UNIT 8 BEHAVIOURISM*

Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Origins of Behaviourism
8.1.1 Presocratic Philosophers
8.1.2 French Sensationalism
8.1.3 British Empiricism
8.1.4 Animal Psychology
8.1.5 Russian Physiologists
8.1.6 Edward Lee Thorndike
8.1.7 Functionalism
8.2 John B. Watson (Watsonian Behaviourism)
8.2.1 Types of Behaviour
8.2.2 Instincts
8.2.3 Emotions
8.2.4 Thought Processes
8.2.5 Learning
8.2.6 Mind-Body Problem
8.2.7 Sex Education
8.2.8 Advertising
8.3 Criticisms of Watsonian Behaviourism
8.4 Overall Impact of Watson
8.5 Summary
8.6 Key Words
8.7 Review Questions
8.8 References and Further Reading
8.9 References for Figures
8.10 Web Resources
Learning Objectives
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
Ɣ Ascertain the origins of behaviourism;
Ɣ Discuss the contributions of John Watson; and
Ɣ Describe the overall impact of Watsonian Behaviourism.

* Dr. Saif R. Farooqi, Department of Applied Psychology, Vivekananda College,

University of Delhi

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 Behaviorism
8.0 INTRODUCTION
Behaviourism or the behaviourist approach lays stress on the role of
environmental stimuli in determining the way we act. Learning — changes
in behaviour because of experiences (excluding changes due to fatigue,
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classical and operant conditioning in behaviourism has further augmented
the understanding of learning. During the development of psychology,
United States of America in twentieth century witnessed the substantial
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the study of behaviour. It commenced as an empirical discipline that studied
behaviour in terms of adaptation to environment stimuli.
Behaviourism is also referred to as behaviouristic psychology. The central
tenet of behaviourism is that an organism learns behavioural adaptation,
whose learning is governed by the principles of association (forming
connections between ideas and events). Behaviour, according to this
approach, is not just a manifestation of underlying mental events, but has a
unique meaning. Overt behaviour, that is, behaviour which can be observed
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that give behaviourism its uniqueness, just like any other approach, is its
focus of attention. Behaviourism stands apart from other approaches by its
emphasis on the relationship between observable behaviour (responses) and
environmental events (stimuli).
Box 8.1: Basic Assumptions of Behaviourism
Behaviourism has the following two basic assumptions:
1) Parsimony. Out of all the basic principles in behaviourism, the most
fundamental is the concept of “parsimony”, also called “Occam’s
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often seeks the simplest possible explanation for any event. The
opposition of behaviourists to introspection was in part due to the
too many vague concepts solicited by it which lacked parsimony.
On the other hand, behaviourism emphasized the use of operational
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which naturally led to the focus on stimuli and responses.
2) Associationism. Behaviourism gives prominence to the role of
experience in determining behaviour, which manifests itself
through learning. The basic explanation since the time of Aristotle
has been that organisms learn by association, that is, by forming
connections between ideas and events. Behaviourists in psychology
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which was also endorsed by the British empiricists. Followed by
parsimony, associationism becomes the second basic assumption of
behaviourism.
Hence, parsimony and associationism conjointly formed the underpinnings
for the emergence of behaviourism.

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 Development of
Psychological Thought 8.1 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIOURISM
Psychologists in the early twentieth century were likely to focus on either the
experimental study of physiological processes, or the introspective analysis
of experience. Restricted technology for studying brain at that time hindered
the physiological research, problems of subjectivity limited the scope of
introspection, and functionalism was criticized for adopting a philosophical
approach. In the face of these constraints, behaviourism emerged as an
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In 1913, John Broadus Watson, an American psychologist, formally
instituted behaviourism in his paper, Psychology as the Behaviourists View
It. Through this paper, he changed the course of modern psychology. A
revolutionary shift from existing systems of psychology was proposed by
Watson with the assertion that the study of inner consciousness is not the
appropriate direction for the development of psychology. The supposition
of any non-physical mental state of consciousness was seen as a pseudo-
problem for science and was completely replaced with overt, observable
behaviour as a legitimate subject matter of true science, by Watson.
Watson advocated very comprehensible and straightforward principles of
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of stimulus and response. Further, all mentalistic concepts and terms were
debarred by Watson’s psychology. Behaviouristic science forbade the use
of such words as image, mind, and consciousness, which had been carried
over from the days of mental philosophy. Watson professed consciousness
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soul and forthrightly dismissed its existence. This rendered the technique
of introspection, which was supposed to study the existence of conscious
processes, of no use to the science of behaviour. Watson, however, was not
solely responsible for the basic ideas of the behaviourist movement since
they had been evolving in psychology and biology for years. The period
from antiquity to the nineteenth century marked the historical trend that led
to Watsonian behaviourism.
8.1.1 The Pre-Socratic Philosophers
The pre-Socratic philosophers, such as Ionian physicists and Hippocrates,
explained human activity in terms of mechanical reactions which can be
reduced to biological or physical causes.
8.1.2 French Sensationalism
An important antecedent of twentieth century behaviourism was the French
sensationalist tradition. The role of French philosopher Auguste Comte
is crucial in the history of objectivism. He was the founder of positivist
movement, which accentuated the factual knowledge, the truth of which is
evident and unquestionable. As Comte suggested, knowledge seems to be
valid only when it is social in nature and when it can be observed objectively.
Since introspection depends on an individual’s subjective consciousness
and is not objectively observable, it was revoked.
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 8.1.3 British Empiricism Behaviorism

Behaviourism got its clearest intellectual substratum from the British

empiricists. The British philosopher John Locke, considered as one of the
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passivity, claiming that the mind is dependent on the environment for
its contents. The major principles of behaviourism are also derived from
empiricism and associationism, the two dominant themes of British
philosophers.
8.1.4 Animal Psychology
The relationship between animal psychology and behaviourism was made
clear by Watson, when he said that behaviourism is a direct outgrowth of
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Thus, it would not be wrong to say that a very vital precursor of Watson’s
approach was animal psychology, which emanated from evolutionary
theory. It incited the venture for demonstrating the existence of mind in
lower organisms and the continuity between the minds of human and
animal. Conwy Lloyd Morgan, one of the pioneers of animal psychology,
gave the law of parsimony and relied heavily on experimental instead of
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more objectivity.
8.1.5 Russian Physiologists
Watson’s fundamental empirical approach of associations in behaviourism
can be seen in the work of a group of predominantly Russian physiologists
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In 1904, Ivan Pavlov received the Nobel Prize for his work on the neural
and glandular bases of digestion. In association with this research (working
primarily with dogs that began in 1879), sometime around in 1902, Pavlov
discovered the fundamental principles of associative conditioning. During
his research, Pavlov noticed a phenomenon which he named psychic
salivation, that is, dogs would salivate even before they were actually given
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set out to unmask the control mechanism of this anticipatory response.
His discovery came to be known as classical conditioning — the study
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to learning. Classical conditioning is a form of learning, which involves
association of two environmental stimuli such that response to one stimulus
can be changed based on its association with the other stimulus. Pavlov,
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of the acquisition and forgetting of associations.
Pavlov set forth what he contended was a legitimate explanation of
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experimentally examining the accepted concepts of association theory
discussed by philosophers such as David Hume and James Mill.
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 Development of The role of nervous system, especially the cortex in providing the
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classical conditioning. All higher nervous activity can be investigated in
virtue of highly controlled experimental paradigm of conditioning. Pavlov
regarded his procedures as ideally suited to investigate all types of behaviour
since they involved precise experimental control of environmental stimuli
to produce response changes. He also asserted that all learning is based
on association and is reducible to the contiguous relationship between
environmental stimuli and the meditational role of the cortex.
Pavlov’s classical conditioning had a great impact on Watson as he discerned
a model for the behaviourist methodology in Pavlov’s work, which he was
trying to foster. Foreseeing the possibility of applying classical conditioning
to humans, Watson proceeded to study the emotions by attempting to form
emotional responses experimentally, as opposed to introspectionists, who
studied emotions by trying to describe the mental states involved. Pavlov,
although a physiologist of exquisite competence, was an experimentalist
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RI ¿QGLQJ WUXWK LQ VFLHQFH 7KH H[SHULPHQWDO DSSURDFK RI EHKDYLRXULVWLF
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formed the basis of classical conditioning.
8.1.6 Edward Lee Thorndike
Edward Lee Thorndike was the major American researcher relevant to
the antecedents of Watsonian behaviourism. Although Thorndike can be
categorized as one of the American functionalists, based on his overall
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leading to the beginning of behaviourism.
Thorndike completed his doctoral dissertation, in 1898, titled Animal
Intelligence: An Experimental Study of the Associative Processes in Animals,
which was later published in 1911. Thorndike’s purpose of research was to
analyze the conditions under which animals changed their behaviour (that is,
learning was involved). In due process, he kept his focus on the relationship
between a response and its consequences, resulting in what he labelled as
WKHODZRIHৼHFW. The law holds that the responses, which lead to a pleasant
and satisfying outcome for the organism are more likely to be repeated,
and the responses, which lead to an unpleasant outcome are not likely to be
repeated. It is a kind of associationism where a sort of connection is made
between a response and its consequence by the organism.
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reward or satisfaction tend to be repeated, whereas any response generating
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punishment renders subjects to move towards another response, rather than
weakening the existing association between the response and the stimulus
context. The notion of individuals responding to reward and punishment
can be traced to the ancient Greeks. Thorndike’s version varied in terms
of experimental support that aided his explanation. By articulating his
standpoint with an experimental premise, Thorndike laid the foundations
for the behaviourist approach. Thorndike’s ODZRIHৼHFWVHHPHGWRSUH¿JXUH
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 B. F. Skinner’s concept of reinforcement as an explanation of the role of Behaviorism
consequences in learning, which later formed the basis of the learning
approach known as operant conditioning.
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learning. Their contribution to the wave that resulted in behaviourism was
compelling, albeit they had no primary intention to do so. Watson was the
one who made systematic context of behaviourism explicit.
8.1.7 Functionalism
A direct antecedent of behaviourism was functionalism. Although not totally
objective, functional psychology, during the time of Watson, represented
greater objectivity than its predecessors. Introspection was condemned
by the functionalists such as James McKeen Cattell, who emphasized
behaviour and objectivity. Consciousness and introspection were of little
use to applied psychologists since their various speciality areas constituted
objective functional psychology. Thus, the drift of functional psychologists
from the Wundt and Titchner’s psychology of conscious experience was
noticeable even before Watson appeared in the scene. Some functional
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that would focus on behaviour instead of consciousness as evident in their
writings and lectures.
Cattell in 1904, at the World’s Fair in St. Louis, Missouri, opposed the study
of consciousness and discredited introspection. Watson witnessed Cattell’s
speech and his later public position and Cattell’s statement was so similar
in nature that it has been suggested that Cattell be called the “grandfather”
of Watson’s behaviourism. The idea of psychology as being objective was
supported and reinforced by the intellectual climate in the United States
in the decade before Watson formally established behaviourism, favoring
overall movement of American psychology towards a behaviouristic
direction.
A wave was slowly bringing the American psychologists towards
behaviourism. From 1904 onwards, a lot more of them expressed their
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than as an attempt to describe consciousness. Thus, the transformation of
psychology as the science of behaviour was already catching attention.
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of the idea, but in foreseeing more clearly than anyone else, the call of
the time. Watson worked earnestly and vehemently as the main agent of a
revolution, which was inevitable and whose success was assured since it
was already in progress.
Check Your Progress 1
1) How did the French and British philosophers play a role in the
beginning of behaviourism?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

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 Development of
Psychological Thought
2) How is functionalism a direct antecedent of behaviourism?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

8.2 JOHN B. WATSON (WATSONIAN

BEHAVIOURISM)
According to Watson, psychology, being the science of behaviour must
deal with actions, which can be described objectively, and thus, it becomes
important to discard the use of mentalistic concepts and terminology, which
are subjective in nature. Therefore, for Watson’s behavioural psychology,
items or elements of behaviour, such as muscular movements or glandular
secretion, became the primary subject matter. Behaviourism concerns
behaviour of the whole organism in relation to its environment. Stimulus-
response complexes can be analyzed into their elementary stimulus and
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As far as methodology and subject matter is concerned, Watson’s behavioural
psychology was an endeavour to develop a science, which was devoid of
mentalistic notions and subjective methods; a science which was as sound
and objective as physics.
Box 8.2: John B. Watson
John B. Watson had joined the University of Chicago to pursue a
graduation in philosophy. However, he got interested in psychology after
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psychologist. In 1903, at the age of 25, Watson completed his PhD,
becoming the youngest student at the University of Chicago to have
doctoral degree. He stayed at the University of Chicago as an instructor,
Figure 8.1: John B. Watson till 1908. After that he joined John Hopkins University as a professor. His
Source¿UVWGLVFRYHUHUVFRXN stay at John Hopkins University, for the next 12 years, turned out to be his
productive years in academics. At the age of 31, Watson became the chair
of the department of psychology at John Hopkins, and also became the
editor of the well-known Psychological Review.
Watson had been thinking of an objective psychology from 1903. He
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paper that established the school of bhevaiorism was published in the
Psychological Review. Two years after that, in 1915, he was elected the
president of APA (American Psychological Association). In 1919, Watson
published his book, Psychology from a Behaviourists Standpoint. In the
book, he presented a more complete form of his behaviourism.
Watson was forced to resign from John Hopkins University, for having
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left academics and joined an advertising agency, where he applied his
psychological principles in advertising and marketing. His academic

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 Behaviorism
career lasted 20 years, which can be considered to be too short. Despite
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behaviourism completely changed course of modern psychology.

Following are the contributions of Watson that represent his behaviourism:

8.2.1 Types of Behaviour
Watson explained four types of behaviour:
1) Explicit (overt)– behaviour which can be learned and is overt such as
talking, writing, and playing;
2) Implicit (covert)– behaviour which can be learned but is covert such
as the increased heart rate caused by the sight of a dentist’s drill;
3) Explicit unlearned behaviour– behaviour which comes naturally and
is visible such as grasping, blinking, and sneezing;
4) Implicit unlearned behaviour– behaviour, which comes naturally but
is not visible such as glandular secretion and circulatory changes.
According to Watson, these categories incorporate everything that a
person does, that is, from thinking to blinking. For studying these types of
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1) Observation– observing in either naturalistic or experimentally
controlled environment;
2) The FRQGLWLRQHGUHÀH[PHWKRG– proposed by Pavlov;
3) Testing– refers to behaviour samples and not measurement of
“capacity” or “personality”; and
4) Verbal reports– another type of overt behaviour
8.2.2 Instincts
There had been a radical change in Watson’s views about instincts over
the years. In 1914, the role of instincts in behaviour was accepted by him.
Instincts had a noteworthy role in his theory. By 1919, Watson made the
point that instincts are present in infants, which are quickly displaced by
learned habits. In 1925, the idea of instincts in humans was completely
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as sneezing, crying, eliminating, crawling, sucking, and breathing, but no
complex, innate behaviour patterns called instincts.
Watson contended that people are made what they are by experiences and
not inheritance. Personality is ought to change depending upon experiences.
Watson, by internalizing the perspective that learning is the key to understand
the development of human behaviour, became an extreme environmentalist,
and thus, was referred to be as a radical environmentalist.
With denying the role of instincts, Watson also dismissed the existence of
inherited capacities like temperaments or any kind of talents. Behaviours
that appeared to be inherent seemed to be as a result of early childhood
training. Children are not born with innate abilities to be great musicians
or athletes, but the encouragement and reinforcement of their parents and
caregivers made their inclination towards such behaviours. One of the
reasons of Watson’s profuse popularity was his immense stress on nurturing
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 Development of H൵HFWVRISDUHQWDODQGVRFLDOHQYLURQPHQWZLWKDQLPSOLFDWLRQRIWUDLQLQJ
Psychological Thought children in whichever way possible.
8.2.3 Emotions
In introspection, emotions were studied like any other aspect of human
experiences, that is, by describing the mental states involved. Watson,
however, holding the belief that emotions represented observable responses,
attempted to experimentally create emotional responses in order to study
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stimuli. An internal body change such as rapid heart rate is produced by the
presence of an attacker, which results in an appropriate learned response.
No conscious perception of the emotion or sensations from the internal
organs is suggested by the theory.
A particular pattern of physiological changes is involved in each emotion.
Even with the recognition of emotional responses involving overt movements,
Watson believed internal responses to be predominant. Emotion is then
understood as a kind of implicit behaviour in which physical manifestations
such as blushing, perspiring, or increased pulse rate make the internal
responses evident to some extent. Watson’s theory of emotions was less
complicated than that of William James. The theory of James asserted that
the perception of stimulus was immediately followed by the bodily changes,
the feeling of which results in experiencing emotion. The standpoint of
James, on emotions, was criticized by Watson. Watson professed that
emotions can be described completely with regard to the objective stimulus
situation, the overt bodily response, and the internal physiological changes,
discarding the conscious perception of the situation and the feeling state.
Watson investigated the stimuli that bring about emotional responses in
infants in a classic research and concluded that three fundamental emotions,
namely, fear, rage, and love are shown by infants, wherein fear is produced
as a result of loud noises and loss of support, rage is evoked by restriction of
bodily movements, and love is generated by caressing the skin or by rocking
and patting. Typical response patterns to these stimuli were also found. Fear,
rage, and love were theorized as unlearned emotional responses and the
composition of these basic emotions gives rise to other human emotional
responses by the process of conditioning, making it possible to attach them
to stimuli that were not originally capable of eliciting them.
8.2.3 Thought Processes
The conventional view of thought processes assumed that their occurrence
in brain is not strong enough to stimulate any neural impulse over motor
nerve to the muscle causing no action in muscles and glands. The occurrence
of thought processes in the absence of muscular movements makes them
inaccessible to observation or experimentation. So, as per this theory,
thought is considered to be exclusively mental and having no physical
reference point, making it intangible.
Watson’s attempt was to reduce thinking to implicit motor behaviour by
claiming that thought was some sort of sensorimotor behaviour like all other
aspects of human functioning. Going by the reason that thinking behaviour
must involve implicit speech reactions or movements, Watson, reduced
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 thinking to subvocal talking, which relies on the same muscular habits that Behaviorism
are learnt for overt speech. These muscular habits turn inaudible as children
grow up because they are constantly warned by parents to stop talking
to themselves, subsequently making thinking a way of silently talking to
themselves. According to Watson, the voice box, that is, the muscles of
tongue and larynx, are involved in this implicit behaviour of thinking. Overt
reactions to the stimuli that are expressed by gestures such as frowns and
shrugs, are also representations of thoughts.
8.2.4 Learning
Although allured by Thorndike’s early animal research, Watson was
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work. However, Watson presumed this to be a feeling or a state of
consciousness. According to Watson, the critical thing about conditioning
is its ability to cause contiguity, that is, causing events to be associated in
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learning with respect to the ancient principles of contiguity and frequency.
These were also more in line with what Pavlov had suggested.
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a correct response in a learning situation. This indicated that the correct
responses are more likely to occur as compared to incorrect responses and
the probability of repeating a response is increased as the frequency of its
occurrence increases. This is the law of frequency. This also indicates that
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which it will likely make when it will next encounter the same situation,
known as the law of recency as labelled by Watson. Watson concluded that
mechanical arrangement of stimuli and responses results in learning.
8.2.5 The Mind-Body Problem
Four views on the mind-body relationship existed by the time Watson had
began to formulate his theory. These are given as follows:
1) Interactionist view– According to this view, the mind and body interact
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was accepted by William James.
2) Psychophysical parallelism– As per this view, mental and bodily
events are parallel having no interaction between them.
3) Epiphenomenalism– This view posits that mental events are the by-
products of bodily events but do not cause behaviour. That is, bodily
events cause mental events, but mental events cannot cause bodily
events.
4) Physical monism (materialism)– This view discarded the existence of
mental events (consciousness) altogether.
Initially, accepting the epiphenomenalism viewpoint, Watson later switched
to the physical monism viewpoint. Watson maintained that consciousness
is an unprovable plain assumption. He, thus, resolved the mind-body issue
by straightforwardly denying the existence of mind. He argued that any
approach to psychology that approves the study of consciousness in any
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 Development of form cannot be called science. In the opinion of Watson, mental processes,
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8.2.6 Sex Education
Watson had a great deal to say about sex education, insisting that frank and
objective information about sex should be given to children. He also often
appreciated Freud for breaking down the myth and hesitation around sex.
8.2.7 Advertising
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career, where he utilized his expertise to use psychology in advertising with
TXLWHDORWRIVXFFHVV+HEHFDPHWKHYLFHSUHVLGHQWRIWKHDGYHUWLVLQJ¿UP
within four years, by carrying out studies on consumer behaviour and writing
SRSXODUDUWLFOHVIRUWKHJHQHUDOSXEOLF7KXVLQDGGLWLRQWR¿QGLQJDQHQWLUH
QHZDSSURDFKWRSV\FKRORJ\:DWVRQLVDOVRDFFODLPHGIRUEHLQJWKH¿UVW
psychologist to apply psychological theory to advertising and marketing.
Check Your Progress 2
1) +RZLV:DWVRQ¶VQRWLRQRIHPRWLRQVGL൵HUHQWIURPWKDWRI:LOOLDP
James?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
2) In what ways did Watson suggest thought processes to be observable?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

