1100

Pile Foundations
Pile Foundations Section 1100

1101 DESCRIPTION

1101.1 This work shall consist of construction of all types of piles for structures in
accordance with the details shown on the drawings and conforming to the requirements of
these Specifications or as directed by the Engineer.

1101.2 The construction of pile foundations requires a careful choice of the piling
system depending on subsoil conditions and loading characteristics and type of structure.
The permissible limits of total and differential settlements, unsupported length of pile under
scour, impact/entanglement of floating bodies and any other special requirements of project,
are also equally important criteria for selection of the piling system. The method of installing
the piles, including details of the equipment shall be submitted by the Contractor and got
approved from the Engineer before commencement of work.

1101.3 The work shall be carried out as per IS:2911 except as modified herein.

1102 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATIONS

1102.1 The complete subsurface investigations of strata in which pile foundations

are proposed shall be carried out in advance along with in-situ pile tests. For details of
geo-technical subsurface explorations, refer Section 2400 of these Specifications.

Borings should be carried up to sufficient depths so as to ascertain the nature of strata

around the pile shaft and below the pile tip. Depth of boring shall not be less than:

i) 1.5 times estimated length of pile in soil or 15 m below the proposed

founding level
ii) 15 times diameter of pile in ordinary / jointed rock but minimum 15 m in
such rock
iii) 4 times diameter of pile in hard rock but minimum 3 m in such rock

1102.2 The subsurface investigations shall adequately define stratification of

substrata including the nature and type of strata, their variation, extent and specific properties.
The investigations shall be adequate for the purpose of selection of appropriate piling system
and for estimating design capacities for different diameters and length of piles.

1102.3 Pressure meter tests may be used in the case of rock, ground or soil for
direct evaluation of strength and compressibility characteristics. Though these tests are of
specialized nature, they are more appropriate for difficult/uncertain substrata and especially
for important projects.

1102.4 For piles socketed into rock, it is necessary to determine the uni-axial
compressive strength of the rock and its quality.

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The investigations shall also include location of ground water table and other parameters
including results of chemical tests showing sulphate and chloride content and any other
deleterious chemical content in soil and/or ground water, likely to affect durability.

1103 TYPE OF PILES

1103.1 Piles may be of reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, steel or timber

and circular, square, hexagonal, octagonal, “H” or “I” Section in shape. They may be of solid
or hollow sections or steel cases filled with concrete. Timber piles may be used for temporary
bridges. Cast in-situ concrete piles may be driven cast in-situ or bored cast in-situ. Similarly,
precast concrete piles also may be driven precast or bored precast. In bored precast piles,
precast piles are lowered into pre-formed bores and annular space grouted.

1103.2 Minimum diameter of concrete pile shall be 1 m for river/marine bridges.

For bridges beyond the water zone and bridges on land, the minimum diameter may be
750 mm.

1104 MATERIALS

1104.1 The basic materials shall conform to Section 1000 of these Specifications.
The specifications for steel reinforcement, structural concrete, prestressed concrete and
structural steel to be used in pile foundations shall conform to Sections 1600, 1700, 1800
and 1900 respectively of these Specifications.

1104.2 Concrete in Piles

For both precast and cast in in-situ piles, the grade of concrete, minimum cement content,
water cement ratio and slump at the time of placement shall be as per Table 1100-1 :

Table 1100-1 : Requirements for Concrete in Piles

Cast in-situ Concrete by Tremie Precast

Concrete
Grade of concrete M 35 M 35
Minimum cement content 400 kg/m3 400 kg/m3
Minimum water cement ratio 0.4 0.40
Slump (mm) as measured at the 150-200 50 - 75
time of placement

The terms ‘minimum cement content’ and ‘minimum water cement’ ratio mentioned
Table 1100-1, are to be based on total cementitious material (inclusive of all mineral admixtures
called additives) mentioned in Clause 1007 of these Specifications. Maximum limits for such
additives shall be as specified in Clause 1716.2 of these Specifications.

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High alumina cements (i.e. quick setting cement) shall not be used in marine conditions.
When both chlorides and sulphates are present, in soil or ground water, sulphate resistant
cement shall not be used. For improving resistance against the penetration of chlorides and
sulphates from surrounding soils or water, mineral admixtures such as fly ash, silica fumes,
GGBS conforming to respective BIS/International Standards and as per IRC:112, may be
used.

1105 TEST PILES

1105.1 Test piles which are shown on the drawings or specified in the contract or
installed by the Contractor on his own to determine the lengths of piles to be furnished, shall
conform to the requirements for piling as indicated in these Specifications. Test piles which
are used to arrive at the load carrying capacity shall not be incorporated in the structure.

All test piles shall be installed with the same type of equipment that is proposed to be used
for piling in the actual structure.

Test piles which are not to be incorporated in the completed structure shall be removed to at
least 600 mm below the proposed soffit level of pile cap and the remaining hole so formed
shall be backfilled with earth or other suitable material.

The piles shall be load tested in accordance with provisions laid down in this Section.

