Improving Learning Outcomes: Implementation of Problem-based Learning

in TVET Systems of Nigerian Higher Education

Authors:
Okolie, U. C., Elom, E. N., Igwe, P. A., Binuomote, M. O., Nwajiuba, C. A., and Igu, N. (2020). Higher
Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning. Accepted 26th January 2020. Published by Emerald.

Abstract
Purpose - This study explores how the implementation of problem-based learning (PBL) in
technical and vocational education training (TVET) systems of Nigerian higher education (HE)
can enhance quality graduate outcomes. The study also explores the issues and challenges of
PBL implementation in the TVET system of Nigerian HE.
Design/methodology/approach - This study follows the assumptions of qualitative research. We
interviewed 55 participants and had a focus group with 7 TVET postgraduate students. The 55
interviewees were drawn from TVET teachers (n =33; 24 males and 9 females), Directors at
National Board for Technical Education (n=4; 3 males and 1 female), Directors of National
Directorate of Employment (n=5; 3 males and 2 females), Directors at the Federal Ministry of
Education (n=3 males), and Industry executives (n=10; 7 males and 3 females). Data were
collected through a semi-structured interview approach, transcribed and coded using Nvivo 12
plus, and analyzed through thematic analysis.

Findings - The results show that PBL in the Nigerian TVET system has positive implications for
quality TVET graduate outcomes in that it can enable integrating theory and practice, motivate
learning, improve students' self-efficacy, allow students to construct learning on their own,
enhance graduate competencies and graduate employability. It also revealed six perceived
possible major challenges to effective implementation of PBL in the Nigerian TVET system
which includes inadequacy of teaching and learning facilities; corruption in Nigerian education
sector; recruitment of unqualified incompetent TVET teachers; difficulties identifying real-life
problems among others. Participants offered benchmarks, and actions and standards for
improving the identified challenges, which formed a framework for coping with issues,
challenges, and barriers to effective implementation of PBL in the TVET system of Nigerian HE
(Table 1).

Originality/Value - The results of this study are original and serve as an advocacy for Nigerian
HE authorities to explore how PBL can be implemented in the TVET system to improve
graduate outcomes. The study serves as a starting point for more research in the domain of
improving the quality of TVET programmes in Nigerian HE. Industry leaders and policymakers
in Nigeria and other developing countries could use the findings from this study to increase HE
and industry participation and partnership for quality of TVET programme.

Keywords: TVET, Pedagogy, Cognitive Learning, Problem-based Learning

Introduction
In Nigeria, technical and vocational education training (TVET) is offered at the upper secondary
and tertiary education levels to train learners in applied sciences, technology, and commerce,
particularly at sub-professional levels (Okolie, Igwe and Elom, 2019). It aims to equip learners
with the technical skills required for industrial and social development (Ansah and Kissi, 2013).
According to Seyi (2014), at upper secondary level, TVET subjects include; local crafts,
computer education, applied electricity, book-keeping and accounting, building construction,
auto mechanics, commerce, electronics repairs, clothing and textiles, food and nutrition, painting
and decoration, carpentry and joinery, home management, metalwork and fabrication, technical
drawing, shorthand, typewriting, and fine art. These subjects prepare learners either for further
studies in higher education (HE) institutions or to set up small businesses to earn livelihoods and
possibly train others. However, at the tertiary or HE level, TVET areas of specialization include
agricultural education, business education, home economics, fine and applied arts, woodwork
technology, building technology, electrical/ electronics technology, and mechanical/ metal works
technology.

These areas of specialization are studied from Bachelors to PhD degrees in the Nigerian HE
system (Ayonmike, 2015; Okolie, Igwe and Elom, 2019). Masters and PhD holders in TVET are
usually recruited in Colleges of Education (Technical) and Universities to teach TVET students
on the theoretical aspects of the programme, while the Bachelor's degree holders are employed as
technologists in the TVET departments to train students on essential technical skills. Overall,
TVET training in Nigeria leads to the production of crafts-trainers, technical college teachers,
technicians and other skilled people that can be enterprising and self-reliant . Masters and PhD
holders that are unable to get teaching positions in the HE institutions can open apprenticeship
centres where people can be trained to acquire technical skills informally. In this study, the focus
is on TVET in Nigerian HE system.

TVET has deep roots in the USA and Dutch school system which pays attention to "high
standards in mathematics and provision of vocational education at ages 14-16 for a third of all
pupils, and comprehensive vocational education at 16 + (van Ark, 1992). With an emphasis on
career and technical education, the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction
(n.d) defined TVET “as a planned programme of courses and learning experiences that begins
with exploration of career options, supports basic academic and life skills, and enables
achievement of high academic standards, leadership, preparation for industry-defined work, and
advanced and continuing education.” The national policy on education of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria (2004) defined TVET as an education programme that involves general education, the
study of technologies, sciences, and acquisition of saleable skills, attitudes, understanding, and
knowledge about occupations in various sectors of the economy. For clarity, this study adopts the
OECD’s (2010: 149) definition of TVET as an education programme that “can have a major
impact on economic competitiveness, by helping to produce qualified workers whose skills are
relevant to the labour market, preparing the younger generation for work and developing the
skills of older workers.” However, in some advanced countries like Germany, there is a strong
emphasis on a dual system of TVET (a combination of school-based training with work-based
training), which is also regulated and supervised by trade unions and employers (Deissinger,
2015). In developing countries like India, secondary (high) schools have vocational centres that
offer vocational training for lifelong learning together with general academic studies (Kumar et
al., 2019).

Objective of the Study

The major rationale underlying TVET is to produce graduates who are work-ready by
developing relevant knowledge and skills and to encourage training in essential real-world skill
sets such as critical thinking, problem-solving, communication and lifelong learning (Jabarullah
and Hussain, 2019). Jabarullah and Hussain (2019: 554) further explained that “TVET is more
hands-on and practical, with a greater emphasis on applied knowledge of underlying theory to
specific subjects.” This implies that TVET should be more practice-based than theory-based.
However, in Nigeria, this appears to be different as the TVET curriculum allows over 67%
theory and 33% practical lessons (see, e.g., Eze, 2013; Momoh, 2012; Ojimba, 2012; Okolie,
2014; Okoye and Arimonu, 2016). We, therefore, argue that the percentage allotted for TVET
practical lessons may not be adequate for learners to acquire the saleable skills needed to be
work-ready. Several studies have pointed out that TVET learners in Nigerian HE system are
over-loaded with more theoretical lessons as a result of the predominant use of the traditional
teaching methods, instead of more practical lessons that allow learners to construct learning
leading to skills mastery (Akombi, 2005; Okolie, Igwe and Elom, 2019). We also argue that for
TVET to effectively achieve its objectives in Nigerian HE system; there should be a paradigm
shift from predominant traditional teaching methods to other innovative teaching methods like
problem-based learning (PBL) that can allow learners to construct learning on their own, and be
able to proffer solutions to real-life identified problems (Gwee, 2009).