8.3 CRITICISMS OF WATSONIAN

BEHAVIOURISM
The following two points summarize the major criticism against Watsonian
behaviourism:
1) 3V\FKRORJ\ JRW UHVWULFWHG E\ EHKDYLRXULVP VLQFH LW FRQ¿QHG WKH
behaviour solely to the peripheral events of stimulus and response
elements. Watson also ignored physical, central mediation of stimulus
and response bonds by relinquishing mental events.
2) Watsonian behaviourism resorted to reductionism by assuming that
behaviour is reducible to environmental stimuli and observable
responses.
The rationale to Watson’s approach is to propose that behaviour really
reduces to physics and physiology. Whether behaviour can be viewed as a
separate and distinct science becomes questionable by such reductionism.
6R DOWKRXJK R൵HULQJ VLPSOLFLW\ DQG FODULW\ WKH DXWKHQWLFLW\ RI D WUXO\
behavioural level of investigation in Watson’s behaviourist psychology
remained debatable.
William McDougall, the pioneer of the instinct theory of motivation, had
major criticisms against Watson. He had a heated a debate with Watson,
which was published as The Battle of Behaviourism, in 1929. The instinct
theory by McDougall states that human behaviour is a result of innate
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 tendencies to thought and action. Behaviourism soon took over these ideas, Behaviorism
which were well acknowledged initially. Watson refused to accept the
notions of instincts. Although McDougall agreed with Watson about the
data of behaviour being the appropriate focus for psychological research,
but he claimed that the data of consciousness are also indispensable.
McDougall questioned how psychologists can determine meaning of a
subject’s response without using introspection. He also felt that with a great
emphasis on objectivity it cannot be possible to know about daydreams and
fantasies, which are important aspects of behaviour.
McDougall then challenged Watson’s assumption of fully determined
human behaviour, which suggests that everything is the direct result of
past experiences and is predictable once the past events are known. Such a
psychology, he argued, overlooks free will or freedom of choice. Without
the idea of free will and accountability of one’s actions, McDougall felt
WKDWKXPDQVZLOOQRWWDNHLQLWLDWLYHVWKHUHZLOOQRWEHDQ\H൵RUWVIRUWKH
betterment of society. Likewise, the attempts of preventing war, mitigating
injustice, and achieving social or personal ideal will be meaningless.

8.4 OVERALL IMPACT OF WATSON

Lasting less than 20 years, Watson’s productive career in psychology
FRQWLQXHG WR H[HUW LWV SURIRXQG LQÀXHQFH RQ WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI
psychology, for many years to come. The publication of Watson’s paper,
Psychology as The Behaviourists View It, in 1913 changed the course of
modern psychology. Psychology gained more objectivity in its methods
and terminology because of Watson as he reacted actively against the
prevalent methods of study in psychology at that time. Watson urged for
a complete reformulation of psychology by discarding both the content
(consciousness) and the methodology (introspection) prevalent at that time.
Watson, subsequently, “re-established” the science of psychology. Watson
gifted a unity to psychology because of the possibility to yield consensus
WKURXJKREMHFWLYHREVHUYDWLRQVE\GH¿QLQJEHKDYLRXUVLQWHUPVRIVWLPXOXV
and events, thus providing an alternative to the introspective method of
structuralism.
&RQVHTXHQWO\DSRVLWLYHREMHFWLYHVFLHQFHRISV\FKRORJ\ZDVR൵HUHGE\
Watson’s systems by focusing on behavioural adaptability to environmental
stimuli, which made behaviourism the dominant system of American
psychology by 1930.
Watson’s view of ps\FKRORJ\KDVWZRORQJODVWLQJH൵HFWV
1) The major goal of psychology was changed from the description and
explanation of states of consciousness to the prediction and control of
behaviour.
2) Overt behaviour became almost the exclusive subject matter of
psychology.
Today, a lot of psychologists can be considered behaviourists owing to the
SHUYDVLYHQHVV RI:DWVRQ¶V LQÀXHQFH RQ WKHVH LVVXHV 6RPH RI WKH FHQWUDO
tenets of behaviourism have been so obvious that they have simply become
part of standard experimental psychology. In a way, all modern psychologists
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 Development of are behaviourists in that they restrict their data to observable behaviour,
Psychological Thought SUHFLVHO\DWWHPSWWRGH¿QHVWLPXOLDQGUHVSRQVHVUHPDLQXQFRQYLQFHGZLWK
the theories devoid of empirical testing, and dismiss subjective reports
DV VFLHQWL¿F HYLGHQFH (YHQ WKH FXUUHQW GH¿QLWLRQ RI SV\FKRORJ\  the
VFLHQWL¿FVWXG\RIEHKDYLRXUDQGPHQWDOSURFHVVHVcame into being, due to
behaviourism.
Watson received a prestigious Gold Medal from APA in 1957, for his
LQÀXHQWLDO FRQWULEXWLRQV WR SV\FKRORJ\ 6HSWHPEHU   PDUNHG
:DWVRQ¶V GHPLVH DW WKH DJH RI 7KH LQÀXHQWLDO SKLORVRSKHU RI VFLHQFH
Gustav Bergmann, in 1956, reviewing Watson’s accomplishments, made a
VWULNLQJVWDWHPHQWWKDWQH[WWR)UHXG:DWVRQZDV³WKHPRVWLPSRUWDQW¿JXUH
LQWKHKLVWRU\RISV\FKRORJLFDOWKRXJKWGXULQJWKH¿UVWKDOIRIWKHFHQWXU\´
Check Your Progress 3
1) What were the criticisms of William McDougall against Watsonian
behaviourism?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
2) How is behaviour prevalent in psychology, in contemporary times?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

8.5 SUMMARY
Now that we have come to the end of this Unit, let us list all the major points
that we have learnt:
Ɣ In 1913, John Broadus Watson, an American psychologist,
formally established behaviourism in his paper, Psychology as the
Behaviourists View It. Through this paper, he changed the course of
modern psychology.
Ɣ The central tenet of behaviourism is that an organism learns
behavioural adaptation, whose learning is governed by the principles
of association. Parsimony and associationism are the two fundamental
assumptions of behaviourism.
Ɣ According to behaviourism, behaviour is not just a manifestation of
underlying mental events but has a unique meaning. Overt behaviour,
WKDWLVEHKDYLRXUZKLFKFDQEHREVHUYHGDQGKHQFHTXDQWL¿HGUHPDLQV
the focus of the discipline.
Ɣ :DWVRQVWUHVVHGRQWKHQHHGIRUDVFLHQWL¿FSV\FKRORJ\WKDWGHDOWRQO\
ZLWKWKHREVHUYDEOHDFWVZKLFKFRXOGEHREMHFWLYHO\GH¿QHGLQWHUPV
of stimulus and response.
Ɣ The major principles of behaviourism are also derived from empiricism
and associationism, the two dominant themes of British philosophers.
Ɣ Foreseeing the possibility of applying classical conditioning to
humans, Watson proceeded to study the emotions by attempting to
form emotional responses experimentally.
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 Ɣ Edward Lee Thorndike was the major American researcher relevant Behaviorism
to the antecedents of Watsonian behaviourism. His pioneering work
RQDVVRFLDWLRQVPDGHKLPDVLJQL¿FDQW¿JXUHOHDGLQJWRWKHEHJLQQLQJ
of behaviourism.
Ɣ 7KRUQGLNH¶VODZRIH൵HFWVXJJHVWVWKDWWKHUHVSRQVHVZKLFKOHDGWRD
pleasant and satisfying outcome for the organism are more likely to
be repeated, and the responses, which lead to an unpleasant outcome
are not likely to be repeated.
Ɣ James McKeen Cattell opposed the study of consciousness
and discredited introspection. Cattell has been suggested as the
“grandfather” of Watson’s behaviourism.
Ɣ Watson’s behavioural psychology was an endeavor to develop a
science, which was devoid of mentalistic notions and subjective
methods; a science which was as sound and objective as physics.
Ɣ Initially, accepting the role of instincts in behaviour, Watson, in
1925, completely discarded the idea of instincts in humans, asserting
WKDW WKHUH PD\ EH D IHZ VLPSOH UHÀH[HV VXFK DV VQHH]LQJ FU\LQJ
eliminating, crawling, sucking, and breathing, but no complex, innate
behaviour patterns called instincts.
Ɣ :DWVRQ FRQVLGHUHG HPRWLRQV WR EH ERGLO\ UHVSRQVHV WR VSHFL¿F
stimuli. An internal body change such as rapid heart rate is produced
by the presence of an attacker, which results in an appropriate learned
response. Watson, reduced thinking to subvocal talking, which relies
on the same muscular habits that are learnt for overt speech.
Ɣ Watson elucidated learning with respect to the ancient principles of
contiguity and frequency. These were also more in line with what
Pavlov had suggested. Watson described his approach to learning
through the law of frequency and the law of recency.
Ɣ Watson urged for a complete reformulation of psychology by
discarding both the content (consciousness) and the methodology
(introspection) prevalent at that time. Watson, subsequently, “re-
established” the science of psychology.
Ɣ Today, a lot of psychologists can be considered behaviourists owing
WRWKHSHUYDVLYHQHVVRI:DWVRQ¶VLQÀXHQFHRQWKHVHLVVXHV6RPHRI
the central tenets of behaviourism have been so obvious that they
have simply become part of standard experimental psychology.
Ɣ 7KHFXUUHQWGH¿QLWLRQRISV\FKRORJ\±WKHVFLHQWL¿FVWXG\RIEHKDYLRXU
and mental processes – came into being, due to behaviourism.

8.6 KEY WORDS

Behaviourism: An approach that emphasizes on the role of environmental
stimuli in determining the way we act. Learning is at the centre of this
approach. The central tenet of behaviourism is that an organism learns
behavioural adaptation, whose learning is governed by the principles of
association.
Learning: Changes in behaviour because of experiences (excluding
FKDQJHVGXHWRIDWLJXHLQMXU\RUGUXJH൵HFWV 
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 Development of Parsimony: The most fundamental principles of behaviourism. Parsimony
Psychological Thought often seeks the simplest possible explanation for any event.
Associationism: The basic explanation since the time of Aristotle has been
that organisms learn by association, that is, by forming connections between
LGHDVDQGHYHQWV%HKDYLRXULVWVLQSV\FKRORJ\ZHUHSDUWLFXODUO\LQÀXHQFHG
by this concept of “associationism”, which was also endorsed by the British
empiricists.
Classical Conditioning: A form of learning, which involves association
of two environmental stimuli such that response to one stimulus can be
changed based on its association with the other stimulus.
/DZ RI (൵HFW The responses, which lead to a pleasant and satisfying
outcome for the organism are more likely to be repeated, and the responses,
which lead to an unpleasant outcome are not likely to be repeated.
Types of Behaviour: Watson explained four types of behaviour – (1)
explicit behaviour, which can be learned and is overt; (2) implicit behaviour,
which can be learned, but is covert; (3) explicit unlearned behaviour, which
comes naturally and is visible in actions such as grasping, blinking, and
sneezing; and (4) implicit unlearned behaviour, which comes naturally but
is not visible such as glandular secretion and circulatory changes
Emotion: :DWVRQFRQVLGHUHGHPRWLRQVWREHERGLO\UHVSRQVHVWRVSHFL¿F
stimuli. An internal body change such as rapid heart rate is produced by the
presence of an attacker, which results in an appropriate learned response.
No conscious perception of the emotion or sensations from the internal
organs is suggested by the theory.
Thought Processes: Watson attempted to reduce thinking to implicit
motor behaviour by claiming that thought was some sort of sensorimotor
behaviour like all other aspects of human functioning. Thinking is reduced
to subvocal talking, which relies on the same muscular habits that are learnt
for overt speech.
Law of frequency: The correct responses are more likely to occur as
compared to incorrect responses and the probability of repeating a response
is increased as the frequency of its occurrence increases.
Law of recency: 7KH¿QDOUHVSRQVHRIWKHRUJDQLVPLQDOHDUQLQJVLWXDWLRQ
will be the one which it will likely make when it will next encounter the
same situation.
Reductionism: Behaviourism is considered to be following a reductionist
approach, because Watson assumed that behaviour is reducible to
environmental stimuli and observable responses.

8.7 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) In the year ………… , Watson established behaviourism.
2) The two basic assumptions of behaviourism are ……………… and
………… .
3) According to Watson, the three fundamental emotions …………,
………… and ………… .
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 4) The laws that Watson used for his approach to learning are ………… Behaviorism
and ………… .
5) +RZGLG3DYORYDQG7KRUQGLNHLQÀXHQFH:DWVRQLDQEHKDYLRXULVP"
6) What was Watson’s view about instincts?
7) How did Watson experimentally demonstrate emotions?
8) How did Watson resolve the mind-body problem?
9) What are the two major criticisms against Watsonian behaviourism?
10) 'LVFXVVDUHWKHORQJODVWLQJH൵HFWVRIEHKDYLRXULVPLQSV\FKRORJ\"

8.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Brennan, J. F. (2014). History and Systems of Psychology. Harlow: Pearson
Education Ltd.
Glassman, W. E. & Hadad, M. (2009). Approaches to Psychology. London:
McGraw-Hill Education
Hergenhahn, B. R. & Henley, T. B. (2009). An Introduction to the History
of Psychology. Wadsworth: Cengage Learning
Leahey, Thomas H. (2017). A History of Psychology. From Antiquity to
Modernity. Routledge.
Marx, M. H. & Hillix, W. A. (1963). Systems and Theories in Psychology.
New York: McGraw-Hill
Schultz D. P. & Schultz, S. E. (2008). A History of Modern Psychology.
Wadsworth: Thomson Learning, Inc.s

8.9 REFERENCES FOR FIGURES

First Discoverers (n.d.). Child Development Theories: John Watson, https://
ZZZ¿UVWGLVFRYHUHUVFRXNFKLOGGHYHORSPHQWWKHRULHVMRKQZDWVRQ

8.10 ONLINE RESOURCES

Cherry, K. (2020). Biography of Psychologist John B. Watson, https://www.
verywellmind.com/john-b-watson-biography-1878-1958-2795550
Snow, A. (2015). Behaviourism: Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, https://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=xvVaTy8mQrg
Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy (2019). Behaviourism, https://plato.
stanford.edu/entries/behaviourism/
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2020). John B. Watson, https://
www.britannica.com/biography/John-B-Watson
Answers to Review Questions (1-4)
(1) 1913, (2) Parsimony and Associationism, (3) fear, rage, and love, (4)
law of frequency and law of recency

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 UNIT 9 NEO-BEHAVIOURISM*
Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Logical Positivism
9.2 Operationism
9.3 Contributions of Neo-behaviourists
9.3.1 Edward Guthrie
9.3.2 Clark Hull
9.3.3 Edward Tolman
9.3.4 Burrhus Fredrick Skinner
9.4 Behaviourism in Today’s Time
9.5 Summary
9.6 Key Words
9.7 Review Questions
9.8 References and Further Reading
9.9 References for Figures
9.10 Web Resources
Learning Objectives
After reading this Unit, you will be able to;
Ɣ Explain the evolution and extension of behaviourim;
Ɣ Discuss the development of logical positivism and operationism;
Ɣ Describe the role of logical positivism and operationism in the
emergence of neobehaviourism; and
Ɣ Describe the contributions of the four major behaviourists – Guthrie,
Hull, Tolman, and Skinner.