1106 PRECAST CONCRETE PILES

1106.1 General

Precast concrete piles shall be of the size and shape as shown in the approved drawings.
If a square section is employed, the corners shall be chamfered by at least 25 mm
unless otherwise specified on the drawings. The length of pile shall not normally exceed
25 m. However, where special equipments for handling and installation are available to the
satisfaction of the Engineer, longer length could be permitted.

1106.2 Stacking, Storing and Handling

Care shall be taken that at all stages of transporting, lifting and handling, the piles are not
damaged or cracked. During transport and stacking of piles, they shall be supported at the
same points as those provided for lifting purposes. If the piles are put down temporarily
during handling, they shall be placed on trestles or blocks located at the same points.

Piles shall be stored at least 300 mm above firm level ground, which is not liable to unequal
subsidence or settlement under the weight of the stack of piles. They shall be placed on
timber supports which are level and spaced so as to avoid bending. The supports in different
layers, shall be vertically one above the other. Spaces shall be left round the piles to enable

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them to be lifted without difficulty. The order of stacking shall be such that the older piles can
be withdrawn without disturbing newer piles. Separate stacks shall be provided for different
lengths of piles. Where piles are stacked in layers, the number of layers shall not exceed
three. Whenever curing is needed during storage, arrangements shall be made to enable the
piles to be watered. For detailed precautions with regard to curing operations for structural
concrete, refer Section 1700 of these Specifications.

Before the operation of handling and driving the piles, the minimum periods counted from the
time of casting shall be as indicated in Table 1100-2. Prestressed pile shall not be lifted or
handled until fully stressed.

Table 1100-2 : Time for Curing Precast Piles

Type of Cement Used Minimum Periods from Time of Casting

in Casting the Pile
Strike Side- End of Wet Lift from Bed Casting
Shutters (Hours) Curing (Days) Drive
(Days) (days)
Ordinary Portland 24 7 10 28
Rapid hardening 12 7 7 10
Portland

1106.3 Lengthening of Piles

Where a pile is to have additional length cast on it during driving, the longitudinal reinforcement
shall preferably be joined by full penetration butt welding. The concrete at the top of the
original pile shall be cut down to expose not less than 200 mm of the bars to avoid spalling
of the concrete by heat of welding. The added bars have to be held accurately and rigidly in
position during welding. Where facilities on site are insufficient to make proper butt welding
practicable, the joint may be made by lapping. The reinforcement at the head of pile will need
to be exposed for full anchorage length or 600 mm whichever is greater and the new bars
over-lapped for this distance. Unless otherwise specified, the extension of the pile shall be
formed to the same cross-sectional profile and with concrete of at least the same strength
as that specified for the original pile. The stirrup spacing shall in no case be greater than
150 mm. Not more than one extension shall be permitted. In case more than one extension
is permitted by the Engineer, only approved mechanical couplers shall be used.

Driving shall not be resumed until:

a) The strength of the concrete in the extension is at least equal to the

specified characteristic strength of concrete in pile; and
b) The approval of the Engineer has been obtained.

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1106.4 Removal of Surplus Length

Any length of pile surplus to that required for incorporation in the structure shall be cut off
neatly and removed. During the process of cutting off, it shall be ensured that projecting
reinforcement to be anchored into the pile cap and the prestressing strands/wires are not
damaged. When stripping prestressed concrete piles, sudden release of tendons shall be
avoided. Reference may also be made to Clause 7.7.1 of IS:2911 (Part I, Section 3) in this
connection.

1106.5 Risen Piles

Level of top of each pile shall be taken after driving and again after all the piles are driven.
Piles which are found to have risen due to ground heave or as a result of driving adjacent
piles, shall be re-driven to the original depth or resistance unless re-driving tests on adjacent
piles have shown this to be unnecessary.

1106.6 Manufacture

The pile should be cast in one continuous operation from end to end of each pile. Manufacture
of precast concrete piles shall conform to the guidelines contained in Clause 7.1, 7.2
and 7.3. or IS:2911 (Part I, Section 3).

Piles shall be provided with suitable metal shoe for protecting the tip of the pile during driving
in hard ground.

Piles shall not be moved from casting bed until the concrete has hardened sufficiently.

Piles shall not be driven in less than 28 days after casting or unless their strength at the time
of driving is at least that specified for 28 days.

1106.7 Prestressed Concrete Piles

Additional specifications for precast prestressed concrete piles shall conform to those
contained in Clause 8 of IS:2911 (Part I, Section 3).

1107 CAST IN-SITU CONCRETE PILES

1107.1 General

Cast in-situ concrete piles may be either installed by drilling a bore into the ground and
removing the material or by driving a metal casing with a shoe at the tip and displacing

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the material laterally. The two types of piles are termed as “bored piles” and “driven piles”
respectively. Cast in-situ concrete piles may be cast in metal shells which may remain
permanently in place. However, other types of reinforced concrete cast in-situ piles, cased
or uncased, may be used if in the opinion of the Engineer the soil conditions permit their use
and if their design and the methods of placing are satisfactory.