Many studies have argued that TVET in Nigerian HE system lack focus and quality due to low-
quality teaching and learning practices (see, e.g., Momoh, 2012; Ojimba, 2012; Okolie, 2014;
Okoye and Arimonu, 2016). “TVET would fail to generate qualified skilled workers,
necessitating industries to invest in in-house training or take the risk of hiring unskilled workers,
liable for producing low-quality products.” (UNESCO-UNEVOC (2012: 7). The British Council
of Nigeria (2010) expressed concerns about the ability of Nigeria’s HE institutions to produce
quality and skilled graduates due to low-quality teaching, and that the crisis in the job market
will worsen as growing numbers of unskilled HE graduates enter the labour market. Many
researchers have found that the majority of TVET graduates are not employable and do not
possess the competence to be gainful or self- employed (e.g., Okolie, Igwe and Elom, 2019).
While many scholars have blamed this challenge on the academic system inherited from the
colonial master, others have blamed the TVET curriculum, the teachers’ quality and methods of
TVET delivery in Nigerian HE institutions (see, e.g. Ayonmike, 2015; Okoye and Okwelle,
2013; Oviawe et al., 2017). To address low skills acquisition and incompetence of TVET
graduates, which have attracted the attention of employers and government in Nigeria, this study
argues that a better TVET teaching methods, that allow deep learning and specific skills mastery
is imperative. It proposes the implementation of a problem-based learning approach in TVET
delivery in Nigerian HE system for improving graduate outcomes.

An extensive search in the literature for studies on how PBL can be used to improve the TVET
programme in Nigerian HE system yielded no significant results. It is on this backdrop that this
study intends to explore how the implementation of PBL in TVET system of Nigerian HE
institutions can improve quality graduate outcomes. The study is timely and can be a starting
point for research in the domain of improving the quality of TVET in Nigerian HE institutions.
The study is motivated by a need to learn how the implementation of an innovative teaching
approach like PBL can enhance the quality of TVET learning in Nigerian HE system. Our study
is built on the rationale that PBL promotes cognitive development and deep learning that in turn
enhances performance through interaction with peers, teachers, and the environment (McPaland
et al., 2004).

Problem-based Learning (PBL)

PBL is an instructional approach designed to enhance deep learning in which collaborative group
work is often used (Delaney et al., 2015). It is a pedagogical approach introduced in the medical
education decades ago in the US and other developed countries’ medical schools, to provide
learners the opportunity to work collaboratively and develop the ability to learn under their own
direction. PBL is an active learning strategy that encourages students to think of problem causes,
and how to solve the problems using innovative approaches (Gwee, 2009). It also allows work
collaboratively and promotes a student-centered approach. PBL is also an instructional approach
that helps teachers facilitate and stimulate students in asking questions to themselves for deep
learning at their own pace (Barrows, 2002). Based on the adopted definitions of PBL, it may
suffice to say that the PBL approach can contribute to improving self-efficacy, concomitant deep
learning behaviour, inhibit surface learning, improve fast mastery of specific skills by observing
group members (Jabarullah and Hussain, 2019). The TVET system in Nigerian HE may benefit
from a PBL approach if adopted and well-implemented for quality graduate outcomes.

Challenges to effective implementation of PBL

Despite the perceived positive impacts or advantages of the PBL approach, it, however, has some
challenges and barriers to its effective implementation. Hallinger and Lu (2011); Gorghiu et al.,
(2015) and Summers and Dickinson (2012) found some of the challenges and barriers to
effective implementation of PBL, which include that; (i) it requires a higher degree of
professionalism and deep content knowledge from the teachers; (ii) it requires more efforts from
the students and the teacher; (iii) the assignments completion can be time-consuming; (iv) the
management of the class is complex than the normal traditional teaching method; (v) the teacher
needs to adequately guide the students in a way that may not inhibit inquiry; (vi) some students
may be uncomfortable in a classroom with a PBL approach than in a traditional classroom.
Hallinger and Lu (2011: 282) found that there may be doubt about the acclaimed educational
outcomes of PBL, thereby causing anxiety that the outcomes of PBL may not be very tangible.
Also, another challenge could be a disruption of the usual and comfortable teaching methods as
well as fear of change of teaching method. Another challenge can be institutional consistency in
the use of PBL in Nigerian HE system having predominantly used the traditional teacher-
centered approach. Khairiyah et al., (2010) found that the quality assurance system within most
institutions affects the effective implementation of PBL. Liuzzi (2011) found that one of the
major challenges of implementing PBL approach in an institution is the required space for
conducting the PBL lessons. Other researchers identified student factors, resources and teaching
conception of the HE teachers as major challenges or barriers that affect the implementation of
PBL (e.g. AlBuali and Khan, 2018). Lim (2012) found that another challenge to the
implementation of PBL is that it requires more time, expertise and commitment, which may
require constant training and retraining of HE teachers to achieve. Specifically, we asked the
following questions:

RQ1: How can PBL be implemented in TVET system of Nigerian HE for quality graduate
outcomes?
RQ2: What are the issues, challenges, and barriers to effective implementation of PBL in TVET
system of Nigerian HE?

Theoretical Framework
TVET requires an effective delivery method that allows learners to construct knowledge on their
own, therefore, adopting and implementing an innovative teaching strategy such as PBL is
recommended. The PBL is a constructivist approach that emphasizes inquiry-based active
learning that takes place through collaborative group interaction and results in valuable
outcomes, meaningful for learners and society (Alt, 2015). It enhances the development of work-
related skills by offering students the opportunity to integrate theory and practice. As a learning
model promoted by William Heard Kilpatrick and John Dewey, PBL was first practiced in the
medical school of McMaster University Faculty of Health Sciences, Canada, in the 1960s under
the coordination of Howard S. Barrows (Gwee, 2009). The school used the new and innovative
teaching approach (PBL) for its students, which has been in use globally currently (Moskovsky
et al., 2013). Since the introduction of PBL into the academic process, it has become an
important educational approach that is based on student-centered learning, experience-based
learning, activity-based learning, interdisciplinary learning, a focus on practical examples, and
collaborative group learning. This form of teaching approach may be highly useful in Nigerian
TVET system if adopted and implemented effectively by the TVET teachers. Savin-Baden and
Major (2004) explained that PBL is an educational strategy, philosophy or an approach to
teaching that emphasizes the development of skills and students’ motivation to become life-long
learners. It has some important advantages in teaching, which include (i) motivating students to
be responsible for learning, (ii) helping students to develop understanding and knowledge in an
integrative way, and acquiring knowledge that is sustainable over a lifetime, (iii) helping
students to gain skills to communicate through problem-solving, and experiencing diverse
learning tasks (Gwee, 2009; Holm, 2011; Moskovsky et al., 2013).