9.0 INTRODUCTION
The revolution brought about by Watson was not an overnight transformation
LQSV\FKRORJ\,WWRRNVRPHWLPHIRU:DWVRQLDQEHKDYLRXULVPWREH¿UPO\
established. By 1924, a little over a decade later after Watson launched his
behaviourism, it was said to have been spread all over. By 1930, Watson
FRXOGMXVWL¿DEO\SURFODLPWKDWKLVYLFWRU\ZDVFRPSOHWH7KXVEHKDYLRXUDO
SV\FKRORJ\E\KDGURXWHGDOOSULRUDSSURDFKHVWRWKH¿HOG
:DWVRQLDQ EHKDYLRXULVP ZDV RQO\ WKH ¿UVW SKDVH RI EHKDYLRXULVP
%HKDYLRXULVP DV D VFKRRO RI SV\FKRORJ\ ZHQW WKURXJK GL൵HUHQW SKDVHV
continuously evolving. The evolution of behaviourism can be traced in
WKUHHGL൵HUHQWVWDJHV

* Dr. Saif R. Farooqi, Department of Applied Psychology, Vivekananda College,

University of Delhi

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 Ɣ First Stage: The stage of behaviourism – Watsonian behaviourism – Neo-behaviourism
lasted from 1913 to about 1930.
Ɣ Second Stage: The second stage of behaviourism – Neo-behaviourism
– is said to have dated from 1930 to about 1960. This stage strengthened
the ideas of Watson in a more rigorous manner.
Ɣ Third Stage: The third stage of behaviourism – Neo-neobehaviourism
or Sociobehaviourism – can be said to have dated from about 1960
to about 1990. This stage saw the return to the consideration of
cognitive processes, while maintaining focus on the observation of
overt behaviour.
During the later phase of Watsonian behaviourism, one major development
in philosophy in form of logical positivism, and one major development
in science, in the form of operationism was taking place. These two
developments directly had an impact on behaviourism, leading to the
emergence of neobehaviourism.

9.1 LOGICAL POSITIVISM

The goal of Comte’s and Mach’s positivism was to have sciences deal with
only what is directly observable. By the early 20th century, this was considered
as unrealistic, as physicists and chemists had discovered theoretical concepts
such as gravity, magnetism, atom, force, electron, and mass indispensable.
1RQHRIWKHVHHQWLWLHVZHUHGLUHFWO\REVHUYDEOH7KHGL൶FXOW\ZDVWKHQWR
¿QGDZD\IRUVFLHQFHWRXVHWKHRU\ZLWKRXWHQFRXQWHULQJWKHGDQJHUVSXW
forth in metaphysical speculation. The solution to this problem was given
by logical positivism.
Logical positivism is the name given to the view of science developed by a
small group of philosophers in Vienna known as the Vienna Circle, around
1924. The older positivism of Comte and Mach was taken up by the Vienna
Circle and was combined with the rigors of formal logic. According to
them, abstract theoretical terms were allowed only if such terms could be
logically tied to empirical observations. The empirical and the theoretical
were two major parts into which logical positivism divided science. The
observational terms of science refer to empirical events, and the theoretical
terms try to explain that which is observed.
The logical positivists in no way reduced the importance of empirical
importance by accepting theory as part of science. As a matter of fact,
empirical observation was the ultimate authority for the logical positivists.
If the theories helped explain what was observed only then they were
FRQVLGHUHG XVHIXO /RJLFDO SRVLWLYLVP KDG D SRZHUIXO LQÀXHQFH RQ
SV\FKRORJ\%\DOORZLQJWKHRU\ZLWKRXWVDFUL¿FLQJREMHFWLYLW\LWDOORZHG
much more complex forms of behaviourism to emerge. As a result of this
psychology entered into what Koch called the age of theory, which can
be said to have occurred from about1930 to about 1950. A member of the
Vienna Circle, Herbert Feigl, along with Rudolph Carnap named logical
positivism and did the most to bring it to the attention of psychologists.
It was believed that if psychology followed the dictates of logical positivism,
it could be on par with physics. For that to happen, however, psychology
would need to adhere to the principles of operationism.
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 Development of
Psychological Thought 9.2 OPERATIONISM
In 1927, the Harvard physicist Percy Bridgman published the book, The
Logic of Modern Physics. In the book he elaborated Mach’s proposal that
HYHU\ DEVWUDFW FRQFHSW LQ SK\VLFV EH GH¿QHG LQ WHUPV RI WKH SURFHGXUHV
used to measure the concept, which he called RSHUDWLRQDOGH¿QLWLRQ. Thus,
concepts like force and energyZRXOGEHGH¿QHGLQWHUPVRIWKHRSHUDWLRQV
or procedures used to measure the quantity of force or energy that is present.
,QRWKHUZRUGVRSHUDWLRQDOGH¿QLWLRQVWLHWKHRUHWLFDOWHUPVWRREVHUYDEOH
SKHQRPHQD 7KHUH ZRXOG EH QR DPELJXLW\ DERXW WKH GH¿QLWLRQ RI WKH
WKHRUHWLFDOWHUPGXHWRWKLV7KHLQVLVWHQFHWKDWDOODEVWUDFWVFLHQWL¿FWHUPV
EHRSHUDWLRQDOO\GH¿QHGZDVFDOOHGoperationism or operationalism.
The purpose of operationalism was to render the language and terminology
of science as being more objective and precise and to get rid of science of
“pseudo-problems,” that is, those problems that are not actually observable
or physically demonstrable. Operationism took hold in psychology almost
immediately along with logical positivism. To convert theoretical terms like
drive, learning, anxiety, and intelligence into empirical events operational
GH¿QLWLRQVFRXOGEHXVHG,WZRXOGWKXVVWULSWKHPRIWKHLUPHWDSK\VLFDO
connotations.
This kind of an approach was clearly in accordance with psychology’s new
HPSKDVLVRQEHKDYLRXU)RUH[DPSOHOHDUQLQJFRXOGEHRSHUDWLRQDOO\GH¿QHG
as making x number of successive correct turns in a T-maze, and anxiety
DQG LQWHOOLJHQFH FRXOG EH RSHUDWLRQDOO\ GH¿QHG DV VFRUHV RQ DSSURSULDWH
WHVWV 7KHVH GH¿QLWLRQV KDG QR H[FHVV ³PHQWDOLVWLF´ PHDQLQJ DQG ZHUH
completely in terms of publicly observable behaviour. Most psychologists
VRRQ DJUHHG ZLWK WKH ORJLFDO SRVLWLYLVWV WKDW D FRQFHSW LV VFLHQWL¿FDOO\
PHDQLQJOHVVXQOHVVLWFDQEHRSHUDWLRQDOO\GH¿QHG/RJLFDOSRVLWLYLVPKDG
no aversion to theory, unlike the earlier positivism. To show how science
FRXOGEHWKHRUHWLFDOZLWKRXWVDFUL¿FLQJREMHFWLYLW\ZDVLQIDFWRQHSULPDU\
goal of logical positivism. Logical positivism dominated experimental
psychology by the late 1930s.
All sciences being viewed as essentially the same, was one outcome of
logical positivism. It was suggested that all the sciences should use the
same terminology, as they all followed the same principles, made the same
assumptions, and attempted to explain empirical observations. It was,
further, suggested that a language database be created in which all terms
ZRXOGEHGH¿QHGLQUHIHUHQFHWRSXEOLFO\REVHUYDEOHSK\VLFDOREMHFWVDQG
HYHQWV7KHUHZDVDSXVKIRUWKHXQL¿FDWLRQRIDQGDFRPPRQYRFDEXODU\
among the sciences, including psychology, which came to be known as
physicalism ,Q SV\FKRORJ\ WKLV SURSRVDO WKDW DOO VFLHQWL¿F SURSRVLWLRQV
refer to physical things had profound implications. A physical concept is
the same as the set of operations or procedures by which it is determined.
A number of psychologists believed that this principle would work well for
them and were eager to apply it.
Behavioural psychologists were particularly appealed by Bridgman’s
insistence on discarding pseudo-problems, that is, those questions that defy
answer by any known objective test. Propositions such as the existence and
nature of the soul that cannot be put to experimental test, something that
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 cannot be observed in a laboratory, and cannot be measured and manipulated, Neo-behaviourism
do not have any meaning for science.
Due to the same reasons, as mentioned above, the concept of individual
or private conscious experience is also a pseudo-problem for the science
of psychology. Objective methods cannot be used to determine or even
investigate the existence or characteristics of consciousness. Thus,
FRQVFLRXVQHVV KDV QR SODFH LQ D VFLHQWL¿F SV\FKRORJ\ DFFRUGLQJ WR
operationism. When physicists openly accepted the idea of operationism,
many psychologists also felt like doing the same. Since the times of Wilhelm
Wundt, psychology had longed for the respectability of physics. Eventually,
psychologists used operationism more extensively than did physicists. In the
late 1920s and 1930s, all this resulted the neo-behaviourists to incorporate
operationism in their approach to psychology.
Check Your Progress 1
1) How did logical positivism prove to be helpful in using theoretical
concepts, without encountering the dangers of metaphysical?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
2) +RZGLGRSHUDWLRQLVPSOD\DUROHGHYHORSLQJDXQL¿HGODQJXDJHIRU
science, including psychology?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

9.3 CONTRIBUTIONS OF NEO-BEHAVIOURISTS

When behaviourism was combined with logical positivism, it resulted in
QHREHKDYLRXULVP7KLVDOVRUHÀHFWHGWKHWULXPSKRIEHKDYLRXULVPRYHUWKH
PHQWDOLVWLF SV\FKRORJ\ RI FRQVFLRXVQHVV $GGLWLRQDOO\ WKH LGHQWL¿FDWLRQ
of psychology as a positive science proceeded in a similar manner as the
physical sciences.
Each of the neo-behaviourists had their own distinct approach, they however,
agreed on several points about the systems they designed to explain their
data:
1) The core of psychology is the study of learning. This is because
learning is the primary mechanism by which organisms adjust to
changing environment, making it to be of high importance.
2) Most of the behaviours, no matter how complex they may be, can be
accounted for by the laws of conditioning.
3) If theory is used, it must be used in ways demanded by logical
positivism.
4) Psychology must adopt the principle of operationism.
5) Nonhuman animals should be used as research subjects. The reasons
IRUWKLVDUH¿UVWO\UHOHYDQWYDULDEOHLVHDVLHUWRFRQWUROLQQRQKXPDQ
animals as compared to human subjects. Secondly, perceptual and
OHDUQLQJ SURFHVVHV WKDW RFFXU LQ QRQKXPDQ DQLPDOV GL൵HU RQO\ LQ
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 Development of degree from those processes in humans. The information gathered
Psychological Thought from nonhuman animals can, therefore, be generalized to humans.
Neo-behaviourism mainly constitutes the work of the psychologists Edwin
Guthrie, Clark Hull, Edward Tolman, and B. F. Skinner.
9.3.1 Edwin Guthrie
Edwin Guthrie’s approach is called contiguity theory. Guthrie advocated
a psychology of observable behaviour consisting of muscular movements
and glandular responses elicited by environmental stimuli, just like Watson.
His theory of associations asserted a single principle to account for
learning, which was in the tradition of Pavlov and Thorndike. Thorndike’s
UHLQIRUFHPHQW SULQFLSOH EDVHG RQ WKH ODZ RI H൵HFW ZDV QRW DFFHSWHG E\
Guthrie but he rather viewed Thorndike’s secondary notion of associative
shifting as the basis of learning.
Box 9.1: Edwin Guthrie
7KHPRVWLQÀXHQWLDOWKHRUHWLFDOZRUNRI(GZLQ*XWKULHLVThe Psychology
of Learning, initially published in 1935, and later revised in 1952. His
writing style was non-technical, humorous, and full of anecdotes. He felt
WKDWVFLHQWL¿FWKHRU\VKRXOGEHZULWWHQLQVXFKDZD\WKDWVWXGHQWVDWWKH
undergraduate level can easily understand it. He also emphasized a lot on
WKHSUDFWLFDODSSOLFDWLRQRILGHDV*XWKULH¶VPRVWLQÀXHQWLDOH[SHULPHQWDO
work was written along with George Horton. In that he studied the
problem-solving behaviour of cats. It was published as Cats in a Puzzle
Box, in 1952.
Figure 9.1: Edwin Ray Guthrie
Even though Guthrie himself was a behaviourist, he had disagreements
(1886-1959)
ZLWK RWKHU LQÀXHQWLDO EHKDYLRXULVWV VXFK DV :DWVRQ +XOO 7ROPDQ DQG
Source: www. Skinner. He felt that their theories were not as parsimonious as it should
behaviouranalysishistory.pbworks.com be, and that their approach is too subjective.
The single principle that contiguity is the foundation of learning is the
key to Guthrie’s associationistic theory. Behaviour was viewed in terms of
movement rather than responses by Guthrie. By this distinction, he meant
that movements are the components of larger response units, or behavioural
acts. Accordingly, skilled behaviours may be viewed in terms of a gross
response composed of smaller units of movements that are largely muscular.
Likewise, stimuli were viewed as a complex situation consisting of smaller
elements. Given the presence of similar stimulus elements, Guthrie’s
principle of contiguity stated that when a combination of stimulus elements
is accompanied by movement, the movement sequence will recur. Guthrie
suggested that learning is a pattern or chain of discrete movements elicited
by both environmental and internal stimulus cues.
The role of reinforcement received a unique interpretation in this because
Guthrie’s view of associations relied on stimulus and response contiguity.
Guthrie believed that learning takes place in one-trial. This means that
the contiguous relationship between stimulus and response elements
LPPHGLDWHO\ SURGXFHV WKH DVVRFLDWLYH ERQG DW IXOO VWUHQJWK 7KH H൵HFWV
of a reinforcing reward or punishment serve to feed back on the stimulus
situation, which alters the situation and requires a new bond between the
altered stimulus situation and movement. Therefore, reinforcement brings
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 about a change in the stimulus context, requiring movement. With this the Neo-behaviourism
learning proceeds within the behaviour act.
Extinction or forgetting takes place due to interference from new associations
rather than the decay of stimulus-response bonds caused by the absence of
UHLQIRUFHPHQW,QWKHVDPHPDQQHUSUDFWLFHH൵HFWVZHUHVHHQDVLPSURYLQJ
the coordination of established bonds within the gross behavioural act instead
RID൵HFWLQJVWLPXOXVPRYHPHQWDVVRFLDWLRQ$FFRUGLQJO\*XWKULHYLHZHG
drives as energizers of behaviour act and not as causal motivational agents.
7KH ODWHU EHKDYLRXULVWLF SV\FKRORJLVWV ZHUH LQÀXHQFHG E\ *XWKULH¶V
arguments and interpretations. )'6KH൶HOGdefended Guthrie’s views and
extended them to include the use of positive reinforcement as a means of
UH¿QLQJEHKDYLRXU6LPLODUO\PDQ\RIWKHLPSOLFDWLRQVRI*XWKULH¶VZULWLQJV
were demonstrated by Virginia Voeks with the use of carefully designed
experiments. A major criticism against Guthrie’s approach was that it is
incomplete and that it does not deal with complex learning and memory
problems, in a comprehensive manner. Despite this criticism, Guthrie has
been appreciated in explaining complicated systems parsimoniously.
9.3.2 Clark Hull
Clark Hull’s systematic approach is called hypothetico-deductive theory.
This theory came closest to a comprehensive treatment of behavioural
issues governed by common principles. The central idea of Hull’s approach
LVKDELWIRUPDWLRQZKLFKLVWKHDFFXPXODWLRQVRIH[SHULHQFHVIRUH൵HFWLYH
DGDSWDWLRQ+XOO¶VVFLHQWL¿FDSSURDFKZDVWUXO\V\VWHPDWLF+HDGYRFDWHG
a hypothetico-deductive structure to guide research as he recognized the
importance of observation and experimentation. Following the approach of
Euclidian geometry, in this strategy a behaviour principle or formulation
LV ¿UVW GHGXFHG IURP SRVWXODWHV DQG WKHQ ULJRURXVO\ WHVWHG $ EHOLHI LV
supported by a successful test to form the postulates, and a failure results in
revision of the postulates. Following a logical progression, Hull’s approach
ZDVSRVLWLYLVWDQGYHUL¿HGWKURXJKHPpirical demonstration.
Box 9.2: Clark Hull
Clark HXOOZDVGHYRWHGWRWKHSUREOHPVRIWKHVFLHQWL¿FPHWKRGOLNHQR
other psychologist, at that time. He was very well versed in mathematics
and formal logic, and applied them to psychology, like no one else
before him. His form of behaviourism is said to be more sophisticated
and complicated than that of Watson. He and his followers dominated
American psychology from the 1940s to the 1960s.
In 1936, Hull was elected as the 44th president of American Psychological
Association (APA). In his presidential address, he talked about his goal to
use mechanistic and lawful principles in explaining purposive behaviour.
+XOOKDGDKXJHLQÀXHQFHRQWKHGLVFLSOLQHRISV\FKRORJ\+HLQVSLUHG Figure 9.2: Clark L. Hull
DZKROHORWRIUHVHDUFKDQGLQÀXHQFHGDODUJHQXPEHURISV\FKRORJLVWV (1884-1952)
indicating his stature in psychology. He propagated and extended the idea Source: www.verywellmind.com
of an objective behaviourist approach, like no one else.
Today, based on his interest in machine learning, Hull is viewed as the
IRUHUXQQHURIDUWL¿FLDOLQWHOOLJHQFH+XOOYLHZHGKXPDQVDVPDFKLQHVWKDW
can learn and think, and therefore, comparing and contrasting machines
with learning was compatible with his approach.
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 Development of Hull’s system relied heavily on mathematical predictions and was
Psychological Thought intricate. As his experimental tests progressed over time, he made detailed
PRGL¿FDWLRQV+XOO¶VWKHRU\RIOHDUQLQJLVGH¿QHGLQWHUPVRIWKHUHGXFWLRQ
of drives arising from motivational states as essentially it is focused on the
necessity of reinforcement. A homeostatic model seeking equilibrium from
drive forces is the context used to view the behaving organism.
The core of Hull’s analysis is the idea of intervening variables. Intervening
variables are unobservable entities that psychologists employ to account for
observable behaviour. Thus, from a purely behaviouristic perspective, Hull
extended Watson’s conceptualization of behaviour in terms of the peripheral
(S–R) events to a consideration of central, organismic factors, stimulus–
organism–response (S–O–R), intervening variables. It was Woodworth who
had suggested this expansion of the behavioural model, in 1918, but it was
Hull who systematically articulated organismic variables.
In Hull’s theory, Habit strength, (SHR), is the chief intervening variable for
OHDUQLQJ,WGHSHQGVRQWZRIDFWRUVIRUDVVRFLDWLRQV&RQWLJXLW\LVWKH¿UVW
principle, which means that a close temporal relationship must exist between
stimulus and reinforcement. Reinforcement is the second principle, which
LVGH¿QHGLQLWVSULPDU\IRUPDVGULYHUHGXFWLRQ7KHUHDUHDOVRVHFRQGDU\
reinforcements, which are cues that are reliably associated with the primary
reinforcement and take on the reinforcement properties. For instance, if
in the presence of light, a hungry rat is repeatedly given food for correct
responses, the light takes on some of the rewarding characteristics of the
food.
In order to get the basic procedure in which learning occurs as contiguity
of stimulus and response under conditions of reinforcement, Hull attempted
WRLQWHJUDWH7KRUQGLNH¶VODZRIH൵HFWZLWK3DYORYLDQFRQGLWLRQLQJ+DELW
strength (SHR) and drive (D) interact to produce what Hull referred to as
reaction potential (SER 5HDFWLRQSRWHQWLDOLVGH¿QHGDVWKH³WHQGHQF\WR
SURGXFHVRPHUHDFWLRQXQGHUWKHH൵HFWRIWKHVWLPXOXV¶¶SER is a theoretical
concept, which is not synonymous with observable responses. It is the
product of SHR and D:
S
ER = SHR × D
Hull’s intervening variables, therefore, represents a qualitative
FRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQDORQJZLWKDQDWWHPSWWRGH¿QHTXDQWLWDWLYHUHODWLRQVKLSV
For example, on the basis of the aforementioned expression, little
performance would be observed from a hungry but naive rat. In such cases,
drive will be high, and habit strength is not, which shows a low tendency
to respond. Similarly, a rat with a well-established response to bar-press
for food reward would not perform if it is not hungry, accounting for the
distinction between learning and performance. In such a case, habit strength
is high, but drive is low, which will produce little expectation of reaction
potential.
In order to complete his framework for intervening variables that mediate
performance, Hull included negative, inhibiting factors (I) that result from
fatigue and boredom, as a by-product of performance. Hull also included the
contributions of stimulus magnitude (V), such as, a faint versus a loud CS;
the magnitude of reinforcement (K), such as, one versus four food pellets
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 per correct response; and the oscillating, momentary threshold of reaction Neo-behaviourism
for an individual subject (SOR). All of these intervening variables are related
in the following manner:
S
ER = SHRî'9.í,íSOR
As Hull’s theory developed this summary equation was itself articulated
LQWRPRUHUH¿QHGFRPSRQHQWV+XOO¶VHQWLUHGHWDLOHGVWUXFWXUHZDVDSSOLHG
WRWKHTXDQWL¿FDWLRQRIDOOSRVVLEOHLQÀXHQFHVRQWKHDFTXLVLWLRQRIDGDSWLYH
behaviour. His conceptualization has been supported by laboratory tests that
have been largely conducted on rats. This analytic approach assumed that
more complex forms of behaviour could be derived from these intervening
variables.
Despite being supported by experimental tests, Hull’s theory as a whole was
not found to be very successful. Empirical discrepancies were found in Hull’s
system, in that it was unable to deal with insightful and rapid acquisition
of behaviour. Hull had stressed upon on the importance of practice during
training, which produced continuous but gradual improvement during
acquisition. More importantly, the theory failed in its attempt to quantify
the conceptual relationships among intervening variables. Hull’s views
have also been found to be premature. His system is often suggested to
EHD¿[HGULJLGVWUXFWXUHWKDWLVSHUKDSVQRWVXLWDEOHIRUWKHYDULDELOLW\RI
human and animal behaviour. Nevertheless, Hull’s system has been found
to be superb as a model for research. Much of the contemporary jargon to
describe learning is because of Hull.
Check Your Progress 2
1) How did Guthrie distinguish between movements and responses?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
2) How did Hull extend Watson’s conceptualization of behaviour?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