Certain specific requirements regarding driving of cast in-situ driven piles shall be as per
Clauses 1110 and 1111.

Any liner or borehole which is improperly located or shows partial collapses that would affect
the load carrying capacity of the pile, shall be rejected or repaired as directed by the Engineer
at the cost of the Contractor.

Boring shall be carried out using rotary equipment. Percussion type of equipment shall be
used only if approved by the Engineer.

The diameter of the finished pile shall not be less than that specified. A continuous record
shall be kept by the Engineer as to the volume of concrete placed in relation to the length of
pile that is cast.

Defective piles shall be removed or left in place as judged convenient without affecting the
performance of adjacent piles or pile cap. Additional piles shall be provided to replace the
defective piles.

1107.2 Concreting

Wherever practicable, concrete should be placed in a clean dry hole. Prior to the placing of
the reinforcement cage, the pile shaft shall be cleaned of all loose materials. Before concreting
of the pile is commenced, it is essential to ensure that no debris remains at the bottom of
the shaft, as inadequate cleaning of the base can lead to formation of a soft base or soft toe
which may result in reduction of load bearing capacity of the pile.

Reinforcement for the pile as shown on the drawing shall be tied in place to form a cage which
is lowered into the pile shaft. Suitable spacers shall be provided to maintain the required
cover to reinforcing steel. Reinforcements at the bottom should not be provided with L-bends
as these may interfere with cleaning of the pile base.

Where concrete is placed in dry and a casing is present, the top 3 m of the pile shall be
compacted using internal vibrators.

Where the casing is withdrawn from cohesive soils for the formation of cast in-situ pile, the
concreting should be done with necessary precautions to minimize the softening of the soil
by excess water. Where mud flow conditions exist, the casing of cast in-situ piles shall not
be allowed to be withdrawn.

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Care shall be taken during concreting to prevent the segregation of the ingredients. The
displacement or distortion of reinforcement during concreting and while extracting the casing,
shall also be avoided.

If the concrete is placed inside precast concrete tubes or consists of precast sections, these
shall be free from cracks or other damage before being installed.

The concrete shall be properly graded, shall be self-compacting and shall not get mixed with
soil, excess water, or other extraneous matter. Special care shall be taken in silty clays and
other soils which have the tendency to squeeze into the newly deposited concrete and cause
necking. Sufficient head of green concrete shall be maintained to prevent inflow of soil or
water into the concrete.

The placing of concrete shall be a continuous process from the toe level to the top of the pile.
To ensure compaction by hydraulic static heads, rate of placing concrete in the pile shaft shall
not be less than 6 m (length of pile) per hour.

1107.3 Casing

When concreting is carried out for a pile, a temporary casing should be installed to sufficient
depth so as to ensure that fragments of soil from the sides of the hole do not drop into the
concrete as it is placed. When the bore hole is stabilized using drilling mud, the temporary
casing is not required except near the top.

The metal casing shall be of sufficient thickness and strength to hold its original form and
show no harmful distortion while driving or when adjacent casings are driven.

Cast in-situ concrete driven piles shall be installed using a properly designed detachable
shoe at the bottom of the casing.

Bored cast in-situ piles in soils which are stable, may often be installed with only a small
casing length at the top. A minimum of 2 m length of top of bore shall invariably be provided
with casing to ensure against loose soil falling into the bore. In cases in which the side soil
can fall into the hole, it is necessary to stabilize the side of the bore hole with drilling mud, or
a suitable steel casing. Permanent steel liner shall be provided at least up to maximum scour
level. The minimum thickness of steel liner shall be 6 mm.

Permanent steel liner shall be provided for the full depth of the pile in the following situations
where:

i) The surrounding soil is marine clay

ii) Soft soil is present
iii) Surrounding soil has sulphate content equal to or more than 1%

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iv) Surrounding water has sulphate content equal to or more than

2500 ppm
v) Leakage of sewage is expected

For bored cast in-situ piles, casing/liner shall be driven open ended with a pile driving hammer
capable of achieving penetration of the liner to the depth shown on the drawing or as approved
by the Engineer. Materials inside the casing shall be removed progressively by air lift, grab
or percussion equipment or other approved means.

Where bored cast in-situ piles are used in soils liable to flow, the bottom of the casing shall
be kept sufficiently in advance of the boring tool to prevent the entry of soil into the casing,
leading to formation of cavities and settlements in the adjoining ground. The water level in
the casing should generally be maintained at the natural ground water level for the same
reasons. The joints of the casing shall be made as leak-tight as possible to minimize inflow
of water or leakage of slurry during concreting.

The diameter of the boreholes shall not be more than the inside diameter of the liner when the
liners are installed before boring. When the liners are installed after boring, the diameter of
the boreholes shall not be more than the outside diameter of liner + 2 mm, unless otherwise
approved by Engineer.