As an educational approach, PBL takes into account the multifaceted nature of learning and
encourages practical experiments (Savin-Baden and Major, 2004). It creates a learning
environment where “inquiry activates self-directed learning, information mining, dialogue and
collaborative problem-solving can be incorporated in an educational programme to enrich
student learning experience” (Stanley and Marsden, 2012: 286). Through the PBL approach,
students can explore and converse fresh ideas in a group, tell each other about their plans, which
encourages learning (Pease and Kuhn, 2011). PBL supports self-efficacy and offers learners
information about their capabilities based on assessment and reflection on the results gotten
(Loyens et al., 2008; Holmes and Hwang, 2016). As a constructivist approach, PBL involves
observing others which encourage learners to develop relevant skills and to be knowledgeable.
This approach motivates learners to master saleable skills that may not be acquired through the
traditional teacher-centered approach where students sit for hours to listen to several theory-
based lectures, as mostly practiced in the TVET system of Nigerian HE. Based on the literature
review, we, therefore, argue that implementing PBL in Nigerian TVET system may enhance
effective instructional delivery and allow learners to construct learning while teachers act as
moderators.

To plan the PBL programme, teachers have to design problems that are not directed to predictive
answers but can trigger an in-depth research process of multifaceted topics to learners. This
implies that Nigerian TVET teachers have to create quality methods of assessment and activities
planning to ensure quality learning outcomes. PBL in Nigerian TVET system may support a
pedagogical approach and curriculum design method that can encourage TVET learners to think
of problem causes, and how to solve identified problems. This is because, it allows teachers to
act as facilitators of collaborative learning, and offer learners opportunities to determine what to
learn by using a student-centered approach (Barrows, 2002; Trampusch, 2014). Since a thorough
search in the literature shows a lack of empirical evidence on how the implementation of PBL in
Nigerian TVET system could enhance quality learning outcomes, this study makes a significant
contribution to the knowledge of the TVET system in Nigeria and possibly to other developing
countries. It also contributes to answering calls for research and initiative to find better ways of
improving the quality of TVET graduates.

Methodology/ Research Design

In this study, 'interpretivism’ is used as a philosophical standpoint that enables participant’s
perspectives, and provides them with an opportunity to narrate their experiences (Guest et al.,
2012). Having considered the research objective based on the literature standpoint, we decided to
use a qualitative approach to explore the subject of study and to capture comprehensive and rich
information (Ary et al., 2010). The qualitative research approach allowed participants to share
insights, views and personal experiences (Rolfe, 2006), about how PBL in the TVET system of
Nigerian HE could be implemented to enhance effective TVET delivery and improve quality
graduate outcomes. The study participants were drawn from 15 public universities that offer
TVET programme from Bachelors to PhD degrees, and the public universities are within the six
geo-political zones of Nigeria.

The procedures for data collection are as follows: at first, we identified TVET teachers,
administrators, and TVET programme designers through the National Association of Technical
Teachers (NATT) annual conference proceeding, which usually comes with presenters’ contacts
(phone and email). The NATT conferences usually have in attendance TVET teachers mostly in
HE institutions, policymakers, industry experts, TVET fresh graduates and TVET postgraduate
students across Nigeria. The NATT conference is the biggest TVET gathering in Nigeria that is
usually organized once every year. Through NATT’s conference proceedings, which include
presenters’ affiliations, mobile, and email contacts, we got contacts from many TVET teachers,
directors working with the National Board for Technical Education, the National Directorate of
Employment, the Ministry of Education, industry executives and TVET administrators. We also
approached TVET postgraduate students from five universities within the southeastern part of
Nigeria. The postgraduate students were approached in their respective institutions during
Masters’ and PhD thesis defenses. Those that declared interest in the study shared their contacts
(email and phone) with us.

Second, we sent an email and WhatsApp invitation letters together with research participation
consent forms to a total of 294 contacts we harnessed from NATT conference proceedings and
the TVET postgraduate students. The invitation letter introduced the researchers, explained our
research intentions, how we got their contacts and then asked for their interest to participate in
the study. The research invitation letter also has a section for a research consent form, which
asked participants to provide brief personal information such as age, sex, educational
qualifications and years of work experience. They were assured of anonymity and that they can
decline their interest in participating in the study at any time. Within 60 days, we sent several
emails and WhatsApp message reminders to the 294 contacts. The motive for sending reminders
was for interested participants to indicate their interest in participating in the study. The process
enabled the achievement of 97 (32.99%) responses (86 participants from NATT and 11 TVET
postgraduates) that indicated an interest in participating in the study. However, to ensure that
only qualified and experienced participants were selected for this study, we adopted an
elimination process.

Through the elimination process, 31 intending participants who have below ten years of work
experience were disqualified, while 55 intending participants who have ten years of work
experience and above were allowed to participate freely in the study. The intending participants
with less than 10 years of work experience were disqualified based on the notion that people with
fewer years of work experience may not have gained sufficient experience in the field to offer
meaningful contributions. The 55 participants are drawn from TVET teachers (n =33; 24 males
and 9 females), Directors at National Board for Technical Education (DNBTE) (n=4; 3 males
and 1 female), Directors of National Directorate of Employment (DNDE) (n=5; 3 males and 2
females), Directors at the Federal Ministry of Education (DFME) (n=3 males), and Industry
executives (IE) (n=10; 7 males and 3 females). The participants are between the ages ranges of
39 to 63 years. On the other hand, the TVET postgraduate students were particularly invited for a
focus group, in order words, they did not participate in interviews. It was easier to bring them
together for the focus group since they are selected from public universities within the south-
eastern region of Nigeria. Through purposeful sampling (Palinkas et al., 2015), we selected 7 out
of the 11 TVET postgraduates who indicated an interest in participating in this study. The 7
selected TVET postgraduates comprise 6 males and a female between the ages of 29 to 43 years.
The students consist of 3 Master's degree and 4 PhD candidates in TVET departments of their
respective public universities. We considered only the postgraduate students with the notion that
they have completed the TVET undergraduate programme and can confidently offer useful
information regarding TVET teaching and how it may be improved using other teaching
approaches.

