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Paul Littlefair
Second edition

Solar shading of buildings

Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

Paul Littlefair
Second edition
Solar shading of buildings
 ii

The research and writing for this publication has been funded This report is based on an earlier publication funded by the
by BRE Trust, the largest UK charity dedicated specifically to Department of Trade and Industry Passive Solar Programme,
research and education in the built environment. BRE Trust managed by the Energy Technology Support Unit, Harwell.
uses the profits made by its trading companies to fund new
research and education programmes that advance knowledge, The author would like to thank the firms that supplied pictures
innovation and communication for public benefit. for this guide and representatives from the British Blind and
Shutter Association, CIBSE Daylight Group, CIBSE Society of
BRE Trust is a company limited by guarantee, registered in Facade Engineering, Glass and Glazing Federation and National
England and Wales (no. 3282856) and registered as a charity Association of Rooflight Manufacturers, who provided valuable
in England (no. 1092193) and in Scotland (no. SC039320). information and comments. The author also wishes to thank
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Registered office: Bucknalls Lane, Garston, Watford, Herts Cosmin Ticleanu of BRE, who contributed to Appendix B.
WD25 9XX, Tel: +44 (0) 333 321 8811,
Email: secretary@bretrust.co.uk, www.bretrust.org.uk.

IHS Markit is the exclusive publisher of BRE publications.

IHS Global Ltd is a private limited company registered in England

and Wales (no. 00788737). Registered office: The Capitol
Building, Oldbury, Bracknell, Berkshire RG12 8FZ, www.ihs.com.

BRE publications are available from www.brebookshop.com or

IHS Markit, Tel: +44 (0) 1344 328038,
Fax: +44 (0) 1344 328005, Email: brepress@ihs.com.

© 2018, IHS Markit™. All rights reserved. No part of this

publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise, or be stored in any retrieval system of any nature,
without prior written permission of IHS Markit. Requests to copy
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Any third-party URLs are given for information and reference

purposes only and BRE and IHS Markit do not control or warrant
the accuracy, relevance, availability, timeliness or completeness
of the information contained on any third-party website.
Inclusion of any third-party details or website is not intended to
reflect their importance, nor is it intended to endorse any views
expressed, products or services offered, nor the companies or
organisations in question.

Any views expressed in this publication are not necessarily those

of BRE or IHS Markit. BRE and IHS Markit have made every effort
to ensure that the information and guidance presented here
were accurate when published, but can take no responsibility
for the subsequent use of this information, nor for any errors
or omissions it may contain. To the extent permitted by law,
BRE and IHS Markit shall not be liable for any loss, damage
or expense incurred by reliance on the information or any
statement contained herein.

Printed using FSC or PEFC material from sustainable forests.

Copyright © 2018, IHS Markit™. All rights reserved.

BR 364
First published 1999
Second edition 2018

ISBN 978-1-84806-474-4

Front cover images

Left: © IHS Markit (1712042)
Top right: © Dearnleys (1712043)
Bottom right: © Louvolite (1712044)

Back cover image

© Torbay Blinds (1712045)
 Contents iii

Contents

Executive summary v
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1 Introduction 1
1.1 Why shading? 2
1.2 Examples 4

2 Principles 6
2.1 Movement of the sun and window orientation 7
2.2 Loss of daylight 8
2.3 View out 9
2.4 Fixed and adjustable shading 9

3 External shading 11
3.1 Overhangs 12
3.2 Light shelves 14
3.3 Awnings and canopies 15
3.4 Fixed and moveable louvres 16
3.5 Other shading devices 18

4 Glazing 20
4.1 Standard solar-control glazing: reflective and absorbing 21
4.2 Soft-coat low-emissivity ‘heat mirror’ glazing 22
4.3 Reducing window area 22
4.4 Window films 23
4.5 Other glazing types 24

5 Mid-pane devices 26
5.1 Mid-pane blinds 27
5.2 Shading in double-skinned facades 28
5.3 Other mid-pane shading types 29

6 Internal shading 30
6.1 Venetian blinds 31
6.2 Vertical louvre blinds 33
6.3 Roller blinds 34
6.4 Curtains 36
6.5 Other internal shading devices 37

Continued overleaf
 iv Contents

7 Conclusions 38
7.1 Notes to Table 15 40

Appendices 41
Appendix A: Measuring and calculating performance 42
Appendix B: Shading in building regulations and environmental labelling schemes 44
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References 46
 Executive summary v

Executive summary
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Careful choice of solar shading is required in buildings to allow

good use of winter solar gain and daylighting without summer
overheating. It may be needed to stop a building overheating,
reduce cooling costs, prevent glare (particularly where computer
screens are used) or provide privacy for building occupants.

This report describes the commonly used shading devices

and some new developments. It gives the advantages and
disadvantages of each kind of shading device. A decision table
is included to help find the best solution for a particular building
application. The guidance focuses on shading requirements in
the UK and similar climates and latitudes.

This report will be of interest to architects, building services

engineers, building owners and their facilities managers, and
shading manufacturers, retailers and installers.
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Hunter Douglas: 1712046

vi
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1 Introduction
1 Introduction
1

Levolux: 1712047
 2 Solar shading of buildings

calculations[7] showed that even in a building where cooling had

1.1 Why shading? already been fitted, the shading could pay for itself in under five
years due to the resulting energy savings.
Windows are an essential feature of nearly every type of
building. People like to be able to see out and have access to
Overheating, and excessive cooling loads, are likely to be more
daylight and fresh air. Even sunlight is often welcome. In winter,
of a problem if:
the window can act as a passive solar collector, helping to heat
up the building. • the windows face the southern half of the sky (east- or
west-facing windows can also be a problem in many types
Windows have their adverse effects too, but these can mostly of building)
be avoided by providing a suitable shading device – the subject • window areas are larger than normal (Figure 1)
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of this report. There are four main reasons why shading might • there are significant areas of horizontal or near-horizontal
be needed: rooflights
• the building has high internal heat gains
• to reduce overheating
• natural ventilation is difficult, eg if the building is in a noisy
• to reduce or avoid cooling energy costs
or polluted location.
• to reduce glare from windows
• to provide privacy.
Some highly insulated and airtight buildings may also be
prone to overheating if adequate ventilation is not provided.
Some shading devices can also reduce heat loss in winter.
Buildings of lightweight construction can heat up quickly when
there are solar gains; heavyweight buildings are less prone to
temperature fluctuations.
Reduction of overheating and cooling
energy costs All shading devices will reduce heat gain to some extent, but
external shading is generally more effective than internal
On a clear day in summer, an unshaded window in the UK can shading. To reduce overheating, a shading device should have
admit 3 kilowatt-hours (kWh) of radiant heat per square metre a low total solar transmittance (g-value; see Appendix A). Glass
of glass, which is equivalent to leaving a single-bar electric fire manufacturers often quote the g-value for sunlight at normal
running for three hours. Conventional window glass allows light incidence (ie hitting the glass perpendicularly). This is less
and most of the sun’s shortwave infrared heat radiation to pass appropriate for other forms of shading device.
through it. However, it will not transmit the longwave heat that
is radiated from surfaces and objects in the room; most of that
heat is trapped inside.

Overheating has significant effects on health and productivity in

non-domestic buildings[1, 2]. A study has shown that productivity
in offices drops by 10% if the temperature is above 30°C[3].
Absenteeism also increases. A recent case study of a hospital
in Cambridge[4] revealed significant overheating, and this is
likely to be replicated in over 100 hospital buildings throughout
the country, particularly as climate change takes effect. Solar
shading, combined with effective natural ventilation, was
predicted to reduce the incidence of overheating.

Overheating is a problem in dwellings too[5, 6]. In a 2015 survey

by WSP[6], 83% of Londoners reported that their homes
overheated at some time in the year. Some 31% of these
reported feeling tired or unwell as a result. Climate change is
expected to worsen the problem; WSP analysed an example flat
development with future climate scenarios and showed that
the frequency of overheating was expected to rise significantly
in 2050, and rise further by 2080. WSP also showed that
introducing simple shading measures, like solar-control glass
and brise-soleils, could substantially reduce the incidence of
overheating.

Introducing air conditioning and comfort cooling is a common

way to control overheating. Cooled floorspace area is increasing
by 6.5% annually in the UK. However, this can substantially
increase a building’s energy consumption. A BRE case study[7]
estimated that installing air conditioning in a typical 1960s
open-plan office would require an extra 55 kWh/m2/year,
resulting in overall air-conditioning running costs of £15/m2/year.
IHS Markit: 1706381

The same study showed that in many cases comfort could

be achieved at zero cooling energy consumption with a
combination of solar shading (either mid-pane or external) and
night ventilation. The extra cost of such measures will usually be
substantially less than that of installing cooling (a more recent Figure 1: Large areas of unshaded glazing can cause overheating unless,
study[1, 8] for European locations has shown similar results). BRE’s as here, they face the northern half of the sky
 1 Introduction 3

Other benefits of shading

For the architect, solar shading broadens the range of facade
design possibilities. This goes beyond allowing the use of
heavily glazed facades; solar shading can form a striking facade
treatment in its own right, as some of the photographs in this
publication demonstrate.

Some types of solar shading also reduce heat loss in

winter[12, 13]. For example, internal blinds will tend to reduce
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heat loss, particularly through older single-glazed windows. To

do this, blinds should fit the window reveal snugly [14]; special
IHS Markit: 1706372

types are now available that fit inside the window frame
(Figure 3). These also have the benefit of not interfering with
window opening for ventilation purposes.

Internal fabric shading (curtains and blinds) may also give some
Figure 2: Reflected glare on a computer screen acoustic benefits[15], by reducing the reverberation in interiors.
Thick fabrics are best.

A BRE Trust Report, Summertime solar performance of Daylight, and particularly ultraviolet radiation, can damage
windows with shading devices[9], is based on an ‘effective sensitive objects in museums, galleries and historic buildings.
g-value’. For a given window system this is the solar gain on There are strict limits on the light received by such objects[16].
peak radiation days in May to August through the window Films are available to control the ultraviolet part of the
with shading device, divided by the solar gain through an spectrum, but sensitive and valuable objects may require
equivalent unshaded, unglazed aperture for the same period. automatically controlled moveable shading to limit the
So it represents the performance of the shading in controlling incoming light, and shut off light entirely when the building is
solar heat gain on the sunniest summer days. The publication, closed (Figure 4).
and a CIBSE guide[10], present calculated effective g-values for a
range of windows and shading device types. Some solar shading devices can have photovoltaic cells on them,
to generate electricity (Figure 5). This makes sense because solar
shading aims to intercept sunlight.
Reduction of glare
Shading can also be used in outdoor spaces to provide shade
Glare from windows can happen in various ways. The most from the sun and, in some cases, shelter from wind and rain, but
common source of glare is the sun itself. Less often, glare may this is outside the scope of this publication.
come from a bright patch of sky, by reflection from a building
opposite or from a bright patch of sunlight inside a room.
People can experience glare either directly from the source, or
when it is reflected from a surface indoors such as a computer
screen (Figure 2) [11].

If direct sunlight causes glare, transparent shading devices like

tinted glazing usually do not help much because the sun is so
bright. Opaque, adjustable shading such as a venetian blind,
or else a close-weave fabric blind, is best. Translucent shading,
such as a thin, light-coloured fabric blind, gives some protection,
but may itself become uncomfortably bright under sunlight.