9.3.3 Edward Tolman

Edward Tolman’s approach is called cognitive behaviourism. His theory
further expanded the idea of Watson’s behaviourism, more than Guthrie
and Hull. Tolman proposed a consideration of behaviour that was molar, as
opposed to molecular in his major work, Purposive Behaviour in Animals
and Men   $FFRUGLQJ WR KLP PRODU EHKDYLRXU LV D XQL¿HG DQG
complete act, which provides the proper unit for psychology. He suggested
that underlying molecular elements like neural, muscular, or glandular
processes are not good enough to be considered as a molar act.
In doing so, Tolman can be viewed as departing from Watsonian behaviourism
by incorporating the study of higher cognitive processes in psychology. His
approach to molar behaviour was not reductionistic. Tolman argued that
explanations based on molecular components is following a reductionist
approach, which becomes inadequate, because it results in the loss of the
purely psychological level. It said that explanations based upon molecular
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 Development of components are not adequate. Therefore, according to Tolman, molar
Psychological Thought behaviour is more than the sum of the molecular elements.
Box 9.3: Edward Tolman
Edward Tolman is considered to be the forerunner of modern cognitive
psychology. His work on the problems of learning and his concept of the
intervening variable had a great impact on the discipline of psychology.
7ROPDQ XVHG LQWHUYHQLQJ YDULDEOHV DV D ZD\ RI GH¿QLQJ XQREVHUYDEOH
LQWHUQDOVWDWHV7KLVPDGHVXFKLQWHUQDOVWDWHVWRJHWUHVSHFWLQVFLHQWL¿FVWXG\
Tolman believed that organisms are active processors of information,
which is in accordance with contemporary cognitive psychology.
Tolman’s theory in way is a precursor to the information processing
theory and the social-cognitive theory of Bandura. Tolman was a also
Figure 9.3 Edward a pioneer of behaviour genetics, which is very popular in the present-
C. Tolman (1886-1959) day scenario. In 1937, Tolman was elected as the 45th president of the
Source: www. American Psychological Association (APA). Additionally, he received
consciousnessandculture.com $3$¶V'LVWLQJXLVKHG6FLHQWL¿F&RQWULEXWLRQ$ZDUG
Tolman relies heavily on many of the premises of Gestalt psychology. He
used the term Gestalt to describe holistic, insightful learning experiences.
Further, his notion of molar behaviour and adoption of mental isomorphism
were directly taken from Gestalt psychology. He used the term mental
isomorphism to describe the central product of learning in terms of the
DFTXLVLWLRQRI¿HOGPDSVZKLFKH[LVWLQWKHEUDLQDVFRJQLWLYHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQV
of the learned environment.
Tolman’s laws of acquisition mainly focused on practice that builds up sign
Gestalts, or expectancies. For instance, in his maze learning experiments
with rats, Tolman described the acquisition of place learning, which he
inferred as the acquisition of relationships or cognitive maps in the subject.
In the same way, he demonstrated expectancy of reinforcement, when he
found that rats that were trained to one kind of reward switched to a more
appealing food. Finally, he demonstrated the idea of latent learning in rats,
ZKLFK VXJJHVWV GL൵HUHQW H൵HFWV RQ SHUIRUPDQFH OHYHOV FDQ EH H[HUWHG
depending on the quality of reinforcement. In all these experiments, Tolman
clearly showed that organisms are guided by central, mediating processes
that are beyond the environment. In doing so, he used cognitive explanations
as intervening variables.
The theoretical orientation of Tolman has not been to be very systematic,
when compared to the approach of Hull. Further, Tolman explanations of
the central mediation of cognitive learning have been found to be vague.
Despite these criticisms, Tolman is credited with bringing about a new
perspective of behaviourism. He enabled behaviourism to move away from
the reductionist, molecular view of Watson. Additionally, his discovery
RI SHUIRUPDQFH EHLQJ GL൵HUHQW IURP OHDUQLQJ ZKLFK KH HYHQ UHSHDWHGO\
demonstrated, showed that learning is not something that can simply be
reduced to elements of stimulus-response-reinforcement. He was able
WR ¿UPO\ HVWDEOLVK WKH QRWLRQ RI PRODU EHKDYLRXU DQG VWLPXODWHG D JUHDW
deal of research in it. Tolman, unlike Hull, may not have behind a large
number of followers or a systematic school of thought, but he certainly did
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 anticipate the research theme of cognitive learning, which is predominant in Neo-behaviourism
contemporary psychology.
9.3.4 Burrhus Fredrick Skinner
B. F. Skinner, in 1950, published his paper, Are Theories of Learning
Necessary? This paper brought about what is called the end of the theory-
building phase of the behaviourism. Skinner felt that theory building had a
number of limitations. He felt that theories are based on a-priori assumptions
that are questionable and misrepresent behavioural sciences. Instead of
theories, Skinner suggested a system of behaviourism that is guided by data.
For Skinner, theory should only be used in making descriptive generalizations
that are made on the basis of facts, using a positivistic approach.
Skinner’s approach had more of a methodological emphasis. He propagated
a return to the study of behaviour with respect to peripheral events. He, thus,
was completely against the usage of central mediating agencies of behaviour,
whether they were cognitive or physiological. Instead of central mediating
agencies, Skinner strongly believed that behaviour is only determined by
the environment. Many-a-times, because of this, Skinner’s approach has
been referred to as radical environmentalism. Due to his strong emphasis
on environmental determinacy, Skinner believed that if the environment is
controlled, then behaviour can also be controlled. For this reason, he gave
preference to exhaustive single subject studies, comparing the subject in
GL൵HUHQWHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQV+HEHOLHYHGWKDWRUJDQLVPVGL൵HUGXH
WRGL൵HUHQFHVLQWKHHQYLURQPHQWDQGQRULQGLYLGXDOGL൵HUHQFHVLQKHUHQWLQ
them.
Box 9.4: Burrhus Fredrick Skinner
% ) 6NLQQHU ZDV FRQVLGHUHG WR EH WKH PRVW LQÀXHQWLDO SV\FKRORJLVW
for many decades. From the 1950s to the 1980s, Skinner remained the
PDMRU¿JXUHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKEHKDYLRXULVP'XULQJWKLVWLPHKHVKDSHG
American psychology more than any other psychologist. Unlike other
neobehaviourists, Skinner’s approach was more in line of positivism
rather than logical positivism. After the second World War, Skinner’s
behaviourism not only rivalled other versions, but even surpassed them
all.
Skinner had a number of achievements throughout his life. He attracted a
large number of loyal and enthusiastic followers. He developed a program Figure 9.4: B. F. Skinner
IRUWKHEHKDYLRXUDOFRQWURORIVRFLHW\SURPRWHGEHKDYLRXUPRGL¿FDWLRQ (1904-1990)
techniques, and invented an automated crib for tending infants. His novel, Source: www.britannica.com
Walden Two, remained popular decades after its publication. In 1958,
6NLQQHU ZDV DZDUGHG WKH 'LVWLQJXLVKHG 6FLHQWL¿F &RQWULEXWLRQ $ZDUG
by the American Psychological Association (APA). His book Beyond
Freedom and Dignity (1971) was a national best-seller, which also gave
him the opportunity to appear on television talk shows, to discuss his
views. He was even featured on the cover of Times Magazine, in 1971.
He had become more of a celebrity. His name became very familiar to
the general public. The magazine Psychology Today, in 1972 noted that
Skinner being a professor in psychology had also acquired the celebrity
status of a movie star.

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 Development of
Psychological Thought
Despite following the mechanistic principle stringently, Skinner was a
humanitarian, and his overall goal was the betterment of society. This was
YLYLGO\ UHÀHFWHG LQ KLV H൵RUWV WR PRGLI\ EHKDYLRXU LQ UHDOOLIH VHWWLQJV
such as homes, schools, and other organizations. He strongly believed
WKDWKLVPHWKRGVFRXOGUHOLHYHKXPDQVIURPPDQ\RIWKHVX൵HULQJVDQG
wanted his approach to be applied in a more widespread manner.
)RUKLVH൵RUWVLQGHYHORSLQJWKHEHKDYLRXUPRGL¿FDWLRQWHFKQLTXHZKLFK
was used to enhance the quality of life of the mentally retarded, Skinner
was presented with the Kennedy International Award, in 1971. He was
named the Humanist of the Year by American Humanist Association,
in 1972. In 1990, Skinner was presented the Lifetime Contribution to
Psychology Award. Just eight days after that, at the age of 86, Skinner
passed away. As a tribute to Skinner, the November 1992 issue of the
journal American Psychologist was entirely dedicated his ideas.
The study of operant behaviour was the basis for Skinner’s research.
7KLV PDGH KLV DSSURDFK GL൵HUHQW IURP 3DYORY ZKR VWXGLHG UHVSRQGHQW
EHKDYLRXU:KHQUHVSRQVHVDUHFDXVHGE\VSHFL¿FVWLPXOLWKHQLWLVUHIHUUHG
to respondent behaviour. In contrast to that, operant behaviour is something
that is ongoing, without any apparent stimulus. Operant behaviour is
also about the organism operating on the environment. To study operant
behaviour, Skinner developed an environmental chamber in which birds
could engage in pecking, or rats in bar pressing. Skinner felt that using such
an apparatus makes it easier to control the environment enabling to record
ongoing, operant rates of responses.
According to Skinner, learning takes place when the operant behaviour is
controlled by reinforcement from the environment. Initially, the operant
responses are shaped by reinforcement of approximations of the desired
operant behaviour. In order to increase the probability of the operant,
D UHLQIRUFLQJ HYHQW LV LQWURGXFHG DIWHU WKH LQLWLDOO\ UH¿QHG RSHUDQW )RU
H[DPSOHEDUSUHVVLQJLQDUDWEHLQJGH¿QHGDVDQRSHUDQWFDQEHLQFUHDVHG
if food is presented after the act of bar pressing. Therefore, for Skinner
reinforcement is the probability of changes in the operant rate. This makes
KLVLGHDRIUHLQIRUFHPHQWWREHGL൵HUHQWIURPWKDWRI7KRUQGLNHDQG+XOO
7KRUQGLNHVDZUHLQIRUFHPHQWLQWHUPVRIVDWLV¿HUVRUDQQR\HUVDQG+XOO
saw reinforcement in terms of drive reduction. Skinner avoided these two
ZD\VRIGH¿QLQJUHLQIRUFHPHQW
6NLQQHUVKRZHGWKDWVSHFL¿FUHVSRQVHUDWHVFDQEHREWDLQHGIRUSDUWLFXODU
schedules of reinforcement, demonstrating the power of reinforcement. In
the same way, he translated conditioning processes such as generalization
and discrimination to a reinforcement contingency framework. He also
extended the principles of operant control to a consideration of verbal
behaviour. Skinner used his experimental data for his argument that
behaviour is controlled. Accordingly, he suggested that psychologists
VKRXOGGH¿QHWKHSDUDPHWHUVRIH൵HFWLYHFRQWUROWKDWPD\EHVXLWDEOHIRU
social implications.
Skinner has been heavily criticised for his approach. His idea of behavioural
control and his mechanical conception of human nature have not gone
down well with a lot of people. Skinner, however, felt that human activity
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 does not involve personal freedom or self-determinacy. He argued that the Neo-behaviourism
humanistic characteristics that are assigned to human beings, making them
GL൵HUHQW IURP RWKHU VSHFLHV LV PRUH RI DQ LOOXVLRQ WKDW KDV EHHQ FUHDWHG
throughout history. According to Skinner, to be truly human means to be in
FRQWUROXQGHUVWDQGLQJDQGXVLQJWKHHQYLURQPHQWIRUEHQH¿WWLQJWKHVHOI
Check Your Progress 3
 +RZLV7ROPDQ¶VDSSURDFKGL൵HUHQWIURP:DWVRQLDQEHKDYLRXULVP"
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
2) What is the role of environment in behaviour, according to Skinner?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