1107.4 Use of Tremie

The concrete should invariably be poured through a tremie with a funnel, so that the concrete
can be properly deposited in the hole without segregation. For concreting done by tremie, the
following requirements which are particularly applicable shall be ensured:

a) The hopper and tremie should be a leak proof system.

b) Diameter of tremie shall be not less than 200 mm for use with 20 mm
diameter down aggregate.
c) The first charge of concrete should be placed with a sliding plug pushed
down the tube ahead of it or with a steel plate with adequate charge to
prevent mixing of concrete and water. However, the plug should not be
left in the concrete as a lump.
d) The tremie pipe should always penetrate well into the concrete with an
adequate margin of safety against accidental withdrawal of the pipe.
The tremie should be always full of concrete.
e) The pile should be concreted wholly by tremie and the method of
deposition should not be changed part way up the pile, to prevent
laitance from being entrapped within the pile.
f) All tremie tubes shall be thoroughly cleaned after use.

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g) For concrete placed through tremie, there is no need to add 10 percent

extra cement.
h) Concreting of piles shall be carried out continuously. In exceptional
cases of interruption of concreting the tremie shall not be taken out of
the concrete under any circumstances. The tremie pipe shall be raised
and lowered slowly from time to time to prevent it from getting stuck in
the concrete while ensuring its lower and does not come out of concrete.
The concreting shall be resumed before final setting time of concrete,
which shall be established before the start of the piling operation. For
achieving longer setting time of the concrete, super plasticizers having
retarding properties/retarders can be used. If any of these requirements
are not met, the pile shall be rejected.

1107.5 Removal of Concrete above Cut-off Level

It is desirable that the concrete above cut-off level, is removed before the concrete is set.
This may be done manually or by specially made bailer or other device. Such removal of
concrete helps in preventing the damage of the good concrete below the cut-off level, which
results from chipping by percussion method.

The removal of concrete shall be within ± 25 mm from the specified cut off level, preferably
on the minus side. After removal of such concrete, the concrete shall be compacted with
rammer with spikes or vibrated.

In case the concrete is not removed before setting, a groove shall be made on outer perimeter
by rotary equipment before chipping by percussion method.

The minimum embedment of cast in-situ concrete piles into pile cap shall not be less then
50 mm. Any defective concrete at the head of the completed pile shall be cut away and
made good with new concrete. The clear cover between the bottom reinforcement in pile
cap from the top of the pile shall be not less than 25 mm. The reinforcement in the pile shall
be exposed for full anchorage length to permit it to be adequately bonded into the pile cap.
Exposing such length shall be done carefully to avoid damaging the rest of the pile.

1108 STEEL PILES

Steel piles shall be of “H” or “I” sections as shown on the drawings and shall be of structural
steel conforming to Section 1000 of these Specifications.

Steel piles shall be protected by suitable anti-corrosive painting as specified on the drawing
or as directed by the Engineer. Piles shall be stored above the ground having protective
packing to minimize damage to surface coating. Each pile shall be supplied preferably in one
piece without splices.

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At the option of the Contractor, steel piles consisting of structural steel plates welded together
may be substituted for the rolled sections specified, provided the depth, width and average
thicknesses are at least equal to those of the rolled sections, the steel plates conform to
Section 1000 of these Specifications. The flanges shall be welded to the web with continuous
fillet welds on either side of the web, and the welding shall conform to Clause 1904.8 of these
Specifications.

The length of the steel pile may be built up in sections either before or during driving
operations. The sections shall be of identical cross-section. Pile splices shall be made with
full penetration butt welds over the whole cross-section. Pile splices shall develop at least
the yield strength of pile.

The connections shall be made by butt welding the entire cross-section in accordance with
the provisions in Clause 1904.8 of these Specifications. Care shall be taken to properly align
the sections connected so that the axis of the pile will be straight. The number of welded
connections in the length of pile shall be as few as possible.

1109 TIMBER PILES

The Engineer shall stamp each pile on the butt with a stamp which shall make an impression
that is readily legible. Treated timber piles will be inspected by the Engineer after treatment.
Untreated timber piles may be used as test piles. Treated timber piles shall be driven within
6 months after treatment.

Timber piles shall be furnished with tip protection and protected by the use of steel straps.
Tip protection shall be suitable for use on timber piling of the size to be driven. Details of tip
protection shall be furnished to the Engineer for review and approval before driving piles. Not
less than 2 separate steel straps shall be placed within 600 mm of the butt of each pile after
the pile is square cut. Not less than 2 separate steel straps shall be placed within 300 mm
of the tip of each pile. Additional intermediate steel straps shall be placed at intervals of not
more than 3 m measured along the length of the pile.

Timber piles which are to be capped shall be separately cut off so that true bearing is obtained
on every pile. Piles inaccurately cut off shall be replaced. Splicing of timer piles shall not be
permitted except by written permission of the Engineer.

1110 DRIVING EQUIPMENT

Piles or their casings may be driven with any type of drop hammer, diesel hammer or single-
acting steam or compressed air hammer, provided they penetrate to the prescribed depth to
attain the designed resistance without being damaged. The weight or power of the hammer
should be sufficient to ensure a penetration of at least 5 mm per blow unless rock has been
reached. It is always preferable to employ the heaviest hammer practicable and to limit the
stroke, so as not to damage the pile. The minimum weight of the hammer shall be 2.5t. In

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the case of precast concrete piles the mass of the hammer shall be not less than 30 times
the mass of 300 mm length of pile.