Provision of privacy
The need for privacy obviously depends on what is happening
inside the building. But it is also related to site layout, eg if
pedestrians approaching the building can look in or if windows
of other buildings are directly opposite. In some countries
Louvolite: 1706382

cultural requirements can result in a greater need for privacy.

Adjustable shading allows the occupants to have the degree of

privacy they want at any time. Opaque devices like thick curtains
or blinds provide the best screening. Translucent and transparent
screens such as net curtains and reflective glass work by Figure 3: A blinds system that is mounted inside a window frame. The
superimposing a reflected light that is much brighter than the blind does not interfere with window opening, and can reduce heat loss
view of the interior. Though they can be effective during the day, through the glazing. This type of pleated blind can be withdrawn from
they do not work at night when it is brighter inside than outside. the top or bottom of the window
 4 Solar shading of buildings

available. For example, the provision of external shading may

require planning permission, and it may be difficult to fix to
a facade that has been designed without shading in mind. A
BRE Information Paper[17] gives guidance on retrofitting solar
shading.

1.2 Examples
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

Domestic conservatory
Though glare and privacy can sometimes be important in
a conservatory, the main issue is usually overheating, with
the conservatory becoming uncomfortably hot in summer.
Effective ventilation can be a big help here. Since warm air
rises, high-level vents allow heat build-up to escape. However,
people often do not want to leave vents open while the house
is unoccupied, for security reasons. The sun is at its highest in
Colt International Ltd: 1706379

summer (see Section 2.1) so the most important area to shade is

the horizontal or sloping glazing at the top of the conservatory
(Figure 6).

To reduce overheating, a shading device should have a low total

solar transmittance (g-value). Internal blinds (see Section 6)
have a relatively high g-value. They can stop the sun falling
directly on occupants but can allow heat to build up inside the
Figure 4: Moveable louvres shade the Tate Britain, London conservatory. Blinds with a reflective outer layer have a lower
g-value.

Better is some form of external shading, eg louvres or awnings

(Figure 7; see also Section 3). If the shading is retractable it will
allow useful solar heat to warm the conservatory in winter,
but this solution is more expensive as it is generally motorised.
However, motorisation allows the option of automatic control to
provide optimum control of overheating and save energy, eg by
lowering the shading during the day when people are out.

High summer
IHS Markit: 1706383

sun hits roof

Figure 5: Photovoltaic cells mounted on fixed canopies at the University

of Northumbria, Newcastle

Priorities for design

It is important to establish why shading is needed, because Low winter
most shading devices do not meet all these requirements. For sun hits side
example, reflective glass may cut overheating and provide some
privacy, but is usually poor at reducing glare from the sun. An
overhang or light shelf can protect from overheating and sun
glare in summer, but does little for privacy. Sometimes it might
be necessary to have more than one shading device, eg an
overhang or solar-control glass to limit heat gain, together with
blinds to control glare and provide privacy.
Figure 6: Cross-section through a conservatory. In summer the top
In any case, it is important to consider shading at the initial glazing receives most solar gain. The vertical glazing lower down receives
stages of building design. Retrofitting solar shading once most useful solar gain in winter
the building has been constructed may limit the options Source: BRE © IHS Markit: 1694365
 1 Introduction 5

Dave Morgan Blinds: 1706384

Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

IHS Markit: 1706385

Figure 7: Retractable external shading on a conservatory Figure 8: At the National Farmers’ Union building in Stratford-on-Avon,
external slatted baffles reduce solar heat gain

Lower-cost alternatives involve replacing part of the glazing

with insulated cladding panels (see Section 4.3) or sticking a
solar window film onto the glazing (see Section 4.4). The former
option will also reduce heat loss from the conservatory in winter.
However, both options will permanently reduce daylight and
useful sunshine. For this reason it is best to limit them to the
conservatory roof.

Office

IHS Markit: 1706386

In offices, overheating can be a problem if the windows are large,
especially if the building is lightweight or office equipment gives
out a lot of heat. The risk of overheating can be evaluated using
BRE’s Environmental design guide for naturally ventilated and
daylit officesl[18] or suitable software (see Appendix A). Privacy
sometimes becomes important for ground-floor offices close Figure 9: In the same building, additional vertical blinds are needed to
to a major circulation route. However, glare is usually the most control low-angle winter sun
important issue in offices with computer workstations[11]. The
Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations[19]
apply here. They require that ‘windows shall be fitted with a
suitable system of adjustable covering to attenuate the daylight
that falls on the workstation’. Usually this will mean adjustable
blinds the occupant can control (see Section 6). In ‘owned’ or
‘shared’ spaces like private and open-plan offices, people prefer to
have control over their environments and tend to resent shading
systems that operate purely automatically (see Section 2.4). Tinted
glazing or film on its own is not opaque enough to control sun
glare and reduces the amount of useful daylight.

If overheating is an issue, soft-coat low-emissivity glazing with a

low g-value but higher daylight transmittance is recommended.
This can be supplemented with an external shading device
(see Section 3) like an overhang or light shelf (Figure 8).
Internal blinds will still be needed to control low-angle winter
sun (Figure 9). An alternative is to have external louvres to
control both overheating and glare (see Section 3.4). For an
existing office, reflective film (ideally with a higher daylight
transmittance than solar transmittance) is a low-cost retrofit way
to reduce overheating, but at the expense of some daylight.
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.
Dearnleys: 1712048

2
Solar shading of buildings

Principles
 2 Principles 7

The diagram shows that windows are affected by aspect and

2.1 Movement of the sun and the movement of the sun.
window orientation • A north-facing window receives sunlight only in the early
morning or evening in summer.
Figure 10 is a sunpath diagram showing the angle of the sun
• A south-facing window receives the most sunlight. But in
for 52°N (southern England). Similar diagrams are given for
summer the sun will be high in the sky and can be blocked
a range of latitudes in BRE Report Designing with innovative
by a canopy or overhang.
daylighting[20].
• East- and west-facing windows receive sun for only half
of the day. However, when the sun is nearly opposite the
In the diagram, the curved thick grey lines are the sunpaths, for
windows it will be quite low in the sky, even in summer.
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the 21st of each month. The thin black lines give the times at
This low-angle sun is hard to control without covering the
which the sun is at that particular altitude and azimuth. These
window completely. East- and west-facing windows are
times are given in solar time, which approximates to Greenwich
also much more exposed to the sun in summer than in
Mean Time. If summer time is in operation add one hour to these
winter. It follows that a building will be easier to shade if its
times.
main window walls face north and south. A building with
east- or west-facing window walls will be harder to shade.

Finally, a horizontal rooflight will receive most sun at the height

of summer. Low-angle winter sun may be blocked by the skirt of
the rooflight.

70

60 Jun 12
11 13
May Jul

10 14
50 Apr Aug

9 15
Solar altitude (°)

40
Mar Sep
8 16

30
7 Feb Oct 17

20
Jan Nov
6 18
Dec

10 19
5

0
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310

Solar azimuth (°)

Figure 10: Sunpath diagram for latitude 52°N

Figure 10: Sunpath diagram for latitude 52°N
Source: BRE © IHS Markit: 1694670
Source: BRE © 2017 IHS Markit: 1694670
 8 Solar shading of buildings

How much daylight is admitted will depend on the visible

2.2 Loss of daylight transmittance of the shading device. Glass manufacturers
generally quote the direct normal transmittance, which is
All shading devices will block some daylight. To maximise
for light striking the window at right angles. The diffuse
daylight while providing shading choose one of the following:
transmittance includes light coming in from all angles and
• Adjustable shading that can be withdrawn on dull days. is a better measure of the overall daylighting performance,
• Shading that diffuses incoming sun. Some of these shading particularly for louvres. It is usually lower than the direct normal
devices can be uncomfortably bright when the sun is on value. For clear low-emissivity double glazing the direct normal
them. visible transmittance is around 0.8, but the diffuse value is
• Devices that redirect incoming sun. Figure 11 shows an usually just below 0.7.
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example. Mirrored louvres intercept sunlight that would

normally reach people near the front of the room, causing The diffuse transmittance does not tell the whole story,
discomfort. Instead, they redirect the light onto the ceiling however. The distribution of light entering a room is also
near the back of the room. important. For example, BRE studies[20] have shown that a light
• Devices that block the areas of sky where the sun is, but shelf hardly changes the light at the back of a room even though
admit light from other parts of the sky. Figure 12 shows an at the front of the room there is a big reduction. So although
idealised example – the ‘solar bracelet’; Figure 13 shows a its diffuse transmittance may not be very high, this need not
related device in a university building in Plymouth. worsen the overall daylit appearance of the room.
• Spectrally selective devices, which allow more daylight to
pass through than the other parts of the solar spectrum.
Some soft-coat low-emissivity ‘heat mirror’ type glasses and
window films have this property.

Sunlight reflected onto white ceiling

Rays from sun

Reflected light
illuminates space N

Louvres intercept sun Figure 12: Two segments of a ‘solar bracelet’ array for a horizontal
rooflight. The bracelet always stops light from the sun reaching a
window but admits it from other areas of the sky
Source: BRE © IHS Markit: 1694671

Figure 12: Two segments of a ‘solar bracelet’ array for a horizontal

rooflight. The bracelet always stops light from the sun reaching a
window but admits it from other areas of the sky

Source: BRE © 2017 IHS Markit: 1694671

No direct sun on occupant

11: Redirecting
Figure 11: Redirectingsunlight
sunlightininaaside-lit
side-litroom
room
Source:BRE
Source: BRE ©IHS Markit: 1694820
IHS Markit: 1694821
Maple Sunscreening: 1706387

Figure 13: External sunshades at the University of Plymouth are

designed to block sunlight while admitting light from other areas of sky
 2 Principles 9

summer. An example is an overhang or light shelf, which blocks

2.3 View out high-angle summer sun but lets through low-angle winter sun.
In most buildings, people need a view out. Most shading devices
If adjustable shading is used it should be easy to control.
affect the view, and so some sort of compromise is needed. This
Mechanical controls should be easy to reach and operate. If
will depend on the purpose of the shading device (see Section 1.1).
necessary, the occupants should be instructed in their use, but
ideally the controls should be self-explanatory, to ensure that
systems can be understood and effectively used by people who
Controlling overheating may not have been present at the time the systems were installed.
If shading is needed just to control overheating, there are
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Where shading systems are large or heavy, or where access for