9.4 BEHAVIOURISM IN TODAY’S TIME

All the neREHKDYLRXULVWVKDYHEHHQKLJKO\LQÀXHQWLDOLQRQHZD\RUWKHRWKHU
Tolman’s cognitive behaviourism, emphasising on purposive behaviour
and mental constructs has been the forerunner of contemporary cognitive
psychology. Hull’s emphasis on deriving mathematical equations has led a
QXPEHURISV\FKRORJLVWVWRGHYHORSPDWKHPDWLFDOPRGHOVRIGL൵HUHQWW\SHV
of behaviours.
$PRQJDOOWKHQHREHKDYLRXULVWVWKHLQÀXHQFHRI6NLQQHUKDVEHHQUHDOO\
VWURQJ7KHSRSXODULW\RI6NLQQHU¶VEHKDYLRXULVPLVUHÀHFWHGLQWKHIROORZHUV
of Skinner establishing a separate division in the American Psychological
Association (APA), which directly associated with Skinner. Division 25, in
the APA, known as the division of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour
is all about Skinner’s approach. The division has its own journal to publish
all related research in the area.
Advances in psychological research, however, over the years, have led
WKH LQÀXHQFH RI EHKDYLRXULVP WR GLPLQLVK &RQWHPSRUDU\ SV\FKRORJ\
emphasizes a lot on cognitive aspects, which, except for Tolman, can be
viewed as completely against the whole idea of behaviourism. Research
in evolutionary psychology has given a lot of evidences that much of
animal behaviour, which includes human social behaviour, is genetically
determined. This is also completely against the idea of behaviourism.
$GGLWLRQDOO\ WKH LQVLVWHQFH RI QHREHKDYLRXULVWV WR RSHUDWLRQDOO\ GH¿QH
theoretic terms has been found to be problematic. Many of the logical
positivists have themselves abandoned the idea of strict operationism as it
VHHPVWREHWRRUHVWULFWLYH'XHWRWKHHPSKDVLVRQRSHUDWLRQLVPVFLHQWL¿F
concepts that were too complex, yet useful in giving new pathways of
UHVHDUFKKDGWREHH[FOXGHGKDPSHULQJVFLHQWL¿FSURJUHVV
Nevertheless, there is one legacy of behaviourism and neo-behaviourism
that still dominates the discipline of psychology. Psychologists, mostly
agree that the subject of psychology should be overt behaviour. Even
cognitive and neuropsychological processes are largely examined in terms
RIRYHUWEHKDYLRXUXQGHUGL൵HUHQWVSHFL¿FVLWXDWLRQV,QWKDWVHQVHPRVWRI
the experimental psychologists in today’s time are behaviourists.
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 Development of
Psychological Thought 9.5 SUMMARY
Now that we have come to the end of this Unit, let us list all the major points
that we have learnt.
Ɣ %HKDYLRXULVPDVDVFKRRORISV\FKRORJ\ZHQWWKURXJKGL൵HUHQWSKDVHV
continuously evolving. The evolution of behaviourism can be traced
LQ WKUHH GL൵HUHQW VWDJHV ± :DWVRQLDQ EHKDYLRXULVP  ±  
Neo-behaviourism (1930 to about 1960), and Neoneobehaviourism
(from about 1960 to about 1990).
Ɣ During the later phase of Watsonian behaviourism, one major
development in philosophy in form of logical positivism, and one
major development in science, in the form of operationism was
taking place. These two developments directly had an impact on
behaviourism, leading to the emergence of neo-behaviourism.
Ɣ When behaviourism was combined with logical positivism, it resulted
in neo-behaviourism. Neo-behaviourism mainly constitutes the work
of the psychologists Edwin Guthrie, Clark Hull, Edward Tolman, and
B. F. Skinner.
Ɣ Guthrie advocated a psychology of observable behaviour consisting
of muscular movements and glandular responses elicited by
environmental stimuli, just like Watson. The single principle that
contiguity is the foundation of learning is the key to Guthrie’s
associationistic theory.
Ɣ Hull’s theory came closest to a comprehensive treatment of
behavioural issues governed by common principles. The central idea
of Hull’s approach is habit formation, which is the accumulations
RIH[SHULHQFHVIRUH൵HFWLYHDGDSWDWLRQ+HDGYRFDWHGDK\SRWKHWLFR
deductive structure to guide research as he recognized the importance
of observation and experimentation.
Ɣ In Hull’s theory, Habit strength, (SHR), is the chief intervening variable
for learning. In order to get the basic procedure in which learning
occurs as contiguity of stimulus and response under conditions of
UHLQIRUFHPHQW+XOODWWHPSWHGWRLQWHJUDWH7KRUQGLNH¶VODZRIH൵HFW
with Pavlovian conditioning.
Ɣ Tolman’s theory further expanded the idea of Watson’s behaviourism,
more than Guthrie and Hull. Tolman proposed a consideration of
behaviour that was molar, as opposed to molecular. He used the term
Gestalt to describe holistic, insightful learning experiences. Tolman’s
laws of acquisition mainly focused on practice that builds up sign
Gestalts, or expectancies.
Ɣ Tolman anticipated the research theme of cognitive learning, which is
predominant in contemporary psychology.
Ɣ B. F. Skinner, in 1950, published his paper, Are Theories of Learning
Necessary? This paper brought about what is called the end of
the theory-building phase of the behaviourism. Due to his strong
emphasis on environmental determinacy, Skinner believed that if the
environment is controlled, then behaviour can also be controlled.
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 Ɣ 6NLQQHU EHOLHYHG WKDW RUJDQLVPV GL൵HU GXH WR GL൵HUHQFHV LQ WKH Neo-behaviourism
HQYLURQPHQW DQG QRU LQGLYLGXDO GL൵HUHQFHV LQKHUHQW LQ WKHP 7KH
study of operant behaviour was the basis for Skinner’s research.
7KLVPDGHKLVDSSURDFKGL൵HUIURP3DYORYZKRVWXGLHGUHVSRQGHQW
EHKDYLRXU:KHQUHVSRQVHVDUHFDXVHGE\VSHFL¿FVWLPXOLWKHQLWLV
referred to respondent behaviour. In contrast to that, operant behaviour
is something that is ongoing, without any apparent stimulus.
Ɣ Contemporary psychology emphasizes a lot on cognitive aspects,
which, except for Tolman, can be viewed as completely against the
whole idea of behaviourism. Research in evolutionary psychology
has given a lot of evidences that much of animal behaviour, which
includes human social behaviour, is genetically determined. This is
also completely against the idea of behaviourism.

9.6 KEY WORDS

Logical Positivism: The name given to the view of science developed by a
small group of philosophers in Vienna (the Vienna Circle) around 1924. The
older positivism of Comte and Mach was taken up by these philosophers
and combined with the rigors of formal logic. According to them, abstract
theoretical terms were allowed only if such terms could be logically tied to
empirical observations.
2SHUDWLRQDO 'H¿QLWLRQ 'H¿QLQJ DEVWUDFW FRQFHSWV LQ WHUPV RI WKH
procedures used to measure that concept.
Operationism: ,QVLVWHQFHWKDWDOODEVWUDFWVFLHQWL¿FWHUPVEHRSHUDWLRQDOO\
GH¿QHG
Physicalism: 7KHSXVKIRUXQL¿FDWLRQRIDQGDFRPPRQYRFDEXODU\DPRQJ
the sciences, including psychology.
Principle of Contiguity: When a combination of stimulus elements is
accompanied by movement, the movement sequence will recur. Learning
is a pattern or chain of discrete movements elicited by both environmental
and internal stimulus cues.
Hypothetico-deductive: Following the approach of Euclidian geometry,
LQWKLVVWUDWHJ\DEHKDYLRXUSULQFLSOHRUIRUPXODWLRQLV¿UVWGHGXFHGIURP
postulates and then rigorously tested. Belief is supported by a successful
test to form the postulates; failure results in revision of the postulates.
Habit Formation: 7KH DFFXPXODWLRQV RI H[SHULHQFHV IRU H൵HFWLYH
adaptation.
Intervening Variables: Unobservable entities employed by psychologists
to account for observable behaviour
Habit Strength: The chief intervening variable for learning in Hull’s
theory. It depends on two factors for associations. Contiguity principle is
WKH¿UVWRQHPHDQLQJWKDWDFORVHWHPSRUDOUHODWLRQVKLSPXVWH[LVWEHWZHHQ
stimulus and reinforcement. Reinforcement itself is the second principle,
GH¿QHG LQ LWV SULPDU\ IRUP DV GULYH UHGXFWLRQ 7KHUH DUH DOVR VHFRQGDU\
reinforcements, cues that are reliably associated with primary reinforcement
and take on reinforcement properties.

173

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 Development of Reaction Potential: The tendency to produce some reaction under the
Psychological Thought H൵HFWRIWKHVWLPXOXV
Molar Behaviour: $XQL¿HGDQGFRPSOHWHDFWZKLFKSURYLGHVWKHSURSHU
unit for psychology. Tolman argued that reductionism results in the loss of
the purely psychological level in adhering to the molar level. It said that
explanations based upon molecular components are not adequate. Thus,
molar behaviour is more than the sum of the molecular elements for Tolman.
Place Learning: The acquisition of relationships in a maze or cognitive
maps.
Latent Learning:'L൵HUHQWH൵HFWVRQSHUIRUPDQFHOHYHOVFDQEHH[HUWHG
depending on the quality of reinforcement.
Environmental Determinacy: Behaviour being determined by the
environment.
Operant Behaviour: Behaviour that is ongoing without any apparent
stimulus in contrast to respondent behaviour, where responses are elicited
E\VSHFL¿FVWLPXOL
Skinner’s reinforcement: Probability of changes in the operant rate.

9.7 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) What are the three stages of evolution of behaviourism?
 +RZGLGORJLFDOSRVLWLYLVPKDYHDQLQÀXHQFHRQSV\FKRORJ\"
 ,QZKDWZD\VGLGRSHUDWLRQLVPLQÀXHQFHSV\FKRORJ\"
 'HVFULEHWKHGL൵HUHQWSRLQWVRQZKLFKWKHQHREHKDYLRXULVWVDJUHHG
upon.
5) Describe the role of contiguity in learning, according to Guthrie.
 'HVFULEH WKH GL൵HUHQW LQWHUYHQLQJ YDULDEOHV XVHG E\ +XOO LQ KLV
framework of reaction potential.
7) Explain the cognitive components that Tolman incorporated in his
approach.
8) How did Skinner used the idea of operant behaviour in describing
learning?
 +RZLV6NLQQHU¶VLGHDRIUHLQIRUFHPHQWGL൵HUHQWIURP7KRUQGLNHDQG
Hull?
10) :K\GLGWKHLQÀXHQFHRIEHKDYiourism diminish, over the years?

9.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Brennan, J. F. (2014). History and Systems of Psychology. Harlow: Pearson
Education Ltd.
Glassman, W. E. & Hadad, M. (2009). Approaches to Psychology. London:
McGraw-Hill Education
Hergenhahn, B. R. & Henley, T. B. (2009). An Introduction to the History
of Psychology. Wadsworth: Cengage Learning
Marx, M. H. & Hillix, W. A. (1963). Systems and Theories in Psychology.
New York: McGraw-Hill
174

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 Schultz D. P. & Schultz, S. E. (2008). A History of Modern Psychology. Neo-behaviourism
Wadsworth: Thomson Learning, Inc

9.9 REFERENCES FOR FIGURES

Cherry, K. (2020). Psychologist Clark Hull Biography (1884 – 1952).
https://www.verywellmind.com/clark-hull-biography-1884-1952-2795504
Editorial Team (2014). Cognitive Maps and Edward Chace Tolman. https://
consciousnessandculture.com/cognitive-maps-edward-chace-tolman/
History of Behaviour Analysis (n.d.) Guthrie, Edwin. https://
EHKDYLRXUDQDO\VLVKLVWRU\SEZRUNVFRPZSDJH*XWKULH
Edwin
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2020). B. F. Skinner. https://
www.britannica.com/biography/B-F-Skinner

9.10 WEB RESOURCES

B. F. Skinner Foundation (n.d.). Biographical Information. https://www.
bfskinner.org/archives/biographical-information/
Hasok, C. (2019). Operationalism, The Stanford Encyclopaedia of
Philosophy. https://www.britannica.com/topic/logical-positivism
Hogan, J. D. & Frishberg, N. (2015). Edward C. Tolman: Eminent Learning
Theorist and Outspoken Speaker of Academic Freedom, The General
Psychologist https://www.apadivisions.org/division-1/publications/
newsletters/general/2015/04/tolman
Landrum, E. (2013). Neobehaviourism. https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=GaGBldE4LGM
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2015). Logical Positivism. https://
www.britannica.com/topic/logical-positivism
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2020). B. F. Skinner. https://
www.britannica.com/biography/B-F-Skinner
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2020). Clark L. Hull. https://
www.britannica.com/biography/Clark-L-Hull
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2020). Edward C. Tolman. https://
www.britannica.com/biography/Edward-C-Tolman
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2020). Edwin Ray Guthrie.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Edwin-Ray-Guthrie

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 UNIT 10 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY*
Structure
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Antecedent Forces
10.2 Basic Principles of Gestalt Psychology
10.2.1 Principles of Perceptual Organization
10.2.2 Thinking
10.2.3 Learning
10.2.4 Memory
10.2.5 Developmental Concepts
10.2.6 Isomorphism
10.3 Kurt Lewin and Field Theory
10.3.1 Lewin’s Vector Psychology
10.4 Group Dynamics
10.5 Criticisms of Gestalt Psychology
10.6 Summary
10.7 Keywords
10.8 Review Questions
10.9 References and Further Reading
10.10 References for Figures
10.11 Web Resources
Learning Objectives
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
Ɣ Explain the context and forces that led to the emergence of Gestalt
Psychology;
Ɣ Identify the various principles which formed a basis of Gestalt system;
and
Ɣ 'HVFULEH.XUW/HZLQ¶VFRQWULEXWLRQRI¿HOGWKHRU\

10.0 INTRODUCTION
In 1912, Max Wertheimer published experiments on apparent motion which
served as the foundation of a new orientation called a Gestalt psychology.
It was led by Wertheimer and two of his close associates Wolfgang Köhler
and Kurt Kofka.
The term Gestalt does not have a literal English translation, and the words
µIRUP¶µVKDSH¶µFRQ¿JXUDWLRQ¶µVWUXFWXUH¶DQGµSDWWHUQ¶DUHFRPPRQO\XVHG
to provide a functional translation. Gestalt psychology emerged as a revolt
against the Wundt’s structural psychology and its elementary dimensions
and also criticized American Behaviourism. It was a revolt against the idea
* Ms.Vrushali Pathak, Research Scholar, Department of Psychology, Jamia Millia
Islamia, New Delhi

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 that few bits and pieces of ‘experience’ together glued to form ‘the whole’. Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt believed that it could never be the complete experience. Thus, Gestalt
expresses that a system of psychology should conceptualize psychological
HYHQWVDVRUJDQL]HGFRKHUHQWDQGXQL¿HGSKHQRPHQD)RULQVWDQFHZKHQ
we smile, it’s not just the muscles acting in a certain way. It also depends on
what’s going on around the individual, it correlates with the event, then the
mind processes it and the muscles respond a certain way to smile.
Gestaltists believe that an entity loses its identity if analysed in a pre-
conceived framework. This does not limit the range of experiences of
the individual or the event to make it adaptable to the researcher’s mold.
Accordingly, the goal of Gestalt psychology was to investigate the
organization of mental activity and thereby, determine the exact nature of
person-environmental reciprocal actions (Brennan & Houde, 2017).

