Session 2023-24

SOCIAL SCIENCE NOTES

CLASS – 10
Written/Prepared By – Mr. Bheem Singh Yadav
(TGT Social Science)

Kendriya Vidyalaya No.4 Delhi Cantt.

Page Designed By – Mr. Gajraj Singh Nyawat

(TGT Social Science)

Kendriya Vidyalaya No.1 Indore (Shift-1)

S. No. Name of Topic
Syllabus
Unit -1. India and the Contemporary World – II

1. Ch- 1. The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

2. Ch- 2. Nationalism in India

3. Ch- 3. The Making of a Global World

4. Ch- 4. The Age of Industrialization

5. Ch- 5. Print Culture and the Modern World

Unit-2. Contemporary India – II

1. Ch- 1. Resources and Development

2. Ch- 2. Forest and Wildlife

3. Ch- 3. Water Resources

4. Ch- 4. Agriculture

5. Ch- 5. Minerals and Energy Resources

6. Ch- 6. Manufacturing Industries

7. Ch- 7. Life Lines of National Economy

Unit-3. Democratic Politics - II

1. Ch- 1. Power Sharing

2. Ch- 2. Federalism

3. Ch- 3. Gender, Religion and Caste

4. Ch- 4. Political Parties

4. Ch- 5. Outcomes of Democracy

Unit-4. Understanding Economic Development

1. Ch- 1. Development

2. Ch- 2. Sectors of the Indian Economy

3. Ch- 3. Money and Credit

4. Ch- 4. Globalization and the Indian Economy

5. Ch- 5. Consumer Rights

 SOCIAL SCIENCE NOTES CLASS – 10
(HISTORY)
CHAPTER – 1 – THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
Key Concepts of the Lesson:-
In 1848, Frederic Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four prints visualising his dream of a
world made up of ‘democratic and social republics’. The first print of series shows the people of Europe and
America- Men and women of all ages and social classes- marching in a long train, and offering homage to the
state of liberty as they pass by it.

Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Factors Ideas Important countries Important leaders Contribution
Absolute monarchy Liberalization France Mazzini Liberty
Economic hardship Conservation Italy Garibaldi Republic
Growing Middle Class Romanticism Germany Cavour Democracy
Romantic imagination Code of Napoleon Russia Victor Emmanuel-II Nation States
Revolutions of Liberals Female allegories England Otto Van Bismark Political equality

Role of Women William Kaizer-I Collective identity

Suffrage
Heroism
Important Events Balkans Important Dates

Code of Napoleon Romania Napoleon invaded Italy- 1797

Fall of Napoleon Bulgaria Code of Napoleon- 1804
Greek war of Independence Albania Congress of Vienna- 1815
Balkan Crisis Greece Greek war- 1821
Vienna Congress Macedonia Revolution of Europe- 1848
Unification of Italy Croatia Unification of Italy- 1861
Unification of Germany Slovenia Unification of Germany- 1871
Serbia
Montenegro

Nation-State - A group of people with the same culture, language, history etc., who have
formed an independent country.
Note- During the 19th century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought about sweeping
changes in the political and mental world of Europe. The result of these changes was the
emergence of the nation state in place of the multinational dynastic empires of Europe. A
nation state was one in which the majority of its citizens not only its rulers. They came to
develop a sense of common identity and shared history and descent. This commonness did
not exit from time immemorial, it was forged through struggles, through the actions of leaders
and the common people.
The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation:-
- The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution in 1789.
- French revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to s body of French citizens.
- The idea of ‘la patrie’ (the father land) and ‘le citoyen’ (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a
united community, enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
- A new French flag- the tricolor, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
- The Estates General converted into National Assembly and it was elected by the body of active citizens.
- A centralized administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens
within its territory.
- Internal custom duties and dues were abolished.
- French became the common language of the nation.
- With the outbreak of the revolutionary wars, the French armies began to carry the idea of
nationalism abroad.
- Napoleon set about introducing many of the reforms that he had already introduced in France.

Napoleon Code (The Civil Code of 1804):-

- Finished all the privileges based on birth.
- Established equality before the law and secured the right to property.
- In the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy and Germany, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions.
- Abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
- Transport and communication system were improved.
- Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen enjoyed new-found freedom.

The making of Nationalism in Europe: -

- Division of Europe in small kingdoms before the middle of 18th century.
- Most of these were ruled by autocratic monarchs.
- They did not see themselves as sharing a collective identity or a common culture.
- They used different languages.
The Aristocracy and the new middle class: -
- A landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent.
- They spoke French for purposes of diplomacy in high society.
- Peasants as a major group.
- Commercial or middle class emerges as a new group.
- Role of middle class in bringing an end to aristocratic privileged class.
What did liberal nationalism stand for: -
- Liberalism derives from the Latin root Liber, meaning free.
- It was the concept of government by consent.
- It stood for freedom of the individual and equality of all before the law.
- Universal Suffrage.
- Freedom of market.
A new conservation after 1815: -
- Defeated of Napoleon in 1815, European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism.
- Conservatives believed in monarchy, Church, Social hierarchies, property etc.
- Conservative regimes based on autocracy.
- They did not tolerate criticism and dissent and sought to curb activities that questioned the
legitimacy of autocratic governments.
 Vienna Congress of 1815: -
- In 1815 Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria collectively defeated Napoleon, met at Vienna to draw up
a settlement for Europe.
- The Congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.
- Through this treaty of Vienna they want undoing most of the changes that had come about in
Europe during the Napoleonic wars.
- The Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed during the French revolution, was restored to
power.
- A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future.
The Revolutionaries:-
- Secret societies sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas.
- To be revolutionary at this time meant a commitment to oppose monarchical forms that had been
established after the Vienna Congress, and to fight for liberty and freedom.
- Giuseppe Mazzini:-
- Italian revolutionary, born in Genoa in 1807.
- He became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari.
- He founded two underground societies-
1. Young Italy in Marseilles.
2. Young Europe in Berne.
- Members of these societies were young men from Poland, France, Italy and the German states.
- According to Mazzini, God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So Italy could
not continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms.
- It had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations. This unification
alone could be the basis of Italian liberty.
- Metternich described him as “the most dangerous enemy of our social order”.
The age of revolution 1830-1848: -
- The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830.
- The Bourbon kings were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries.
- Installed a constitutional monarchy under the leadership of Louis Philippe .
- Metternich remarked “When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold”.
- Greek war of independence against the Ottoman Empire was the main event, which developed
nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe.
- Poets and artists lauded Greece as the Cradle of European civilization and support its struggle
against a Muslim empire.
- Finally in 1832 Greece recognized as an independent nation through the Treaty of Constantinople.

The Romantic imagination and national feeling: -

- Culture, art, poetry, stories and music helped to express and shape nationalist feelings.
- German Philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that true German culture was to be
discovered among the common people. The true spirit of the nation was popularized through folk
songs, folk poetry and folk dances.
- Language too play an important role in developing nationalist sentiments.
- After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools in Poland and the Russian
language was imposed everywhere.
- The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance .
Hunger, Hardship and popular revolt: -
- The years of 1830s were great economic hardship in Europe.
- Enormous increase in population all over Europe.
- Food shortage and widespread unemployment was common in Paris in 1848.
- Barricades were erected and Louis Philippe was forced to flee.
- National Assembly proclaimed a Republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above 21 and
guaranteed the right to work.
- National workshops started to provide employment.

1848: The Revolution of the Liberals:-

- After the events 1848 in France had brought about the abdication of the monarch and a republic
based on universal male Suffrage had been proclaimed.
- Demands for the creation of a nation state on parliamentary principles- a Constitution, freedom of
the press and freedom of association.
- The issue of political rights of women raised by liberal through Frankfurt Assembly in Germany.
- Though Conservatives forces were able to suppress liberal movements in 1848, they could not
restore the old order.
- Monarchs were beginning to realize the power of liberal nationalist revolutionaries.
- The serfdom and bonded labour were abolished in Hungry and Russia.

The making of Germany and Italy:-

Unification of Germany:-
- Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification of Germany.
- The Chief Minister of Prussia, Ottovan Bismark was the architect of this process carried out with the help of the Prussian
army and bureaucracy.
- Prussia defeat Austria, Denmark and France in three wars over seven years and completed the process of unification.
- In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I was proclaimed German emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles .

Unification of Italy:-
- During the middle 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states. Only one Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by
an Italian princely house.
- During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini put a programme for unitary Italian Republic.
- He formed a secret society Young Italy for his goals.
- After the Failure of revolutionary uprising the mantle now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler king Victor
Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through war.
- Chief Minister Cavour led the movement to unify the regions of Italy. He spoke French much better than
Italian.
- Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France engineered by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in
defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.
- Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the war with a large number of armed volunteers.
- In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.

The strange case of Britain: -

- There was no British nation prior to the 18th century.
- English, Welsh, Scot and Irish were the ethnic groups had their own cultural and political traditions.
- English nation grew in wealth, importance and power. It was able to extend its influence over the other
nations of the islands.
- England became a nation state through English parliament which had seized power from the monarchy in
1688.
 - The formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain through the Act of Union (1707) between England and
Scotland.
- By this Act England was able to impose its influence on Scotland.
- Ireland was a country deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants.
- The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely Catholic country.
- Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
- The symbols of the new Britain- The British Flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God save our noble king),
the English language.

Visualizing the Nation: -

- Artists in 18th and 19th centuries found a way out by personifying a nation.
- They represented a country as a poem.
- That is the female figure became an allegory of the nation. In France she was Christened Marianne.
- Her characteristics were drawn from those of liberty and republic- the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade.
- Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.
- Germania became the allegory of the German nation.
- Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.

Nationalism and Imperialism: -

Balkan Issue:-
- Balkan was region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising of Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece,
Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.
- Till the last part of 19th century, this was under Ottoman Empire.
- The disintegration of the Ottoman Empire and emergence of romantic nationalism made this region a land of
conflict.
- Balkan nations tried to capture more territories from neighbouring places.
- It also became a scene of big power rivalry like Russia, Germany, England, Austria and Hungry.
- It led to open wars and finally led it to the First World War.

CHAPTER- 2 – NATIONALISM IN INDIA

After the First World War: -
- Huge increase in defense expenditure after I World War.
- Start war loans and increasing taxes.
- Custom duties were raised and income tax introduced.
- Prices increased.
- Forced recruitment in rural areas.
- Resulting in acute shortage of food.
- Spread influenza epidemic.
- According Census of 1921, 12 to 13 million people died as a result of famines and epidemic .

The idea of Satyagraha: -

- Gandhiji returned to India in January 1915.
- The idea of Satyagraha emphasized the power of truth and the need to search for truth.
- It suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against injustice, then physical force was
not necessary to fight the oppressor.
- Without seeking vengeance or being aggressive, a satyagrahi could win the battle through non-
violence.
- Gandhiji believed that this dharma of non-violence could unite all Indians.
- In 1917- Satyagraha for peasants of Champaran (Bihar), who struggle against the oppressive
plantation system.
- In 1918- Satyagraha for peasants of Khera (Gujarat), who affected by crop failure and a plague
epidemic. The peasants could not pay the revenue and were demanding that the revenue collection
be relaxed.
- In 1918- Satyagraha for cotton mill workers of Ahmedabad.

The Rowlatt Act- 1919: -

- Passed by Imperial Legislative Council in 1919.
- According to this Act government repress political activities and allowed detention of political
prisoners without trail for two years.
- On 10th April police fired upon a peaceful procession in Amritsar.
- After that widespread attacks on Banks, offices and railway stations by public.
- Martial Law was imposed and General Dyer took command.

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: -

- On 13th April 1919, a large crowd gathered to attend the Annual Baisakhi fair in the closed ground of
Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar.
- Some people gathered for protest against the government’s new repressive Act.
- General Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points and opened fire on the crowd.