a range of options that preserve a reasonable view out:
mechanical controls would be difficult, motorised operation is
overhangs, light shelves, external baffles and tinted glazing
recommended. It also has several advantages:
or window film can all do this. However, tinted glazing or film
should not be too dark: a US study[21] suggested that if the light • Control by the occupants is often easier: a wall switch or
transmittance of the glass is less than around 35%, people hand-held control (Figure 14) is usually easier to operate
would start to find the view out gloomy. than a pull cord or crank handle.
• Various forms of automatic control are possible. For
example, the system can be automatically lowered on hot
Controlling glare days. Left to themselves, occupants may only lower the
shading after the space has already started to overheat,
Controlling glare is more of a problem. If the sun is in the field especially if they are out of the space for a while.
of view, any device that allows a recognisable view out can also • External systems can be automatically withdrawn on very
let through glare from the sun. This includes perforated blinds windy days to prevent damage to the shading.
or loose-weave fabric shades as well as tinted glazing. The best
solution is often adjustable shading that the occupants can
Motorised systems can be controlled solely by the occupants, by
control. This can include opaque blinds and fabric blinds with a
an automatic system or by a combination of the two methods.
close weave and low visible transmittance. Venetian and roller
Often, for example, automatic systems will incorporate manual
blinds that come down from the top of a window can control
switches that allow occupants to override the blind setting.
high-angle summer sun while allowing a view out through the
lower half of the window.
The choice of control should be linked to the expectations of
the occupants. BRE Information Papers[22, 23] have described six
different types of space in a typical building:
Privacy
• Owned spaces: small rooms for one or two people like
In most buildings where privacy is important during the daytime, cellular offices or rooms in dwellings. People like to have
this­can be provided by transparent shading such as net curtains, control of their own environment.
reflective glazing or loose-weave or perforated blinds. These all • Shared spaces: multi-occupied areas like open-plan offices
allow some view out. Perforated blinds with a dark finish inside and workshops. People still like control although there can
and a light or patterned finish on the outer face offer the best be conflicts with the needs of different users.
combination of good view out and limited view in. • Temporarily owned spaces: people expect to have control
while they are there. Examples could be meeting rooms or
At night, adjustable opaque shading will be needed to give hotel bedrooms.
privacy. In sensitive spaces like hospital consulting rooms it also • Occasionally visited spaces: these could be storerooms,
gives the occupants a better feeling of privacy during the day bookstacks in libraries, aisles of warehouses or toilets. For a
compared with transparent shading, though electric lighting will significant proportion of the time they are unoccupied.
probably be needed when the shading is lowered. • Unowned spaces: circulation areas. People usually do not
expect to have individual control over the environment.
• Managed spaces: these include atria, concourses, entrance
halls, restaurants, libraries, swimming pools, sports halls
2.4 Fixed and adjustable shading and shops. Someone is in charge of the space, but usually
too busy to control the environment within it. Individual
In most buildings the need for shading is not the same all users do not expect to have control.
through the year. It can vary according to:
• seasonal requirements (overheating is important in summer,
but winter solar heat gain can be welcome)
• daily weather (on dull days there is often little need for
shading devices)
• occupant requirements (for some activities people need
extra privacy, or extra control of glare).

For all these reasons adjustable shading is often the best

option. Environmental labelling schemes like BREEAM, LEED
and WELL (see Appendix B) give credits for adjustable shading
to limit glare. However, adjustable shading does have some
Somfy: 1706380

disadvantages: it can be more costly to install; and maintenance

of moving parts, especially motors, is usually required.

Where only seasonal requirements change, it is possible to

use fixed shading that varies its performance from winter to Figure 14: Manual control of shading using a tablet computer
 10 Solar shading of buildings

In owned, shared and temporarily owned spaces, people For occasionally visited, unowned and managed spaces,
generally prefer to control the shading themselves. Any form automatic control of shading is often the best option,
of automatic control in these space types needs to be as supplemented by an appropriate form of manual override, eg if
unobtrusive as possible. Automatic shading control is particularly maintenance is required or the space needs to be blacked out or
resented if: fully lit. In such circumstances it is important that the occupants
understand how the shading controls work, and how to override
• the system is visibly seen to move, and does so more than
them. User interfaces should be clear and straightforward[24].
once or twice a day
• the shading blocks view out, extending below standing eye
Where shading is installed to limit damage to art objects, fully
height (1.7 m) for side windows
automatic control is generally required. Daylight levels, and the
• there is motor noise as the shading changes position
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

presence of sunlight, vary rapidly. Occupant control on its own

• there is no occupant override.
could allow unacceptable damage to exhibits. Further guidance
on control of solar shading is given in a BRE Information Paper[22].
However, quiet, unobtrusive automatic control may be
acceptable. Examples could include shading of rooflights,
rotating high-level louvres that track the sun imperceptibly or
awnings that operate at high level and are supplemented by
occupant-controlled low-level blinds.
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

3 External shading
3 External shading
11

IHS Markit: 1712049

 12 Solar shading of buildings

3.1 Overhangs
There are a wide range of possible overhangs (Figure 15). The
choice will depend on the desired external appearance of the
building, considerations of durability and maintenance and
whether the device is built into a new building or as a retrofit
measure.

Overhangs work best when the sun is high, and so are most
effective for south-facing windows and at low latitudes. If glare
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

is an issue, extra shading may be required to control low-angle

IHS Markit: 1706388

winter sun (Figure 16).

A BRE Trust Report[9] quantifies the performance of overhangs

above windows of different orientations as a function of
overhang width and depth (Figure 17). On a south-facing
window in the UK, a wide overhang (width two or more times
the width of the window) with a depth of 0.6 times the height
of the window provides good shading, cutting out 62% of peak
summertime solar gain. However, for east- and west-facing
windows a larger overhang is needed to have a significant

IHS Markit: 1706390 (left); 1706389 (right)

effect. A wide overhang equal in depth to the height of the
window cuts out around half the peak summertime solar gain.

Overhangs that sit on top of the window and do not project

either side of it are less effective, unless the window is very wide.
An overhang on top of a square south-facing window will block
around half the peak solar gain if the depth of the overhang is
0.8 times the window height. A similar sized overhang above an
east- or west-facing square window will only block just over a
third of the peak solar gain.
Figure 15: Types of overhang and canopy: fixed overhang (top); slatted
With all external shading devices, maintenance must be baffle (bottom left); use of balcony as overhang (bottom right)
considered at the design stage. An overhang can collect dirt,
or become a nesting place for birds or insects. The deeper the
overhang the more difficult window cleaning will be, unless the
overhang forms a balcony or walkway.

Table 1: Performance data for overhangs

Effect on summer Good, particularly for south-facing

overheating windows. Somewhat less effective
for other orientations, depending on
size of overhang
Effect on winter solar Allow winter solar gain, as low sun
gain can enter under overhang
IHS Markit: 1706391

Glare control Good in summer. Allow in low-angle

sun in winter and on east- and west-
facing windows
Privacy Little benefit
Figure 16: Wooden slatted overhangs on a building at BRE. The west-
View out Good facing baffles (on the left) are deeper than the south-facing ones (on
the right) to block low-angle sun. (Note the additional use of blinds to
Effect on daylight Reduce daylight entering space, control low winter sunlight)
particularly at front of room. Less
effect at back of room, improving
uniformity
Adjustability Seasonal variation in performance
only (except retractable canopies and
awnings; see Section 3.3)
Maintenance Robust but collect dirt. Can make
window cleaning harder
 3 External shading 13

Wide overhang

1.0

0.9
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

0.8

0.7
Effective g-value

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

Depth of overhang/height of window

E/W SE/SW S
Overhang above square window

Source: BRE © 2017 IHS Markit: 1694672

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7
Effective g-value

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

Depth of overhang/height of window

E/W SE/SW S

Figure 17: Effective g-values of two overhangs in summer[9]. The effective g-value is a measure of how much solar gain is admitted in peak
summertime conditions
Figure 16: Effective g-values of two overhangs in summer[9]. The effective g-value is a measure of how much solar gain is admitted in peak
Source: BRE © IHS Markit: 1694672 (top); 1694673 (bottom)
summertime conditions

Source: BRE © 2017 IHS Markit: 1694673

 14 Solar shading of buildings

3.2 Light shelves

A light shelf is a horizontal, or nearly horizontal, baffle that
provides shade below it, and reflects light into the building
off its top surface. Normally a light shelf would be fitted some
way up a window, dividing the glazing into two parts: a view
window below the shelf, and a clerestory window above it. Light
shelves can be internal, external or both (Figures 18 and 19).
Typically a light shelf will be above eye level to avoid reflected
glare, but otherwise low enough to achieve a good spread of
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

reflected light over the ceiling. A height just over 2 m above

the floor is recommended. Light shelves work best with a high
ceiling, 3 m or more.

An external light shelf reduces daylight levels in the front half of

a room; daylight factors at the back of the room scarcely alter.
So the light shelf reduces the contrast between the back of the
room and provides a balance to the otherwise more brightly
lit areas near the window. Previous BRE studies[20] suggest an
external shelf of depth roughly equal to its own height above
desk level in the room will be reasonable.

IHS Markit: 1706392

At low latitudes the light shelf can be designed to block direct
sun coming through the clerestory window at all times. At
higher latitudes, and with east- or west-facing rooms, even a
very deep shelf may let some sun through. So extra shading,
particularly on the clerestory window above the shelf, may be
needed.

For best daylighting performance, both internal and external

shelves should be as reflective as possible. Some buildings have
incorporated darker baffles, often of stained hardwood. These
baffles are usually slatted, which reduces upward reflection still
further. A dark external shelf can reduce incoming daylight by
around 10% compared with a light-coloured shelf.

Table 2: Performance data for light shelves

Effect on summer Reasonable, particularly for south-

IHS Markit: 1706393

overheating facing windows. Somewhat less
effective for other orientations,
depending on size of external shelf.
Less effective than overhang of same
size, unless window above shelf has
external shading Figure 18: Light shelves at the South Staffs Water building, Walsall:
Effect on winter solar Allow winter solar gain, as low sun external view (top); internal view showing sunlight reflected onto ceiling
gain can enter under light shelf (bottom)

Glare control Good in summer. Allow in low-angle

sun in winter and on east- and west-
facing windows
Privacy Little benefit

View out Good

Effect on daylight Reduce daylight at front of room,

but little effect at back of room,
improving uniformity
Adjustability Seasonal variation in performance
IHS Markit: 1706394

only

Maintenance Robust but collect dirt, which

reduces daylighting performance.
Can make window cleaning harder
Figure 19: Slatted baffle (brise-soleil) used as a light shelf at the
Scottish Office building, Edinburgh. The glazing above the brise-soleil is
unshaded, so it admits daylight but also solar heat gain
 3 External shading 15

3.3 Awnings and canopies

A moveable canopy or awning (Figure 20) gives similar
environmental benefit inside the building to a fixed overhang
of the same dimensions. Additionally, retracting it can allow in
some extra light under dull skies, and protects the device on
windy and stormy days.

Awnings can also give a sheltered, protected area at ground

level, so they work well above shop windows. Like other
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

overhangs, awnings and canopies work best when the sun is

high so are most effective for south-facing windows and at low
latitudes. If glare is an issue, extra shading may be required to

Torbay Blinds: 1706395

control low-angle winter sun.

As with all external shading devices, maintenance must be

considered at the design stage[25]. Awnings and canopies need
regular inspection to check that the fabric is not damaged and
the mechanism is working properly.

Table 3: Performance data for awnings and canopies

Effect on summer Good, particularly for south-facing

overheating windows. Somewhat less effective
for other orientations, depending on
size of awning
Effect on winter solar Allow winter solar gain, as they can
gain be retracted

Glare control Good in summer. Allow in low-angle

sun in winter and on east- and west-

Torbay Blinds: 1706374

facing windows
Privacy Little benefit

View out Good

Effect on daylight Reduce daylight entering space Figure 20: Types of awning: awning above café (top); awning and
when lowered, particularly at front canopy above domestic window (bottom)
of room. Less effect at back of
room, improving uniformity. When
retracted, little effect on daylight
Adjustability Good. Can be programmed to come
down automatically when sun is
entering building or be controlled by
occupants
Maintenance Need regular inspection. Can be
retracted for window cleaning
 16 Solar shading of buildings

3.4 Fixed and moveable louvres Table 4: Performance data for fixed and moveable
louvres
External louvres provide potentially the best control of incoming Effect on summer Very good, depending on design of
solar gain. Adjustable louvres are also used in art galleries to overheating louvres
control the light reaching art works. A wide variety of types is
possible (Figure 21). Horizontal louvres give the best control of Effect on winter solar Allow winter solar gain, as low sun
overheating for south-, east- and west-facing windows, as well gain can enter between louvres
as for rooflights. For windows facing north, north-east and
north-west, vertical louvres can give better control of incoming Glare control Potentially very good depending on
sun, though solar gain is less likely to be a problem for these louvre design
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

orientations in any case.