Steam or air hammers shall be furnished along with boiler or air compressor of capacity at
least equal to that specified by the manufacturer of the hammers. The boiler or air compressor
shall be equipped with an accurate pressure gauge at all times. The valve mechanism and
other parts of steam, air or diesel hammers shall be maintained in first class condition so that
the length of stroke and number of blows per minute for which the hammer is designed, will
be obtained. Inefficient steam, air or diesel hammers shall not be permitted to be used on
the work.

1111 DRIVING

1111.1 General Procedure

Details of the equipment and the method proposed for driving the piles shall be submitted
for scrutiny and approval of the Engineer. Piles shall be installed from firm ground or from
temporary supports or from fixed platform. The arrangement shall provide sufficient rigidity
to ensure accuracy of pile driving under all conditions of tide, stream flow or hammer drop.

During driving the top of pile shall be protected by a suitable helmet of substantial steel
construction. The helmet shall provide uniform bearing across the top of the pile and shall
hold the pile centrally under the hammer. No pile shall be driven unless inspected and
approved by the Engineer.

Piles shall be driven from a fixed frame of sufficient rigidity to ensure accuracy of driving
within specified tolerances. The force of the hammer shall be directed centrally and axially
during driving. Forces producing undue bending or torsional stresses in piles shall not be
applied during driving.

The stroke of a single acting or drop hammer shall be limited to 1.2 m unless otherwise
permitted by the Engineer. A shorter stroke may be necessary when there is danger of
damaging the pile.

Piles shall not be bent or sprung into position but shall be effectively guided and held on line
during the initial stages of driving. Attempts to correct any tendency for the pile to run off line
by the application of significant horizontal restraint will not be permitted. Shortly after the
commencement of driving and at regular intervals throughout the driving operation, checks
shall be made to ensure that the pile frame does not exert any undue lateral force on the pile
due to restraint within the helmet.

If the indications are that a pile will finish outside the specified tolerances, driving operations
on that pile will cease. The pile shall be withdrawn, the hole filled and the pile re-driven at
the cost of the Contractor.

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To avoid the possibility of premature “set-up”, pile driving shall be continuous in the later
stages, without any deliberate stops. (delays of an hour or less may lead to significant “set-
up” in piles i.e. resistance to further driving increases after driving is stopped).

If any pile is damaged in any way during driving, it shall be repaired or replaced as directed by
the Engineer, at the cost of the Contractor. If during driving, the head of a pile is damaged to
the extent that further driving is not possible, the head shall be cut off and driving continued.
The cost of cutting off shall be borne by the Contractor and where, as a result of such cutting
off the head, the pile is too short, the Contractor, shall, at his own cost, supply and splice on
sufficient length of pile to restore the pile to its correct length.

Piles should be driven to the minimum acceptable penetration shown on the drawings. This
may require pre-boring and/or jetting as indicated in Clause 111.2, with the approval of the
Engineer.

Piles shall be driven to nominal refusal or the required ultimate dynamic capacity mentioned
on the drawings or until the top of the pile is at the level required and specified on the drawing
whichever gives the lowest toe elevation. The Engineer’s decision in these matters shall be
final. Nominal refusal shall be taken as equivalent to 25 mm total penetration for the final
20 blows using a hammer of driving energy as specified and shall be used as the criterion
for acceptance for piles founded on rock. Severe driving which results in an average set per
blow less than 0.5 mm will not be permitted.

Where hard drilling is encountered because of dense strata or obstructions located above the
predetermined pile tip level, nominal refusal shall not be considered to have been achieved
unless the Engineer is satisfied that the total number of blows, as the average driving
resistance specified for nominal refusal, indicates that further driving will not advance the pile
through dense strata or obstructions.

The pile shall be driven as accurately as possible to the vertical or to specified batter. Straining
the pile into position can damage it and the driving equipment should be adjusted as much
as possible to follow the position of the pile. Any deviation from the proper alignment shall
be noted and promptly reported to the Engineer. If the deviation is to such an extent that the
resulting eccentricity cannot be taken care of by strengthening the pile cap or pile tips, such
a pile shall, at the discretion of the Engineer, be replaced or supplemented by an additional
pile. Unless otherwise specified, the permissible positional deviation for piles shall be limited
to those indicated in Clause 1116.

Care shall be taken not to damage the pile by over-driving. Any sudden change in the rate of
penetration which cannot be ascribed in the nature of the ground shall be noted and its cause
ascertained, if possible, before driving is continued.

While withdrawing a casing used in the construction of cast in-situ pile, consideration shall be
given to the possibility of damaging any other nearby pile. The danger of damaging is greater
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in compact soils than in loose soils. No pile shall be bored or driven within 3 m of a newly
cast pile until at least 24 hours after completion of its installation.

Driving piles in loose sand tends to compact the sand which in turn increases the skin friction.
Therefore, driving a number of friction piles in a group shall proceed outward from the centre
as otherwise it will be difficult to drive the inner piles to the same depth as the others.