Khilafat Movement: -
- The First World War had ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey.
- Public thought that a harsh peace treaty was going to imposed on the Ottoman Emperor- the
spiritual head of the Islamic World (the Khalifa).
- To defend the Khalifa’s temporal powers, a khilafat committee was formed in Bombay in March
1919.
- It was against British for the ill-treatment with Turkey after First World War.
- Main leaders were Ali brothers- Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali.

Non-Cooperation: -
- Non-Cooperation Programme was adopted in December 1920 at the Congress Session in Nagpur.
- The movement began in January 1921.
- It was first major movement of Gandhiji.
- It was a mass movement in which different section of people were involved.
- Non-Violence was the basic difference of this movement.
- It boycotted British institutions and commodities.
- Students and teachers gradually returned from schools.
- The movement was withdrawn in 1922 due to the violence in Chauri-Chaura near Gorakhpur.

Simon Commission: -
- It was appointed in 1927 in the leadership of Sir John Simon.
- It was appointed to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes.
- It arrived India in 1928.
- It was greeted with the slogan “Simon go back”, because the Commission did not have a single Indian
member. They were all British.
Towards Civil Disobedience: -
- In December 1929, under the presidency of Jawahar Lal Nehru, the Lahore Congress formalized the
demand for ‘Purna Swaraj’ or full independence for India.
- It was declared that 26 January 1930, would be celebrated as Independence Day.
- But the celebration attracted very little attention.

The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement: -

- Mahatma Gandhi started his famous Salt March with his 78 trusted volunteers.
- The march was over 240 miles, from Gandhiji’s Ashram in Sabarmati to the Gujarati coastal town of
Dandi.
- The volunteers walked for 24 days about 10 miles a day.
- On 6th April 1930, he reached Dandi and ceremonially violated the law, manufacturing salt by boiling
seawater.
- This marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
- As the movement spread, foreign clothes were boycotted and liquor shops were picketed.
- Peasants refused to pay revenue taxes.
- After the government began arresting the Congress leaders one by one.
- Mahatma Gandhi was arrested in April 1930.
- Peaceful Satyagrahis were attacked, women and children were beaten and about 1 lakh people were
arrested.
- In such situation, Mahatma Gandhi once again decided to call off the movement and entered into a
pact with Irwin on 5th March 1931.
- By this Gandhi-Irwin pact, Gandhiji consented to participate in a Round Table Conference in London
and the government agreed to release the political prisoners.
- In Dec.1931 Gandhiji went to London for the conference, but the negotiations broke down and he
returned disappointed.
- Gandhiji re-launched the Civil Dis-obedience Movement but by 1934 it lost its momentum.

The limits of Civil Disobedience: -

- Limited participation of Dalits.
- The industrial working classes did not participate in the movement in large numbers.
- Poona Pact of 24 September 1932 between Dr. B. R. Ambedkar and Gandhiji.
- Limited participation of Muslims.

Sense of collective belonging: -

- Nationalism gives feelings of same nation for all communities.
- Role of cultural factors history and fiction, folklore and songs, popular prints and symbols played
their part in national struggle.
- Representations the idea of Bharatmata.
- Role playing by bards, for collecting songs in popularization of folklore.
- Use of Tricolour during swadeshi movement.
- Role of reconstruction of India’s past history.
- Writings on art, religion, law, philosophy in building pride of nation.
- Emerging many voices wanting freedom from colonial rule.
 CHAPTER – 3 – THE MAKING OF A GLOBAL WORLD
Globalization:- It means integrating our economy with the world economy. As a result of globalization,
the different countries of the world become economically inter dependent on each other.

Responsible factors for making of a ‘global world’:-

- Migration
- Movement of Capital
- Trade
- Interaction

Note- Making of a global world has a long history. Many people travelled long distances
for knowledge, opportunity and much more.

Travelers Carried:-
- Goods -Germs - Money -Ideas -Values -Inventions - Skills -Diseases

Silk Route:-
- Silk route link Asia – Europe – North America.
- Products –
1. Chinese pottery.
2. Textiles and spices.
3. Precious metal from Europe to Asia.

Food Travels:- Spaghetti, potato

Others- Soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chillies, sweet potatoes etc. came from America.

Conquest, Diseases and Trade:-

- After discovery of America pre modern world shrank.
- India became crucial point due to central position between America and Europe.
- Precious metals of America-
1. Silver – Peru and Mexico
2. Gold – EL Dorado (the fabled city of gold).
- Biggest weapon of Spanish –The germs of Small Pox.
- Slaves were captured in Africa for growing cotton and sugar for European markets.
In 19th Century:-
- Poverty and hunger became common in Europe.
- Corn Law- Under pressure from landed groups in Europe, the government restricted the import
of corn. It known as Corn Law.
- Nearly 50 million people emigrated from Europe to America and Australia in the 19th century in
search of better future.
- Role of technology- Invention of railways, steamships, telegraph and refrigerated ships etc.
 Late 19th Century Colonialism:-
- European conquest brought colonized societies into world economy. 1885 in Berlin
Meet, different European powers carved Africa.
- Britain, France, Belgium, Germany and Spain were main colonial powers.

Rinderpest or the Cattle Plague:-

- Arrived in Africa in 1890s.
- Carried by infected cattle from British Asia.
- Loss of cattle, destroyed livelihood.
- Forced Africans into labour market.

Indentured Labour Migration from India:-

- Indentured labour – Bonded labour
- Labour were hired under contracts, which promised return travel to India after they had worked five
years on their employers plantations.
- From Eastern U P, Bihar, Tamil Nadu and middle India.
- Destinations of Indian migrants were the Trinidad, Guyana, Surinam, Mauritius and Fiji.
- Tamil Nadu migrants went to Ceylon and Malaya.
- Recruitment was done by agents.
- It was abolished in 1921 in India.

Indian Trade Colonialism and the Global System:-

- Indian textiles faced stiff competition in the international market.
- Indian cotton export was declined regularly.
- Share of Indian cotton export was - in 1800 – 30%, in 1815 – 15%, in 1870 – only 3%.
- Export of manufactures declined due to heavy tarrifs.
- Export of raw materials increased.
- Opium was single largest export from India to China.
- Britain had a ‘trade surplus’ with India. This surplus used to balance trade deficits with other
countries. Its called multilateral settlement.
- For example – Britain grows Opium in India and exported it to China and with the money earned
through this sale, it financed its tea and other imports from China.

The Inter war Economy:-

World War First (1914-1918):-
1. Allies Group- Britain, Russia, France
2. Central Powers- Germany, Austria, Hungry, Ottoman Turkey

War time transformation:-

- Death of working age men.
- Steep decline in house hold income.
- Societies re-organized for wars.
- Breaking of economic links between some of largest economic powers .
Features of the World War - I
- Lasted for four years.
- Involved world’s leading industrial nations.
- Took the lives of 9 million people

The Great Depression:-

Features:-
- Began in 1929 and lasted till the mid1930s.
- Steep decline in industrial production.
- Decrease in incomes and trade.
- Affected agricultural communities worst.

Causes:-
- Agricultural over production.
- Withdrawal of loans by United States, which led to failure of major banks in Europe.
- Doubling of import duties by U S also affected world trade.
- Falling agricultural prices.

India and the Great Depression:-

- Indian trade was affected agricultural goods.
- Great decrease in prices of goods.
- Increase in peasant indebtedness.
- Fixed income earners of urban India found themselves well off.

World War II (1939-1945):-

- The Axis Powers- Germany, Japan, Italy
- The Allies- Britain, the Soviet Union, France and U S.
- About 60 million people died.
- World divided into two groups-
1. U S 2. Soviet Union

Bretton woods Institution: -

- Held in July 1944 at Bretton woods in New Hampshire USA.
- Main aim to preserve economic stability and full employment in the industrial world.
- Bretton woods twins-
i) World Bank
ii) International Monetary Fund (IMF)
- Bretton woods system was based on fixed exchange rates . For example- Indian currency
Rupee were pegged the Dollar at a fixed exchange rate. Dollar fixed $ 35 per ounce of Gold.

Decolonization and Independence: -

- Most colonies in Asia and Africa emerged independent but were over burdened with poverty and
lack of resources.
- Developing countries organized a group – G-77(the Group of 77).
- Aim of G-77-
i) Control over natural resources.
ii) Fairer prices for raw materials.
iii) Better access to manufactured goods .
 End of Bretton woods and beginning of Globalization: -
- US Dollar could not maintain its value in relation to gold.
- Fixed exchange rates collapsed and floating exchange rates were introduced.
- Developing countries did not forced to get loan from western commercial banks.
- Unemployment began rising from mid 1970s and remained until early 1990s.
- Industries were relocated to low-wage countries.
- There was rapid economic transformation in India, China and Brazil.
- Made in China products are available everywhere because of the low cost structure of the Chinese
economy, mainly low wages.
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Ch- 4. The Age of Industrialization

Before the Industrial Revolution
Proto-industrialization is referred to the phase which existed even before factories began in England
and Europe.
- There was large-scale industrial production for an international market not based on factories.
- In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, merchants from Europe moved to the countryside,
supplying money to peasants and artisans, requesting them to produce for an international market.
- Merchants were restricted to expand their production within towns because rulers granted different
guilds the monopoly right to produce and trade in specific products.

The Coming Up of the Factory

- In the 1730s the earliest factories in England were set up, but only in the late eighteenth century,
the number of factories multiplied.
- Cotton was the first symbol of the new era and its production boomed in the late nineteenth
century.
- Richard Arkwright created the cotton mill where costly machines were set up and all the processes
were brought together under one roof and management .
The Pace of Industrial Change
First: - *In Britain, the most dynamic industries were cotton and metals. *Cotton was the
leading sector in the first phase of industrialization up to the 1840s, followed by iron and
steel industry.
Second: *The new industries found it difficult to displace traditional industries.
Third: The pace of change in the ‘traditional’ industries was not set by steam-powered cotton or metal
industries, but they did not remain entirely stagnant either.
Fourth: *Technological changes occurred slowly. *James Watt improved the steam engine produced by
Newcomen and patented the new engine in 1781. *His industrialist friend Mathew Boulton
manufactured the new model. Steam engines were not used in any of the other industries until much later
in the century.
 Life of the Workers
- The workers’ lives were affected by the abundance of labour in the market.
-To get a job, workers should have existing networks of friendship and kin relations in a factory.
- Till the mid-nineteenth century, it was difficult for workers to find jobs.
-In the early nineteenth century, wages were increased.
-The fear of unemployment made workers hostile to the introduction of new technology.
- Spinning Jenny was introduced in the woollen industry. After the 1840s, building activity intensified in the cities,
opening up greater opportunities for employment.
-Roads were widened, new railway stations came up, railway lines were extended, tunnels dug, drainage and sewers
laid, rivers embanked.