Privacy Depends on louvre design
Slat design is a compromise between view, daylight admission
and glare. At high latitudes, particularly with east- or west-facing View out Poor. Louvres impose stripy pattern
windows, an acceptable view out is difficult to obtain without on view, unless they are above eye
some sunlight penetration. The more the louvres protect against line of occupants
incoming solar glare, the less diffuse daylight they are likely to
admit. Effect on daylight Reduce daylight entering space,
particularly at front of room. When
View out can be an issue with louvres, unless they retract. One louvres are in horizontal position, less
solution is to have the louvres some distance from the windows effect at back of room, improving
and mount them about the eye height of occupants (Figures 22 uniformity. If retracted, little effect
and 23). on daylight

Adjustability Fixed: seasonal variation in

Opaque louvres are commonest. Heavily diffusing louvres, eg in performance only
translucent glass, can give reasonable glare control while letting
in some extra light. Moveable: good, but better if louvres
can retract as well as rotate
Microlouvres (Figure 24) are panels of tiny louvres that can
be clipped to the outside of a window. They give similar solar Maintenance Collect dirt. Can make window
control to large horizontal louvres of the same tilt angle. As a cleaning harder. With moveable
retrofit measure, they are generally easier to install than full- systems, access to motors required
scale louvres. for repair and replacement

The system must be designed for ease of maintenance, including

access to motors and controls where fitted. It will need to be
resistant to wind loads[26].
 3 External shading 17

Louvres
above standing
eye height
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

IHS Markit: 1706396

Figure 22: Setting external

external louvres
louvresaway
awayfrom
fromthe
thefacade
facadeand
andmounting
mounting them
them above aboveeye
occupant occupant eye levelview
level maintains maintains
out view out
Dearnleys: 1706397

Source: BRE
Source: BRE ©IHS
IHS Markit:
Markit: 1694821
1694821

IHS Markit: 1706400

IHS Markit: 1706398

Figure 23: Louvres at the BRE Environmental Building are mounted

above standing eye height and set away from the facade to shade high-
angle sunlight
Hallmark Blinds: 1706399

IHS Markit: 1706401

Figure 21: Types of louvre (from top to bottom): rotating vertical; fixed Figure 24: Close-up of an external microlouvre system
horizontal; inclined horizontal; retractable rotating (external venetian)
 18 Solar shading of buildings

3.5 Other shading devices Roller blinds

Roller blinds are another possibility, on both side windows and
Shutters rooflights. Special external fabric blinds systems are widely used
in continental Europe (Figure 28). For enhanced wind resistance,
Traditional shutters (Figure 25) give very good control of solar guides that restrain the fabric have been developed. When
gain[27] but little view out when shut. They can be valuable lowered, the blinds give very good solar control. An open-weave
where rooms are unoccupied during the day. Special insulated fabric will allow some view out but some direct sun glare may be
shutters can also reduce heat loss at night. possible (see Section 6).
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

Vertical fins External venetian blinds

Vertical fins work by cutting out sunlight from fixed directions These have robust aluminium or timber louvres that raise and
(sometimes they can also be used for privacy purposes to lower and adjust the angle of tilt[28]. For maximum daylight,
prevent overlooking from a particular direction). Unless they they should ideally be designed to retract into a recess (blind
are very large they give relatively poor control over solar gain box) above the head of the window. Solar control will be similar
compared with an overhang; they are most effective for to fixed louvre systems when the blind is lowered, but with the
windows facing north-east and north-west (where the fin is only added benefit of full daylight and winter solar gain when the
required on the southern edge of the window). For optimum blind is raised. A European Standard gives requirements for
shading in summer the fin needs to extend some way above the performance[29].
top of the window.

Trees and vegetation

Deep window reveal
Trees and vegetation outside can give good control of solar
A deep window reveal can have the same effect as a vertical fin, gain while maintaining a pleasant view out[27]. Deciduous trees
provided the glazing is close to the inside of the window wall. allow daylight and solar gain in winter. However, a problem with
planting new trees as a window shading strategy is that if the
trees are near enough and tall enough to shade summer sun,
Eggcrate baffles the roots can sometimes cause damage to the foundations of
the building[30].
Eggcrate baffles (Figure 26) provide good control of solar gain.
They can be used above rooflights to block all incoming sun.

Roller shutters
External roller shutters (Figure 27) are used extensively in
continental Europe[27]. These are mostly constructed from
aluminium. The shutter will give excellent solar control when
lowered, but at the cost of view out unless the shutter is only
partly lowered.
 3 External shading 19

Hallmark Blinds: 1706404

Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

Figure 27: External roller shutters

IHS Markit: 1706402

James Robertshaw: 1706405

Figure 25: Traditional shutters in Seville, Spain

James Robertshaw: 1706406

Figure 28: Types of external roller blind: roller blinds on a Passivhaus

(top); a markisolette-type external fabric blind (bottom)
IHS Markit: 1706403

Figure 26: Eggcrate baffle at the National Farmers’ Union building,

Stratford-on-Avon
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.
IHS Markit: 1712050

20

4
Solar shading of buildings

Glazing
 4 Glazing 21

4.1 Standard solar-control glazing: Table 5: Performance data for solar-control glazing
reflective and absorbing Effect on summer Good, depending on transmittance
overheating of glass
A variety of tinted glasses is available and they have been
widely used in commercial buildings. There are two main types: Effect on winter solar Blocks winter solar gain
absorbing glasses, which are body tinted; and reflective glasses, gain
which have a special coating. Reflective glasses are usually
slightly better at rejecting incoming solar gain; absorbing glass Glare control Reduces glare from the bright sky
heats up more when the sun is on it, and some of this heat but has little impact on glare from
the sun
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

can reach the inside of the building. In some cases, though,

reflective glass can cause unwanted solar glare or dazzle[31] for Privacy Gives good privacy in daytime,
road users outside (Figure 29) or people in nearby buildings. particularly with reflective types of
Tinted plastics are also available for rooflights. glazing, but not at night
A range of colours is available. People may prefer a warm tint View out Good, but low-transmittance types
to the glass rather than a cold colour[32]. Inside buildings, if all may make view look gloomy
the glass is the same colour and no windows are open, the
occupants find it hard to tell the glass colour[33]. However, an Effect on daylight Reduces daylight entering space
outdoor view through clear glass or an open window will reveal
the true nature of the tinted glazing, and may make people less Adjustability None
satisfied with it. Sometimes heavily coloured glazing may affect
the performance of visual tasks like colour matching or assessing Maintenance Keep clean as for ordinary glazing
patients in hospitals.

Also, the glazing should not be too dark: a US study [21]

suggested that if the light transmittance of the glass is less than
around 35%, people would start to find the view out gloomy
(see Section 2.3).

Tinted glass has little impact on glare from the sun, and blinds or
other shading devices will be needed if this is important. Its main
purpose is to control solar heat gain while allowing view out.
However, conventional tinted glazing cuts out a lot of incoming
daylight and is therefore best for spaces where daylight is
unimportant.

IHS Markit: 1706407

Figure 29: Reflected solar dazzle can be worse if the glazing is sloping,
as high-angle summer sun can be reflected along the ground. Here, trees
have been planted to provide protection to road users
 22 Solar shading of buildings

4.2 Soft-coat low-emissivity 4.3 Reducing window area

‘heat mirror’ glazing Reducing window or rooflight area, while retaining clear glass,
can be considered as an alternative to tinted glazing. Solar
Noble metal-coated ‘heat mirror’ soft-coat low-emissivity
heat gain will be reduced roughly in proportion to the loss in
glazings are now widely available. The thermal properties of
glazing area, or maybe even more if the walls are thick and
these glasses can be tailored to give good control of solar heat
the glazing set back from the outside. As in the case of tinted
gain, but at the same time they admit significantly more daylight
glazing, daylight will be reduced too. The daylight in a room
than conventional tinted glasses. A high-performance glazing
is roughly proportional to the glazing area. Checks should be
might have a (normal incidence) visible transmittance of 70%
made[34, 35, 36, 37] to ensure enough daylight is still available for
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

and a total solar transmittance (g-value) of only half this. These

the purpose of the indoor space. Natural ventilation may also be
glazings also lower heat loss in winter. Like ordinary tinted
affected if the area of opening window is reduced.
glazings, however, they will reject beneficial solar heat gain in
winter.
Compared with installing tinted glazing, the main advantage of
reducing window area is the lower heat loss in winter. Insulated
This type of glazing is recommended in spaces where daylight is
cladding panels are available, which can tie in visually with a
important but solar gain needs to be controlled. It is widely used
range of glazing and frame types. Reducing the area of roof
in new offices for this reason. Blinds or other shading devices are
glazing is particularly viable for conservatories (see Section 1.2).
still needed to control glare.
Loss of view can be a big disadvantage of smaller windows. The
British Standard on daylighting[37] recommends minimum view
Table 6: Performance data for soft-coat low-emissivity
window areas of at least 20% of the inside window wall, and
glazing
more than this for very deep spaces (where some people will be
Effect on summer Good, depending on transmittance more than 8 m from a window wall).
overheating of glass
The effects on glare depend on the distribution of windows that
Effect on winter solar Blocks winter solar gain remain. Where glare is important, extra shading devices will still
gain be needed, although they can be smaller. Reducing window size
can give extra areas of shade in the room, which can be helpful
Glare control Little impact on glare if people inside are free to move around.

Privacy Some increase in privacy in daytime

(depending on type of glass), but not
Table 7: Performance data for reducing window area
at night
View out Excellent Effect on summer Reduces heat gain roughly in
overheating proportion to reduction in glass area
Effect on daylight Gives improved daylight compared
with standard solar-control glazing. Effect on winter solar Reduces winter solar gain
Recommended for spaces where gain
solar heat gain needs to be kept out Glare control Little impact
but daylight is required. Types with
lower solar transmittance will admit Privacy Some improvement, particularly in
less daylight daytime
Adjustability None
View out Restricted by smaller window
Maintenance Keep clean as for ordinary glazing
Effect on daylight Reduces daylight entering space

Adjustability None

Maintenance Less window cleaning required

 4 Glazing 23

4.4 Window films Table 8: Performance data for window films

Window films are available to give the same effects as the Effect on summer Good, depending on transmittance
various forms of tinted glazings: reflective (Figure 30), absorbing overheating of film
and specialist low-emissivity (‘heat mirror’) types. They have Effect on winter solar Block winter solar gain
the same advantages and disadvantages (see Section 4.1), ie gain
good heat rejection in summer, loss of daylight and winter solar
heat, and poor control of glare from the sun. As in the case of Glare control Reduce glare from the bright sky but
glazing, some, but by no means all, low-emissivity types have have little impact on glare from the
relatively high daylight transmittance compared with their solar sun
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

transmittances; the manufacturers’ data should be consulted to

determine whether or not this is the case. Privacy Give good privacy in daytime,
particularly with reflective types of
Compared with tinted glazings, the main advantage of window film, but not at night
films is as a simpler retrofit option. They can be readily installed
in most existing buildings to reduce solar gain. View out Good, but low-transmittance types
may make view look gloomy
Safety films are also available that combine solar control with
Effect on daylight Reduce daylight entering space
shatterproofing of the glass, where accidental breakage,
(amount depends on type of film)
vandalism or terrorist attack is possible. These films are thicker
than the normal solar-control films. They do not stop the glass Adjustability None
breaking but should hold the fragments in place, reducing
the risk of injuries from flying glass. Clear safety films are also Maintenance Can be washed like ordinary glazing,
marketed without the solar-control features. but care is needed to avoid the film
being roughened or coming unstuck.
UV films block incoming ultraviolet radiation. They are used in Abrasive cleaners should not be used
museums or shop windows to reduce fading of fabrics, paintings
or drawings. Clear or solar-control types are available.