10.1 ANTECEDENT FORCES

6RPHRIWKHIRUFHVWKDWKDGDQLQÀXHQWLDOLPSDFWRQ*HVWDOWSV\FKRORJ\DUH
discussed below:
a) Immanuel Kant
According to Kant, perception could not be analyzed after dividing it
into parts and this particular notion became the most important tenet of
the Gestalt school. Organization was understood as a natural ongoing
process and meaning would be given in the experience itself, that is,
the meaning would emerge as the way we would internally experience
the event. Another important aspect that Gestaltists borrowed from
was Kantian belief that our ability to perceive space and time is not
wholly dependent upon learning rather it is native or inborn.
b) Wilhelm Wundt and J.S. Mill
Both Wundt and Mill (his concept of ‘mental chemistry’) recognized
that certain new characteristics may emerge from the combination
of two or more elements of consciousness, thus, acknowledging that
WKHUHFRXOGEHGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQZKROHVDQGVXPRIWKHLUSDUWV7KLV
view had a direct impact on Gestalt psychology which believed that
WKHZKROHPD\KDYHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVGL൵HUHQWIURPWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFV
of its individual parts.
c) Franz Brentano and Carl Stumpf
Both Brentano and Stumpf objected to the psychology which was
GH¿QHG XVLQJ HOHPHQWDO FRQWHQW 7KHLU DFW SV\FKRORJ\ ZDV QRW
amenable to the experimental method of controls imposed over
certain variables, rather it was more suited to the observational nature
of Phenomenology. Both Phenomenology and Gestalt psychology
KDGGL൵HUHQWYLHZVUHJDUGLQJWKHFRQWHQWRISV\FKRORJ\EXWZHUHWKH
products of same intellectual forces in Germany. Both the systems also
had their doubts regarding the analytical character of the controlled
laboratory methods and thus were looking for a formulation that
acknowledged the innate organization and activity of the mind.
d) Ernst Mach
Mach discussed two types of sensations– space-form and time-form,
ZKLFKKHEHOLHYHGWREHFRQ¿JXUDO7KRXJK0DFK¶VHPSLULFLVPZDV
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 Development of disagreeable to Gestalt psychologists but his work on sensations was
Psychological Thought an inspirational source for them. He considered the space-forms and
time-forms to be independent of their element. For example, a melody,
DOWKRXJKFRPSULVHVRILQGLYLGXDOQRWHV LWVHOHPHQW LVGL൵HUHQWIURP
its elements and has an identity of its own. When transposed further
WRDGL൵HUHQWNH\VLJQDWXUHWKHLQGLYLGXDOQRWHVZLOOFKDQJHEXWWKH
melody will still remain the same.
e) Laboratory work at Gottingen University
The research work that was being pursued at Gottingen University
laboratory worked as a major antecedent force. Muller’s work
resembled the Gestalt phenomenological approach. Wertheimer,
.RINDDQG.|KOHUVXSSRUWHGKLVZRUNDQGZHUHDOVRKLJKO\LQÀXHQFHG
by Jaensch (visual perception), Katz (perception of color) and Rubin’s
SHUFHSWLRQRI¿JXUHJURXQG ZRUNZKLFKSURYHGWREHLQVWUXPHQWDO
for the foundations of Gestalt psychology.

10.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GESTALT

PSYCHOLOGY
Max Wertheimer started experiments on phi phenomenon in 1910 which
marked the formal beginning of Gestalt psychology. The phi phenomenon or
DSSDUHQWPRYHPHQW DVLWLVFDOOHGVRPHWLPHV FDQEHH[HPSOL¿HGXVLQJWZR
GLVFUHWHOLJKWV:KHQWZRVWDWLRQDU\REMHFWV OLJKWV DUHÀDVKHGRQWKHUHWLQD
DWGL൵HUHQWORFDWLRQV DQGLIRQHVXFFHHGVWKHRWKHUE\DEULHILQWHUYDOWKHQ
WKHVXEMHFWQRWLFHVDVZHHSLQJPRYHPHQWLQDGLUHFWLRQIURPRQHÀDVKRI
light to another. Thus, the subject does not see two discrete elements, that is
WZRVHSDUDWHOLJKWVEXWUDWKHUDFRPSOHWHHYHQWZKLFKLVUDGLFDOO\GL൵HUHQW
from its elements. It was very clear to the Gestalt psychologists that the
piecemeal examination of the individual elements can never explain the
whole experience. They also took the position that the parts put together do
not make a whole, rather whole exists prior to its parts. According to Köhler
(1947), “One of the main tasks of Gestalt Psychology is that of indicating
WKHJHQXLQHUDWKHUWKDQDQ\¿FWLWLRXVSDUWVRIWKHZKROH´ S LQGLFDWLQJ
that paying attention only to the individual and isolated parts could be
¿FWLWLRXV
10.2.1 Principles of Perceptual Organization
Wertheimer (1923/1938) found that the basic gestalt principle remained true
in various intellectual and sensory domains. Whatever we do, we perceive
RXU ZRUOG LQ XQL¿HG ZKROHV DQG WKH RUJDQL]DWLRQ LV DOUHDG\ JLYHQ LQ WKH
experience. Gestalt psychologists articulated some principles that govern
the basic organization of perceptual wholes. These were also called as the
principles of primitive organization due to the understanding that they were
native and natural. Some of the important principles are as follows:
a) Principle of similarity: The principle states that the elements that are
similar to each other in any way (color, orientation, size etc.) tend to
EHSHUFHLYHGDVDXQL¿HGJURXS,Q)LJXUHWZRVHSDUDWHJURXSV
based on shape can be seen– the circles and the squares.
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 X O X O X O O O O O O O Gestalt Psychology
X O X O X O X X X X X X

X O X O X O O O O O O O
X O X O X O X X X X X X
X O X O X O O O O O O O

Figure 10.1: Law of similarity

Source: https://healthywaymag.com/psychology/gestalt-psychology-
principles-theory
b) Principle of proximity: Elements that are close together either in
WLPHRUVSDFHDUHSHUFHLYHGDVDXQL¿HGJURXS,Q)LJXUHZHVHH
two pairs of vertical lines rather than four vertical lines.

Figure 10. 2: Law of proximity

c) Principle of closure: The principle states that, if there are certain

parts that are missing or left out in the perceptual object, we tend to
FRPSOHWHLWSV\FKRORJLFDOO\WKHUHE\¿OOLQJWKHJDSV,Q)LJXUH
we would see a circle and star instead of disconnected lines.

Figure 10.3: Principle of closure

Source: https://uxpro.cc/publications/using-gestalt-laws-of-perceptual-
organization-in-ui-design/
d) Principle of continuity: The objects that have a continuity with
HDFKRWKHUDUHSHUFHLYHGWREHÀRZLQJLQWKHVDPHGLUHFWLRQDQGDUH
SHUFHLYHG DV D ¿JXUH DV VHHQ LQ )LJXUH   ,W LV DOVR NQRZQ DV
principle of good continuation (Field et al. 1993). We tend to follow
the contours whenever the elements of a pattern imply a direction.

Figure 10.4: Principle of continuity

e) 3ULQFLSOHRI¿JXUHDQGJURXQG: It asserted that information is not

organized perceptually alone, some contrast is also required to gather
knowledge from the data. Edgar Rubin (1886-1951) explained that
the element that stands out is the ¿JXUH Other thing that seems to
retreat in the background is called as ground. It basically argues that
LWLVYLWDOWRUHFRJQL]H¿JXUHIURPLWVJURXQG$PDMRUFKDUDFWHULVWLFRI
¿JXUHis that it is distinct in comparison to the ground which is vague
179

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 Development of DQGLQGLVWLQFW,QDUHYHUVLEOH¿JXUHWKH¿JXUHDQGJURXQGVHHPWR
Psychological Thought VKLIWEDFNDQGIRUWKDVDQLQGLYLGXDOWULHVWR¿[DWHH\HVRQLW

Figure 10.5: Man and crane, Mimbres culture pot, c. 1000 -1150 AD
Source: Figure–ground (perception) - Wikipedia
f) Law of Prägnanz: According to Wertheimer, all the above principles
contribute to law of prägnanz or the principle of good form. It states
that we would assume the best possible form of the objects even if the
physical objects may not be in their symmetrical and developed form.
Thus, it allows us to see our world in a coherent and orderly way.
Certain other principles were also added to the original principles of
perceptual organization. Three of them are as follows:
g) Principle of common region: Elements with equal as size and shape
DUHSHUFHLYHGLQWRDJURXSLIWKH\VKDUHDQDUHDZLWKDFOHDUO\GH¿QHG
boundary. We tend to separate it from the set that is not enclosed.
7KHFLUFOHVJLYHQLQWKH¿JXUHEHORZDUHVSDFHGDSDUWHTXDOO\\HWZH
separate them into two groups.

Figure 10.6: Principle of common region

Source: KWWSVZZZXVHUWHVWLQJFRPVLWHVGHIDXOW¿OHVLQOLQHLPDJHV
common- regions_0.png
h) Principle of common fate:
This principle applies to moving
elements only and this makes it
GL൵HUHQW IURP WKH SULQFLSOH RI
common region. When elements
move in the same direction,
brain perceives it as a part of the
group, they are also separated
from the rest of elements in the
Figure 10.7: Principle of common fate
whole image.
Source: https://uxpro.cc/publications/
using-gestalt-laws-of-perceptual-
organization-in-ui-design/
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 i) Object constancy 7KH WHQHW VD\V WKDW RUJDQL]HG ¿JXUHV DUH VWDEOH Gestalt Psychology
and retain their stability as wholes despite certain changes in the
characteristics of the stimulus. For instance, a man standing very far
does not appear short to us, rather we perceive him to be of the same
size as we would when he is near.
Check Your Progress 1
 7UDFHVRPHNH\LQÀXHQFHVRQ*HVWDOWWKHRU\DQGHODERUDWHXSRQLWV
DQWHFHGHQW¿JXUHV
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
2) Explain phi phenomenon.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
3) List all the principles of perceptual organization.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
4) What is law of Prägnanz?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

10.2.2 Thinking
Wertheimer (1980) acknowledged that the earliest Gestalt orientation can
be found in “in the psychology of thinking or in ‘Volkerpsychologie’ rather
than in perception” (p. 13). Thus, many of Wertheimer’s contributions to
psychology of thinking can be found in his book (published posthumously
in 1945) Productive Thinking.
Productive thinking has been found to be the one that results in new,
innovative, and breakthrough idea. Reproductive thinking, on the other
hand is concerned with repetition, conditioning, usual drills, and routine
D൵DLUV:HUWKHLPHUFRQFOXGHGWKDWDOWKRXJKORJLFLVLPSRUWDQWEXWLWFDQQRW
lead to productive thinking on its own. Thus, being logical and being
FUHDWLYH FDQ EH WZR GL൵HUHQW WKLQJV +H HPSKDVL]HG WKDW ZKLOH VROYLQJ D
problem, one should pay attention to the whole or take the broader view
into consideration rather than getting lost in the details. Productive thinking
is more likely to result when more attention is paid to the structural truths
rather than the fragmented or piecemeal portions. The book (Productive
Thinking) illustrates it with many examples. For instance, a school teacher
asked his young students to work on a problem involving simple addition.
The problem was: 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 =? One of the
students, came up with solution of the problem, 55, almost instantaneously.
The teacher asked him for the explanation and found that when others when
adding 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 and so on, this student looked at the complete series and
found a pattern of 5 11s in it. He actually combined 1 + 10, 2 + 9, 3 + 8, and
so on. Thus, this novel way to reach the solution to this particular problem is
demonstrative of the fact that productive thinking is more likely a result of
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 Development of comprehensive examination of the whole rather than fragments. It would be
Psychological Thought interesting to note here that this student Karl Friedrich Gauss, who later
became a famous mathematician.
Another type of thinking that has been discussed is the one with trial- and-
error. Here, one reaches to a solution (if so), that is by chance. One of the
most important features of productive thinking is centering and recentering
(Singh, 2011). Centering refers to a shift from personal or subjective view
to a detached view of situations, it’s like a ‘bird’s eye view’, viewing it
objectively and as a whole. Recentering is taking a new and a penetrating
perspective. It can provide a new outlook to reach a creative solution.
Wertheimer believed that this process of productive thinking enters into
GL൵HUHQWSUREOHPVUHSUHVHQWLQJPDQ\DUHDVRIKXPDQOLIHVFKHPDVSODQV
and knowledge structures.
10.2.3 Learning
Gestalt psychologists had attacked behaviourism and its tenets and criticized
how it was based on the atomism and mechanism of 19th century physics.
They opposed the S-R psychology of Watson, connectionism of Thorndike
DQGWKHUHÀH[RORJLFDOIRFXVRI3DYORY
One of the noteworthy research in this area was done by Köhler. The
subjects were trained to select the darker of the two shades of gray color. The
subjects were rewarded for selecting the darker of the two objects that were
presented. In the phase 2 of the experiment, the previously rewarded object
was paired with another object that was darker than this particular object.
The brightness interval between the two objects in phase 1 and the two
presented in phase 2 was the same. Now, when they faced two other objects
(previously rewarded and another darker one), the subjects chose the darker
object. It is important to note that this darker object that they had selected in
SKDVHKDGQHYHUEHHQUHZDUGHG6XFKD¿QGLQJJRHVDJDLQVWFRQQHFWLRQLVP
S-R theory, and even reinforcement principles. Köhler interpreted that in
WRWDOFRQ¿JXUDWLRQWKHVXEMHFWVOHDUQWWRUHODWLRQDOO\GLVFULPLQDWH³GDUNHU
than” rather than a response to an absolute stimulus. Thus, it was concluded
that the subject sees the pattern of the relationships rather than a particular
isolated element. If the perception of a relationship is established then the
subject may just transpose it from one situation to another. For instance, in
this case, it is “darker than” that wins in transposition. The recognition and
understanding of the relationship and transfer of that knowledge from one
event to another is called as transposition and was also demonstrated with
various species tested under varying conditions (Brennen & Houde, 2017).
$QRWKHUPDMRUFRQWULEXWLRQRI*HVWDOWSV\FKRORJLVWVWRWKH¿HOGRIOHDUQLQJ
was the idea that learning occurs by insight. When an individual is faced
with a problem, he/she sets up many hypotheses as possible solutions. As
he/she reaches the correct solution (which solves the problem), it is believed
that the insight occurs and simultaneously learning is also seem to have
RFFXUUHG,QVLJKWKDVEHHQGH¿QHGDVDVXGGHQVKLIWLQWKHSHUFHSWXDO¿HOG
(Marx & Cronan-Hillix, 1987). Since insight is sudden, learning is also
considered to be sudden here and not something that gradually improves
with practice.
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 Köhler demonstrated through his studies with animals that they often solve Gestalt Psychology
problems by visualizing a complete situation and then restructuring various
parts of it to attain a desired goal/solve a problem. For instance, a banana
was suspended by a string above the head of a chimpanzee. He had to obtain
the banana. Jumping was eliminated as the suspended banana was higher
than a typical jump of a chimpanzee. There were boxes lying on the ground
LQWKHYLFLQLW\DQGWKURXJKWKHPWKHFKLPSDQ]HHFRXOG¿QGDVROXWLRQWR
the problem (Morgan, King, Weisz, & Schopler, 2006). The situation was
restricted by the chimpanzee by arranging the boxes, one on top of another to
a point where he could reach the banana. One of the Köhler’s chimpanzees
named Grande could also achieve a four-story structure of boxes.
In another experiment with a chimpanzee named Sultan (considered to be
one of the most intelligent chimpanzees) there were two bamboo sticks that
were kept in the cage with Sultan, neither of the sticks was long enough to
reach the banana kept outside the cage. However, the sticks were made in a
ZD\WKDWWKH\FRXOGEHMRLQHGWRJHWKHUDQGZRXOG¿WHDFKRWKHUYHU\ZHOO
When Sultan tried reaching the banana with the help of either of the two
sticks, he remained unsuccessful. Thus, he started playing with the sticks
and during the play by chance he was able to join both the sticks together.
Suddenly he was found running towards the banana with the now joined
(longer) stick and thus he got the banana. The now-longer stick gave him
insight to solve the problem and learning occurred as on the following day,
Sultan could solve the problem without any needless angling. Köhler (1925)
stated the criterion for insight, “the appearance of a complete solution with
UHIHUHQFHWRWKHZKROHOD\RXWRIWKH¿HOG´
Box 10.1: Four behavioural indices of insightful learning
Ɣ Sudden transition from helplessness to mastery
Ɣ Quickness and smoothness in performance after grasping of
principles
Ɣ Sound retention
Ɣ Readiness to transfer the solution to similar problems involving the
same principle
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the fact that they were too structured and would impede the possibility of
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in a maze are limited and only trial- and- error is possible there. But a
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moment. Although they rejected Thorndike’s trial-and-error learning,
Köhler’s experiments appeared to be trial-and-error to many, at least before
insight occurs.
10.2.4 Memory
Gestalt principles have also been applied to memory. One of the common
ways to understand memory in those times was that after perceiving
something, we could recall it successfully because of the trace that was left
in the brain. The trace gradually is wiped out leading to forgetting. Memory
has been understood as a dynamic process by the Gestalt psychologists in
which trace undergoes various changes due to time lapse.
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 Development of In an experiment conducted by :XO൵  it was demonstrated how
Psychological Thought changes in memory traces took place in accordance with the principles
of perceptual organization. The subjects were presented with simple but
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WKHQ DVNHG WR GUDZ WKH ¿JXUHV WKH\ KDG VHHQ DIWHU DQ LQWHUYDO RI WKLUW\
seconds, twenty-four hours and one week. It was found that the subjects
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support was also found (Gibson, 1929; Bartlett, 1932; Allport & Postman,
1947) for the same, stating that further reproduction of previously seen
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10.2.5 Developmental Concepts
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developmental processes with emphasis on evolution of child’s mind.
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³WKHEXUQWFKLOGVKXQVWKHÀDPH´ S 7KHEXUQWKDQGZDVSXOOHGEDFN
E\WKHFKLOGDVDQDWXUDOUHÀH[EXWLQWKLVSURFHVVZKDWWKHFKLOGOHDUQVLV
QRWSXOOLQJWKHKDQGEDFNUDWKHUWRDYRLG¿UHLQIXWXUHUHODWLQJ¿UHDQGSDLQ
LVOHDUQWQRWDUHÀH[WKDWRFFXUVQDWXUDOO\7KXVLWFDQEHFRQFOXGHGWKDWWKH
child does not learn mere connections but a constructive achievement which
has a future adaptive implication.
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LPLWDWLRQZKLFKXVXDOO\RFFXUVLQQDWXUDOÀRZRIHYHQWVRUVHWWLQJVUDWKHUWKDQ
WKHDUWL¿FLDORUVLPXODWHGVHWWLQJV7KHKLJKHVWW\SHRIOHDUQLQJDFFRUGLQJWR
.R൵NDZDVLGHDWLRQDOOHDUQLQJWKDWZRXOGPDNHXVHRIODQJXDJH*UDVSLQJ
the fact that things have names is a crucial phase and understanding for
children. Initially they believe that the name exists in the thing itself. But
IROORZLQJWKLVVWDJHWKH\HQWHUDSKDVHPDUNHGE\ÀH[LELOLW\ZLWKUHVSHFW
to language. They may apply the same word to various other things. For
instance, Hilda Stern learnt the word nose and applied it to tip of her shoes.
Karen Wertheimer generated his own word ÀXWWHUE\ for EXWWHUÀ\It can be
noted here that the word ÀXWWHUE\LVGHVFULSWLYHLQDZD\WKDWEXWWHUÀ\DV
a word is not. This verbal rearrangement can be a tool in extending our
capacity to learn and solve problems.
10.2.6 Isomorphism
The Gestalt viewed isomorphism as a solution to the mind-brain problem.
The word isomorphism means having the same form or appearance. It
KDV EHHQ GH¿QHG LQ WKH IROORZLQJ WHUPV ³([SHULHQFHG RUGHU LQ VSDFH LV
always structurally identical with a functional order in the distribution of
underlying brain processes” (Köhler 1929/1947; p.61). It is the “structural
correspondence between experience and underlying brain processes”
(Brennen, 2017; p.381). For instance, if we experience a rhythm (which is
an auditory temporal sequence), we may expect a pattern of events in the
brain that is isomorphic (similar in form or appearance) with the experience.
Isomorphic representation is a parallel process between the perceptual and
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UHODWHGWRWKHEUDLQ¿HOG FRPSULVHVRIHOHFWURFKHPLFDODFWLYLW\ 
The principle of isomorphism has also been widely misrepresented. One
of them being, pictures similar to the physical structure are formulated in
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 our heads. For instance, questions were raised if the color the way it exists Gestalt Psychology
in the external world is isomorphic with a part of brain which is a match to
that color. The most important aspect that is being missed here is functional.
Köhler (1938/1966; p.195)) pointed that, “the functional cortical counterpart
of a color would not have to be a color; neither would the functional cortical
counterpart of a sound such as the sound of a violin have to replicate the
physical features of such a sound.” Woodworth (1948) used an analogy
to explain isomorphism. He showed the relationship between a map and
the country which the map represents. The two are not the same but share
similarity in the sense that the characteristics of the country can be read
from the existing map. Thus, it would be safe to say that it is not a theory
about relationship between physical events and processes in the brain but
rather about the relationship between brain processes and experience.
Check Your Progress 2
1) Distinguish between productive and reproductive thinking.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
2) Explain insight learning with example.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
3) What was the contribution of Gestalt psychology towards
developmental processes?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
4) Explain the Gestalt approach to the mind-brain problem. Is “pictures
in the head” a misrepresentation of Isomorphism?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