Industrialization in the Colonies

The Age of Indian Textiles
In India, silk and cotton goods dominated the international market in textiles, before the age of machine industries.
A variety of Indian merchants and bankers were involved in this network of export trade – financing production,
carrying goods and supplying exporters. By the 1750s this network, controlled by Indian merchants, was breaking
down. The European companies came into power – first securing a variety of concessions from local courts, then
the monopoly rights to trade. The shift from the old ports to the new ones was an indicator of the growth of
colonial power.
European companies-controlled trade through the new ports and were carried in European ships. Many old trading
houses collapsed, and those who wanted to survive had to operate within a network shaped by European trading
companies.
What Happened to Weavers?
After the 1760s, the consolidation of the East India Company did not initially lead to a decline in textile exports
from India. Before establishing political power in Bengal and Carnatic in the 1760s and 1770s, the East India
Company had found it difficult to ensure a regular supply of goods for export. After the East India Company
established political power, it developed a system of management and control that would eliminate competition,
control costs, and ensure regular supplies of cotton and silk goods. It was established by following a series of steps.
1. By eliminating existing traders and brokers connected with the cloth trade, and establishing more
direct control over the weaver.
2. By preventing Company weavers from dealing with other buyers.
The weavers were granted a loan to buy the raw materials once an order was placed. Weavers who took
loans needed to hand over the cloth they produced to the gomastha. Weaving required the labour of the
entire family, with children and women all engaged in different stages of the process. Earlier, supply
merchants had a very close relationship with weavers, but new gomasthas were outsiders with no social
link with the village.
In many places in Carnatic and Bengal, weavers set up looms in other villages where they had some
family relation. In other places, weavers along with the village traders revolted, opposing thCompany
and its officials. Over time many weavers began refusing loans, closing down their workshops and taking
to agricultural labour. By the turn of the nineteenth century, cotton weavers faced a new set of problems.
 Manchester Comes to India
In 1772, Henry Patullo said that the demand for Indian textiles could never reduce since no other
nation produced goods of the same quality. But, unfortunately, by the beginning of the nineteenth
century, India witnessed a decline in textile exports. In the early nineteenth century, exports of British
cotton goods increased dramatically. At the end of the eighteenth century, import of cotton piece-
goods was restricted into India. In India cotton weavers faced two problems:
1. Their export market collapsed
2. Local market shrank and glutted with Manchester imports.
By the 1860s, weavers faced a new problem. They could not get sufficient supply of raw cotton of good
quality. Even the raw cotton exports from India increased due to which the price increased. By the end of
the nineteenth century, other craftspeople faced yet another problem. Factories in India began
production, flooding the market with machine-goods.
Factories Come Up
In 1854, the first cotton mill in Bombay set up and went into production two years later. By 1862 four
more mills were set up and around the same time jute mills came up in Bengal. The first jute mill was
set up in 1855 and another one after seven years in 1862. In the 1860s, in north India, the Elgin Mill was
started in Kanpur, and a year later the first cotton mill of Ahmedabad was set up. By 1874, the first
spinning and weaving mill of Madras began production.
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Chapter– 5 – PRINT CULTURE AND THE MODERN WORLD

Different forms of print materials:-
- Books, News Papers, Magazines, Journal, Diaries, Calendars, Cinema Poster, Prints of famous
painters.
The history of print:-
- Beginning in East Asia.
- Expansion- In Europe and India.
- The earliest kind of print technology developed in China, Japan and Korea.
- First book was printed in AD 594 onwards in China.
China in the 17th Century:-
- Urban cultural bloomed.
- The uses of print diversified.
- Reading became a leisure activity.
- Different forms of literary works like- poetry, romantic plays rtc.
- Women began publishing their poetry and plays.
- Imported western printing techniques and mechanical press.
- Shanghai became the hub of the new print culture.
- Gradual shift of hand printings to mechanical printings.
Print in Japan:-
- Introduced- Buddhist missionaries from China.
- Year- Around A D 768 - 770
- The oldest Japanese book – Diamond Sutra
- Started printing of visual materials.
- Illustrated collections of paintings at Edo (Tokyo).
 Print comes to Europe:-
- Reached from China through Marco Polo in 1295.
- Written on expensive Vellum.
- Vellum- A parchment made from the skin of animals.
Defects of hand written manuscripts:-
- Could not satisfy the ever-increasing demands for books.
- Copying was time consuming and expensive.
- Fragile, difficult to handle.
- Could not to be read easily.
- Circulation remain limited.
- Could not be carried around.
Johann Gutenberg:-
- Inventor of first mechanical printing machine.
- Son of merchant from- Strasbourg (Germany).
- The first book he printed- ‘the Bible’ (180 copies).
- It took three years to produce.
- By the standards of that time, this was fast production.

Prints revolution and its impacts:-

A new reading public:-
- A new reading public emerged.
- Printing reduced the cost and time of the books.
- Books flooded the market.
- Multiple copies could be produced with great ease.
- Books could reach wide sections people.
- On the place of hearing public now a reading public came into being.
- Those who could not read, certainly enjoy listening to books being read out.
- Mingling of hearing public and reading public.

Religious debates and the fear of print:-

- Starting of discussions and debates on religious matters.
- Fear of print and criticism.
- Attack on Catholic Church by Martin Luther for their rituals.
- Beginning of the protestant reformation.

Martin Luther:-
- German monk, priests, theologian and church performer.
- He wrote 95 thesis criticizing many of the practices and rituals of the Roman Catholic Church
(RCC).
- A printed copy of this was posted on a church door in Wittenberg. It challenged the church to debate
his ideas.
- Luther said “printing is the ultimate gift of god and the greatest one”.

Print and dissent:-

- Starting of interpretation of Bible.
- Catholic Church started inquisition to repress heretical ideas.
- Execution of Menocchio, (a miller in Italy) by the Roman Catholic Church.
- Maintain an index of prohibited books from 1558.
 The Reading Mania:-
- Literary rates increased.
- Churches of different denominations started educational institutions in every nook and corner of
Europe.
- Reading habit increased.
- The writings of thinkers such as Thomas Paine, Voltaire and Jean Jacques Rousseau were also
widely printed and read.

Merits of Book Written:-

- Means of spreading progress and enlightenment.
- Can change the world.
- Liberate society from despotism and tyranny.
- Created public opinion.

Print culture and French Revolution:-

- Print popularized the idea of the enlightenment thinkers.
- Print created a new culture of dialogue and debate.
- By 1780 there was an outpouring of literature that mocked the royalty and criticized their morality.
- Louise Sebastian Mercier (a novelist of France in 18th century), declared- “the printing press is
the most powerful engine of progress, and public opinion is the force that will sweep despotism
away”.

In 19th Century:-
Children:-
- Primary education became compulsory.
- A children press was set up in France in 1857.
- Published new works, old fairy tales and folk tales.
- Grimm Brothers in Germany published collection of traditional folk tales in 1812.
Women:-
- Important readers as well as writers.
- Important readers of novels.
- Readers of penny magazines.
- Penny- Manuel teaching of proper behavior and House-Keeping.
- Best known women novelists- Jane Austen, the Bronte Sisters and George Eliot.
Workers:-
- Writers as well as readers.
- Time for self-improvement and self-expression.
- Write political tracts and autobiographies.
Further innovations:-
- The press came to be made out of metal.
- Power driven cylindrical press developed by Richard M. Hoe of New York. This was
capable of printing 8000 sheets per hour.
- The offset press was developed, which could print up to six colours at a time.
- Developed electrically operated presses.
 India and the world print
Print comes to India:-
- First printing press came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries in the mid 16th century.
- Catholic priests Jesuit printed several Konkani tracts.
- Many books were printed in Konkani and Kannada languages.
- 1st Tamil book at Cochin in 1579.
- 1st Malayalam book was printed in 1713.
- From 1780, James Augustus Hickey to edit the Bengal Gazette, a weekly magazine that described
itself as ‘a commercial paper open to all, but influenced by none’.
- 1st Indian weekly Bengal Gazette brought out by Gangadhar Bhattacharya.
Religious reforms and public debates:-
- Intense debates around religious issues.
- New ideas emerged.
- Intense controversies between social and religious reformers.
- Ideas were printed in local languages especially in Bengal.
- Ram Mohan Roy published- Sambad Kaumudi from 1821.
- Hindu orthodox- Samachar Chandrika to oppose his ideas.
- Persian Newspapers- Jam-i-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akbar in 1822.
- Bombay samachar in Gujarati in 1822.
Effects of public debates:-
- Encouraged discussions, debates and controversies within and among different religions.
- Connected communities and people in different parts of India.
- Newspapers conveyed news from one place to another, creating pan-Indian identities.

Women and print:-

- Women’s reading habit increased in middle class homes.
- Liberal husbands and fathers began educating their womenfolk at home, and sent them to school
also.
- Rashsundari Debi- A young married girl in a very orthodox household, learnt to read in the secrecy
of her kitchen. Later, she wrote her autobiography Amar Jiban which was published in 1876. It was
the full length autobiography published in the Bengali language.

Women writers:-
- Tarabai Shinde- Maharashtra
- Pandita Ramabai- Maharashtra
- Kailash Bashini Debi- Bengal
Main points discussed by women in early 20th century: -
- Women’s education - Widowhood and widow remarriage
- The national movement - Household and fashion lesson.
Social reformers:-
- Jyotiba Phule- Pioneer of low Caste movements for Dalits. He wrote about the injustices of ‘Low
Caste’ in his book ‘Gulamgiri’ in 1871.
- B. R. Ambedkar in Maharashtra.
- E. V. Ramaswamy Naicker in Madras (Pariyar).
- Kashibaba- A Kanpur mill worker, wrote and published Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal in 1938.
- Sudarshan Chakr (group of another mill worker) published in a collection called- Sacchi Kavitayen.
 Print and Censorship:-
- By the 1820s, Calcutta Supreme Court passed certain regulations to control press freedom.
- In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was passed. It provided extensive rights to government to
censor reports. But nationalist newspapers grew in numbers.
- Bal Gangadhar Tilak wrote in favour of Punjab revolutionaries in Kesari in 1907.

***************************************************

SOCIAL SCIENCE NOTES CLASS – 10 (GEOGRAPHY)

Chapter – 1 – RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT
Resources:-
- Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs, is called a resource.
- It should be technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable. Only then, it can be
termed as a ‘Resource’.

Classification of Resources:-
1. On the basis of origin:-
i) Biotic- Human, Live stock
ii) Abiotic- Rocks, Metals
2. On the basis of Exhaustibility:-
i) Renewable- Solar energy, wind, water
ii) Non-renewable- Minerals, fuel
3. On the basis of ownership:-
i) Individual- individual land, property
ii) Community owned- pond, park, play ground
iii) National- roads, canals, minerals, 12 nautical miles.
iv) International- beyond 200 nautical miles.
4. On the basis of the status of development:-
i) Potential- wind and solar energy in Rajasthan.
ii) Developed- coal, petroleum, iron etc.
iii) Stock- unused due to lack of technology.
iv) Reserves- river water, forests.
Reasons for development of resources:-
1. Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of few individuals.
2. Maximum resources are in few hands, which in turn divided the society into two groups-i.e. have and have not or rich
and poor.
3. Indiscriminate of exploitation of resources has led to global ecological crises such as global warming, ozone layer
depletion, environmental pollution and land degradation.

Sustainable development:-
Eco-friendly development which fulfills the demands of the present and future generations. (development
should take place without damazing the environment).
Resource planning: -
Technique / skills of proper utilization of resources is called resource planning. There are three steps
are followed for resource planning in India-
1. Identification and inventory of resources across the regions of the country. (surveying, mapping etc.)
2. Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set up for implementing
resource development plans.
3. Matching the regional resource development plans with over all national development plans.
 Land resources:-
1. Utilization:-
a) Plains- 43% for agriculture and industry.
b) Mountains- 30% forest resource, promote tourism
c) Plateaus- 27% store house of mineral, forest resource and fossil fuel.