Most solar-control films are intended to be applied internally.

Exterior-grade films are also available. These may give better
thermal performance when applied to tinted glass or double-
glazed units. Exterior application may also be the most practical
solution for inaccessible rooflights. However, exterior films may
be less durable; some manufacturers will only guarantee them
for two years. Special care is needed during installation[38] and
when carrying out window cleaning.

Some care is needed when interpreting the information film

manufacturers provide. Phrases like ‘solar glare reduction’
usually refer to the loss of light caused by the film. Transparent
tinted films have little impact on sun glare in practice. Before
choosing a film, check on its total solar transmittance, daylight
transmittance and the manufacturers’ guarantees of durability.

GGF: 1706408

Figure 30: Window film used to shade the glazed top floor at the
Glass and Glazing Federation, London. The film cuts 70% of solar gain,
reducing air-conditioning load by 30%. Payback period from the energy
savings was calculated to be three years
 24 Solar shading of buildings

4.5 Other glazing types ‘Smart’ glazings

A wide range of other glazing types is available. ‘Smart’ glazings[36, 39, 40] provide the option of controlling the
glazing properties at different times of year or as environmental
conditions change. They include:
Diffusing glazings • electrochromic and liquid crystal glazings, which darken
when an electric current is applied
Diffusing glazings (often translucent plastics) scatter sunlight
• photochromic glass, which darkens under sunlight
falling on them. They will prevent patches of direct sun reaching
• thermochromic glass, which turns milky when it warms up.
an occupant or their workstation. Diffusing glazing is usually
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

the preferred option for rooflights for this reason. For low-level
vertical windows, view out will be affected, and when sunlit Of the three, electrochromic types offer the most flexible
the glazing as a whole may become uncomfortably bright and control. They can control solar gain when required but also
hence a source of glare in itself. Consequently, windows of this admit daylight and useful solar heat in winter. Much work is
type are mainly used when continuous privacy is required. being carried out on the development of these glazings to
improve their lifetime and switching properties, and to reduce
cost. It is currently possible for electrochromic glazing to tint
Fritting down to 1% visible transmittance. Standard electrochromic
glass never becomes completely opaque, which allows a
Fritting[36] involves depositing a ceramic-based paint onto the continuous view through the window. However, it may not
glass surface using a printing process. The coating is then fused control glare from the sun when darkened, and additional blinds
into the glass surface at high temperature to make a permanent may be needed. Also, with standard types the tint changes
and durable coating, which can be opaque or translucent. gradually, which is an advantage if the glazings are controlled
The fritted area is heavily diffusing, but is often printed as a automatically (ie because instantaneous switching could cause
pattern on clear glass. A wide variety of colours and patterns, annoyance), but response time may not be quick enough for
including stripes and dots, is possible. Fritting generally reduces occupants who want the glazing to change straight away.
solar gain, but daylight transmission is usually much lower than
for standard diffusing glasses. It is mainly used for decorative Other switchable glazing technologies can change optical
effects, or to provide privacy. properties instantaneously. Liquid crystal glass can be switched
from clear to opaque (‘milky’) by applying a small voltage. It has
limited effect on solar gain but can provide privacy.
Translucent insulation materials
Translucent insulation materials are specialist diffusing glazings, Photovoltaic glass
often constructed from plastic honeycomb materials. They have
very low heat loss (U-values). Glass can be coated with thin-film photovoltaic cells[36], which
restrict solar gain into the space and at the same time generate
electricity from the incoming solar radiation. They come in
Prismatic glazing opaque and semi-transparent types. Both types will cut down
the daylight entering the space, which may reduce or eliminate
Prismatic glazing[20] consists of an array of long, usually the energy benefits if electric lighting is needed more of the
triangular, prisms that reflect and refract (Figure 31). The aim is time.
either to redirect incoming sunlight onto the ceiling (Figure 32)
or to exclude it altogether while admitting diffuse light
(Figure 33). The second option provides lower solar gain and a
better controlled visual environment for display screen users, but
with reduced daylight. Prismatic glazing spoils the view out and
can be a source of glare if installed below eye level. Holographic
glazing[20, 27] is being developed as an alternative means of
daylight redirection.
 4 Glazing 25

Rays
from sun

Prismatic
glass

Main rays
go up to
ceiling
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

Figure 31:
Figure 31:Sunlight
Sunlightray
raypaths
pathsthrough
througha aprismatic
prismaticsheet.
sheet. Silvering
Silvering thethe
bottomof
bottom ofthe
theprisms
prismsstops
stopsthe
theunwanted
unwanteddownward
downard light
light escaping.
escaping.The
The prisms
prisms can inwards
can face face inwards (as or
(as here) here) or outwards
outwards
Source: BRE © IHS Markit: 1694674
Source: BRE © 2017 IHS Markit: 1694674
IHS Markit: 1706409

IHS Markit: 1706410

Figure 32: Sunlight redirecting prismatic glazing under test at BRE Figure 33: Prismatic glazing in the rooflights of the former Billingsgate
fish market, London. This prevents sunlight reaching the dealing floor
below, while admitting diffuse light
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.
Levolux: 1712051

26

5
Solar shading of buildings

Mid-pane devices
 5 Mid-pane devices 27

5.1 Mid-pane blinds Table 9: Performance data for mid-pane blinds

Various types of mid-pane blind (Figure 34) are in use, Effect on summer Good, when blinds are closed
depending on the type of window. These can include blinds overheating
in the air gap of double windows. Blinds can also be installed Effect on winter solar Allow in winter solar gain when
inside sealed double-glazed units. These usually consist of gain blinds are open
micro-venetian blinds, which can be operated by magnets or a
small electric motor. Glare control Excellent for opaque blind types
Compared with internal blinds, mid-pane blinds have several Privacy Give good privacy when lowered
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

advantages. They provide better protection from the sun’s

heat, as the heat that is absorbed by the blind is more likely to View out None when blinds closed (except for
be emitted to the outside. They do not take up space inside the perforated types)
building and can be less obtrusive to occupants. In sealed units,
they will get dirty less quickly, which makes them especially Effect on daylight Allow in daylight when blinds
suitable for clean environments like hospitals. retracted. Venetian blind types give
some daylight when slats are open
Slat material needs to be chosen with care[14]. Metallic blinds
may result in increased heat loss between the inner and outer Adjustability Very good if shading can retract.
glass panes, particularly when the slats are horizontal. Using Tilt-only venetian blind types offer
fibreglass, wooden or plastic slats would give less heat loss. less control
Plastic mid-pane blinds may reduce heat loss by more than 20%. Maintenance Sealed units require little
maintenance. Check if failed motors
The system should be designed for maintenance. For blinds in can be replaced without replacing
ventilated double windows, cleaning will be necessary at some whole unit. Blinds in ventilated
stage, and provision should be made for this. Some mid-pane double windows will require
blinds may have limited functions (tilt only, not retractable) occasional cleaning
because of the problems with control accessibility. Tilt-only
blinds affect the view out and reduce daylight on dull days.

Roller and pleated blinds can also be installed between panes.

IHS Markit: 1706411

Figure 34: Mid-pane blinds at the Open University headquarters, Milton

Keynes
 28 Solar shading of buildings

5.2 Shading in double-skinned

facades
Some modern buildings have a ‘double-skin’ facade (Figure 35)
with a wide gap (perhaps a metre) between the inner and outer
walls in which blinds can go[1, 41]. Typical summertime operation,
when the sun is on the facade, involves lowering the blinds. Heat
intercepted by the blinds then warms the air in the cavity, which
rises and can be ventilated out at high level. In winter, the warm
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

air can be directed into the building to reduce heating loads.

Using this approach, the shading can be more effective at

controlling summertime solar heat gain compared with

Levolux: 1706412
conventional mid-pane blinds. The shading is sheltered by the
outer skin from high winds and snow, and therefore can be used
in a wide range of weather conditions.

Good control of the operation of the double-skinned facade is

required to avoid heat build-up. There may be potential conflicts
if the occupants want the blinds raised to allow view out and the
system requires that they be lowered to control heat gain.

Table 10: Performance data for shading in double-

skinned facades
Effect on summer Good when shading lowered and
overheating cavity vented to outside

Effect on winter solar Allows in winter solar gain when

gain blinds are open, or when warm air
from cavity is used to heat building
Glare control Excellent for opaque blind types

Privacy Gives good privacy when lowered

View out None when blinds closed (except for

perforated types)

Effect on daylight Allows in daylight when blinds

retracted, and some daylight when
slats are open
Adjustability Very good if shading can retract as
well as tilt
Levolux: 1706413

Maintenance Blinds in ventilated double facades

will require regular cleaning.
The shading system needs to be
accessible for this purpose
Figure 35: Shading inside a double-skinned facade
 5 Mid-pane devices 29

5.3 Other mid-pane shading types

Fixed louvre systems are available that have curved slat profiles
and are installed inside double glazing to cut maintenance.
Figure 36 shows a proprietary system with seasonally varying
shading performance. In summer when the sun is high in the
sky, solar radiation is mostly reflected back out, but in spring,
autumn and winter more of it is admitted and redirected. Thus
solar heat gain to the space is modulated. This system has been
used to shade the large mall area at Swanlea School in London
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

(Figures 37 and 38). Glare reflected from the louvre slats, which
might be a problem in more sensitive areas like offices, is not
an issue in this large circulation area; and because of the size of
the space the louvres tend to darken, rather than completely
obscure, the view out (see Section 3.4).

The main difficulty with fixed systems, of whatever sort, is that

they deal effectively with the sun for a particular range of solar
altitudes only. Inevitably slat design is a compromise between
view, daylight admission and glare. At high latitudes, particularly
with east- or west-facing windows, an acceptable view out is
difficult to obtain without some sunlight penetration. The more
the louvres protect against incoming solar glare, the less diffuse
daylight they are likely to admit.

