Materials and Processes for Agricultural

and Biosystems Engineering

Deformation in Metals
Introduction
2 Deformation in Metals
• Elastic Flow
• Plastic Flow
Introduction
2 Deformation in Metals
• Elastic Flow
In elastic deformation a limited distortion of the crystal lattice is
produced, but the atoms do not move permanently from their ordered
positions, and as soon as the stress is removed the distortion
disappeared.
Introduction
2 Deformation in Metals
• Plastic Flow
Beyond THE POINT OF ELASTIC LIMIT, THE STRAIN developed is no longer directly
proportional to the applied stress, and also, the strain developed is no longer
fully recoverable. If the stress is removed, elastic strain is recovered but the
material will be left in a state of permanent, or plastic, strain. The mechanism of
plastic deformation is not the same for all classes of materials and it is necessary
to consider the various materials groups separately. Some metals will begin to
deform plastically at very low values of stress and will yield to a very
considerable extent before fracture occurs. Other metals and alloys show little
plastic yielding before fracture. These latter materials are termed brittle. Plastic
deformation in metals may take place by the process of slip, or by twinning.
Introduction
2 Deformation in Metals
• Plastic Flow | Slip
It is the deformation done by one layer or plan of atoms gliding over another.

An early theory evolved to explain plastic deformation in metals was the 'block
slip' theory. In this it was postulated that when the yield stress of the metal was
exceeded plastic deformation took place by the movement of large blocks of
atoms sliding relative to one another across certain planes — slip planes — within
the crystal.
Introduction
2 Deformation in Metals
• Plastic Flow | Twinning
In deformation by slip all
atoms in one block move the same distance, but in deformation by twinning,
atoms in each successive plane within a block will move different distances, with
the effect of altering the direction of the lattice so that each half of the crystal
becomes a mirror image of the other half. It is thought that twinning also
proceeds by the movement of dislocations. The twins thus formed are called
"mechanical twins" to distinguish them from the "annealing twins" which become
apparent in copper alloys during an annealing operation which follows cold
work.
Plastic Deformation and Strain Hardening
When a metal is stressed beyond its elastic limit dislocations within the metal
begin to move and plastic deformation occurs. The movement of one
dislocation through a lattice will give one increment of plastic deformation,
namely a displacement of the order of one atomic spacing. The movement of
extremely large numbers of dislocations would be necessary to give a visible
amount of plastic slip and the number of dislocations that would need to be
present to account for the large amount of plastic deformation that takes place
in commercial metal-working processes such as rolling or forging would be so
great as to mean that there would be virtually no regular sections of lattice at all.
In fact, the number of dislocations present in a fully annealed metal is
comparatively small and additional dislocations are generated during plastic
deformation.
Energy of Mechanical Deformation
As deformation proceeds, the metal becomes harder and stronger, and,
whether by slip or by twinning, a stage is reached when no more deformation
can be produced. An increase in the applied force will then lead only to
fracture. In this state, when tensile strength and hardness have reached a
maximum and elongation a minimum, the material is said to be work-hardened.
Thus, we can summarize the effects of mechanical deformation briefly as follows
- if sufficient stress is applied to a metal, slip (or twinning) will take place in
individual crystals. As deformation proceeds, the capacity for slip decreases that
the force necessary to produce it must increase. A point is reached, coinciding
with the maximum resistance to slip (the maximum strength and hardness),
where no more deformation is possible and fracture will take place. The material
must then be annealed if further cold work is to be carried out on it.
Energy of Mechanical Deformation
During a cold-working process approximately 90 % of the mechanical energy
employed is turned into heat, whilst the remaining 10 % is stored inside the
material as mechanical potential energy. The bulk of this stored energy (9 % of
that originally employed) is that associated with the number of dislocations
present. These have energy because they distort the lattice and cause atoms to
occupy positions of higher-than minimum energy. The remaining stored energy
(1 % of the energy originally employed) exists as locked-up residual stresses
arising from elastic strains internally balanced.
Energy of Mechanical Deformation
The increased-energy state of a cold-worked metal makes it chemically more
active and consequently less resistant to corrosion. This is particularly true of
micro-stresses acting at grain boundaries and leading ' increased intercrystalline
corrosion by causing the grain boundaries to corrode more quickly than the rest
of the material. This stored potential energy is also the main driving force of
recrystallization.
Annealing and Recrystallization
A cold-worked metal is in a state of considerable mechanical stress, resulting
from elastic strains internally balanced. These elastic strains are largely due to
inhomogeneous deformation having taken place during cold-working. If the
metal is heated to a sufficiently high temperature these strains will be removed;
at the same time the tensile strength and hardness of the metal will fall to
approximately their original value and the capacity for cold-work return. This
form of heat treatment is known as annealing, and is made use of when the
metal is required for use in a soft but tough state or, alternatively, when it is to
undergo further cold deformation. Annealing takes place in three stages as
follows:
Stage I - The Relief of Stress
Stage II - Recrystallization
Stage III - Grain Growth