Data Collection and analysis

Interviews and the focus group gave us opportunities to explore, in an in-depth manner, issues
that are unique to the experiences of participants. It allowed us to gain insights into how different
phenomena of interest are experienced and perceived. A greater number of participants (58.18%)
were interviewed face-to-face. Also, 29.37% of the participants were interviewed through phone
calls, while 12.45% were interviewed through WhatsApp calls. The motive for using the three
different methods during the interviews was to allow participants the freedom to express
themselves. Participants who were too busy for a face-to-face interview were interviewed
through other methods. Also, the majority of the participants who live and work in the far
Northern part of Nigeria were interviewed through phone and WhatsApp calls. Despite the three
methods adopted during the interviews, we ensured that the same questions were asked the
participants. For the face-to-face interviews, we spent a minimum of 34 minutes and a maximum
of 49 minutes. For WhatsApp and Phone interviews, we spent a minimum of 28 minutes and a
maximum of 39 minutes. However, the time variations do not affect the quality of interviews
conducted as the interviewer maintained a focus on getting in-depth rich information from the
interviewees. For the focus group, we assembled the 7 TVET postgraduates in a convenient
location approved by all of them to ensure a smooth discussion of the subject of study. The focus
group lasted 57 minutes and participants were made to have a deep reflection on issues that have
profound meaning.

We encouraged participants to choose a convenient time for the interviews and the focus group.
The interviews and the focus group were conducted strictly on the participants’ approval and
convenience (Seidman, 2013). The interview places and focus group locations were free of noise
and disruptions. The interviews and focus group started with easy questions that made the
interviewees and focus group participants comfortable and familiarize with the subject of the
interview (Lingard and Kennedy, 2010). A few examples of questions that the moderator asked
the participants include: Please can you tell me, what do you understand about PBL? How have
you applied PBL in teaching TVET courses in your institution? Further, into the interviews,
participants were asked questions like: From your experiences, do you feel that the use of PBL in
the Nigerian TVET system can improve TVET students' self-efficacy and quality learning
outcomes? How can implementing PBL in TVET system of Nigerian HE improve students’
attitudes to meaningful learning, self-efficacy and foster the development of saleable skills?

Data were collected through a semi-structured approach seeking answers to the study's specific
research questions. To facilitate triangulation, data from the focus group discussion was used to
validate responses from the face-to-face, WhatsApp and Phone interviews and to explore more
in-depth the themes that emerged from the qualitative research approach (Creswell, 2013). Every
interview and focus group discussion were recorded electronically and converted into writing for
analysis. We ensured that data were transcribed verbatim- a time-consuming process. We started
the process as soon as after completing the interviews and focus group. This enabled us to
identify analytical structures, similarities, and differences between different responses (McGrath
et al, 2019). The interview transcripts were coded using axial coding to enable the break down of
core themes and relating codes (categories and concepts) (Blair, 2015). Data were analyzed
thematically using NVivo version 12 plus - a qualitative analysis programme developed by the
QSR to node responses of participants into themes based on the key research questions that guide
this study. To avoid bias and ensure confidentiality, the interviewers were not involved in coding
of the transcripts. Two coders with no prior knowledge of the study were employed to code the
interview transcript to ensure intercoder reliability (see, e.g. Gibbert et al., 2008; Floersch et al.,
2010).

Findings
The findings of this study provide suggestions on how implementing PBL approach in TVET
could improve quality learning outcomes in Nigerian HE system. The results of the analysis
focused on three key themes: (i) identifying learning outcomes, (ii) adequate training and
retraining of Nigerian TVET teachers, (iii) issues, challenges and barriers to effective
implementation of PBL.
Identifying Learning Outcomes
Reflecting earlier discussion about the constructivist approach that emphasizes inquiry-based
active learning that takes place through collaborative group interaction, participants certainly felt
that adopting and effectively implementing PBL in TVET system of Nigerian HE is essential in
helping students develop relevant skills required to compete with the world of work upon
graduation. Participants suggested that despite the perceived cost implication and resource-
intensive nature of PBL, all Nigerian HE institutions should work towards adopting PBL for
improving graduate outcomes in their TVET departments. Participants advised that adopting
PBL approach in Nigerian TVET system can improve attitudes and orientation of learners:

I am convinced that effective implementation of PBL in Nigerian higher education

TVET system will help learners enormously. You see…I must say that adopting a
problem-based learning approach requires an assessment of the current TVET
courses to ensure that they in line with the demand of the employers (TVET Teacher -
09).

Participants suggest that for effective implementation of PBL in the Nigerian TVET system, the
traditional teaching method, which is mainly lecture-based instructional delivery, should be used
minimally. They appeared to agree that teacher-centered education predominantly used in
Nigerian TVET system promotes memorizing of learning, and therefore, may not adequately
allow TVET learners to develop relevant skills for work-ready:
[…] to implement problem-based learning in Nigerian TVET system, we must promote
student-centered learning which can’t be achieved through our usual traditional
teaching method (TVET Teacher- 05).

There seemed to be a suggestion from participants about a functional measure for assessing
learning outcomes of the Nigerian TVET graduates:

I think…we should develop formative and summative assessments to measure TVET

learners’ learning abilities (TVET postgraduate - 05).

The participants reflected on how else the Nigerian HE can implement PBL in TVET system for
quality graduate outcomes, they recommended the need for a significant change in the mindset of
teachers and students about the TVET programme in Nigeria as well as the pattern of learning:

To effectively implement problem-based learning in Nigerian higher education TVET

system, the graduation of TVET students should no longer be based on written theory-
based examination and theses, rather through evidence of technical skills mastery
achievable through PBL approach (TVET Teacher -11)

As participants pointed out, the traditional methods of TVET delivery in Nigeria only allow
learners to perform well mostly during coursework and written examinations. However, the
performance of TVET learners in coursework and written examinations, as participants noted,
cannot be a quality evaluation method for determining the exact level of the students' knowledge
and skills mastery:

I mainly use the traditional teaching method due to the system we currently operate
[Laughing]. Many of us can do better if the university management can encourage
practice-based learning, problem-based learning and out of classroom learning
(TVET teacher-13).

This particular participant appears to blame the over-dependence on traditional teaching methods
which many participants have described as passive, on the management’s inability to play their
part in terms of designing problem-based learning TVET curriculum which will not allot more
time to theories than practical exercises:

…our students will be better equipped if exposed to real-life problems through effective
implementation of problem-based learning. But, the higher education management/
authorities should take the lead (DNBTE -3).

Participants pointed out that some TVET teachers who were trained abroad where PBL approach
is in use understand the importance and benefits of PBL approach and they occasionally practice
it. They advised that other TVET teachers that have been trained to use PBL approach should
endeavour to apply it during TVET delivery whether encouraged by the institution authority or
not:
I occasionally apply a problem-based learning approach when teaching my students, but
it is very stressful…I must confess that it requires adequate planning. I also notice that it
is time-consuming and could be financially demanding. Overall, it is innovative and
enhances quality learning outcomes (TVET Teacher - 02).

Participants seemed particularly reassured that PBL in TVET can help to reduce over-theorizing
the TVET programme in Nigerian HE system:

We received more theoretical lessons during my undergraduate programme.