IHS Markit: 1706414

Summer:
Reflectors
55% sun angle

Figure 37: At Swanlea School, Whitechapel, the roof of the large mall
area is fitted with a mirrored louvre system
Spring/autumn:
35% sun angle
25%*

Winter:
15% sun angle 40%*

62%*

Double glazing

Figure 36: Cross-section through curved slat louvre system

* Total solar energy transmitted
Figure 36: Cross-section through curved slat louvre system
*Total
Source:solar
BRE energy transmitted © IHS Markit: 1694675

Source: BRE © 2017 IHS Markit: 1694675

IHS Markit: 1706415

Figure 38: Detail of the roof at Swanlea School, Whitechapel

Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.
Eclipse: 1712052

30

6
Solar shading of buildings

Internal shading
 6 Internal shading 31

6.1 Venetian blinds Table 11: Performance data for venetian blinds

Properly designed and installed venetian blinds can offer Effect on summer Some reduction in heat gain, but not
excellent glare control as well as privacy. The blinds can also be overheating as much as for external or mid-pane
adjusted to provide a limited view out while restricting incoming types
sunlight and sky glare. Motorised venetian blinds are available, Effect on winter solar Allow in winter solar gain, especially
and are particularly useful for glazing that is hard to reach, or gain when slats are open and blinds
where occupants have limited mobility. retracted
Venetian blinds are available in a wide range of sizes and surface Glare control Excellent for opaque blind types
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

finishes. Light-coloured blinds admit more daylight and can also

have lower solar transmittances as some of the sun’s heat is Privacy Give good privacy when lowered
reflected back out instead of being absorbed by the blind.
View out None when blinds closed (except
Perforated blinds allow some view out and contact with the for perforated types). Blinds can be
outside. However, they are not recommended where glare from adjusted part way to give some view
the sun could be a nuisance. Strong sunlight can come through and some solar control
the perforations causing visual discomfort.
Effect on daylight Allow in daylight when blinds
retracted, and some daylight when
Some people can be sensitive to the striped patterns caused by
slats are open
blinds[42] (Figure 39). The problems are worst for large areas of
high-contrast, closely spaced stripes. A conventional venetian Adjustability Very good
blind (4 cm slat spacing) would only appear disturbing when
viewed from over 5 m away, so only large areas of blinds are Maintenance Require occasional cleaning, which
likely to cause discomfort. However, more closely spaced can be difficult. Specialised brushes
‘microblinds’ could cause problems at closer viewing distances. and ultrasonic cleaners are available
Viewing a full-scale installation, from a range of distances, will
show if the stripy pattern is disturbing.

When shut, venetian blinds block nearly all the incoming

daylight. In principle, blinds with silvered slats[28] can admit
more light than conventional venetian blinds, but to control
glare only the top of each slat should be silvered, otherwise
disturbing multiple reflections can result. Also, slats below eye
level should not be silvered or sunlight can be reflected upwards
into people’s eyes.

The slats of conventional blinds are curved to make them stiffer,

with the long edges lower than the middle of the slat. Inverting
the slat, so the edges are higher than the middle, ought to
improve the redirecting performance, though extra dirt could
collect on the top of the slat.

Daylight redirection only works well if the slats are not fully
closed. This can result in possible penetration of low sun through
the bottom of the blind (Figure 40). Varying the tilt angle of the
slats from top to bottom could solve this problem. Figure 41
shows a proprietary solution: a blind with two different slat
types[43, 44]. Figure 42 shows an alternative approach: the
prismatic blind rejects sunlight by total internal reflection and
the reflective inner blind redirects daylight onto the ceiling. The
prismatic blind has to be motorised and automatically controlled
IHS Markit: 1706416

if it is to reject sunlight throughout the year.

Figure 40: A conventional venetian blind. Complete shading is provided

towards the top of the blind, but sunlight and skylight can penetrate
lower down unless the slats are closed further

Figure 39: An example of a disturbing stripy pattern

Source: BRE
Figure 39: An example of a disturbing striped pattern© IHS Markit: 1694676

Source: BRE © 2017 IHS Markit: 1694676

 32 Solar shading of buildings

Box 1: Designing and installing internal blinds

Installation of blinds needs care:

• The blinds should not interfere with window
openings. Special types are now available that fit
inside the window frame (Figure 43), allowing full
ventilation. However, if the window is wide open the
shading performance of the blind may be affected.
• For best control of glare, blinds should fit the window
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

reveal snugly, without gaps through which sunlight

can penetrate.
• Controls should be accessible and easy to operate.
• Occupants should know how to operate the blinds.

These measures will help ensure blinds are not left down
continuously, blocking daylight. The design of a new
building can also help to:
• give occupants a good view out as an incentive to
Figure
Figure 41: A commercially
commercially available
availableinnovative
innovativeblind.
blind.Both
Bothsets
setsofofslat raise the blinds
slats canthe
can tilt; tilt;top
theportion
top portion
of theof theredirects
blind blind redirects
incomingincoming lightthe
light onto • avoid overglazing, particularly when people inside see
onto thewhile
ceiling, ceiling,
thewhile
rest ofthe
therest ofprovides
blind the blinds provides
shading likeshading like
a conventional large areas of sky
avenetian
conventional
blind venetian blind • use overhangs (see Section 3.1) or light shelves (see
Section 3.2) to reduce the need for blinds. This will
Source: BRE © IHS Markit: 1694677
Source: BRE © 2017 IHS Markit: 1694677
also reduce solar heat gain.

Blinds and shutters with operating cords and chains need

to comply with child safety requirements[45, 46, 47]. Full
details can be found at www.makeitsafe.org.uk.

Ray
from
sun

Reflective
blind

Eclipse: 1706376

Window

Figure 43: Full natural ventilation can be maintained with a

blind that is mounted inside a window frame, as here
Prismatic
louvres
Figure 42: This system
Figure system incorporates
incorporatesaamotorised
motorisedouter
outerprismatic
prismaticblind,
blind,
which rejects sunlight
which sunlight by
bytotal
totalinternal
internalreflection,
reflection,and
anda asilvered inner
silvered inner
blind to redirect
blind redirect daylight
daylight
Source: BRE © IHS Markit: 1694678
Source: BRE © 2017 IHS Markit: 1694678
 6 Internal shading 33

6.2 Vertical louvre blinds Table 12: Performance data for vertical louvre blinds

Vertical louvre blinds (Figure 44) are suspended in strips from Effect on summer Some reduction in heat gain, but not
a ceiling rail. Tilt-and-traverse types, where the louvres can overheating as much as for external or mid-pane
be withdrawn to one or both sides as well as rotated, are the types
most flexible in use. Tilt-only types will block daylight and partly Effect on winter solar Allow in winter solar gain, especially
obscure the view when the louvres are open. gain when slats are open or blinds pulled
to one side
Normally, for vertical windows the louvres hang vertically and
are kept straight by small weights at the bottom. For sloping Glare control Good for close-weave blind types if
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

glazing it is possible to have a sloping louvre system with the daylight transmittance is below 10%
louvres held rigidly by guide rails at the top and bottom. Vertical
louvres can also be used for windows that are curved on plan, Privacy Give good privacy when closed
and where the head or sill of the window is sloping.
View out None when blinds closed (except for
Vertical louvre blinds are most suitable for east- or west-facing open-weave types). Blinds can be
windows where the sun is often at an oblique angle to the adjusted part way to give some view
glazing; it is then possible to tilt the louvres to keep out the sun and some solar control
but retain a view out and some daylight. If the sun is directly Effect on daylight Allow in daylight when blinds
opposite the window, it can only be kept out by completely retracted, and some daylight when
closing the louvres. slats are open
Adjustability Good

Maintenance Blinds will need occasional cleaning.

For some types the fabric can be
removed for washing, others need
sponging

Figure 44: Vertical louvre blinds IHS Markit: 1706418

 34 Solar shading of buildings

6.3 Roller blinds

Most roller blinds are designed to be pulled down from the top
of the window to cover it (Figure 45). A typical example uses an
aluminium roller barrel around which the roller fabric itself is
wound. Operation can be by a continuous, child-safe chain at
one side of the blind, or by spring operation where the blind is
pulled into position by a short cord or a handle.

Roller blinds easily lend themselves to motorisation, with the

Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

motor neatly concealed within the roller barrel. Motorisation can

be by 240 V alternating current (AC), 24 V direct current (DC) or
battery-operated motors.

A wide range of fabric types is available. In addition, there

are reflective roller blinds like heavy-duty window film (see
Section 4.4). They can give good reflection of solar gain, but
unlike window films can be withdrawn when daylight and solar
radiation are required.

Venetian blinds are more flexible than roller blinds because it is

possible to open the slats as well as lower the blind. However,
some people find roller blinds easier to operate, and roller blinds

IHS Markit: 1706419

will tend to give slightly better control of solar gain compared
with a venetian blind of the same finish.

Other blind types are available that work in the same way as a
roller blind, in that they usually come down from the top of the
window. They can include the following types. Figure 45: Roller blind at the BRE Environmental Building. Here the
unusual curved ceiling means that some light can enter above the blind,
but this does not cause significant glare because the window is north
Table 13: Performance data for roller blinds facing

Effect on summer Some reduction in heat gain, but not

overheating as much as for external or mid-pane
types
Austrian and festoon blinds
Effect on winter solar Allow in winter solar gain, especially
gain when blinds are up These are made from soft material gathered into folds. Most
curtain materials are suitable. Even when the blind is fully raised
Glare control Good for opaque blind types; those it may cover some of the window head, obscuring daylight,
offering a view out may let through unless the top of the blind is above the top of the window.
glare from the sun
Privacy Opaque blinds give good privacy
when lowered. Transparent types
Roman blinds
give good privacy by day but not These are large-scale soft-fabric blinds that fold into pleats as
necessarily at night they are raised (Figure 46).
View out None when blinds closed (except for
open-weave and transparent types).
Blinds can be adjusted part way Pleated and cellular blinds
to give some view and some glare
control These may look like venetian blinds when in use, but they cover
the window like a roller blind (Figure 47). Because of their light
Effect on daylight Allow in daylight when blinds weight they are suitable for rooflights; special types are available
retracted, and some daylight when for this application.
blinds part way up
Pleated blinds are also available with a double fabric in a cellular
Adjustability Good
form providing an air gap between the fabrics. This gap has
insulating properties; properly fitted cellular blinds are one of
Maintenance Blinds may need very occasional
the best internal shading options for heat retention in winter.
cleaning
The performance for solar gain reduction is improved compared
with a single-pleat blind.
 6 Internal shading 35

Box 2: Choosing fabric blinds

A wide range of decorative fabric types is available.

However, it is important to consider the visual impact of
the blinds. Three qualities are important:

• Transmittance
A fabric with a high visible transmittance may become
very bright when the sun is on it. This can cause
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

problems for people operating computer screens.

For clear single or double glazing, a draft European
Standard has recommended a daylight transmittance
of 5% or less where the whole window wall is
glazed, and 9% or less where half the window wall is
glazed[48]. If a complete blackout is required for any
reason, the transmittance should be zero, and the
blinds system needs to be designed specially to avoid
Illumin8: 1706420

light entering around the sides of the blind.

• Weave
Open-weave blinds allow some view through the
fabric. The view is least obscured if the fabric is dark
Figure 46: Roman blinds in colour. However, they do not provide full control of
glare from direct sunlight. Where glare is important,
eg rooms with computer screens[11], close-weave
blinds are recommended.