Note- According to National Forest Policy 1952- there should be 33%

forest area.
2. Land degradation:-
Land loses its fertility due to natural and man-made forces uch as mining,
over grazing, over irrigation, deforestation and industrial effect .
3. Conservation of land resources:-
a) Afforestation
b) proper management of grazing.
c) Planning of shelter belts of plants.
d) Control on over grazing
e) Control on mining.
Soil:-
1. Alluvial soil:-
- Most fertile.
- Consist of sand, silt and clay (cristal+silica+alumina).
- Made up of river deposits.
- Two types- Bangar and Khadar.
- Found in Northern plains and Deltas.
- Important for wheat, paddy and sugarcane.
2. Black soil:-
- Also called Regur soil.
- Consist of calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime.
- Made up of lava flow.
- Capacity to hold moisture.
- Developed cracks during hot weather due to lack of phosphoric contents.
- Found in Maharashtra, Gujarat and MP mostly.
- Ideal for cotton cultivation.
3. Red and Yellow soil:-
- Red due to iron content.
- Developed on crystalline igneous rocks.
- Found in Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Western Ghats and Meghalaya.
4. Laterite soil:-
- Low humus.
- Suitable for cultivation with high dose of manure and fertilizers.
- Found in Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, Tamil-Nadu and MP.
5. Arid soil:-
- Red to Brown in colour.
- Sandy and saline.
- Lack of humus and moisture.
- Found in Western Rajasthan.
 6. Forest soil:-
- Found in hilly and mountain areas.
- Have low humus.
- Found in Himalayan region.

Soil erosion:- Removal of top soil by water, wind and glacier etc.
Soil conservation: - The prevention of loss of the top most layer of the soil from erosion.

Ways of soil conservation: -

1. Contour ploughing: - Ploughing along contour lines which can decelerate the flow of water
down the flow.
2. Terrace cultivation: - Steps cut down on the slopes making terraces.
3. Strip cropping: - Large fields divided into strips and grsses are grown between the crops in
strips.
4. Shelter belt: - Planting lines of trees to create shelter, in deserts or coastal areas.
*******************************************
Ch-2 : FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES
GIST OF THE LESSON / MIND MAP
Biodiversity is extremely diverse on earth and works interdependently. It is a system of
closely knit networks that sustains the ecosystem. India has world's largest biodiversity
thriving on its land and 10 per cent of the recorded wild flora and 20 per cent of its mammals
are on the threatened list.
As the list generated by International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (1UCN), the
species can classified as following:-
1. Normal species: They have population levels normal for survival. Example:pine, rodents, etc.
2. Endangered Species: They are in danger of extinction and would eventually decline if the present
conditions continue. Example: crocodile, rhino, lion tale macaque tc.
3. Vulnerable species: These species are vulnerable to fall into the endangered category in near future.
Example: Asiatic elephant, dolphin, blue sheep etc
4. Rare species: They have a small population which can move to endangered or vulnerable category in
near future if the present conditions for their survival sustain itself. Example: Asiatic buffalo, hornbill etc
5. Endemic species: These species are only found in limited geographical area. Example: Andaman teal.
Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig. mithun in Arunachal Pradesh.
6. Extinct species: These species are not found in the areas they were likely to be found. Example: Asiatic
cheetah, pink head duck.
7.
CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION:-
Between 1951 and 1980, according to the Forest Survey of India, over 26,200 sq. km. of forest area was
converted into agricultural land all over India and substantial parts of the tribal belts, especially in the
northeastern and central India were deforested to practice shifting cultivation Ghum), a type of "slash
and burn agriculture Around 5,000 sq km of forest lands have been cleared to progress river valley
projects, since 1951. For example: About 40,000 hectares of forests were cleared for the Narmada Sagar
Project in Madhya Pradesh.
How forests are useful to man?
1. The wood that we get from the forests is important for building and construction
purposes, for domestic furniture and for fuel.
2. The raw materials for paper industry, match-making and sport materials are mainly
derived from the forests.
3. The sandal wood, gums, resins, turpentine oil etc. are extracted from the forest
products.Besides the above products, the forests yield many other useful products such as
herbs, lac, honey etc.
4. Grass grown in forests is used for grazing the cattle, sheep, camel etc. To great extent,
the shortage for fodder is also made up by these forests.
5. They play a major role in enhancing the quality of environment. They modify local
climate. They help in controlling soil erosion.
Explain how human activities have affected the depletion of flora.
1. Humans have cleared thejungles for their own living andthe livings of their animals’ aswell as for the
construction oftheir houses. Too much destruction of trees has disturbed the ecosystem andcreated
various health problems for themselves.
2. The agriculture expansionduring the colonial rule andeven after independenceproved one of the
majorcauses of the depletion of theflora and fauna.
3. The great demand of sleeperfor the expansion of railwaysand ship-building during the colonial rule
also inflicted agreat damage to the Indianforests.
4. As a result of the removal ofthe original plant cover and itsreplacement by a single crop, the biological
diversity hasgreat damage to the Indianforests.
4. As a result of the removal ofthe original plant cover and itsreplacement by a single crop, the
biological diversity hasbeen reduces and a single crophas become vulnerable topests and diseases.
5. The burning of fossil fuels inlarge quantity, automobileexhausts, gaseous effluentsfrom factories
have led to thepollution of air and water.

List six factors which have led to the decline in India’s biodiversity.

1. Habitat destruction
2. Over-exploitation
3. Environmental pollution
4. Forest fires
5. Hunting and Poaching
Poisoning
6.
******************************************************
 23

Chapter – 2 – WATER RESOURCES

Some facts and figures about water: -
- 70% of fresh water occurs as ice sheets and glaciers in Antarctica, Greenland and the
mountain regions.
- According to United Nations World Water Development Report total volume of
world’s water is –
Saline Water- 97%
Fresh Water- 3% (70% Ice Sheets and Glaciers and 30% Ground Water).
Use of water:-
- 70% - Agriculture
- 22% - Industries
- 08% - Domestic
Responsible factors for scarcity of water:-
a) Over Exploitation-
b) Industrialization and Urbanization-
c) Bad quality of water-
- Domestic and industrial waste.
- Maximum use of chemicals and pesticides in agriculture.
- Sewage flow into rivers and canals.
- Garbage dumping near water bodies.
Need of conservation the water resources:-
- To supply of water for drinking and irrigation.
- To prevent degradation of our natural ecosystem.
- To increase agricultural production and productivity.
- To increase the standard of living.
- To increase the employment.
Multi-purpose river valley projects:-
A river valley project which serves many purposes such as flood control, irrigation,
hydroelectricity generation etc.
Dam:-
A barrier across the river built to impound river and rain water that could be used later to irrigate
agricultural fields.
Advantages of large dams:-

- Useful for irrigation.

- For generation of hydroelectricity.
- Navigation
- Fisheries
- Tourism
- Check soil erosion
 24

Disadvantages of large dams:-

- Restricted water flow.
- Dams cause submerging of natural vegetation and habitation.
- Fragmentation of river causes difficulty in migration of aquatic fauna.
- Induce earth quake.
Methods of water conservation:-

- Dams and reservoirs should be constructed on rivers so that river water does not go
waste into seas and oceans.
- The water of rivers should be saved from pollution by urban waste at all costs.
- Serious efforts should be made to control floods.
- Water should be used properly.
- Potable (safe to drink) water should not be used for gardening washing of vehicles and
cleaning of house hold.
- Saving of reservoirs from pollution.
- Broken pipelines of water should be repaired immediately.
- Every drop of water is precious, this should be popularized among the public.
- Such crops should not be grown in rain fed areas which require more water.
- Mass awakening should be around for water conservation.

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Chapter – 3 – Agriculture
Agriculture:-Latin word- Agros- land, culture- ploughing, cultivation of land.
Bio-technology:-Modifying different crops genetically to increase the yield production.
Plantation agriculture:-Single crop farming resembling factory production.
Sericulture:-Rearing of silk worms for the production of silk fibre.
Slash and Burn agriculture:-Clearing the forest either by cutting or burning and practice agriculture till the
fertility of the form is exhausted.

Types of Farming:-
1. Primitive subsistence farming:-
- Use primitive tools – hoe, digging-sticks.
- Depends on Monsoon and natural fertility.
- Low productivity.
- Do not use modern inputs.
- Practiced in small patches of land- i.e. Jhumming in North-East.
2. Intensive subsistence farming:-
- Labour intensive farming.
- Depends on irrigation and biochemical inputs.
- High production.
- Use modern inputs.
- Practiced in areas of high population.
 25

3. Commercial farming:-
- Use of higher doses of modern inputs, i.e. High Yielding Variety seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides
etc.
- Rice is a commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab, but in Orissa, it is a subsistence crop.
Cropping pattern:-
i) Rabi ii) Kharif iii) Zaid
Crop Sown Time Harvest Time Main Crops Sown Area
Rabi October to April to June Wheat, Barley, Peas, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh,
December Gram, Mustard etc. J&K, UP, Uttarakhand, Rajasthan etc.

Kharif Starting time of September to Paddy, Maize, Jowar, West Bengal, Assam, Orissa, Andhra
Monsoon October Bajra, Moong, Cotton, Pradesh, Tamil-Nadu, Kerala,
Jute, Groundnut, Maharashtra, (Mainly Rice in Haryana
Soyabean etc. & Punjab)
Zaid Between Rabi Summer Season Watermelon, Same Region
and Kharif Muskmelon, Cucumber,
Season Vegetables, Fooder
crops etc.

Note- Aus, Aman, Boro are three types of paddy crops of Assam, West Bengal and Orissa.
Major Crops:-
1. Cereals- Rice, Wheat, Millet, Maize.
2. Pulses- Tur, Urad, Moong, Masur, Peas, Gram etc.
3. Beverage Crops- Tea and Coffee.
4. Fibre Crops- Cotton and Jute.
5. Horticulture Crops- Fruits and Vegetables.

Climatic Conditions and production areas of different crops:-

Sr. Crop and Crop Climatic Requirements Area of Production
No. Season
1 Rice- Kharif Season Temperature- average 25⸰ C West Bengal, UP, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,
Rainfall- 100 to 150 cm. Punjab, Tamil-Nadu, Kerala
Alluvial Soil
2 Wheat- Rabi Season Temperature- average 10 to 15⸰ C Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar, Rajasthan
Rainfall- 50 to 75 cm.
Alluvial Loamy Soil
3 Maize- Kharif Temperature- average 21 to 27⸰ C Bihar, UP, MP, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
Season Rainfall- 75to 100 cm.
Old Alluvial Soil
4 Sugarcane- Kharif Temperature- average 21 to 27⸰ C UP, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil-Nadu,
Season Rainfall- 75 to 100 cm. Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar
Alluvial Clayey Soil
5 Tea- Both Rabi and Temperature- average 20to 30⸰ C Assam, West Bengal, Tamil-Nadu, Kerala
Kharif Rainfall- 150 to 300 cm.
Fertile well drained soil
6 Coffee- Kharif Temperature- average 15 to 25⸰ C Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil-Nadu
Season Rainfall- 150 to 200 cm.
Fertile well drained soil
 26

7 Rubber- Both Rabi Temperature- average 25⸰ C Kerala, Tamil-Nadu, Karnataka,

and Kharif Rainfall- 100 cm. Meghalaya, Andaman and Nicobar
Fertile well drained soil
8 Cotton- Kharif Temperature- average 25⸰ C Maharashtra, Gujarat, MP, Punjab, Haryana
Season Rainfall- 100 cm.
210 frost free days
Black Soil
9 Jute- Kharif Season Temperature- average 25 to 30⸰ C West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Orissa,
Rainfall- 150 to 200 cm. Meghaiaya
Well drained soil

Technological and Institutional reforms in Agriculture:-

- Use of water pumps.
- Use of HYV seeds.
- Use of bio-fertilizers.
- Abolition of Zamindari System.
- Consolidation of holdings.
- Providing loan facilities to the farmers.
- Providing Kissan Credit Card (KCC).
- Personal Accidental Insurance Scheme (PAIS).
- Government start weather and agricultural programme and also start Kissan Call Centers.
- Government also announces Minimum Support Price (MSP).
- Provision for crop insurance against drought, flood, cyclone, fire etc.

