printed on
paper.

Electronic Charts consisting of a digital data base and a display system are commonly
in use today and are replacing paper charts aboard many vessels. An electronic chart is
not simply a digital version of a paper chart; it introduces a new navigation methodology
with capabilities and limitations very different from paper charts. The electronic chart is
the legal equivalent of the paper chart if it meets certain International Maritime
Organization specifications.