• Reflectance
In most circumstances, a light-coloured blind avoids
harsh contrast at night between the blind and
surrounding walls. Highly coloured blinds with a non-
zero transmittance may diffuse a wash of colour into
the space, which can be distracting.
Internal blinds are relatively ineffective at controlling
solar gain, because heat absorbed by the blind mostly
stays in the building. For the best solar control, the
side of the blind facing the window should be light in
colour and preferably silvered, to reflect out incoming
Hunter Douglas: 1706422

sun. However, this will have less impact where there is

already tinted glazing or window film on the window.
Heat reflected by the blind could be absorbed or
reflected back in by the glazing or film.
Hunter Douglas: 1706423

Figure 47: Honeycomb blinds

 36 Solar shading of buildings

6.4 Curtains Table 14: Performance data for curtains

Curtains are widely used in the domestic setting to provide Effect on summer Some reduction in heat gain, but not
privacy (Figure 48). They can also give good control of solar overheating as much as for external or mid-pane
glare provided they do not let too much light through. Heavy shading
lined curtains can also provide extra thermal insulation when Effect on winter solar Allow in winter solar gain, especially
drawn at night, provided they overlap the sides of the window. gain when curtains are open
A reflective lining to the curtain can reduce solar gain. For
maximum daylight it should be possible to pull the curtains right Glare control Excellent for opaque curtain types
back so they do not obstruct the glazing; tiebacks can help here.
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

Curtains can be fitted to windows that are curved on plan. Privacy Give good privacy when closed

Net curtains provide privacy during the daytime, but are less View out None when curtains closed (except
effective in spaces with two opposite window walls, and for net curtains)
ineffective at night. Net curtains tend to reduce daylight near
the window, but daylight at the back of the room is relatively Effect on daylight Allow in daylight when curtains open
unaffected[49].
Adjustability Good, but less flexible than a blind
because to control glare the curtains
often have to be completely shut
Maintenance Curtains will need washing from time
to time. Easy to replace failed rail
components

IHS Markit: 1717521

Figure 48: Curtains used with motorised sheer roller blinds in a domestic
interior
 6 Internal shading 37

6.5 Other internal shading devices

Light shelves can be internal as well as external (see Section 3.2).
An internal shelf will not reduce solar gain significantly, but it
will stop high-angle sun entering through the clerestory window
and causing glare. Light shelves work best for south-facing
rooms, and a small shelf (depth roughly equal to the height of
the clerestory window head above the shelf) is probably best.
A highly reflective top to the shelf (Figure 49) is recommended
to encourage reflected daylight. Low sun in winter may still get
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

in over the top of the shelf, and extra shading to the clerestory
window may be needed to control this.

IHS Markit: 1706421

Fixed or rotating louvres can also be used internally. A typical
application is in art galleries, to block direct sun and reduce the
light coming in through rooflights on bright days. However,
internal louvres will not be as effective at reducing solar heat as
external or even mid-pane types.
Figure 49: Internal light shelf with a silvered top, under test at BRE
Internal shutters (plantation shutters) consist of frames mounted
inside the window (Figure 50). They are usually wooden,
although plastic types are available for humid environments
like bathrooms. Most internal shutters have louvres that can be
tilted to vary the daylight entering the room and provide privacy;
sometimes the top and bottom louvres can be controlled
separately to optimise these. When the louvres are closed,
shutters will reduce heat loss through the window.

Shutters can also be hinged so that they fold back away from
the window when not required; this is a preferred option as it
allows window cleaning as well as the option of full daylight.
Space is needed in front of the window, otherwise opening the
shutters will be awkward. Sometimes individual panels can be
opened (tier-on-tier shutters). Café-style shutters are available
that only cover the bottom of the window, allowing daylight
in through the top part; this is a possible option where privacy
is critical, although the louvres affect the view out even when
opened.

Horizontal rooflights are sometimes installed with a skirt below

the rooflight. This cuts out glare, but limits the spread of daylight
into the space.

S:CRAFT: 1706424

Figure 50: Plantation shutters

Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.
IHS Markit: 1712053

38

7
Solar shading of buildings

Conclusions
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

Table 15: Summary of performance data for different shading systems

Shading system Best for Summer solar Winter solar Daylight Daylight Adjustability Privacy Glare control Heat loss
(report section) control gain admission distribution

Overhang/brise-soleil S (1)  Y Y Y  X  X
(3.1)

Light shelf S (1)  Y Y Y  X  X

(3.2)

Awning S (1)  Y/C CC Y * X  X

(3.3)

External blinds SEWH  C CC ? *  ? 

(3.4, 3.5)

Tinted glazing SEWH (2) * X X X X   X

(4.1)

‘Heat mirror’ glazing SEWH * X YY X X  X 

(4.2)

Reduce window area Any (2) ? X X X X  X 

(4.3)

Window film SEWH (2)  X * X X   *

(4.4)

Mid-pane blind NSEW / C C/CC ? *  ? 

(5.1)

Internal venetian blind Any  C CC ?   * 

(6.1)

Vertical louvre blind Any  C C/CC ? *  ? 

(6.2)

Internal roller blind Any  C CC ?   ? 

(6.3)
7 Conclusions
39
 40 Solar shading of buildings

Table 15 summarises the performance data for the different Daylight admission
shading systems. The solar and daylight transmittances will vary
X Proportion of daylight admitted similar to, or worse
a lot for different examples of the same system. For example,
than, proportion of summer solar gain admitted.
it would be possible to choose darker glazings with lower
solar transmittances but poor daylight admission. The solar Y Proportion of daylight admitted can be more than
transmittances will also vary for different window orientations. proportion of summer solar gain admitted.

From Table 15 the following conclusions can be drawn: YY Proportion of daylight admitted is significantly more
than proportion of summer solar gain admitted.
• External shading devices can be very efficient at preventing
overheating. * Some types admit more daylight.
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

• Of the devices in the table, only sophisticated external C Can be controlled to admit more daylight.
blinds systems are really effective at controlling both
solar gain and sun glare. Where both heat and glare CC Can be controlled to admit full daylight.
are important, a hybrid approach is often best, with an
overhang, light shelf or ‘heat mirror’ glazing to control
summer heat, and internal blinds for glare. Daylight distribution
• In a new building it is important to consider solar shading at X Has little or no effect on distribution of daylight in a
the design stage. Once the building is up it may be difficult space.
or expensive to install some forms of shading device.
Y Tends to improve daylight distribution in a space,
making it more uniform.
? May affect daylight distribution in certain
7.1 Notes to Table 15 circumstances.

Best for Adjustability

N North. X Performance does not vary significantly.
E East.  Seasonal variation in performance.
S South.  Some user adjustability.
W West.  Completely adjustable.
H Horizontal. * Some types completely adjustable.
(1) Also suitable for east- and west-facing, but performance
not as effective as for south-facing windows.
Privacy
(2) Generally for non-domestic interiors where daylight is
X No improvement in privacy.
unimportant.
 May give some improvement in privacy.

Summer solar control  Good privacy by day, not at night.

(Based on effective g-values, from the BRE Trust Report  Good privacy all the time.
Summertime solar performance of windows with shading
devices[11])
Glare control
 Effective g-value 0.4–0.55.
X No improvement in glare.
 Effective g-value 0.25–0.4.
 Reduces sky glare, but does not eliminate sun glare.
 Effective g-value 0.1–0.25.
 Reduces sky glare and eliminates sun glare at certain
* Depends on type of glazing. times.
? Depends on amount of reduction in glazing area.  Eliminates sky and sun glare.
Effective g-value is calculated for shading device plus low- * Opaque types eliminate sky and sun glare.
emissivity double glazing with clear glass, except for tinted and
? Some types do not eliminate sun glare.
‘heat mirror’ glazing. Figures are for typical best performance
with a well-designed system, and blinds lowered and louvres
closed where appropriate.
Heat loss
X Little or no reduction in heat loss.
Winter solar gain  Reduces heat loss depending on design and operation
X Performance does not vary significantly with season. of shading device.
Y Greater proportion of solar gain admitted in winter.  Consistent and significant reduction in heat loss.
C Can be controlled to admit more solar gain in winter. * Some types have consistent and significant reduction in
heat loss.
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

Appendices
Appendices
41

IHS Markit: 1712055

 42 Solar shading of buildings

Appendix A: Measuring and

calculating performance
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A.1 Measuring solar gain A.2 Effect on daylight

The total solar transmittance is the fraction of incoming solar The visible transmittance (daylight transmittance) is the
radiation that passes through a window and/or shading proportion of light coming through the window and/or
system. In Europe it is often called the ‘g-value’. The total solar shading system. The standard measure for glazing is to have
transmittance includes both radiation that is transmitted directly the light coming in at normal incidence, perpendicular to
through the window and radiation that is absorbed and then the glass. At oblique angles, glass transmits less light. The
re-radiated, convected or conducted into the room[1, 50]. diffuse transmittance includes this effect and is the overall
transmittance for light coming from all directions.
For blinds and window films, the manufacturers’ transmittance
data may or may not include the glazing. This should be checked; For blinds and window films, the manufacturers’ visible
the transmittance including the glazing is sometimes less than that transmittance data may or may not include the glazing. In the
of the blinds alone, but can be greater if it is an internal blind. This case of visible transmittance, the value including the glazing is
is because an internal blind can absorb heat that is then trapped always lower.
behind the glazing. British Standards BS EN 13363-1:2003[51] and
BS EN 13363-2:2005[52] give methods to calculate the g-value
from a combination of blinds and shading (see also Solar shading:
how to integrate solar shading in sustainable buildings[1]). The A.3 Openness coefficient
BRE Trust Report Summertime solar performance of windows
with shading devices[9] contains a CD with a handy tool to carry For a fabric blind, the openness coefficient[53] is the area of
out this calculation, although it is based on an earlier version of openings in the fabric divided by the total area of the fabric. It is
BS EN 13363-1. usually expressed as a percentage. An open-weave fabric would
have a high openness coefficient (5% or more) while a very close-
For most glazings, the total solar transmittance is measured at weave fabric might have an openness coefficient of 1% or less.
normal incidence (ie with the sun directly opposite the window),
and this is the value generally given in manufacturers’ data. Note that the openness coefficient is not necessarily the same as
However, when the sun hits the window at an oblique angle, the visible transmittance. A high value of openness coefficient
less radiation will be transmitted. does tend to increase the light transmitted, but it is possible for
a close-weave blind in a thin, light-coloured fabric to have a high
The effective g-value[9, 10] allows for the effects of radiation visible transmittance even though the openness coefficient is
coming in from different angles, throughout a sunny day in very low. To control glare from the sun, a combination of low
summer. So, for example, it can take account of the extra openness coefficient (to prevent direct sun being visible through
radiation blocked by an overhang or awning above a south- the blind) and low visible transmittance (to stop the blind being
facing window, which works best when the sun is high in the too bright when the sun is on it) is best.
sky in summer.