In the case of stiff clay also, the driving for a group of piles shall proceed outward from the
centre. However, in case of very soft soil, the driving may proceed from outside to inside, so
that the soil is restrained from flowing out during driving operations.

If there is a major variation between the depth at which adjacent foundation piles in a group
meet refusal, a boring shall be made nearby to ascertain the cause of this difference. If the
boring shows that the soil contains pockets of highly compressive material below the level of
the shorter pile, it will be necessary to enforce penetration of all the piles to a level below the
bottom of the zone which shows such pockets.

1111.2 Pre-boring and Jetting

Driving of the piles may be assisted by pre-boring holes or by the use of jets or both, subject
to the approval of the Engineer. These may be used essentially to achieve the minimum
penetration shown on the drawings where such penetration is not reached under normal
conditions of driving indicated in Clause 1111.1.

The diameter of the hole shall not be greater than the diagonal dimension of the pile less
100 mm.

The maximum depth of the pre-boring shall be such that the specified set (or less) is obtained
when the toe of the pile is at founding level. Pre-boring shall be as approved by the Engineer
and shall be carried out only up to a level of one metre above the founding level. The pile
shall be driven for at least one metre below the pre-bored hole. To ensure that the pile is
properly supported laterally in the hole, any space remaining around the pile at the ground
level after driving is completed, shall be backfilled with approved granular material.

When water jetting is used, at least two jets shall be attached to the pile symmetrically. The
volume and pressure of water at the outlet nozzles shall be sufficient to freely erode material
adjacent to the toe of the pile. The maximum depth up to which jetting is carried out, shall be
such that the specified set (or less) is obtained when the toe of the pile is at founding level.
Jetting shall cease as directed by the Engineer and shall proceed only up to 1 m above the
founding level. The pile shall be driven at least 1 m below the pre-bored hole.

To avoid very hard driving and vibration in materials such as sand, jetting of piles by means
of water may be carried out only with the express permission of the Engineer and in such a

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manner as not to impair the bearing capacity of piles already in place, the stability of the soil
or the safety of any adjoining buildings. Details of the arrangement for jetting shall be got
approved from the Engineer in advance.

If large quantities of water are used for jetting, provision shall be made for collecting and
draining away of water when it comes to the surface of the ground, so that the stability of the
piling plant is not endangered by the softening of the ground.

Jetting shall be stopped before completing the driving which shall always be finished by
ordinary methods. Jetting shall be stopped if there is any tendency for the pile tips to be
drawn towards the pile already driven owing to the disturbance of the ground.

1112 RAKER (INCLINED) PILES

The maximum rake to be permitted in piles shall not exceed the following:

I) 1 in 6 for all bored piles

ii) 1 in 6 for cast in-situ piles
iii) 1 in 4 for precast driven piles

1113 PILE TESTS

1113.1 Initial Load Test

i) The number of initial tests shall be determined by the Engineer taking

into consideration the bore log and soil profile, design length, pile
diameter and design pile capacity. However, it shall not be less than
two for each category.
ii) Initial load test for axial load capacity, including uplift capacity if required,
on trial piles of the same diameter as of the design pile, shall be carried
out after 28 days design strength is achieved. The testing shall be done
as per the procedure laid down in IS:2911, Part-IV. The load test shall
be conducted for not less than 2½ times the design load. The initial
load test shall be cyclic load test for piles deriving strength from end
bearing and side friction. The maintained load test can be performed
for end bearing piles which do not rely on friction and for piles socketed
in rock;
iii) If the initial load test gives a capacity greater than 25 percent of the
capacity calculated by static formula and if it is desired to take benefit
of the higher capacity, another two load tests shall be carried out to
confirm the earlier value and minimum of the three shall be considered

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as initial load test value. The number of initial tests shall be determined
by the Engineer taking into consideration the bore log and soil profile.
iv) Lateral load tests shall be carried out for estimating the lateral load
capacity of the piles. The test procedure shall be carried out as per
IS 2911 part IV. However the permissible deflection shall be as per
IRC:78.
v) In particular cases where upper part of pile is likely to be exposed later
due to scour, then the capacity contributed by that portion of the pile
during load test, shall be accounted for.

1113.2 Routine Load Tests

Routine load test shall be carried out at actual locations of foundations of bridges to re-confirm
or modify the allowable loads. The lateral load test may be conducted on two adjacent piles.
However, results of routine load tests shall not be used for upward revision of design capacity
of piles. The minimum number of tests to be conducted for confirming the capacity shall be
as per Table 1100-3.

Table 1100-3 : Minimum Number of Tests

Total Number of Piles for the Bridge Minimum Number of Test Piles
Upto 50 2
50-150 3
Beyond 150 2% of total piles (fractional number rounded to
next higher integer number)
Note: The number of tests may be judiciously increased depending upon the variability of
foundation strata. For determining the number of piles to be tested for the routine test
the total no. of piles under all structures of left and right carriageway and the service road
shall be taken together provided length and diameters of the piles are the same.