Implementing the problem-based learning approach could help to offer more practical
experiential learning than what is currently obtainable in Nigerian TVET system (TVET
Postgraduate 03).

The majority of the participants decries the over-dependence on lecture method of teaching in
TVET delivery and encouraged TVET teachers that have been trained abroad on the use of PBL
approach to embed PBL scenarios in their lesson planning to encourage students to practice deep
learning:

…I think that this is a step we've missed a very long time ago but I am happy that this
idea is being proposed by this study. This can serve as a starting point for further studies
in this matter (DNDE-02).

Drawing on the participants’ views, we would suggest that Nigerian HE authority should
consider exploring various avenues for implementing PBL in the TVET system for quality
graduate outcomes. This can help to build students’ motivation and interest through creating
scenarios to generate quality discussions, brainstorming and deep learning which improves
quality learning outcomes. Participants proposed an improved TVET system in Nigeria,
advocating continuous training and retraining of teachers to ensure that TVET learners meet the
demand of the modern labour market. The majority of the participants insist that though they
have not practiced PBL in TVET delivery, implementing PBL in the TVET programme of
Nigerian HE system can improve students' attitudes toward learning technical skills. It can
improve students' competencies by allowing them to construct learning, and learn at their pace
while the teachers act as coaches instead of enforcers of knowledge. Participants noted that
implementing PBL in Nigerian TVET system can allow learners to be highly involved in
learning which can foster the development of life-skills. Analysis shows that PBL can help
Nigerian TVET students to ask problem-solving questions, search for pertinent information,
conduct researches, collect relevant data, think critically for data analysis, discuss and share
ideas with like-mind colleagues, and make informed decisions. These findings corroborate the
conclusion in the literature review (e.g. AlBuali and Khan, 2018; Jabarullah and Hussain, 2019;
Gwee, 2009).

Adequate training and retraining of Nigerian TVET teachers

Participants noted that implementing PBL in TVET system of Nigerian HE can help in
improving the self-efficacy of graduates. However, they assert that to help TVET students boost
their self-efficacy, teachers' competencies and ability to motivate students are imperative.
Participants pointed out that this could be achieved through the provision of continuous training
and retraining of TVET teachers by the HE management:

…to effectively implement problem-based learning, I feel that we need adequate training
and retraining. This can help us learn how to identify real-life problems for the students
to work in (TVET Teacher - 06).

This particular participant draws out the importance of using innovative teaching approaches that
can expose TVET learners to peer discussions, teamwork and collaborations for quality graduate
outcomes. Participants pointed to revising TVET curriculum in order to include PBL activities:

[…] I encourage the Nigerian higher education authorities to call for an overall revision
of the Nigerian TVET curriculum. Through this process, activities that support the use of
PBL can be included in the curriculum to promote a student-centered method of TVET
delivery (IE -04).

Some participants suggested including more innovative learning activities to improve the
Nigerian TVET system:

Perhaps Nigerian universities offering TVET programmes should encourage work-based

and apprenticeship-based TVET degrees rather than full-time classroom-based TVET
degrees (IE -02).

Participants noted that implementing PBL in Nigerian TVET system can help students construct
learning by watching their colleagues succeed at tasks that can reinforce their beliefs in their
abilities and self-efficacy. They pointed out that TVET teachers should be trained to learn how to
give students the freedom to choose a learning pattern:

…by applying a problem-based learning approach, my role as a teacher will be more

innovative and interesting. I can develop my students in several ways…like, improving
their communication skills, analytical skills, problem identification skills among others.
This is so motivating and encouraging (TVET-Teacher - 01).

Participants acknowledged that PBL in Nigerian TVET system can facilitate an instructional
delivery that supports active peer teaching-learning in an open communication style and improve
meaningful learning that leads to quality graduate outcomes:

[…] I have used a problem-based learning approach to tutor TVET students I supervised
during their internship programs in the industry. From personal experiences, I found that
my supervisees developed a higher ability to retain information after solving identified
problems, which promotes lifelong learning (IE - 05).
This particular participant’s expression shows that for effective implementation of PBL in
Nigerian TVET system, teachers develop skills in real-life problem identification, which can be
presented to students for proffering solutions. This can offer students the opportunity to learn
socially, think critically before decision making, and analyze problems carefully before
concluding:

...I feel that effective problem-based learning implementation requires an effective

partnership between industry and TVET departments of Nigerian higher education to
counter the limitations and challenges associated with their usual traditional teaching
approaches (DNDE- 04).

Participants appeared to agree that such establishing an effective relationship between the TVET
system of the Nigerian HE and industry can of benefits in two folds; offering training to the
teachers and improving students’ employability through a transition from school-to-industry:

.... Implementing and adopting a problem-based learning approach in Nigerian TVET

system will enhance the smooth transitioning of TVET graduate from school to labour
market and improve the employability of TVET graduates (IE- 03).

Reflecting on how else PBL in TVET can improve the employability of graduates, one of the
focus group participants narrated an interesting experience about connecting theory to practice
and preparing learners for employment through a PBL approach:

During my six months of compulsory internship in the industry, I was merged with a
group of six TVET students with a seasoned industry-based expert as a supervisor. I
learned many new ideas and developed saleable skills in metal works and fabrication- an
opportunity that I wasn't presented with while in the school. I learned by connecting the
theories I’ve been taught in the classroom with practice through a problem-based
learning approach that my industry-based supervisor adopted (TVET postgraduate -3).
Drawing on the literature and the constructivists’ approach, PBL in Nigerian TVET system
would be dominated by circumstances that make learning easier, such as small-group learning,
independent learning, self-directed learning, collaborative learning and active learning (in
agreement with Holmes and Hwang, 2016; Stanley and Marsden, 2012). It can allow students to
share experiences and knowledge collectively to construct learning. However, it requires
competent TVET teachers who may have undergone adequate training on the use of PBL for
improving teaching. Another important benefit that may be derived from implementing PBL in
Nigerian TVET system is that it can improve functional knowledge, help students to develop
self-assessment skills and competencies. However, as participants suggest, it is important to
create an environment with adequately trained teachers where TVET learners can undertake
critical thinking, research, and practice ‘how to do’ and to solve problems.

Issues, challenges, and barriers to implementation of PBL

In the current study, participants identified perceived possible issues, challenges, and barriers to
effective implementation of PBL in TVET system of Nigerian HE. This theme that made up the
framework for coping the identified perceived possible issues, challenges and barriers, were
extracted from the qualitative data and include inadequacy of teaching and learning facilities;
corruption in Nigerian education sector; recruitment of unqualified incompetent TVET teachers;
difficulties identifying real-life problems; poor training of TVET instructors/ teachers on PBL
approach and current TVET curriculum containing more theoretical lessons than practical
lessons (presented in Table 1).