Contribution of agriculture to the national economy, employment and output:-

- 63% people are involve and dependent on agriculture.
- GDP – is declining due to not generating sufficient employment opportunities in the country.
- International competition.
- Reduction in the public investment in agriculture sector particularly-irrigation,power,rural roads etc.
- Subsidy on fertilizers decreased leading to the increase in the cost of production.
- Farmers are withdrawing their investment from agriculture – causing downfall in the employment in
agriculture.

Food security:-
In order to ensure availability of food to all sections of society our government carefully
designed a national food security system.it consists of two components – (1) Buffer stock(2) Public
Distribution system (PDS)
(1) Buffer Stock:-Govt. buy wheat and Rice from the farmers on minimum support price and stock this
so that it can be used at the time of natural calamity.
(2) Public Distribution System (PDS):- PDS is a programme which provides food grains and other
essential commodities at subsidized prices in rural and urban areas through fair price shops.

Impact of globalization on agriculture:-

- Farmers exposed to new industrial environment.
- Strengthening institutional set up.
- Market oriented approach.
- Improved technology.
 27

Chapter – 4 – MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES

Minerals:- It is a natural inorganic substance having particular physical
Properties of hardness, colour, and form.
- Homogenous, naturally occurring substance with s definable internal structure.

Classification of minerals:-
Metallic:-
a) Ferrous- (Containing iron) iron ore, manganese, nickel, cobalt etc.
b) Non-Ferrous- Copper, lead, tin, bauxite etc.
c) Precious- Gold, silver, platinum etc.
Non-Metallic:- Mica, salt, potash, sulphur, granite, limestone etc.
Energy Minerals:- Coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.
Metallic-
1. Can be melted.
2. Given any shape and re-used.
Non-Metallic-

1. Can’t be melted.
2. Can’t be given any shape and re-used.
Mineral areas:-
1. In igneous and metamorphic rocks, minerals may occur in the cracks, crevices, faults or joints. Tin,
copper, zinc and lead etc.
2. In sedimentary rocks minerals occur in beds or layers-
a) Formed as a result of deposition, accumulation and concentration. i.e. - coal, iron ore etc.
b) Formed as a result of evaporation. i.e. – gypsum, potash, salt and sodium etc.
3. By decomposition of surface rocks. i.e. – Bauxite.
4. In sands of valley floors and the base of hills- as alluvial deposits called “placer deposit”. i.e. – Gold,
silver, tin and platinum.
(Placer deposit- minerals which occur as alluvial deposits brought down by the rivers such as gold,
silver, tin etc.)
5. In ocean water- Salt, magnesium and bromine.

Affecting factors of the economic viability of a mineral:-

- The concentration of mineral in the ore.
- The ease of extraction.
- Closeness to the market.
- Utility of the mineral.

Distribution of the minerals:-

1. Ferrous minerals- About three fourth of the total value of the production of metallic minerals.
i) Iron ore-
- Backbone of industrial development.
- India have over 20% of the world’s total reserves.
 28

a) Magnetite-
- 70% iron content.
- Excellent magnetic qualities.
- Maximum use in electrical industry.
- It is dark brown to blakish in colour.
- Referred as ‘black ores’.
b) Hematite-
- Most important for all industries.
- 50 to 60% iron content.
- Red in colour, often reffered as ‘red ore’.
c) Limonite-
- 35 to 50% iron content.
- Rarely exploited.
- Yellow in colour.

Major iron belts in India: -

- Orissa-Jharkhand belt.
- Durg – Bastar - Chandrapur belt (Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra).
- Bellary – Chitradurga – Chikmaglur – Tumkur belt (Karnatakam, Maharashtra, Goa belt).
Note-
- 99% of the total reserves are in Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and Goa.
- Orissa and Jharkhand together possess about 50% of India’s reserves of high-grade iron ore.

ii) Manganese-
- Used in the manufacturing of steel, to make bleaching powder, insecticides and paints.
- Nearly 10 kg manganese is required to manufacture one tonne of steel.
Note-
- India is the third biggest producer of manganese ore in the world after Russia and South Africa.
- Orissa is the biggest producer in India.
2. Non-Ferrous minerals: -
i) Copper-
- Use in electrical cables, electronics and chemical industries.
- Producers- The Balaghat mines in MP.(52% of India)
-Singbhum district (Jharkhand)
-Khetri mines (Rajasthan)
ii) bauxite-
Useness - to get aluminium .
-It combines the strength of metal with extreme lightness and also with good conductivity
and malleability.

Deposit areas-
- Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the plateau region of Bilaspur – Katni.
- Largest producer Orissa – (45% OF India).
Note- India exports bauxite to a number of countries. The leading importer of
Indian bauxite is Italy, followed by the UK, Germany and Japan.
Non-Metallic minerals:-
 29

1. Mica-
- India is the leading producer in Mica.
- Mica is used in electrical and electronics industries.
- Mica is widely distributed, but workable deposits occur in the states of Bihar, Andhra
Pradesh and Rajasthan.
- Hazaribagh belt in Jharkhand is the leading producer of Mica.
- Nellore mica belt of Andhra Pradesh is also an important producer of mica in the
country.
2. Limestone-
- Limestone is mostly used in cement, iron, steel and chemical industries.
- About 76% limestone used in cement.
- Mostly found in MP, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Jharkhand, Meghalaya and Rajasthan.
- Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh produce about 50% of the country.
- Limestone is the basic raw material for the cement industry and essential for smelting iron ore in the
blast furnace.

Importance of minerals:-
- Minerals are very important for every nation for its development.
- Minerals are in limited sources and already in short supply. (just 1% of earth’s crust)
- All industrial and agricultural development depend on minerals.
- Mineral resources are limited and not renewable.
- We are rapidly consuming mineral resources that needs millions of years to be created and
concentrated.

Ways of conservation of minerals:-

- Planned and sustainable way should be adopt for using mineral resources.
- Recycling of metals.
- Using scrap metals.
- Improve technologies to allow the use of low grade ores at low costs.
Energy Resources:-
Conventional- Coal, petroleum, natural gas, electricity.
Non-Conventional- Nuclear or Atomic energy, solar energy, wind energy, biogas, tidal energy, geo
thermal energy.
Conventional-
1. Coal- Coal is the most abundantly available fossil fuel. India is highly dependent on coal for meeting
its commercial energy requirements. There are four types of coal-
i) Peat- Peat has low carbon and high moisture contents and low heating capacity.
ii) Lignite- Low grade brown coal with high moisture content. It used for generate electricity.
iii) Bituminous- Most popular coal for commercial use.
iv) Anthracite- The highest quality hard coal. High carbon and low moisture content.
2. Petroleum-
- Petroleum or mineral oil is the second biggest energy source in India after coal.
- Uses- It provides fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for machinery and raw materials for many
manufacturing industries.
- Production areas- 63% Mumbai High, 18% Gujarat, 16% Assam
 30

Note-
i) Ankaleshwar in Gujarat and Digboi in Assam are also important field of petroleum.
ii) Assam is the oldest oil producing state of India.
3. Natural Gas-
- It is used as a source of energy as well as an industrial raw material in the petrochemical industry.
- Important clean energy resource found in association with or without petroleum.
- Called environmental friendly due to low Carbon-dioxide emission.
- Also called the fuel for the present century.
- The power and fertilizer industries are the key users of natural gas.
- Use of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) for vehicles to replace liquid fuels is gaining wide popularity in
the country.
- Gas Authority of India was established in 1984.
4. Electricity-
i) Hydro electricity- By running water which drives hydro turbines to generate hydro-electricity.
ii) Thermal power- By burning other fuels such as coal, petroleum, natural gas to drive turbines for
produce thermal power.
iii) Per-Capita consumption of electricity is considered as an index of development.

Non-Conventional:-
1. Nuclear or Atomic energy-
- Obtained by altering the structure of atoms.
- Uranium and Thorium which are available in Jharkhand and the Aravali ranges of Rajasthan are used
for generating atomic or nuclear power.
- The monazite sands of Kerala is also rich in Thorium.
2. Solar energy-
- Popular in rural and remote areas.
- The largest solar plant of India is located at Madhapur, near Bhuj, where solar energy is used to
sterling milk cans.
- Environmental friendly.
3. Wind power-
- India known as “wind super power” in the world.
- The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil-Nadu from Nagar coil to Madurai.
- Jaisalmer is also known for effective use of wind energy.

Chapter – 5 – MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

Manufacturing- Production of goods in large quantities from raw material to more valuable products. This is
done by applying technology and expertise knowledge.

Importance of manufacturing:-
- Reduce burden on agriculture.
- Provides employment opportunity.
- Exports of manufactured goods.
- Helps in economic development.
- Foreign exchange.
- Contribution to national income.
- Improve standard of living.
 31

Locational factors of an industry:-

- Raw material.
- Labour.
- Capital.
- Power.
- Transport.
- Market.
- Government policy.
- Technology.

Classification of industries:-
1. On the basis of raw material-
a) Agro based- Cotton, jute, sugar etc.
b) Mineral based- Iron, cement, aluminium etc.
2. According to their main role-
a) Basic or key industries- Iron & steel, copper etc.
b) Consumer industries- Sugar, paper etc.
3. On the basis of capital investment-
a) Small scale industries- Maximum investment allowed is rupees one crore.
b) Large scale industries- When investment is more than one crore.
4. On the basis of ownership-
a) Public sector- BHEL
b) Private sector- TISCO
c) Joint sector- Oil India Ltd.
d) Cooperative sector- Sugar in Maharashtra
5. On the basis of bulk and weight of raw material and finished goods-
a) Heavy industries- Iron and steel
b) Light industries- Electrical industries
Agro based industries:-
1. Textile industries:-
- Contribute 14% of total industrial production.
- 2nd biggest employment industry after agriculture.
- Exchange 24.6% foreign currency.
- Contribute 4% of total GDP.
- Only self-reliant industry of the country.
i) Cotton textile-
- The first successful cotton textile mill was established in Mumbai in 1854.
- There are about 1600 cotton and human made fibre mills in the country.
- About 80% of these are in the private sector.
- Maximum cotton textile mills are concentrated in Maharashtra and Gujarat due to availability of raw cotton,
market, transport, labour, moist climate etc.
- India has world class production in spinning.
- The handspun khadi provides large scale employment to weavers in their homes as a cottage industry.
- India exports yarn to Japan.
- Exporters of cotton goods from India are USA, UK, Russia, France, Nepal, Singapore, Sri Lanka etc.
 32

Problems faced by the cotton textile industries in India: -

- Shortage of long staple cotton. We have to import it from other countries.

- Irregular power supply.
- Outdated machinery, which needs to be upgraded, especially in the weaving and processing sectors.
- Low output of labour and stiff competition with synthetic fibre industry.
- Low quality of fabric due to low quality yarn production.
ii) Jute textile-
- India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute goods.
- India is the second biggest exporter after Bangladesh.
- There are about 70 jute mills in India. Most are located in West Bengal mainly along with the banks
of Hugli river, due to proximity of the jute producing areas, cheap water transport, supported by a
good network of railways, roadways and waterways, abundant water for processing raw jute and
cheap labour from West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and UP.
- Kolkata as a large urban centre provides banking , insurance and port facilities for export of jute
goods.
- Importers of Indian jute are – USA, Canada, Russia, UK and Australia.
- National jute policy was formulated in 2005.
Challenges faced by the jute industry:- Stiff competition in the international market from synthetic
substitutes and other countries like- Bangladesh, Egypt and Thailand.

2. Sugar industry-
- India is the 2nd biggest producer after Brazil.
- About 500 sugar mills all over country.
- UP, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil-Nadu, Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana are major sugar
producing states.
- 60% mills are in UP and Bihar.
- In recent years sugar mills shifted in the southern and western, especially in Maharashtra due to
higher sucrose content in cane.
Challenges faced by sugar industry:-

- Seasonal nature of industry.

- Old and inefficient methods of production.
- Transport delay in reaching cane to factories.