1113.3 Permissible Overload

While conducting routine test on one of the piles belonging to a pile group, if the pile capacity
is found to be deficient (based on the settlement criteria of 12 mm for piles of diameter up
to and including 600 mm and 2 percent of the pile diameter for piles of diameter more than
600 mm at 1.5 times the design load) an overload up to 10 percent of the capacity may be
allowed.

1113.4 For a quick assessment of pile capacity, strain dynamic tests may be
conducted after establishing co-relation using the results of load tests. However, results of
strain dynamic tests shall not be used for upward revision of design capacity of pile. Detailed
guidelines and references are given in IRC:78. These methods can be followed.

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To have a fairly good idea about the quality of concrete and construction defects like voids,
discontinuities etc., pile integrity tests are extensively conducted. Detailed guidelines in this
connection are given in IRC:78.

1114 PILE CAP

Casting of pile cap should be at a level higher than low water level unless functionally required
to be below low water level. In such cases dewatering shall be resorted to allow concreting
in dry conditions. Pile caps shall be of reinforced concrete. A minimum offset of 150 mm shall
be provided beyond the outer faces of the outermost piles in the group. If the pile cap is in
contact with earth at the bottom, a leveling course of minimum 80 mm thickness of M 15
nominal mix concrete shall be provided. In marine conditions or areas exposed to the action
of harmful chemicals, the pile cap shall be protected with a coating such as bituminous based
coaltar epoxy or epoxy based coating or with suitable anti corrosive paint. Concrete with high
alumina cement, shall not be used in marine environment.

The attachment of the pile head to the cap shall be adequate for the transmission of loads and
forces. A portion of pile top may be stripped of concrete and the reinforcement anchored into
the cap. Manual chipping may be permitted three days after casting of pile, while pneumatic
tools for chipping shall be permitted only seven days after casting of pile. The top of pile after
stripping shall project at least 50 mm into the pile cap.

The top of concrete in a pile shall be brought above cut-off level to permit removal of all
laitance and weak concrete before pile cap is laid. This will ensure good concrete at the cut-
off level.

1115 IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS, INSPECTION/PRECAUTIONS FOR

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PILES

1115.1 Driven Cast In-Situ Piles

1115.1.1 Specialist literature and the guidelines from the pile construction industry
shall be consulted regarding the method of installation, equipment and accessories for pile
driving and recording of data.

1115.1.2 During installation of piles, the final “set” of penetration of pile per blow of
hammer shall be checked taking an average of last 10 blows.

1115.1.3 The pile shoes which may be of either cast iron conical type or mild steel
flat type shall have double reams for proper seating of the removable casing tube inside the
space between the reams.

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1115.1.4 Before commencement of pouring of concrete, it shall be ensured that there

is no ingress of water in the casing tube from the bottom. Further, adequate control during
withdrawal of the casing tube is essential so as to maintain sufficient head of concrete inside
the casing tube at all stages of withdrawal.

1115.1.5 Concrete in piles shall be cast up to a minimum height of 600 mm above the
designed top level of pile, which shall be stripped off at the time of construction of pile cap.

1115.2 Bored Cast In-Situ Piles

1115.2.1 While concreting uncased piles, voids in concrete shall be avoided and
sufficient head of concrete is to be maintained to prevent inflow of soil or water into the
concrete. It is also necessary to take precautions during concreting to minimize the softening
of the soil by excess water. Uncased cast in-situ piles shall not be allowed where mudflow
conditions exist.

1115.2.2 The drilling mud such as bentonite suspension shall be maintained at a

level sufficiently above the surrounding ground water level throughout the boring process, to
ensure the stability of the strata which is being penetrated until the pile has been concreted.

1115.2.3 Where bentonite suspension is used to maintain the stability of the borehole,
it is essential that the properties of the material be carefully controlled at stages of mixing,
supply to the borehole and immediately before concrete is placed. It is usual to limit :

i) The density of bentonite suspension to 1.05 g/cc

ii) The marsh cone viscosity between 30 and 40
iii) The pH value between 9.5 and 12
iv) The silt content less than 1 percent
v) The liquid limit of bentonite not less than 400 percent

These aspects shall act as controlling factors for preventing contamination of bentonite slurry
for clay and silt.

1115.2.4 The bores shall be washed by bentonite flushing to ensure clean bottom at
two stages viz. after completion of boring and prior to concreting after placing of reinforcement
cage. Flushing of bentonite shall be done continuously with fresh bentonite slurry till the
consistency of inflowing and outflowing slurry is similar.

1115.2.5 For concreting of piles using tremie, Clause 1107 of these Specifications
may be referred.

1115.2.6 For very long or large diameter piles, use of retarding plasticizer in concrete
is desirable.

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1115.2.7 For large diameter piles, it may be essential to conduct non-destructive pile
integrity tests to evaluate integrity of the pile.

1115.2.8 Where possible, it may be desirable to grout the base of pile with cement
slurry under suitable pressure after concrete in the pile attains the desired strength. For this
purpose, conduit pipes with easily removable plugs at the bottom end, should be placed in
the bore along with reinforcement cage before concreting.