Table 1: Framework for coping with issues, challenges, and barriers to effective implementation
of PBL in TVET system of Nigerian HE

Perceived issues, Benchmark Proposed actions and standards

challenges, and barriers
Inadequacy of teaching and Adequate learning Inadequacy of teaching and learning facilities
learning facilities facilities for the PBL can be improved…
approach Provision of modern teaching facilities, standard
buildings, adequate digital teaching facilities
Functional well equipped workshops and
laboratories
Constant supply of electricity
Sufficient funding for maintaining the facilities
Corruption in Nigerian Integrate corruption- Corruption in Nigerian education sector can be
education sector prevention components prevented and controlled …
appropriately Strengthening the legal foundations of the
institutions
Building awareness about corruption prevention
Strengthening the code of conduct in the HE
system
Establishing appropriate authority to identify
corruption and make recommendations for
prevention and imposing sanctions
Informing staff regarding their rights and duties
Recruitment of unqualified Potential TVET teachers Recruitment of unqualified incompetent TVET
incompetent TVET teachers display the necessary teachers can be controlled……..
 skills, experiences, and Establishing a functional internship and
education to complete the apprentice programmes in the TVET
task departments to provide competent graduates a
chance to show their competencies
Building industry and education partnership to
enhance recruitment efforts is imperative
Maximizing external recruitment opportunities
Establishing workforce development
programmes with the technical college and
vocational training institutes
Difficulties identifying real- Creatively collaborate, Difficulties identifying real-life problems can be
life problems critically think and enhanced….
effectively communicate Learning to identify issues of popular interest to
identified present and people
future challenges Brainstorming session to identify and analyze
people’s perceptions
Questioning and interviewing people can be of
help
Working in cooperative groups, doing projects,
Using other innovative teaching methods
Poor training of TVET Motivate TVET teachers Poor training of TVET instructors/ teachers on
instructors/ teachers on PBL to build linkages with PBL approach can be enhanced …..
approach industry and strengthen Strengthening TVET teachers in-service
in-service training of education through collaboration with industry
TVET teachers Promoting the continuing professional
development of TVET teachers
Development quality and functional policies and
frameworks for professionalizing TVET
teachers
Providing TVET teachers with opportunities to
access information regarding new technologies
used in industry to enhance suitable teaching
modules
Employing TVET teachers as part-time
employees in industries for up-to-date
information concerning the demand of industry.
Current TVET curriculum TVET Curriculum The curriculum can be improved …..
containing more theoretical redesign Incorporating high-quality research initiatives
lessons than practical Including problem-based and self-directed
lessons learning
Evaluating modules and curriculum content
Cultivating inclusiveness and transparency
Maintaining ethical procedures and values
Including effective feedback, mentoring and
learners support
Ensuring there is a balance between theory,
practical & skills

Linked to the constructivist approach, the proposed actions and standards by the participants can
be relied upon for controlling the challenges and barriers to effective implementation of PBL in
TVET system of Nigerian HE for quality graduate outcomes. Therefore, this study advocates that
PBL be adopted and implemented in the TVET system of Nigerian HE considering proposed
actions and standards to achieve an active learning strategy in Nigerian TVET system. The
students will benefit from student-centered learning, interdisciplinary learning, integration of
theory and practice, collaborating with peers to achieve solutions to identified real-life problems,
and lifelong learning.

Discussion and Conclusion

The findings of this study show that people appear to have natural likeness about learning new
ideas when they are faced with challenges they know little or nothing about. People also
experience situational interest, which enables them to comprehend the information gap between
what they previously know and what they currently intend to know. This situation according to
Barrows and Tamblyn (1980: 142) has been referred to as “cognitively induced experience of
lack of knowledge which initiates knowledge-seeking behaviour and aims to identify the
knowledge gap through integration”. PBL has been identified by participants of this study as a
vital teaching method that can offer Nigerian TVET learners relevant skills mastery, attitudes,
knowledge, and experiences to boost self-efficacy. They, therefore, recommend the effective
implementation of PBL in TVET system of Nigerian HE through revision of TVET curriculum
for the inclusion of PBL activities or programmes for quality graduate outcomes. This study
found that the use of PBL in Nigerian TVET system can contribute significantly to promoting
lifelong learning and employability of Nigerian TVET graduates. It is hoped that the articulated
benefits of implementing PBL can motivate policymakers and TVET curriculum planners in
Nigeria to introduce the teaching approach in Nigerian HE system.

The results of this study reveal some potential issues or challenges to the effective
implementation of PBL in Nigerian TVET system. It identified six perceived possible major
issues and challenges which include but not limited to inadequacy of teaching and learning
facilities; corruption in Nigerian education sector; recruitment of unqualified incompetent TVET
teachers; difficulties identifying real-life problems; poor training of TVET instructors/ teachers
on PBL approach and current TVET curriculum containing more theoretical lessons than
practical lessons. Participants offered benchmarks and actions and standards for improving the
challenges of implementing PBL in the TVET system of Nigerian HE. This formed a framework
for coping with issues, challenges, and barriers to effective implementation of PBL in TVET
system of Nigerian HE (Table 1). This is important in that the majority of the TVET teachers are
used to the traditional teaching methods which offer TVET learners more theoretical lessons
instead of more practice-based lessons that facilitate student-centered learning.

The successful implementation of PBL in Nigerian TVET system will mostly depend on
teachers' competencies and their ability to motivate and inspire learners. This could be achieved
through the recruitment of qualified TVET teachers, and training, and retraining of TVET
teachers. Also, building a strong partnership between government, institutions, and industries is
vital. From the framework, strengthening TVET teachers’ in-service education through
collaboration with industry and providing TVET teachers with opportunities to access
information regarding new technologies used in industry to enhance suitable teaching modules.
From the data analysis, it can be seen that for successfully adopting and implementing PBL in
Nigerian TVET system, teachers' role will change from information or knowledge presenters to
problem identification and solving facilitators. This will help TVET Teachers to focus on
monitoring, supervising and encouraging small-group discussions, and asking relevant questions
that can help students to think deep to enhance deep learning (in line with Igwe et al., 2019;
Okolie, Nwosu, and Mlanga, 2019).

The study found that despite the overwhelming benefits of PBL approach, it will require
adequate resources to enable TVET teachers and students to cope with its demands. Without
proper funding and provision of modern teaching and learning materials, tools, and machines,
PBL may not be well implemented. Also, TVET teachers should be adequately trained to learn
how to identify real-life problems for students to explore and proffer real solutions. There is also
an important suggestion by participants that the Nigerian TVET system should shift from the
predominant use of traditional teaching methods to a more innovative teaching method like PBL,
which requires a redesigned curriculum to include other innovative teaching approaches. This
can enable students to construct learning on their own, develop collaborative skills, strengthen
interpersonal skills and intercultural relationships that can enhance employability (in agreement
with Boitshwarelo and Vemuri, 2017; Jonassen, 2011; O’Brien et al., 2019).