Mineral based industries:-

1. Iron and steel industry:-
- Basic industry.
- Iron ore, coking coal, and lime stone are required in the ratio of approximately 4:2:1.
- Manganese also required for hardness.
- India is the 9th largest producer of crude steel.
- Per capita consumption per annum is only 32 kg.
- Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) is in public sector.
- Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) is in private limited sector.
- China is the largest producer and consumer of iron and steel.
- Chhota Nagpur plateau region has the maximum concentration of iron and steel industries.
 33

Challenges faced by iron and steel industry:-

- High costs and limited availability of coking coal.
- Lower productivity of labour.
- Irregular supply of energy.
- Poor infrastructure.
2. Aluminium smelting:-
- The 2nd most important metallurgical industry in India.
- 8 aluminium plants in the country, located in Orissa (Nalco and Balco), West Bengal, Kerala, UP,
Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and Tamil-Nadu.
- Bauxite is used for raw material.
Uses-
- Used to manufacture air craft.
- Used to making utensils and wires.
- Resistant to corrosion.
- Good conductor of heat.
- Malleable.
- Easy to transport due to lightness.
- Substitute of steel, copper, zinc and lead.
3. Chemical industries:-
- 3% contribution of total GDP.
- Third largest in Asia and 12th largest in the world in terms of its size.
- Both working in large and small scale industries.
i) Organic chemicals-
- Petrochemicals(used in manufacturing of synthetic fibres), synthetic rubber, plastics, drug etc.
- Organic plants are located near oil refineries or petrochemical plants.
ii) Inorganic chemicals-
- Sulphuric acid, nitric acid, alkalies, soda ash, caustic soda etc.

4. Fertilizer industry: -
- Centered around the production area of Nitrogen Phosphate and Potash.
- Potash is totally imported.
- India is third largest producer of nitrogenous fertilizers.
5. Cement industry: -
- Raw material- Limestone, Silika, Alumina and Gypsum.
- First cement plant was set up in Chennai in 1904.
- 128 large and 332 mini cement plants in the country.

Information technology and electronics industry: -

- Bangaluru has emerged as the electronic capital of India.
- 18 software technology parks in India to provide single window service and high data communication
facility to software experts.
- About 4.5 crore persons are employees in IT industry (with about 30% women).

*******************************************************
 34

Chapter – 6 – LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY

Transport-
- Carries the people and goods from one place to another.
- It helps both the production, distribution as well as consumption process.
Communication-
- The process of receiving and sending messages between two persons or agencies located at
different places.
- Radio and Television are the means of mass communication which provide information, news and
entertainment to the people spread over vast distances.
Trade- Trade involves exchange of goods among people living in different regions or countries of the world.

Transport:-
Means of transport-
1. Land transport- Roadways, Railways, Pipelines.
2. Water transport- Inland transport, Overseas transport.
3. Air transport-
- Domestic ( Public undertaking & Private airlines)
- International
1. Land transport-
Roadways-
Merits of Roadways-
- Lower construction cost.
- Easy to construction of roads in mountain areas, compare to railways.
- Very effective to carry smaller amount of goods over short distances.
- It provides door to door service.
- It provide a link between railway stations, airports and sea ports.

Classification of Roadways:-
1. Golden quadrilateral super highways-
- Government launched a major road development project linking Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai and
Mumbai.
- The North South corridor linking Sri Nagar and Kanyakumari.
- The East West corridor connecting Silchar and Porbander.
- Major objective- to reduce the time and distance between the mega cities.
- Implemented by National Highway Authority of India (NHAI).
2. National Highways-
- Link extreme part of the country.
- Maintained by CPWD (Central Public Works Department).
- National Highway no. 1 – Delhi to Amritsar (Sher Shah Suri Marg).
- The biggest National Highway is no. 44, Sri Nagar to Kanyakumari. (Old no. was 7).
- The busiest National Highway is no. 48, connect the national capital Delhi to financial capital
Mumbai. (Old no. was 8).
3. State Highways-
- Link state capital with district headquarters.
- Maintained by state PWD.
 35

4. District Roads-
- Link district headquarters with other places.
- Maintained by Zila Parishad.
5. Border Roads-
- Border Roads organization established in 1960.
- For improved accessibility in areas of difficult terrain and have helped in the economic development
of these areas.
6. Other Roads-
- Link rural areas with towns.
- Pradhan Mantri Gramin Sadak Yojana.

Railways:-
- The Indian Railway is the largest department of the country in public sector.
- First train between Mumbai to Thane in 1853- 34 km.
- There are 18 Railway Zones in the country.
Railway Tracks-

1. Broad Gauge- 1.676 Metre, the longest Route.

2. Metre Gauge- 1.000 metre.
3. Narrow Gauge- 0.762 and 0.610 metre, the smallest route .
Importance of Railways-

- Large number of goods and passengers can be transported by railways at one time to
larger distances.
- Bind the economic life of the country.
- Railway helps in developing national interaction.
Problems faced by Railways-

- Many passengers travel without tickets.

- Thefts and damaging of railway property has not yet stopped completely.
- People stop the train by pulling the chain unnecessarily, causing heavy damage to the
railways.
Pipelines:-
Three important networks of pipeline transport in India-
1. Oilfield in upper Assam to Kanpur, via Guwahati, Barauni and Allahabad.
2. From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in Punjab, via Viramgam, Mathura, Delhi and Sonipat.
3. From Hazira in Gujarat connects Jagdishpur in UP, via Vijaipur in MP.
Importance of pipelines-

- used for transporting crude oil, petroleum products and natural gas from the oil and
natural gas fields to refineries, fertilizer factories and big thermal power plants.
- Solids can also be transported through a pipeline when converted into slurry.
- Initial cost of lying pipelines is high, but subsequent running costs are minimum.
- It rules out trans-shipment losses or delays.
 36

Waterways:
National waterways-
1. The Ganga River Waterways- (N W No. 1)- Between Allahabad and Haldia (1620km).
2. The Brahmaputra River Waterways- (N W No.2)- Between Sadiya to Dhubri (891km).
3. The West coast canal in Kerala- Between Kottapurma and Kollam (205km).
Note- India has long seacoast line – 7516.6 km.

Major sea ports-

S.N. Sea Port Type Remark

1 Kandla, Kuchchh Tidal Port To fulfill the loss of Karachi port and to
(Gujarat) support Mumbai Port.
2 Mumbai (MH) Natural Biggest Port

3 Marmagao (Goa) Natural About 50%iron ore export of India.

4 New Mangalore Natural Export iron ore from Kudremukh mines.

(Karnataka)
5 Kochchi (Kerala) Natural Located at the entrance of a lagoon.

6 Tuticorin (TN) Natural Trade with Sri Lanka & Maldives.

7 Chennai (TN) Artificial Oldest & 2nd biggest after Mumbai.

8 Vishakhapatnam Artificial Deepest & well protect Port.

(AndhraPradesh)
9 Paradwip (Orissa) Natural Export of iron ore

10 Kolkata (WB) Inland tidal Requires constant dredging of Hoogly.

port

11 Haldia (WB) Natural To relieve growing pressure on Kolkata.

12 J. L. Nehru Port Natural To relieve growing pressure on Mumbai

(Nhava Sheva) Port.
Maharashtra

Airways:- The Air transport was nationalized in 1953.

Indian Airlines- Provide domestic services and in neighbouring countries like South and South East Asia and
the Middle East.

Air India –
Provide international air services.
 37

Importance of Airways-
- The fastest mode of transport. - The most comfortable - Prestigious mode of transport.
Challenges- Far away from the common people.

Communication:-
- Exchange of ideas, emotions, messages either written or oral, from one place to
another all over the world.
Note- The Indian Postal Network is the largest in the world.

Types of Mails-

1. First Class Mail- Cards and envelops - carried by airways.

2. Second Class Mail- Books, registered packets, newspapers and magazines – carried by surface mail and
covering land and water transport.

Note- Six mail channels have been introduced to facilitate quick delivery of mails in large towns and cities.
(1) Rajdhani (2) Metro (3) Green (4) Business (5) Bulk (6) Periodical Channel.

Mass Communication- Means through which one can communicate with several people at the same time.

Personal communication- Communication between two or more persons at personal level.

Trade:- 1. Local Trade 2. State Trade 3. National Trade 4. International Trade

Note- Advancement of international trade of a country is an index to its economic prosperity. It is therefore,
considered the economic barometer for a country.

Components of Trade- (1) Import (2) Export

Balance of Trade- It is the difference between the total value of export and import of goods of a nation.

Favorable balance of Trade- When the value of exports exceeds the value of imports of a country.

Unfavorable balance of Trade- When the value of imports exceeds the value of exports.

Tourism as a Trade-

Importance-

- Over 3 million foreign tourists visit India every year.

- More than 20 million people are directly engaged in the tourism industry.
- It promotes national integration.
- Support to local handicrafts.
- To development of international understanding about our culture and heritage.
 38

SOCIAL SCIENCE NOTES CLASS – 10 (POL. SCIENCE)

Chapter- 1 – POWER SHARING

Ethnic composition of Belgium (A small country of Europe):-
- 59% live in Flemish region- Speak Dutch
- 40% live in Wallonia region- Speak French
- 1% Belgians- Speak German
In capital Brussels-
- 80% speak French
- 20% speak Dutch
Ethnic composition of Sri Lanka:-
- 74% Sinhala speakers.
- 18% Tamil speakers
- 8% speak both languages.
Note- Tamils- Some Sri Lankans and some Indians.
Indian Tamils- Whose fore fathers came from India as plantation workers during
colonial rule.
Religion-
- Sinhala Speakers are Buddhist.
- Tamil Speakers are Hindus or Muslims.
- 7% Christians are both Tamil and Sinhala.
Democratic forms of government:-
Sri Lanka:-
1) Democratically elected government (Sinhala community dominated the ministry).
2) Adopted a series of majoritarian to establish Sinhala supremacy. 1956 Act recognized
Sinhala as the only official language.
3) Favoured Sinhala applicants for university positions and government jobs.
4) Constitution- to protect and foster Buddhism.
Result-
1) Increased the feeling of distrust among the Sri Lankan Tamils. Civil War started.
2) Constitution and the government ignored their interests, denied equal political rights.
3) Sri Lankan Tamils launched parties and demanded Tamil-Elam State, Tamil as an
official language, regional autonomy, equality in education and jobs.
 39

Belgium:-
1) Equal number of ministers from Dutch and French speaking in central government.
2) No single community can make decisions for itself.
3) State government not subordinate to central government.
4) Brussels- Government had equal representation. French people agreed with Dutch.
5) Community government- representatives of language community formed. No matter
where they live Dutch, French and German.
Result-
1. Country united respecting the feeling of different communities and regions.
2. Brussels chosen as headquarter of European Union.
Forms of Power Sharing-
1. Among different organs of government:-
a) Legislature
b) Executive
c) Judiciary
- Horizontal distribution of powers.
- Each organ check the other. This called check and balance.
2. Government of different levels:-
a) Union Government
b) State Government
c) Local Government
- Vertical distribution of power.
3. Among different social groups-
- Reserved constituencies in assemblies and parliament.
- Minority given fair share.
4. Political parties, pressure groups and movements-
- Power does not remain in one hand.
- People have freedom to choose various parties. Traders, farmers industrial workers
(pressure groups) also influence government in decision making.
Need of power sharing:-
- Reduce the possibility of conflict between different social groups.
- Ensure stability of political order.
- Holds on the spirit of democracy.
- Promotes peoples participation in government.
- Accommodates diversities.
 40

Chapter – 2 – FEDERALISM
Federalism-
Federalism is a system of government in which powers of the government are divided between the
central and the governments of the constitutional units (states and provinces) of the country. USA, Brazil,
Canada, Australia, Russia, Germany etc.
Note- Federalism has two aspects-
1. Mutual Trust.
2. Agreement to live together.
Unitary-
Unitary form of government is a government in which all the powers of government are concentrated
into the hands of one central government and all the units are subordinate and under the central government.
China, Kazakhstan, Algeria, Greenland etc.
Note- U K is a unitary country. There is Constitutional Monarchy and Parliamentary
democracy. There are four countries in U K – England, North Ireland, Scotland and Velsh.
Two roots through which Federalism have been formed:-
1. Coming together federation-
- It is a federation in which several independent states come together on their own to
form an union in order to increase their security and maintain their identity.
- Example- USA, Switzerland, Australia etc.
2. Holding together federation-
- It is a type of federation in which a large country decides to divide its power between
the central government and the government of the units.
- Example- India, Spain, Belgium etc.
Features of federalism:-
- Two or more levels of government.
- Each level has its own jurisdiction powers, specified by the constitution.
- Change in the provision of constitution require the consent of both the governments. Both the houses
have to pass at-least 2/3 majority and half of the total states.
- Courts acts as an umpire, if any dispute arise between the levels of government.
- Sources of revenue specified for both the governments.
- Dual objective promote the unity of the country by accommodating regional diversity.