1116 TOLERANCES
1116.1 Permissible Tolerances for Piles

i) Precast Concrete Piles:

a) Variation in cross-sectional dimensions : ± 5 mm
b) Variation in length : ± 25 mm
c) Surface irregularities measured with 3 m : 5 mm
straight edge
d) Bow for total length of pile in mm 1 mm/m length of pile limited
to 20 mm
ii) Driven Piles
a) Variation in cross-sectional dimensions : +50 mm, -10 mm
b) Variation from vertical for vertical piles : 1 in 150
c) For vertical piles deviation at piling platform : 75 mm
level
d) Variation of level of top of piles : ± 25 mm

iii) Bored Piles

a) Variation in cross-sectional dimensions : +50 mm, -10 mm
b) Variation from vertical for vertical piles 1 in 150
c) For vertical piles deviation at piling platform : 75 mm
level
d) Variation of level of top of piles : ± 25 mm

iv) For raker piles from specified rake : 1 in 25

1116.2 Permissible Tolerances for Pile Caps

a) Variation in dimensions : +50 mm, -10 mm
b) Misplacement from specified
position in plan : 15 mm
c) Surface irregularities measured : 5 mm with 3 m straight edge
d) Variation of level of top of piles : ± 25 mm
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1117 TESTS AND STANDARDS OF ACCEPTANCE

The materials shall be tested in accordance with these Specifications and shall meet the
prescribed criteria and requirements.

The work shall conform to these Specifications and shall meet the prescribed standards of
acceptance.

1118 MEASUREMENTS FOR PAYMENT

For supply of precast concrete, timber or steel piles of specified cross-section, the measurement
shall be in metres of the length of piles ordered in writing by the Engineer measured from the
head to the butt of the shoe or the tapered point. Reinforcement in precast concrete piles
shall not be measured for payment.

For cast in-situ driven and bored concrete piles of specified cross-section, the measurement
shall be the length in metres of the accepted pile that remains in the finished structure
complete in place. Reinforcement in cast in-situ driven and bored concrete piles shall be
measured for payment as per Section 1600 of these Specifications.

Routine and Initial Pile Load Tests shall not be measured for payment.

For installation of the pile, i.e. by drilling in the case of precast concrete, timber, steel and cast
in-situ driven piles, and by boring in the case of cast in-situ bored pile the measurement shall
be the length in metres that remains in the finished structure complete in place, limited to that
shown on drawings or ordered by the Engineer. No distinction shall be made for penetration
through hard strata or rock and socketing into rock.

For steel liners/casing shown on the drawings to be permanently left in place, the measurement
shall be by weight in tonnes that remains in the finished structure complete in place, limited
to that shown on drawings or ordered by the Engineer.

For the pile cap, the quantity of concrete shall be measured in cubic metres as per
Section 1700 of these Specifications and reinforcement in pile cap shall be measured in
tonnes as per Section 1600 of these Specifications.

1119 RATE

The contract unit rate for supplying precast concrete, timber or steel piles shall include cost
of all labour, materials, tools and equipment, and other work involved in making or fabricating
the pile complete as shown on the drawing, and where required its loading, transport,
delivery to site, unloading and stacking at the place indicated by the Engineer. The cost
of reinforcement including treatment as per Section 1600 of these Specifications in precast

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concrete shall be deemed to be included in the quoted rate for supply of piles. The contract
unit rate shall also include costs of all labour, materials, equipments and all other incidentals
involved in conducting routine and initial pile load tests, including installation of piles for initial
load tests.

The contract unit rate for cast in-situ driven and bored piles shall include the cost of concrete
and all other items as per Section 1700 of these Specifications. The contract unit rate shall
also include costs of all labour, materials, equipments and all other incidentals involved
in conducting routine and initial pile load tests, including installation of piles for initial load
tests.

The contract unit rate for reinforcement in cast in-situ driven and bored piles shall be as per
Section 1600 of these Specifications.

The contract unit rate for installation of piles shall include full compensation for furnishing
all labour, materials, tools and equipment, and incidentals for doing all the works involved
in driving timber, precast concrete and steel piles, driving or making bores for cast in-situ
driven and bored concrete piles, cutting off pile heads, all complete in place to the specified
penetration of piles. Providing temporary liner/casing and its withdrawal and placing
reinforcement in position shall also be deemed to be included in the rate for installation of
piles and no additional payment shall be made for the same.

The contract unit rate for permanent steel liners shall include cost of all labour, fabrication,
treatment to the liner and placing the steel liner to the required depth as shown on the
drawings and as ordered by the Engineer.

The contract unit rate for concrete in pile cap shall cover all costs of labour, materials, tools,
plant and equipment, formwork and staging including placing in position, sampling and testing
and all as per Section 1700 of these Specifications . Unit rate quoted shall also include the
treatment to be given to the surfaces of the pile cap. Reinforcement in the pile cap shall be
paid for separately as per Section 1600 of these Specifications.

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