Limitations and Implication for Future Study

This study failed to use experimental evaluation to better analyze how PBL has improved
learning outcomes in TVET Systems. Even though that actual problem can be analyzed in a
better way after the implementation of PBL in a TVET programme. It is important to
acknowledge that PBL has not a widespread practice in the TVET departments of all the public
HE institutions used for this study, therefore, it is difficult to conduct an experimental evaluation
of how PBL improved learning outcomes of TVET students in such environments. However, this
study serves as an advocacy for Nigerian HE authorities to explore how PBL can be
implemented in the TVET system to improve graduate outcomes. The study serves as a starting
point for more research in the domain of improving the quality of TVET programmes in
Nigerian HE. Industry leaders and policymakers in Nigeria and other developing countries could
use the findings from this to increase HE and industry participation and partnership for quality of
TVET programme. The findings from this study could also contribute to increasing awareness of
the need for a quality TVET system and the professional development needs of the TVET
teachers to work with industry to foster students’ development skills required by the labour
market. The findings from this study could help the Nigerian TVET system to direct students
early in their career development through school-to-workplace learning, internships, and
apprenticeship where TVET learners could be exposed to hands-on learning.

Another limitation of this study is related to the number of participants from a few selected
public HE institutions in Nigeria. This is a potential limitation as the study was conducted only
in Nigeria. The study could have cut across other developing countries to have an in-depth
knowledge of what works in their TVET system. Secondly, the number of participants limits the
generalizability of the study results. Meanwhile, the limitations of this study suggest
opportunities for future studies. Future studies could also focus on widening the scope of this
study to cover other developing countries. For a more robust study, we recommend the use of a
quantitative research approach or mixed-methods research approach to investigate how PBL can
be effectively implemented in Nigerian higher education TVET system with a larger sample.
Regardless of these limitations, this study contributes to the body of knowledge in areas teaching
pedagogy and calls for research into how to improve the quality of TVET system in Nigeria and
other developing countries for quality graduate outcomes.
References
Akombi, I. (2005), “Strategies for ensuring quality in the teaching of vocational education in
secondary schools”, Journal of Qualitative Education, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 111-122
AlBuali, W. H. and Khan, A. S. (2018). Challenges facing the shift from the conventional to
problem-based learning curriculum. Higher Education Studies, Vol. 8, No. 1. Pp. 36-41
Alt, D. (2015), “Assessing the contribution of a constructivist learning environment to academic
self-efficacy in higher education”, Learning Environments Research, Vol.18, pp. 47–67.
doi:10.1007/s10984-015-9174-5.
Ary, D., L. C. Jacobs, and Sorenson, C. (2010), “Introduction to research in education”, New
York: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. USA.
Ansah, S. K. and Kissi, E. (2013), “Technical and vocational education and training in Ghana: A
tool for skill acquisition and industrial development”, Journal of Education and Practice,
Vol. 4 No.16, pp. 172-180.
Ayonmike, S. C. (2015), “Technical and vocational education and training (TVET): model for
addressing skills shortage in Nigerian oil and gas industry," American Journal of
Educational Research, Vol. 3 No. 1, pp. 62-66.
Barrows, H. (2002), “Is it truly possible to have such a thing as PBL?”, Distance Education, Vol.
23 N0.1, pp. 119–122.
Barrows, H. S., and Tamblyn, R. M. (1980), “Problem-based learning: an approach to medical
education”, UK. Springer Publishing Company.
Blair, E. (2015), “A reflexive exploration of two qualitative data coding techniques”, Journal of
Methods and Measurement in the Social Sciences Vol. 6 No.1, pp.14-29
Boitshwarelo, B. and Vemuri, S. (2017), “Conceptualising strategic alignment between
curriculum and pedagogy through a learning design framework”, International Journal
for Academic Development, Vol. 22 No. 4, pp. 278-292.
British Council Nigeria. (2010), “The next generation Nigeria task force”
https://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/nigeria_the_next_generation_report.pdf
Creswell, J. W. (2013), “Qualitative inquiry and research design”, Thousand Oaks: Sage
Publications.
Deissinger, T. (2015). “The German dual vocational education and training system as ‘good
practice’?” Local Economy: The Journal of the Local Economy Policy Unit, Vol. 30 No.
5, pp. 557-567
Delaney, Y., Pattinson, B., McCarthy, J. and Beecham, S. (2015), “Transitioning from traditional
to problem-based learning in management education: the case of frontline manager skills
development programme”, Innovation in Education and Teaching International, Vol. 54
No. 3, pp. 214-222.
Eze, C.P. (2013), “Empowering the youth through technical and vocational education: A panacea
for sustainable national development”, Unizik Orient Journal of Education Vol. 7 No. 1,
pp. 59 – 64.
Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2004), “National policy on education” Lagos. NERDC Press.
Floersch, J., Longhofer, J. L., Kranke, D. and Townsend, L. (2010), “Integrating thematic,
grounded theory and narrative analysis: A case study of adolescent psychotropic
treatment”, Qualitative Social Work: Research & Practice, Vol. 9 N0. 3, pp. 407–25.
Gorghiu, G., Drăghicescu, L. M., Cristea, S., Petrescu, M., and Gorghiu, L., M. (2015),
“Problem-based learning - An efficient learning strategy in the science lessons context”,
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences Vol. 191, pp. 1865 – 1870
Gibbert, M., W. Ruigrok and Wicki, B. (2008). "What passes as a rigorous case study?"
Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 29 No.13, pp. 1465-1474.
Guest, G., MacQueen, K. and Namey, E. (2012), “Applied Thematic Analysis” London: Sage
Publication. United Kingdom.
Gwee, M.C. (2009), “Problem-based learning: a strategic learning system design for the
education of healthcare professionals in the 21st century”, Kaohsiung Journal of Medical
Sciences, Vol. 25 No. 5, pp. 231-239.
Hallinger, P. and Lu, J. (2011). Implementing problem-based learning in higher education in
Asia: challenges, strategies and effect. Journal of Higher Education Policy and
Management, Vol. 33, No. 3, pp. 267–285
Holm, M. (2011), “Project-based instruction: A review of the literature on effectiveness in