Note- India is called federal in form but unitary in spirit.

Three fold distribution of Legislative Powers-
Union List State List Concurrent List
100 subjects 61 subjects 52 subjects
Union govt. make laws. State govt. make laws. Both govt. make laws.
Subject of national Subject go local importance Subject of common interest
importance like- defence, like- police, trade, like- education, forest,
foreign affairs, army, agriculture, irrigation etc. marriage etc.
currency, railway etc.
 41

How federalism is practiced in India:-

1. Linguistic States-
- The states divided on the basis of language.
- It is common in a multilingual country like India where diverse languages are spoken.
- For better administration and reduction of the possibility of regional conflicts in future, states in
India were carved out on linguistic basis.
- Andhra Pradesh emerged as a first linguistic state on Nov. 1, 1956 for Telugu speaking people.
2. Language Policy-
- There are two official languages of India-
i) Hindi in Devanagari Script.
ii) English in Roman Script.
- There is no national language in India.
- Hindi was identified as the official language.
- Besides Hindi, there are 21 other languages recognized as Scheduled Languages by the Constitution.
- States too have their own official languages.
3. Center- State Relation-
- Centre-State relation of Indian federalism constitute the core of federalism and they
are regulated by the provisions of the Constitution.
- The division of powers between the Union and the States, as given in the Indian
Constitution has a strong bias in favour of the Centre.

Decentralization in India:-
- 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments, by constitutionally establishing Panchayati Raj Institutions
(PRIS) in India, mandated the establishment of Panchayats and Municipalities as elected local
governments.
- They devolved a range of powers and responsibilities to the local govern- ments and made them
accountable to the people for their implementation.
 42

Chapter – 4 – GENDER, RELIGION AND CASTE

Gender- Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to, and differentiating between
masculinity and femininity. Depending on the context, these characteristics may include
biological sex, sex-based social structures, or gender identity.
Sexual division of labour-Based on social expectations and stereotypes. Women do all the
work inside the home or take the help of domestic helpers and men do the work outside
home.
Role of women in the society:-
- Belief that responsibility of women is housework and bringing up children.
- Only men are allowed to participate in public affairs.
- No value of their work.
- Very less literacy rate.
- Girls dropout from education because parents prefer to spend their resources for their
boy’s education.
- Ladies on higher posts.
- Poor sex ratio.
- Women are not safe even in their own homes from beating, harassment and other
forms of domestic violence.
- Weak political representation.
- Gender issue raise in politics- for equal rights for voting, improve the political and
social status of women, for education and career. (feminist movement).
Communalism:-
The division based on religious differences. When beliefs of one religion are presented
as superior to those of other religions, when the demands of one religious group are formed
in opposition to another, and when state power is used to establish domination of one
religious group over the rest. This manner of using religion in politics is communal politics.

Note- communalism is a major challenge to democracy.

Relationship between religion and politics:-

- Gandhiji’s view- Religion can never be separated from politics. It must be guided by
ethics from religion.
- Human Right Group’s view- Victims of communal riots in our country are belong to
religious minorities.
- Women’s movement view- Family laws of all religions discriminate against women.
They demanded that such laws should be changed to make them equitable.
 43

Various forms of communalism in politics:-

- Religious prejudices- belief in the superiority of one’s religion over other religions.
- A communal mind leads to political dominance of one’s own religious community.
- Special appeal in electoral politics involving the use of sacred symbols, religious
leaders, emotional appeal and plain fear to bring the followers together.
Provisions of a secular state given in our constitution:-
- No official religion for the Indian state.
- Freedom to profess, practice and propagate any religion.
- Prohibits discrimination on the grounds of religion.
- Ensure equality within religious communities.
Caste:-
1. Caste inequalities:-Caste inequalities have not completely disappeared from India.
Even today, most people marry within their own caste or tribe.
2. Caste in Politics:-In India different political parties represent the interests of different
caste groups.
3. Politics in Caste:-
- Politics too influences the caste system and caste identities.
- Each caste groups tries to become bigger by incorporating with it neighbouring castes
or sub castes.

***********
Chapter – 5 – POLITICAL PARTIES
Political party-It is a group of people, who come together to contest elections and hold
power in the government.

Components of a political party:-

1. The leaders.
2. The active members
3. The followers.

Need of political parties:-

- To maintain democracy.
- For maintain unity in diversity.
- To check the government by various means.
- Link between the government and public.
 44

Functions of political parties:-

- Parties contest elections- members and supporters of a party choose its candidates in
USA, while in India, party leaders choose candidates.
- Parties put forward different policies and programmes.
- Parties play a decisive role in making laws for a country.
- Parties form and run the government.
- Defeated parties play the role of opposition.’
- Parties shape public opinion.
- Parties provide people access to government machinery and welfare schemes
implemented by governments.

Classification of party system

SINGLE PARTY TWO PARTY SYSTEM MULTI PARTY

SYSTEM SYETEM
Only one party is allowed to Power is usually with two main Several parties compete for
control and run the government. parties. power.

The electoral system does not Several parties may exist and More than two parties may
permit free competition for have seats in state legislation come to power on its own or in
power. For example- China but only two main parties win alliance (front). For example-
(only Communist Party), the majority. For example- India.
USA, UK (Labour party and
Conservative party of Britain).

Note- When several parties in a multiparty system join hands for the purpose of contesting
elections and winning power is called an alliance or a front.
National Political Parties:-
- A party that secures at-least six percent of the total votes in Lok Sabha elections and
wins at least four seats in the Lok Sabha.
OR
- A party that secures at-least six percent of the total votes in assembly elections in four
states and wins at least four seats in the Lok Sabha.
- They are wide parties- have their units in various states. All follow the same policies
and programmes decided at national level.
There are six National Parties:-
 45

1. Indian National Congress (INC):-

- One of the oldest parties of the world.
- Founded in 1885.
- Currently leads the United Progressive Alliance (UPA).
2. Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP):-
- Founded in 1980.
- Wants to build a strong and modern India.
- Currently leads the ruling National Democratic Alliance (NDA).
3. Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP):-
- Founded in 1984 under the leadership of Kanshi Ram.
- Stands for the cause of securing the interests and welfare of the dalits and oppressed people.
- It has its main base in UP.
4. Communist Party of India- Marxist (CPI-M):-
- Founded in 1964.
- Believes in Marxism and Leninism.
- Strong support West Bengal, Kerala and Tripura.
- It has been in power in West Bengal without a break for 40 years.
5. Communist Party of India (CPI):-
- Founded in 1925.
- Believes in Marxism, Leninism, Secularism and Democracy.
6. Nationalist Congress Party (NCP):-
- Founded in 1999.
- Wants that high offices in govt. be confined to natural born citizens of the country.
- Strong support in Maharashtra.

State Political Parties:-

A party that secure at-least six percent of the total votes in an election to legislative
assembly of a state and wins at-least two seats, recognized as a state party.
Challenges to political parties:-
1. Lack of internal democracy within parties.
2. Dynastic succession.
3. Increase money and muscle power in parties.
4. Lack of meaningful choice to the voters. Leaders shift from one party to another, not
much differences in their policies.
Efforts taken to reform political parties and its leaders:-
1. Prevented defection (changing party after election) if they do so they will lose the seat.
2. Order by the Supreme Court to reduce the influence of money and criminals. Candidates must file
affidavit giving details of his property and criminal cases pending against him.
3. Political parties should file their income tax returns.

Suggestion offered to make more reforms:-

1. Law to regulate the internal affairs to political parties.
2. Quota for women (at-least 1/3).
3. Govt. should give money to parties for support election expences.
4. Increase the degree of public participation.
5.
 46

Chapter – 6 – OUTCOMES OF DEMOCRACY

Features of democracy:-
- Have formal Constitution.
- Hold elections.
- Promotes equality among citizens.
- Increase the dignity of individual.
- Improves the quality of decision making.
- Provides a method to resolve conflicts.
- Allows room to correct mistakes.
Reasons for democratic govt. certainly better than its alternatives:-
1. Accountable-
- People have the right to elect the government.
- They participate in the decision making process.
- Citizen also have the right to evaluate the decision making process (RTI).
2. Responsive-
- Democracy is very much responsible towards the needs and aspirations of the people.
- It promotes formation of public opinion, needs and expectations of the citizens.
- There are proper deliberation and negotiations before taking any decision or arriving at any
conclusion.
3. Legitimate-
- Free and fair elections.
- Regular public debates.
- Planned legislations.
- Transparency in decision making.
- Examining the process of decision making.
Economic outcomes of democracy:-
1. Steps taken to reduce inequality and poverty-
- Minimum needs programme for the poor.
- Distribution of surplus land.
- Reservation of jobs for backward classes.
- Social security- old age pension, free medical aid etc.
2. Accommodation of social diversity-
Two conditions to achieve it-
Majority always need to work Majority formed by different
with minority so that govt. persons and groups not in
represent a general view. terms of religion, caste or
language.
Note- Democracy remains as long as every citizen has a chance of being in majority.
3. Dignity and freedom of citizens-
- Every individual wants to receive respect from fellow beings. (All individuals are equal).
- Freedom of expression to the people- their expectations and complaints are itself a testimony to the
success of democracy.

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Chapter – 7 – CHALLENGES TO DEMOCRACY

Challenge-
A challenge is a difficulty that carries within it an opportunity for progress. Once we
overcome a challenge we go up to a higher level than before.

Challenges for democracy:-

1. Foundational challenge-
- It involves bringing down the existing non-democratic regime, keeping military away
from controlling govt. and establishing a sovereign functional state.
2. Challenge of expansion-
- Applying the basic principle of democratic govt. across all the regions, different social
groups and various institutions.
- Ensuring greater power to local governments.
- Extension of federal principle to all the units of federation including of women and
minority groups.
3. Deepening of democracy-
- Strengthening of the institutions and practices of democracy.
- This require an attempt to bring down the control and influence of the rich and
powerful people in making government decision.