Box 10.2: System of Gestalt psychology in a nutshell

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LPPHGLDWHSKHQRPHQDOH[SHULHQFHLQÀXHQFLQJIXQFWLRQVOLNHSHUFHSWLRQ
thinking, memory, learning etc. Later Gestaltists like Lewin took behaviour
also under the subject matter of psychology– relating perception and
behaviour. Thus, psychology is to be considered as both the study of
immediate phenomenal experience and behaviour of the organism.
Methods
They used experimentation and introspection. Although, their usage of
introspection was unlike the one followed by Structuralism.
Postulates
Primary postulate: whole is not the sum of its parts. The characteristics of
ZKROHDUHGL൵HUHQWIURPWKRVHRILWVSDUWV
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 Development of
Psychological Thought
Secondary postulates: Principle of isomorphism
Principle of perceptual organization
Non-continuity view (with regard to learning, that it can be sudden)
The growth of learning (developmental concept)
Ideational learning (developmental concept)
Mind-brain problem
They took the position of isomorphism- perceptual experience and brain
experience do not correspond on a one-to-one basis, rather correspond in
terms of relations.
Nature of data
Data is to be obtained from immediate, ‘not analyzed’ experience. Gestalt
psychologists called data based on the experiences as ‘given’. In accepting
the data based on immediate unanalyzed experience they were similar
WR VWUXFWXUDOLVWV EXW WKH\ ZHUH GL൵HUHQW IURP WKHP DV WKH\ UHMHFWHG WKH
analysis provided by the structuralists.
Principles of selection
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elements are selected for perception, because they believed that all the
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SRLQWHGWKDWVRPHSDUWVRIWKHSHUFHSWXDOZKROHDUHVHOHFWHGDV¿JXUHDQG
some as background.

10.3 KURT LEWIN AND FIELD THEORY

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EURDGHQLQJ *HVWDOW SV\FKRORJ\ /HZLQ GHVFULEHG KLV ¿HOG WKHRU\ DV D
topographical and vector psychology. He had borrowed both these terms-
‘topography’ and ‘vector’ from Mathematics. In this section, we will discuss
Lewin’s topographical or structural concepts. The previously existing
systems placed a lot of emphasis on traits, predispositions, intrapsychic
processes and thus were individualistic in nature. Lewin, on the other
hand, emphasized the interdependence of the person and the environment.
He believed that behaviour is a function of person and the environment,
and gave his characteristic formula (in Figure 10.8), B = f (p, e). In order
to develop a holistic psychology, it is important to acknowledge the full
scope of forces that have a role to play in human life, and that includes his
psychological environment as well.
Lewin started his system with the description and analysis of life space.
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role to play in the life time of an individual at a given time. Life space
consists of physical events, personal and biological facts, and social facts.
Lewin believed that education has an important role to play in extending
the life space of a child which is otherwise limited (both spatially and
temporally).

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 Gestalt Psychology
FOREIGN HULL

Person PSYCHOLOGICAL
ΈWΉ ENVIRONMENT
ΈΉ

P+E=
>/&^WΈ>Ή

Figure 10.8: Illustration of the formula B = f (p, e); concept of life space

Source: Singh (2011)

In Figure 10.8, Person (P) is denoted in an enclosed circle. Person is included
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WR/HZLQ  SHUVRQLVQRWRQO\GL൵HUHQWLDWHGIURPWKHHQYLURQPHQWEXW
has also separated him/her from within. Person has been divided into two
regions- the perceptual-motor region and the inner-personal region (Singh,
2011). The perceptual region is the one that lies on the periphery of the circle
labelled P and controls the perceptual and motoric function of an individual.
The inner personal region is the core or the central part of the circle that
is surrounded by the perceptual motor region, and controls motivational
aspects of the individual. This inner region is not in direct contact with
the environment. Lewin believed that other psychologists previously had
ignored the role of motivation and other social forces and thus, included
them in his system.
Another important feature of the life space is Psychological Environment
(E). Lewin divided it into several regions. He argued that some regions
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impermeable boundaries. Thus, human behaviour is a function of person
and the environment or the life space in totality.
Another term that has been explained by Lewin is Foreign Hull. The
external environment that is outside the life space of an individual is called
as foreign hull. These are physical and social facts in the background and
not a part of the life space. He described the boundary between foreign
hull and psychological environment to be permeable and thus, a two-way
exchange between these is possible. Through this it can be concluded that,
psychological environment can bring about changes in the physical world
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the psychological environment and the individual by extension.
The positive and negative features of objects in the life space are called
as valences in Lewin’s system. Positive valence refers to the desirable and
attractive qualities in an object, whereas negative valence includes the
unattractive or repulsive qualities of the object. It is important to note here
that the valence may change with the need of the individual. For instance,
food as an object will have positive valence for a hungry child, but once fed,
its valence may reduce and then perhaps Television set or some toy may
have a higher positive valence (King, Woody, & Viney, 2015).
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 Development of ,W KDV DOUHDG\ EHHQ GLVFXVVHG WKDW GL൵HUHQW UHJLRQV RI OLIH VSDFH LQWHUDFW
Psychological Thought ZLWK HDFK RWKHU DQG LQÀXHQFH HDFK RWKHU 1RZ WKH TXHVWLRQ LV KRZ GR
these various regions interact? When any two aspect or regions of the
life space interact with each other, it is called as an event. These regions
impact each other through two processes– communication and locomotion.
Communication is the event through which one region of life space comes in
contact or communicates with the other one. Locomotion involves physical
or psychological movement of the individual from one aspect of life space to
another. This can also lead to changes in attentional or perceptual processes (in
WKHSV\FKRORJLFDOUHDOP ,WZDVVXJJHVWHGWKDWD¿[HGSDWKZD\LVQHFHVVDU\
for locomotion to take place and this was called as the hodological space.
Lewin (1936) pointed out three major principles governing communication
and locomotion. First one, is the principle of relatedness, which states that
the reason for occurrence of any event is interaction of two or more facts
that are related to each other. Second, is the principle of concreteness, the
IDFWVWKDWDFWXDOO\H[LVWLQWKHOLIHVSDFHRIWKHLQGLYLGXDOKDYHDQH൵HFWRQ
him/her. Third one is the principle of contemporaneity, it states that only the
facts in the present have the capability of producing the present behaviour.
The events related to childhood can only impact the behaviour if they have
also been present in the contemporary times or else they will not have a
major impact on the present behaviour (Singh, 2011). Although, he did
emphasize that our perception, thoughts and feelings about the past and
future and the present attitude impact our present conduct and takes up the
present life space (Lewin, 1951).
Another major contribution of Lewin within the life space structure is
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responsible of producing frustration in us. They are: approach-approach
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:H HQFRXQWHU DQ DSSURDFKDSSURDFK FRQÀLFW LQ RXU GDLO\ OLIH ZKHQ ZH
are caught between two positive valences or events and only one can be
achieved. This is considered to be a fairly easy situation to deal with. In the
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$SSURDFKDYRLGDQFHFRQÀLFW LV WKH RQH ZKHQ DQ REMHFW KDV ERWK SRVLWLYH
and negative valences, so the person is attracted and is also repelled by the
goals. Resolution in such situations is complex and depends on the relative
weights of positive and negative valence in context of the individual. For
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with a condition of living in a remote area and consequentially living away
from the family.
10.3.1 Lewin’s Vector Psychology
This part of Lewin’s system involved the concepts that were related to
motivational aspects of human behaviour and thus have a major role to play
in understanding human behaviour fully. According to Lewin, an individual
is a complex energy system. Psychical energy is the one that is used to
accomplish psychological work. A state of disequilibrium may arise due to
increase in tension in one or the other part of the system. When a person
wishes to achieve equilibrium that results in creation of psychical energy
and when the tension equalizes the system halts.
Need has been described either as physiological condition (such as hunger,
thirst, sex) or a psychological condition (such as desire to be rich). A
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 distinction was also made between a need and a quasi-need. A quasi- need Gestalt Psychology
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Lewin also believed that needs are highly associated with tension systems
and dissipation of tension is only possible with satisfaction of a particular
need. Tension has been described as a state of disequilibrium between
two or more states of the inner-personal region. This idea was tested by
Bluma Zeigarnik. The subjects in this research were given a series of
simple tasks to carry out. In some instances, they were interrupted before
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task to completion. It was hypothesized that the tension would dissipate
when a task is completed, but tension persists for a longer duration if the
task is interrupted. This assumption was tested by asking the subjects to
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be a better recall for interrupted tasks in comparison to the completed ones.
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=HLJDUQLNH൵HFW$QH[SODQDWLRQR൵HUHGIRUWKLVZDVWKDWWHQVLRQSHUVLVWLQJ
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material associated with that task. Later more evidence was found for this
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Another important concept discussed by Lewin was vector. It refers to
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moves in a particular direction. Three properties of vectors have been
highlighted. They are– direction (it may be towards or away from the goal
object), strength (vector is said to be correlated with the valence of the
REMHFWDWWUDFWLRQRUUHSXOVLRQGH¿QLQJLWVVWUHQJWK DQGDpoint of contact.
A vector is represented by an arrow when related to a person (P). The longer
is the line of arrow, greater is the strength of the vector.

10.4 GROUP DYNAMICS

Lewin also paid attention towards the concept of group dynamics or
collective interactions such as leadership, group formation, power shift,
cohesiveness, decision making etc. taking place in a group. Although he said
LWLVGL൶FXOWWRGH¿QHJURXSG\QDPLFVEXWUHIHUUHGWRLWDVDVRFLDOSURFHVV
through which people interact face-to-face with each other in a group. It
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was of the view that group of the person and its environment constitute the
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groups especially in the context of leadership (democratic vs. authoritarian
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work groups, educational groups, and even community action programs.
During World War II, Lewin (1943) conducted researches to understand
how decision making can be altered. Due to shortage of certain food
products such as meat, the housewives were persuaded to buy and use
certain unpopular meats such as kidneys, brains, livers and other organs
which are generally excluded etc. Six groups of housewives were recruited
DQGWZRSHUVXDVLRQPHWKRGVZHUHXVHG:LWKWKH¿UVWWKUHHJURXSVWKURXJK
lecture method they were told about the nutritional value of these meats
along with tastier and healthier ways to prepare them. For the other three
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 Development of groups, group discussion method was used where the members themselves
Psychological Thought discussed about the pros and cons of cooking and eating these meats. Later
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only 3 percent of the housewives used these meat substances whereas, 32
percent of the housewives persuaded through the group discussion method
used these meat substances. A series of experiments conducted by Lewin
(1958) later also yielded similar results.
Lewin and his system have also been criticized especially for the fact
that the constructs discussed by him such as tension systems, energy, etc.
DUH GL൶FXOW WR WHVW DQG WKXV XQYHUL¿DEOH %URO\HU   KDV FDOOHG LW
‘pictorial analogies and illustrative metaphors’. Terms used in the system
have been taken from the context of Physics, Mathematics and Chemistry but
have been wrongly applied to psychology (Hall & Lindzey, 1978). Another
major criticism against Lewin’s system has been that the explanations of
the constructs for instance, relation of life space to environment, is not
exhaustive (Cartwright, 1959; Leeper, 1943; Tolman, 1948).
Despite these criticisms, it is important to note that Lewin’s system
generated some incredible research in various areas of Psychology and has
also delivered a promise of further development.

10.5 CRITICISMS OF GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY

Gestalt psychology has been heavily criticized for being too dependent
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Cronan-Hillix, 1987). For instance, the term insight has been theoretically
inferred and the empirical explanation is quite weak. Thus, the system
has been considered vague and imprecise. The physiological assumption
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explanation and the Gestalt psychologists could only indirectly explain
it. The experiments and studies conducted by them have been considered
poorly controlled, non-quantitative, and ill-designed (Singh, 2011). Some
have also raised questions stating that unnecessary cues were provided to
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impacting the results. Harrower (1932) stated that Gestalt psychologists did
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organization and non-organization should have been clearly stated so that
the experimental studies would have been carried out only to understand
organization properly.
Despite these criticisms, the contribution and continuing relevance of
*HVWDOWSV\FKRORJ\FDQQRWEHLJQRUHG,WVLPSDFWLQWKH¿HOGRISHUFHSWLRQ
of certainly provided a new perspective to the theory of perception. They
were responsible for a shift from the part to whole, a shift from structure to
process and a shift from “objective science” to “epistemic science”.
Check Your Progress 3
1) Explain the concept of life space and its importance to the approach
of psychology.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
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 Gestalt Psychology
 :KDW LV =HLJDUQLN H൵HFW" $OVR H[SODLQ VRPH RI LWV SUDFWLFDO
implications.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
3) Outline the criticisms of Gestalt psychology.
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

10.6 SUMMARY
Now that we have come to the end of this Unit, let us list all the major points
that we have learnt.
Ɣ Gestalt psychology was founded and led by Max Wertheimer and
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Kant, Wilhelm Wundt, John Stuart Mill, Franz Brentano, Carl Stumpf,
and Ernst Mach were some of the antecedent forces instrumental in
laying down the foundation of Gestalt psychology.
Ɣ In a series of experiments conducted on apparent movement,
Wertheimer concluded that if an appropriate time interval is given
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is perceived from one light to another. This was called as phi
phenomenon.
Ɣ Gestalt psychology was a revolt against the idea that few bits and
pieces of experience when glued together can form a whole. Thus,
whole is much more than the sum of its individual and isolated parts.
Ɣ *HVWDOWSV\FKRORJ\KDGDKXJHFRQWULEXWLRQWRWKH¿HOGRISHUFHSWLRQ
They highlighted a few principles governing the basic organization of
perceptual wholes, such as, similarity, proximity, closure, continuity,
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constancy.
Ɣ Gestalt psychology also expanded in the areas of learning, memory
and thinking. In the area of learning, emphasis has been placed upon
sudden insight learning rather than the trial-and-error. Wertheimer
emphasized on productive thinking and stated that one should
consider a broader view or the whole while solving a problem. While
discussing the aspects of memory, they emphasized that memory
traces undergo several types of changes as per the principles of
perceptual organization especially with the lapse of time.
Ɣ Lewin’s Field theory has elements of both topographical psychology
and vector psychology. According to his topographical psychology,
concept of life space is of utmost importance. It includes the person
and his/her environment. It was considered that human behaviour is a
function of both the person and the environment. Through his vectoral
psychology, he has directed the attention towards motivational
concepts such as energy, need, tension and vector.
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 Development of
Psychological Thought 10.7 KEYWORDS
Phi Phenomenon: $SSDUHQW PRYHPHQW H[HPSOL¿HG E\ VXFFHVVLYH
stimulation of two discrete but stationary lights. In this situation what is
VHHQLVDPRYHPHQWIURP¿UVWWRVHFRQGOLJKWUDWKHUWKDQWZRGLVFUHWHOLJKWV
Closure: Psychological tendency to complete something that is incomplete,
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Figure-Ground: Perceptual tendency to see something as standing out-
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Prägnanz: Refers to the idea that perceptual organization tends to be as
coherent, good, and orderly as possible under the prevailing conditions.
Insight: Ability to see a problem in a larger context and perceptually
restructuring relationships to reach to a solution of the problem.
Isomorphism: It was the gestalt position on mind-brain problem. It refers
to a functional relationship between the experience and underlying brain
processes involved in it.
Field Theory: Examines the pattern of interaction and interdependence
EHWZHHQWKHSHUVRQDQGWKHHQYLURQPHQWRUWKHWRWDO¿HOG
Life space: It refers to all the physical events, biological, social facts and
SV\FKRORJLFDOLQÀXHQFHVLPSDFWLQJDQLQGLYLGXDODWDJLYHQSRLQWLQWLPH
Foreign Hull: Physical and social facts that are not a part of the life space
currently and are just in the background.
$SSURDFK$SSURDFKFRQÀLFW&RQÀLFWGXHWRWKHSUHVHQFHRIWZRSRVLWLYH
and attractive goals.
$YRLGDQFH$YRLGDQFH FRQÀLFW &RQÀLFW GXH WR WKH SUHVHQFH RI WZR
unattractive and undesirable goals.
$SSURDFK$YRLGDQFH FRQÀLFW &RQÀLFW RFFXUV DV D SRVLWLYH JRDO LV DOVR
associated with some unattractive or undesirable aspect.
=HLJDUQLN H൵HFW Tendency to recall interrupted, incomplete tasks better
than the uninterrupted, and complete ones.