prekindergarten through 12th grade classrooms”, InSight: Rivier Academic Journal Vol.
7 N0. 2, pp. 1-13.
Holmes, V. L., and Hwang, Y. (2016), “Exploring the effects of project-based learning in
secondary mathematics education”, The Journal of Educational Research Vol.109 N0. 5,
pp. 449-463.
Igwe, P.A., Hack-Polay, D., Mendy, J., Fuller, T. and Lock, D. (2019): Improving higher
education standards through reengineering in West African universities – A case study of
Nigeria. Studies in Higher Education. Published online: 03 Dec 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1698534
Jabarullah, N. H. and Hussain, H. I. (2019), “The effectiveness of problem-based learning in
technical and vocational education in Malaysia”, Education + Training , Vol. 61 No. 5,
pp. 552-567
Lim, W.K. (2012), “Dysfunctional problem-based learning curricula: resolving the problem”,
BMC Medical Education, Vol. 12, No.1, pp. 89.
Lingard L, and Kennedy, T. J. (2010), “Qualitative research methods in medical education”, In
Swanwick, T., Understanding medical education: evidence, theory and practice. West
Sussex. Wiley-Blackwell, p. 323–335
Liuzzi, F. (2011), “Looking back on problems I encountered in problem‐based learning”, The
Clinical Teacher, Vol. 8 No. 3, Pp. 202-203. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-
498X.2011.00455.x
Loyens, S. M. M., Magda, J. and Rikers, R. M. J. P. (2008), “Self-directed learning in problem-
based learning and its relationships with self-regulated learning”, Education Psychology
Review, Vol. 20 N0. 4, pp. 411–427.
Khairiyah, M. Y., Helmi, S. A., Mohammad-Zamry, J. ., Nor-Farida, H. (2010). Cooperative
problem-based learning (CPBL):Framework for integrating cooperative learning and
problem-based learning, Proceeding of the 3rd Regional Conference on Engineering
Education and Research in Higher Education (RCEE & RHEd 2010). Kuching, Sarawak,
Malaysia, from 7-9 June
Kumar, R., Mandava, S. and Gopanapalli, V.S. (2019), “Vocational training in India:
determinants of participation and effect on wages” Empirical Research in Vocational
Education and Training, Vol. 11. No. 3, pp. 1-17
McPaland M, Noble LM, Livingston G (2004), “Effectiveness of problem-based learning
compared to traditional teaching in undergraduate psychiatry”, Medical Education Vol.
38 No. 8, pp. 859-867
Momoh, O. A. (2012), “Revitalization of technical education in Nigeria as a vehicle for
transformation”; Proceedings of COREN 21st Engineering Assembly, Pp 53 – 81.
Moskovsky, C., Alrabi, F., Paolini, S., and Ratcheva, S. (2013). The effects of teachers’
motivational strategies on learners’ motivation: A controlled investigation of second
language acquisition. A Journal of Research in Language Studies, No. Vol. 63 No. 1, pp.
34-62
O’Brien, E., Hamburg, I. and Southern, M. (2019), “Using technology-oriented, problem-based
learning to support global workplace learning”, The Wiley Handbook of Global
Workplace Learning, John Wiley&Sons, New Jersey, pp. 591-609.
OECD. (2010), “Tools to Support the System”, Learning for Jobs, OECD Reviews of Vocational
Education and Training, Synthesis Report, Chapter 6, pp.137-162, OECD, Paris.
Ojimba, D. P. (2012), “Vocational and Technical Education in Nigeria: Issues, Problems and
Prospects” Dimensions”, Journal of Education and Social Research Vol. 2 No. 9, pp. 23-
30.
Okolie, U. C., Nwosu, H. E., and Mlanga, S. (2019), “Graduate employability: How the higher
education institutions can meet the demand of the labour market”, Higher Education,
Skills and Work-based Learning Vol. 9 No. 4, pp. 620-636
Okolie, C. U., Igwe, P. A. and Elom, E. N. (2018), “Improving graduate outcomes for
Technical Colleges in Nigeria”, Australian Journal of Career Development Vol. 28
No. 1, 21-30.
Okolie, U. C., and Asfa, M. Y. (2017), “Human development and TVET dimensions” In U. C.
Okolie & M. Y. Asfa (Eds.), Technical education and vocational training in developing
nations. Hershey, PA: IGI-Global International Publishers.
Okoye, R. and Arimonu, M. O. (2016), “Technical and vocational education in Nigeria: Issues,
challenges and a way forward”, Journal of Education and Practice Vol. 7 No. 30, pp.
113-118.
Okoye, K. R. E., and Okwelle, P. C. (2013). “Technical and vocational education and training
(TVET) in Nigeria and energy development, marketing and national transformation.”
Journal of education and practice, Vol. 4 No.14, pp. 134-138.
Oviawe, J. I., Uwameiye, R. and Uddin, P. S. O. (2017), “Bridging skill gap to meet technical,
vocational education and training school-workplace collaboration in the 21st century.
International Journal of vocational education and training research. 3 (1), 7-14.
Palinkas, L. A., Horwitz, S. M., Green, C. A., Wisdom, J. P., Duan, N., and Hoagwood, K.
(2015), “Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection & analysis in mixed method
research”, Adm. Policy Mental Health, Vol. 42 N0. 5, pp. 533-544.
Pease, M. A., and Kuhn, D. (2011), “Experimental analysis of the effective components of
problem-based learning”, Science Education Vol. 95 N0. 1, pp. 57–86.
Rolfe, G. (2006), “Validity, trustworthiness and rigour: quality and the idea of qualitative
research”, Journal of Advanced Nursing Vol. 53 N0. 3, pp. 304–310.
Savin-Baden, M. and Major, C.H. (2004), “Foundations of problem-based learning”, Open
University Press – Mc-Graw Hill Education, New York, NY.
Seidman I. (2013), “Interviewing as qualitative research: a guide for researchers in education and
the social sciences”, New York (NY): Teachers College Press.
Stanley, T., and Marsden, M. (2012), “Problem-based learning: Does accounting education need
it?”, Journal of Accounting Education Vol. 30 N0. 3–4, pp. 267–289.
Seyi, D. (2014). “An overview of vocational and technical education in Nigeria under secondary
school education system”, International Journal of Technology Enhancements and
Emerging Engineering Research Vol. 2 No. 6, pp. 119-122
Summers, E. J. and Dickinson, G. (2012). A longitudinal investigation of project–based
instruction and student achievement in high school social studies. Interdisciplinary
Journal of Problem-Based Learning, Vol. 6, N0. 1, pp. 82-103
Trampusch, C. (2014), “Collective skill formation: A historical analysis of the least-likely case
New Zealand”, Journal of Vocational Education and Training Vol. 66 N0. 2, pp. 135–
155.
UNESCO-UNEVOC (2012; 7), “Strengthening TVET teacher education”, Report of the
UNESCO-UNEVOC online Conference. June 25-July 6th, 2012. UNESCO-UNEVOC
International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training UN Campus,
Germany.
Van-Ark, B. (1992), “Vocational education and productivity in the Netherlands and Britain”
National Institute Economic Review, 5.
Washington- Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction (n.d), “Career and Technical
Education” Accessed 03/5/2018 available at http://www.k12.wa.us/CareerTechEd/