The effective g-value is defined as:

Solar gain in period of potential overheating through window with shading device
A.4 Databases of shading
Solar gain through unshaded, unglazed aperture for the same period performance
The period of potential overheating includes peak radiation days As well as manufacturers’ data, there are a number of
from May to August and has been chosen as the basis for the broader databases that contain details of shading and glazing
calculation of solar protection. Only peak days (radiation levels performance. The most comprehensive is held by Lawrence
exceeded for only 2.5% of the May–August period) are included Berkeley Laboratory in the US. It is based around the WINDOW
as solar overheating is most likely to occur on clear days with program (https://windows.lbl.gov/software/window), a free
uninterrupted sun. Summertime solar performance of windows download that allows the user to calculate a range of properties
with shading devices[9] explains further how the effective for a combination of glazing and shading. The program can
g-value is calculated. interface with other tools such as the building energy modelling
software DOE2.1 and Energy Plus. It uses the International
The solar direct transmittance is the fraction of incoming Glazing Database (IGDB) and Complex Glazing Database
radiation that comes directly through the window. It does not (CGDB), which contain data on the various systems. Products
include radiation that is absorbed and re-radiated. It is used in that are not available in the US may not be in these databases,
thermal comfort calculations, eg for people sitting in sunlight and the output of the program includes some American
coming through a window. terminology.
 Appendix A: Measuring and calculating performance 43

A similar European database was developed as part of the WIS

project (www.windat.org/wis/html). This too allows the user
A.6 Life-cycle assessment
to calculate the properties of an overall window system with a
A BRE Briefing Paper[57] describes whole-life costing and
combination of glazing and shading. However, it has not been
life-cycle assessment. These are tools to assess the overall
updated since 2006, so may exclude many new products.
performance and impact of a component or product over its
entire life.
The British Blind and Shutter Association (BBSA), in conjunction
with partners in the European Solar Shading Organisation (ES-SO),
Whole-life costing includes all relevant costs and revenues
has developed a database of the performance characteristics
associated with the product or component over its life, including
of solar shading materials called the ‘European Solar Shading
acquisition, use and maintenance, and disposal. For a shading
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Database’ (ES-SDA). This database includes independently

device this would include the cost of purchasing and installing
validated energy performance data of blind and shutter fabrics
the shading, the cost of maintaining the shading and the cost of
and materials to European Standards. The database calculates the
removal and disposal, minus the value of energy savings due to
energy performance of blind and shutter products when used in
the shading and any revenue from selling the recycled materials
combination with reference glazing defined in British Standards
at end of life.
BS EN 13363-1:2003[51] and BS EN 14501:2005[54]. The database is
free to use at http://es-so-database.com. Manufacturers’ data are
Life-cycle assessment is a method to measure and evaluate the
currently being added to the database.
environmental burdens associated with a product, by describing
and assessing the energy and materials used and released to the
environment over the life cycle. This is a broader concept, and
includes all the environmental impacts from producing, using and
A.5 Modelling performance disposing of the shading. It includes the energy and resources
used to produce the material, and any resulting pollution.
Detailed modelling of the impact of solar shading on building
overheating and cooling energy use requires a dynamic building
A recent study by Andrews, de Grussa, Chalk and Bush[58] is
energy modelling program, using an hourly time step (or shorter).
an example of life-cycle analysis applied to shading. These
This is because overheating usually occurs at times of peak
techniques are difficult to use with shading products because
radiation that may not be evident from using monthly average
the overall energy savings and resulting cost-benefits and
data. Heat can build up over time, and a dynamic program can
impacts will depend on where the product is installed. They may
model the effect of this on the temperature in a space.
be subject to change in the future, eg if climate change results
in higher temperatures or if cooling is retrofitted into a naturally
Programs vary in the way they can model solar shading. Some
ventilated building. Though studies sometimes compare the use
programs require the user to enter transmittance data (g-values)
of shading with an unshaded window, this is often an unsuitable
for a shading device, which may then be assumed by the
basis for comparison because in practice people will need
program to be constant. This is appropriate for many glazings,
protection from glare and overheating. Life-cycle assessment
but not for moveable blinds systems or louvre systems, where
or whole-life costing, comparing different shading devices or
the actual transmission of radiation can depend on the sun’s
different materials for similar shading devices, is more reliable.
position as well as the position of the louvres. Often programs
can model the effects of simple geometries such as overhangs
and side fins on solar gain. Others can model more sophisticated
systems including louvres, and also incorporate control
algorithms for moveable blinds. These need to be realistic. For
example, a typical approach is to assume the blinds are down
when solar radiation exceeds a certain threshold, and raised
when it is below the threshold. In practice this will only happen
with fully automatic control; with manual control occupants will
tend to operate the blinds only rarely[22, 55].

When entering shading device data into a program, it is

important to know exactly what the program requires. For
example, when the program asks for the transmittance of
a shading device, is this the solar transmittance or visible
transmittance? If it is the solar transmittance, is it the direct
transmittance only, or the total solar transmittance (g-value)?
Is it for the shading on its own, or the entire window system
(window plus shading)?

Further guidance on computer modelling is given in CIBSE

Applications Manual AM11 (Building performance modelling)[56].
 44 Solar shading of buildings

Appendix B: Shading in building

regulations and environmental
labelling schemes
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B.1 Building Regulations Part L Approved Document L2A also gives recommendations on
the overall energy consumption of the building; in particular
In England, Approved Document L (‘Part L’) of the Building whether it is lower than a maximum target value that depends
Regulations 2010 (England) deals with the conservation of fuel on the size of the building and the type of spaces in it. The
and power. There are similar provisions in Scotland (Technical choice of shading may make a difference here as it can affect
Handbooks, Section 6), Northern Ireland (Technical Booklets F1 winter solar heat gain, daylight in the space and energy used
and F2) and Wales (Approved Document L). This section for cooling if provided. Energy consumption is modelled using
describes the regulations in England. the Simplified Building Energy Model (SBEM) or other approved
software. The SBEM technical manual[64] explains how the
The requirements of the building regulations are brief and calculations are carried out and what assumptions are made
functional performance statements. For shading, the relevant about shading.
requirement is ‘Reasonable provision shall be made for the
conservation of fuel and power in buildings by limiting heat Note that compliance with the Approved Document
gains and losses through thermal elements’. Here, ‘thermal recommendations on overheating or solar gain does not
elements’ includes windows. So the requirement includes necessarily mean that the building will not overheat in practice.
reasonable provision for limiting heat gains through windows in For example, if a building has high internal heat gains from
order to save energy. equipment, overheating may still occur even if the solar gain is
relatively low.
The Approved Documents give guidance on ways of complying
with the requirements. In England there are separate documents
for new dwellings (L1A)[59], existing dwellings (L1B)[60], new
buildings other than dwellings (L2A)[61] and existing buildings B.2 BREEAM
other than dwellings (L2B)[62]. The recommendations in the
Approved Documents do not have to be adopted, but if they are The Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment
not then compliance must be demonstrated in another way. Method (BREEAM)[65] is an internationally recognised measure
of sustainability for the procurement, design, construction and
The building regulations apply to new buildings, to extensions operation of a development, covering all stages of life, including
and where there has been a material change of use (eg a new construction, developments in use and refurbishment.
non-domestic building becoming a dwelling or vice versa). Administered by BRE, BREEAM measures sustainable value in
In practice, the recommendations on shading focus on new a series of categories, ranging from ‘energy’ and ‘health and
buildings. wellbeing’ to ‘land use and ecology’, against performance
benchmarks. Each of these categories addresses the most
For new dwellings, Approved Document L1A recommends that influential factors, including low-impact design and carbon
the dwelling should have appropriate passive measures to limit emissions reduction; design durability and resilience; adaption to
the effects of heat gains on indoor temperatures in summer, climate change; and ecological value and biodiversity protection.
irrespective of whether the dwelling has mechanical cooling. Within every category, developments score points – called
The idea behind this is that if a naturally ventilated house ‘credits’ – for achieving targets, and their final total determines
overheats, the occupants may retrofit cooling later on, resulting their rating. Detailed information on BREEAM is available online
in increased energy use. at www.breeam.com.

To check whether solar gains in dwellings are excessive, ‘Visual comfort’ (a sub-category of ‘health and wellbeing’)
designers can use the method in an appendix of the UK includes a credit for control of glare from the sun. This could
government’s Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP)[63]. This involve either the provision of adjustable blinds under occupant
gives a prediction of the likelihood of high internal temperatures control, or architectural solutions to stop direct sunlight reaching
during hot weather. It depends on factors like ventilation rate, working areas. Credits are also given for provision of daylight,
window size and orientation, and thermal mass, as well as which could be affected by some types of shading.
shading. The current calculation method (under review at the
time of writing) has simple factors for different types of shading. ‘Reduction of energy use and carbon emissions’ (a sub-category
of ‘energy’) promotes building energy efficiency. Credits are
For new non-domestic buildings, Approved Document L2A given depending on how much better the predicted building
recommends appropriate passive control measures to limit energy performance is compared with a building that just meets
solar gains. Again this applies to all new buildings, whether air building regulation requirements. The choice of shading could
conditioned or not. Currently, one way to meet the requirement affect the overall predicted building energy performance and
is to limit the summer solar gain to each occupied space to be hence the number of credits being awarded.
no more than for a reference case. The provision of appropriate
shading can help here.
 Appendix B: Shading in building regulations and environmental labelling schemes 45

B.3 LEED B.4 WELL Building Standard

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) is an The WELL Building Standard v1 (WELL) was introduced by the
international rating system for the design, construction and International WELL Building Institute (IWBI) as the first standard
operation of high-performance, sustainable buildings. Run to focus exclusively on the health and wellbeing of building
by the US Green Building Council (USGBC), LEED serves as an occupants, aiming to improve their nutrition, fitness, mood,
indicator of sustainability by incentivising savings in energy, sleep, comfort and performance. The WELL criteria include
water and building materials consumption, while at the same preconditions, which are mandatory for all levels of certification,
time improving occupant health and overall community and optimisations, which are optional credits that contribute
connectivity. to the total WELL score. WELL v1 addresses seven wellness
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concepts: ‘air’, ‘water’, ‘nourishment’, ‘light’, ‘fitness’, ‘comfort’

LEED is available for all building, community and home project and ‘mind’.
types at any stage on their life cycle. Points are given for
different credits depending on the level of compliance with the The ‘light’ concept aims to minimise disruption to the body’s
respective requirements. The credits can be accessed online at circadian system, support good sleep quality, enhance
www.usgbc.org/credits. productivity and provide appropriate visual comfort. There is a
precondition (requirement) for solar glare control, using blinds
Some of the credits are relevant to shading. There is a thermal or some other form of shading device. There is also an optional
comfort credit, which is awarded if heating, ventilation and credit if computer screens can be aligned so that users do not
air-conditioning (HVAC) systems and the building envelope have to face the windows, and also do not have to face away
(including shading) are designed to achieve particular thermal from them and have a risk of reflected glare from the screen.
comfort conditions. The daylight credit includes a requirement Another optional credit is given for automatic control of blinds
to provide manual or automatic (with manual override) glare- when sunlight could cause glare. The optional daylight credit
control devices for all regularly occupied spaces, and criteria includes a criterion limiting the frequency of high illuminances in
based around avoiding high illuminances in these spaces. LEED working areas.
also includes an ‘integrative process’ credit, which encourages
shading to be considered along with a wide range of other The ‘comfort’ concept includes a precondition (requirement)
factors at the early stages in design. In a similar way to BREEAM, for thermal comfort in all spaces, including circulation areas.
LEED has credits for energy use that could be affected by Appropriate solar shading can help meet this requirement in
shading provision. conjunction with HVAC and/or natural ventilation.

A concept comprises several sub-categories or ‘features’. In

order to comply with any of the features, all the requirements
of that feature should be met. Equivalencies and alternative
adherence paths are available for some features. The WELL
standard is updated regularly with addenda being released
quarterly, and the latest version is available online at
http://standard.wellcertified.com, together with all addenda
listed in a chronological order.
 46 Solar shading of buildings

References
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

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IHS Markit: 1712054
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 This publication has been funded by BRE Trust

Solar shading of buildings

Careful choice of solar shading is required in buildings

to allow good use of winter solar gain and daylighting
without summer overheating. It may be needed to stop a
building overheating, reduce cooling energy costs, prevent
glare (particularly where computer screens are used) or
Licensed copy from CIS: LEEDSM, LEEDS BECKETT UNIVERSITY, 09/01/2021, Uncontrolled Copy.

provide privacy for building occupants.

This report describes the commonly used shading devices

and some new developments. It gives the advantages
and disadvantages of each kind of shading device. A
decision table is included to help find the best solution for
a particular building application. The guidance focuses on
shading requirements in the UK and similar climates and
latitudes.

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ISBN 978-1-84806-474-4

IHS Markit, The Capitol Building

Bracknell, Berkshire RG12 8FZ
www.brebookshop.com
BR 364, 2nd edition 9 781848 064744