Other challenges:-
1. Constitutional design.
2. Democratic rights.
3. Working of institutions.
4. Election system.
5. Federalism, decentralization.
6. Accommodation of diversity.
7. Political organisations.
Redefining democracy:-
- The rulers elected by the people must take all the major decisions.
- Elections must offer a choice and a fair opportunity to the people to change the current
rulers.
- This choice and opportunity should be available to all the people on an equal basis.
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SOCIAL SCIENCE NOTES CLASS – 10 (ECONOMICS)

Chapter- 1 – DEVELOPMENT
Development-
Growth of economy along with the improvement in the quality of life of the people like- health,
education etc.
Economy-
A designated boundary area within production, consumption and investment activities are carried on.
Health- State of complete physical, mental and social soundness.
Education Awareness of the society regarding the laws of the land.
Different people different goals-
- Different persons can have different goals.
- What may be development for one may not be development for the other. It may even be destructive
for the other.
Other development goals except income: -
1. Equal treatment.
2. Freedom.
3. Security.
4. Respect etc.
National development-
Factors of national development:-
1. National income-
Total income of a country in a particular year plus net factor income received from abroad.
2. Per capita income-
Total income of a country in a particular year divided by the total population.
According the world development report 2006, brought by the world bank- countries with per capita
income of Rupees 4,53,000 per annum and above in 2004, are called rich countries. And those with
per capita income of Rupees 37,000 or less are called low-income countries.
India comes low-income countries with Rupees 28,000 per capita income.
3. Literacy Rate-
Proporation of literate population in the 7 and above age group.
4. Infant Mortality Rate-
Number of children die before the age of one year as a proporation of 1000 live children born in that
particular year.
5. Net Attendance Ratio-
Total number of children of age group 6-10 attending school as a percentage of total number of
children in the same age group.
6. Sex Ratio-
Number of female population per 1000 males in a country.
7. Infrastructure(Public Facilities)-
Availability of roads, bridges, power, health, education, transport etc. facilities in a country.
8. Human Development Report-
Published by United Nations Development Programme by measuring the development of a country
based on educational level, health status and per capita income.

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 49

Chapter – 2 – SECTORS OF THE INDIAN ECONOMY

Main sectors of Indian economy:-
1. Primary Sector(Agricultural & related sector)-
- Agricultural activities, mining, livestock, forestry, poultry etc.
- When we produce a good by exploiting natural resources, its called primary sector.
2. Secondary Sector(Industrial Sector)-
- This is the next step of primary activities.
- In this sector natural products are changed into other forms through ways of manufacturing that we
associate with industrial activity. For example- cloths, sugar, bricks etc.
3. Tertiary Sector(Service Sector)-
- These activities help in the development of primary and secondary sectors.
- These activities do not produce a good but they support the production process.
- Example- banking, transport, services, insurance, communication, internet, ATM booths, Call
centres etc.
GDP (Gross Domestic Product) - The value of final goods and services produced by each sector during a
particular year and the sum of production in the three sectors called GDP of a country.
Historical change in sectors-
Factors which increased the demands and importance of tertiary sector-
- The demand for basic services.
- The development of agriculture and industrial sector.
- When income level rise, people demand more services.
- Now a days services like information and communication technology have become important and
essential.
How to create more employment?
- By providing irrigation facilities so that agricultural sector will improve.
- By providing transportation and storage facilities.
- By providing agricultural loans.
- By encouraging small scale industries.
- By encouraging self-employment schemes.
- By guaranteeing 100 Days work through NREGA 2005.
- NREGA 2005 – National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005, which guarantees 100 Days
work in rural areas.
Other division of sectors on the basis of employment: -
1. Organized Sectors-
- In these sectors the terms of employment are regular and therefore people have assured work.
- They are registered by the government and have to follow its rules and regulations which are given
in various laws, such as the Factories Act, Minimum Wages Act etc.
- These are called organized because it has some formal processes and procedures.
- Some people may not be employed by anyone but may work on their own. They have to register
themselves with the government and follow the rules and regulations.
2. Unorganized Sectors-
- It is divided into small and scattered units which are largely outside the control of the government.
- There are rules and regulations but not followed.
- In these sectors job are low-paid and often not regular.
- There is no provisions of overtime, paid leave, holidays, leave due to sickness.
- Employment is not secure because people can be asked to leave without any reason.
 50

Division of sectors in terms of ownership:-

1. Public Sector-
- In this sector government owns most of the assets and provides all the services.
- The purpose of the public sector is not just to earn profit.
- Government raise money through taxes and other ways to meet expenses on the services rendered by
it.
- Example- Railway, Post offices etc.
2. Private Sector-
- In these sectors ownership of assets and delivery of services is in the hands of private individuals or
companies.
- The purpose of these sectors to earn more and more profits.
- To get such services we have to pay money to these individuals and companies.
- Example- Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO), Reliance industries etc.
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Chapter – 3 – MONEY AND CREDI
Money- It means anything chosen by common consent as a medium of exchange.
Credit- The activity of borrowing and lending money between two parties.
Medium of exchange-

- Use of money.
- Services exchange.
- Barter system- Exchange things without use of money.

Both coincidence of wants- both parties have to agree to sell and buy each other commodities.
Note 1. Currency like paper notes and coins are modern forms of money. Currency is accepted as a medium
of exchange because it is authorized by the government of the country.
Note 2. The Reserve Bank of India issues currency notes on behalf of the Central Government.

Deposits with Banks-

- People deposit their extra money in a bank by opening a bank account in their name.
- Banks accept the deposits and also pay an amount as interest on the deposits.
- People also have the provision to withdraw the money as and when they require.
- The payer who has an account with the bank, makes out a cheque for a specific amount.
Cheque- A cheque is a paper instructing the bank to pay a specific amount from the person’s in whose
name the cheque has been issued.
Loan activities of Banks:-

Depositers Borrowers
People make deposits then make withdrawls People take loans then repay loans with
and get interest. interest.

Note- The difference between what is charged from borrowers and what is paid to depositers is the main
source of income for banks.
 51

Debt-trap- When credit pushes the borrowers into a situation from which recovery is very painful.
Sources of credit-

- Banks.
- Co-operative societies.
- Local moneylenders.
- Self-Help Groups

Terms of Credit-
- Interest rate.
- Collateral.
- Documentation requirement.
- Mode of re-payment.
Importance of credit-

- To meet the working capital is need of production.

- To meet the ongoing expenses of production.
- Help to complete production on time.
- Help to increase the earnings.

Types of credit: -
Formal Credit Informal Credit
From banks and co-operatives. Mainly from moneylenders.
RBI supervises the functioning of formal source No such legal to supervise the functioning of
of loans. informal source of loans.

Interest rate is low. Interest rate is high.

Most of the rich households receive formal Most of the poor households receive informal
credit. credit.

Functions of RBI-
- RBI supervises the functioning of formal sources of loans.
- RBI monitors that the banks maintain the cash balance.
- RBI sees that the banks give loans not just to profit making traders but also
to small cultivators, small scale industries etc.
- RBI ask to submit periodically information regarding how much banks are
lending to whom and what interest rate.
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Chapter – 4 – GLOBALISATION AND THE INDIAN ECONOMY

Globalization- Maximum transport of goods and services. Movements of investment and technology,Rapid
integration or inter connection between countries and also the movements of people between the countries.
Liberalization- Removing barriers or restrictions on trade set by the government.
WTO- World Trade Organization, aims to liberalize international trade.
Production across countries: -
MNCs-
- Multinational Corporations that own or controls the production in more than one nation.
- MNCs set up offices and factories for production in regions where they can get cheap labour and
other resources.
- Example- China provides the advantages to being a cheap manufacturing location.
- In India- highly skilled engineers for MNCs and educated English speaking youth for customer care
services.
Responsible factors for set up a production unit by MNCs-
- Close to the markets.
- Cheap and easily available skilled and unskilled labour.
- Availability of other factors.
- Government policies of the countries.
Investment- The money that is spent to buy assets, such as land, building, machines and other equipment is
called investment.
Foreign Investment- Investment made by MNCs is called Foreign Investment.
Ways of investment by MNCs-
1. Set up production jointly with local companies-
- Two benefits of local companies-
a) MNCs provide money for additional investment.
b) MNCs might bring with them the latest technology for production.
2. To buy local companies and then to expand production-
- Example- Cargil Food MNC (USA) has brought over smaller Indian company Parakh food. Now
Cargil is the largest producer of edible oil in India with a capacity to make over 5 million pouches
daily.
3. Through order-
- MNCs give order to small producers for production.
Foreign trade and integration of markets-
- Foreign trade creats an opportunity for the producers to reach beyond the domestic
market.
- Example- Chinese goods in Indian market.
Responsible factors for rapid globalization-
- Rapid improvement in technology.
- Developments in information and communication technology.
- By increasing the MNCs.
- Liberalization of foreign trade and investment policies.
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Impact of globalization in India:-

Good impact of globalization-
- Integration of Indian economy with rest of the world.
- Sharing of technology and services.
- Advantage of consumers due to the competition among producers.
- Better quality and more choices for consumers.
- New job have been created.
Bad impact of globalization-
- Globalization has make India over depended on foreign investment.
- There will be huge unemployment due to pullout foreign companies from India.
- Workers are denied their share of benefits brought about by globalization.
- Small manufacturers have been hit hard due to competition with MNCs.
The struggle for a fair globalization:-
Government can take some possible steps-
- Government can ensure that labour laws are properly implemented and the workers get their rights.
- Government can support producers to improve their performance till the time they become strong
enough to compete.
- Government can use trade and investment barriers.
- Government can negotiate with WTO for fair rules.

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Chapter – 5 – CONSUMER RIGHTS

Consumer- Any person who buys a commodity or service for personal use.
Producer- Any person who produce a commodity or rendering a service.
Consumer exploitation- by indulgingunfair trade practices, producersdeny a fair deal to consumers.
ISI, Agmark and Hall mark- Logos and certification for helping consumers to get assured quality while
purchasing the goods and services.
Methods of consumer’s exploitation-
- Adulteration.
- Underweight.
- Duplicate articles.
- Low quality.
- Lack of safety devices.
- Hoarding and black marketing.
- Unsatisfactory after sale services.
- High prices.
- Defective goods.
Reasons of consumer’s exploitation-
- Illiteracy and ignorance of consumers.
- Minimum number of producers.
- Manipulate the market by using wealth and power.
- False information through media.
- Lack of proper legal system to protect consumers.
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Right of consumers-
- Right to be informed.
- Right to choose.
- Right to seek redressal.
- Right to represent.
- Right to safety.
- Right to consumer education.
Methods to protect consumers-
- Consumer movement.
- Consumer Protection Acts.
- Consumer Courts.
- Standardization of products.
- Proper legal action against unfair trade practices.
Need of consumer movements-
- To prevent exploitation of consumers by producers.
- To prevent manipulate the market with using wealth and power by powerful companies.
- Against false information through media.
- To bring unity and awareness among consumers.
Progress of consumer movements in India-
- Observing 24 Dec. as National Consumer Day.
- The number of consumer group increased to mere then 700.
- Consumer began to realize their role and importance.
- India is one of the country that have exclusive courts for consumer redressal.
Important Acts for consumers-
COPRA (Consumer Protection Act)-
- Passed in 1986.
- Aim- to protect the rights of consumers.
- Functions- Judicial machinery works on three level –
1. District level court- Deals cases involving claims up to Rupees 20 lakhs.
2. State level court- Between Rupees 20 lakhs to 1 crore.
3. National level court- More than 1 crore.
RTI (Right To Information)-
- Passed in 2005.
- It ensure that citizen’s get all the information about the functions of government departments.
- This Act helps consumers to get redressal from exploitation in not only goods but also services that
they purchase.
Difference between Consumer Forums and Consumer Courts: -
Consumer Forums Consumer Courts
(Consumer Protection Council)
Guide consumers on how to file case in the Three tier judicial machinery.
consumer court.
Represent individual consumers Deal and settle all consumer disputes.
Voluntary organizations, which receives They enable consumers to get protection from
financial support from government for exploitation.
creating awareness among people.
 55

Ways to develop a well-informed consumer:-

- Conscious of our rights.
- Acquire the knowledge and skill to become a well-informed consumer.
- Aware of standardization of products like- ISI, Agmark and Hallmark.
- Ask cash memos.
- Associate with consumer groups.
- Ready to complaint against exploitation.

Bheem Singh Yadav

TGT (Social Science)
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