10.8 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) What were the major forces that led to the emergence of Gestalt
Psychology?
2) Discuss the various principles of perceptual organization.
 :KDW ZDV WKH FRQWULEXWLRQ RI *HVWDOW SV\FKRORJ\ LQ WKH ¿HOGV RI
thinking, memory, and learning?
4) Critically examine the role and contribution of Gestalt psychology.
5) Examine the importance of Lewin’s topographical psychology in
understanding human behaviour.
6) Elucidate the concepts of Lewin’s Vector psychology.
7) Critically evaluate Lewin’s system of psychology.

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 Gestalt Psychology
10.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Allport, G. W., & Postman, L. (1947). The Psychology of Rumor. New York:
L Henry Holt and Co.
Alper, T.G. (1948). Memory for completed and incompleted task as a
function of personality: Correlation between experimental and personality
data. Journal of Personality, 17, 104-37.
Bartlett, F.C. (1932). Remembering: Experimental and Social Study.
London: Cambridge University Press.
Brennan, J. F., & Houde, K. A. (2017). History and Systems of Psychology.
Cambridge University Press.
Brolyer, C.R. (1936-37). Review of Lewin’s Principles of topographical
psychology. Character and Personality, 5, 251-258.
&DUWZULJKW'  $¿HOGWKHRUHWLFDOFRQFHSWLRQRISRZHUStudies in
Social Power, 183-220.
Deutsch, M. (1954). Field theory in social psychology. Handbook of Social
Psychology, 1, 181-222.
Field, D. J., Hayes, A., & Hess, R. F. (1993). Contour integration by the
KXPDQ YLVXDO V\VWHP HYLGHQFH IRU D ORFDO ³DVVRFLDWLRQ ¿HOG´ Vision
Research, 33(2), 173-193.
Gibson, J. J. (1929). The reproduction of visually perceived forms. Journal
of Experimental Psychology, 12(1), 1.
Hall, C. S. & Lindzey, (1978). Theories of Personality (3rd ed.) (New york:
John Wiley and Sons).
Harrower, M. R. (1932). Organization in Higher Mental Process.
Psychologische Forschung, 17, 56-120.
King, D. B., Woody, W. D., & Viney, W. (2015). History of Psychology:
Ideas and Context. Routledge.
.R൵ND.  Growth of the Mind. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction
Books. (Original work published in 1924)
Köhler, W. (1925). An aspect of Gestalt Psychology. The Pedagogical
Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology, 32(4), 691-723.
Köhler, W. (1947). Gestalt Psychology: An Introduction to the New Concepts
in Modern Psychology. New York : Liverright.
Köhler, W. (1966). The Place of Value in a World of Facts. New York:
Liveright. (Original work published 1938)
Leeper, R. W. (1943). Lewin’s Topological and Vector psychology: A digest
and critique. Study of Psychology, Vol. 1.
Lewin, K. (1936). A Dynamic Theory of Personality. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
Lewin, K. (1943). Forces behind food habits and methods of change.
Bulletin of the National Research Council, 108, 35-65.
Lewin, K. (1951). Field Theory in Social Science: Selected Theoretical
Papers (D. Cartwright, ed.) New York: Harper and Row.
193

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 Development of Lewin, K. (1958). Group decision and Social change. In E. Macoby, T.M.
Psychological Thought Newcomb and E.L. Hartley (eds.) Readings in Social Psychology (3rd
edition), New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston INC, 197-211.
Marx, M.H. & Cronan-Hillix, W.A. (1987). Systems and Theories in
Psychology, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R., & Schopler, J. (2006). Introduction
to Psychology, 7th eds.
Singh, A. K. (2011). The Comprehensive History of Psychology. Motilal
Banarsidas Publ.
Tolman, E. C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological
review, 55(4), 189.
Wertheimer, M. (1938). Gestalt psychology. Source Book of Gestalt
Psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co.
Wertheimer, M. (1980). Max Wertheimer, Gestalt prophet. Gestalt Theory,
2, 3–17.
Woodworth, R.S. (1948). Contemporary Schools of Psychology. New York:
Ronald Press.
:XO൵)  8EHUGLHYHUDQGHUXQJYRQYHUVWHOOXQJHQ,Q&(2VJRRG¶V
book Method and Theory in Experimental Psychology (1953). Oxford
University Press.

10.10 REFERENCES FOR FIGURES

Law of similarity: https://healthywaymag.com/psychology/gestalt-
psychology-principles-theory
Law of closure: https://healthywaymag.com/psychology/gestalt-
psychology-principles-theory
Principle of Figure and Ground: &ŝŐƵƌĞʹŐƌŽƵŶĚ;ƉĞƌĐĞƉƟŽŶͿͲtŝŬŝƉĞĚŝĂ
Principle of common region: https://www.usertesting.com/sites/default/
¿OHVLQOLQHLPDJHVFRPPRQUHJLRQVBSQJ
Principle of common fate: https://uxpro.cc/publications/using-gestalt-laws-
of-perceptual-organization-in-ui-design/

10.11 WEB RESOURCES

Ɣ Gestalt Principles of Perception with examples, visit;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZWucNQawpWY
Ɣ Insight learning in Chimpanzee (Köhler study footage), visit;
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-YWrPzsmEE
Ɣ =HLJDUQLN(൵HFWYLVLW
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PKtzot7U4hY

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 UNIT 11 HUMANISTIC-EXISTENTIAL
PSYCHOLOGY (THE THIRD-
FORCE MOVEMENT)*
Structure
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Antecedents of the Third-Force Movement
11.2 Humanistic Psychology
11.2.1 Abraham Maslow
11.2.2 Carl Rogers
11.3 Existential Psychology
11.3.1 Viktor Frankl
11.3.2 Rollo May
 +XPDQLVWLFDQG([LVWHQWLDO3V\FKRORJ\6LPLODULWLHVDQG'L൵HUHQFHV
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
11.7 Review Questions
11.8 References and Further Reading
11.9 References for Figures
11.10 Web Resources
Learning Objectives
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
Ɣ Explain the third-force movement in psychology;
Ɣ 'LVFXVVWKHFRPPRQIHDWXUHVRIWKHGL൵HUHQWH[SUHVVLRQVZLWKLQWKH
third-force movement;
Ɣ Describe the perspectives of humanistic psychology and existential
psychology; and
Ɣ Summarise the contributions of Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers,
Viktor Frankl, and Rollo May.

11.0 INTRODUCTION
In the twentieth century, a new movement in psychology, broadly, referred
to as the third-force movement emerged. The term third-force is a general
categorization for a number of orientations in psychology. It is any approach
WKDWGL൵HUHGIURPSV\FKRDQDO\VLVDQGEHKDYLRXULVPZKLFKDUHUHIHUUHGWR
DVWKH¿UVWIRUFHDQGVHFRQGIRUFHUHVSHFWLYHO\
The third force movement emphasized on the method of phenomenology.
Phenomenology is the study of phenomena that is experienced by the
* Dr. Saif R. Farooqi, Department of Applied Psychology, Vivekananda College,
University of Delhi

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 Development of individual, emphasizing on how that phenomenon revealed itself. As a
Psychological Thought PHWKRGRORJ\ SKHQRPHQRORJ\ LV DERXW ZKDWHYHU PD\ EH VLJQL¿FDQW WR
the understanding of a phenomenon. The individual who experiences the
phenomenon is required to attend to it exactly as it appears in consciousness,
without prejudgment, bias, or any preconceived notion.
7KHUH DUH GL൵HUHQW H[SUHVVLRQV IRU WKH WKLUGIRUFH PRYHPHQW PDLQO\
humanistic psychology and existential psychology. Humanistic psychology
comprise a group of psychologists who suggest that humans are always
seeking to develop their full potential. They also disregard mechanistic
explanations of human behaviour. Existential psychology is the application
of existential philosophy to psychological issues.
7KHWKLUGIRUFHPRYHPHQWHYHQWKRXJKEHLQJUHSUHVHQWHGLQGL൵HUHQWIRUPV
has some common shared aspects. One of the things that the perspectives
under the third-force movement have in common is that they give emphasis
WRSHUVRQDOIUHHGRPDQGSHUVRQDOUHVSRQVLELOLW\LQWKHIXO¿OPHQWRIKXPDQ
potential. For the third force movement, the mind is active and dynamic.
This active and dynamic mind enables humans to express their unique
abilities. In addition to this, the third-force movement rejects the idea of
reductionism in order to explain psychological processes. Psychologists
of the third-force movement give emphasis to the self, which leads to the
GHYHORSPHQW RI SHUVRQDOLW\ IXO¿OPHQW WKDW LV XQLTXH IRU HDFK LQGLYLGXDO
For this, psychologists of the third force movement suggest that individuals
need to go beyond hedonistic satisfaction. In this Unit, you will learn about
WKH HYHQWV WKDW OHG WR WKH HPHUJHQFH RI WKLUGIRUFH PRYHPHQW DQG ¿QDOO\
establishing as humanistic psychology and existential psychology. The
contribtions by Maslow, Rogers, Frankl and May will be discussed.

11.1 ANTECEDENTS OF THE THIRD-FORCE

MOVEMENT
The antecedants of the third-force movement can be found in the work
of other psychologists. One of the earlier antecendants of the third-force
movement can be traced to Franz Brentano, the founder of act psychology.
Brentano had opposed Wundtian psychology, and in doing so, anticipated
Gestalt psychology. Brentano completely disagreed with the elementism
and reductionism of Wundt. He instead suggested that consciousness should
be studied as molar quality, that is, as a whole, without breaking it down
into smaller elements.
In the same light, William James, in suggesting the idea of a stream of
consciousness, opposed elementism, and emphasized on studying conscious
experiences as a whole. Further, Gestalt psychology also emphasized that
the discipline of psychology should view consciousness as a whole.
The roots of the third-force movement can also be found in the works of
psychoanalylists like Adler, Horney, and other post-Freudian theorists.
Unlike Sigmund Freud, they suggested that humans are conscious beings.
According to them, individuals have the creative power to shape their
SHUVRQDOLW\7KHGLUHFWLQÀXHQFHRQWKHWKLUGIRUFHPRYHPHQWFDQEHIRXQG
in the philosophy of romanticism. The romantics opposed the empiricists,
suggesting that human beings are more than just machines that behave in a
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 mechanical way. They also disagreed with the rationalists, suggesting that Humanistic-Existential
human behaviour cannot be restricted to logical and rationalistic processes. Psychology (The Third-Force
Movement)
For the romantics, human nature should be viewed in terms of personal,
subjective feelings and experiences. According to them, human beings
are naturally good in nature. Given the freedom, they believed that human
EHLQJVFDQEHVRFLDOPLQGHGDQGOLYHDIXO¿OOLQJOLIH7KHURPDQWLFVIXUWKHU
suggested that if people indulged in self-destruction, it was only due to the
societal forces interfering with natural impulses.
It was these earlier thoughts and ideas in philosophy and psychology that
provided the thrust towards what came to be known as the third-force
movement.

11.2 HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY

Humanistic psychology, emerging in the 1940s and 1950s, opposed
the two existing dominant schools of psychology – psychoanalysis and
behaviourism. Humanistic psychologists felt that behaviourism is too
QDUURZDQGDUWL¿FLDOLQLWVDSSURDFKWRVWXG\KXPDQEHKDYLRXU)RUWKHP
focusing simply on overt behaviour is something that is dehumanizing and
makes human beings to be perceived as equivalent to animals and machines.
They disagreed with the idea that human behaviour is deterministic, and that
suggesting that humans only responding to environmental stimulus, limits
the nature of human behaviour. They also argued that human behaviour
FDQQRWEHYLHZHGDVREMHFWLYHLWFDQQRWEHTXDQWL¿HGDQGUHGXFHGWRXQLWV
of stimulus and response. Due to this, they felt, humans should not be
studied in a laboratory setup.
Humanistic psychology opposed psychoanalysis for focusing only on mental
illness. The humanistic psychologists felt that by studying only neurotics and
psychotics, psychoanalysis is disregarding many of the positive attributes
of human beings and is limiting personality to the darker side of human
nature. By doing so, humanistic psychologists believed that psychoanalysis
is ignoring many of the strengths and virtues of human beings.
Therefore, by pointing out the aforementioned limitations in behaviourism
and psychoanalysis, humanistic psychologists intended to study what they
felt are the neglected or ignored aspects of human nature. Abraham Maslow
and Carl Rogers are regarded as the pioneers of the humanistic movement
in psychology.
11.2.1 Abraham Maslow
Abraham Maslow was the major thrust behind the humanistic movement in
psychology. He was also responsible in giving it an academic respectability.
Due to this, Maslow is often referred to as the founder of humanistic
psychology. Maslow believed that every individual has an innate tendency to
completely develop his or her abilities and realize one’s true potential. This
tendency is referred to as self-actualization. This is, according to Maslow,
the highest human need, and is a state that involves the active usage of the
LQGLYLGXDO¶VDELOLWLHVDQGLVWKHIXO¿OPHQWRIWKHLQGLYLGXDO¶VSRWHQWLDO,WLV
the desire to become more and more what one idiosyncratically is and it
is to become everything that one is capable of becoming.

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 Development of
Box 11.1: Abraham Maslow
Psychological Thought
Abraham Maslow, considered to be the founder of humanistic psychology,
ZDV LQLWLDOO\ KLJKO\ LQÀXHQFHG E\ :DWVRQLDQ EHKDYLRXULVP +LV
interests changed after he began reading about Gestalt psychology, and
psychoanalysis. The Pearl Harbor attack, in 1941, turned out to be a life
FKDQJLQJHYHQWIRU0DVORZ+HZDVGHHSO\D൵HFWHGE\LW+HWKHQGHFLGHG
to develop a psychology that will be about improving humanity, and show
that human nature is not only about hate and war.
$W¿UVWKLVLGHDVZHUHFRQVLGHUHGWREHWRRXQRUWKRGR[%XWKHODWHUJRW
DZLGHUDQJHRIDFFHSWDQFH+HUH¿QHGKLVDSSURDFKGXULQJKLVWLPHVSHQW
at Brandeis University, US. He even presented his approach in a series of
Figure 11.1: Abraham Maslow popular books. By the 1960s, Maslow became more of celebrity. In 1967,
(1908-1970) he was elected the president of the American Psychological Association
Source: www.verywellmind.com (APA).
Even though Maslow’s ideas have been well received, there have
been some criticisms against him. The research method and data used
by Maslow has faced criticism. It has been argued that the sample
size used by Maslow is too small to be generalized. It has also been
argued that Maslow used a very subjective criteria to select his
participants to be categorized as psychologically healthy. There has
DOVR EHHQ D YHU\ YDJXH PDQQHU LQ ZKLFK 0DVORZ GH¿QHG KLV WHUPV
Maslow agreed with these criticisms, but also argued that there was no
other way to study self-actualization. He also argued that his research is
SUHOLPLQDU\DQGIHOWWKDWKLV¿QGLQJVZLOOEHSURYHGVRPHWLPHLQWKHIXWXUH
Maslow’s theory has had limited empirical evidence, but that did not stop
LWWRJHWDODUJHIROORZLQJ+LVDSSURDFKKDVKDGDVLJQL¿FDQWLPSDFWHYHQ
beyond psychology. His theory has been applied in corporate sectors,
education, medicine, and psychotherapy. Many executives and managers
believe that self-actualization is an important concept for the workplace,
and can be viewed as a useful motivating force for job satisfaction.
Maslow has, often, also been credited to be the forerunner of the
contemporary approach known as positive psychology. Some aspects of
his approach can be found in the positive psychology movement. This
shows that the legacy of Maslow has continued for many decades.
Maslow suggested that to satisfy the self-actualizing need, each individual
PXVW¿UVWVDWLVI\WKHQHHGVWKDWDUHORZHULQWKHKLHUDUFK\2QFHRQHQHHG
LV VDWLV¿HG RQO\ WKHQ WKH LQGLYLGXDO JHWV PRWLYDWHG IRU WKH QH[W QHHG RQ
the hierarchy. Thus, the needs are heirachical. Lowest on the hierarchy of
needs are physiological needs, which include hunger, thirst, sleep, and sex.
Next on the hierarchy are the safety needs. These include needs for security,
stability, and protection. Next on the hierarchy are the belongingness and
ORYHQHHGVZKLFKLQFOXGHQHHGIRUFDUHDQGD൶OLDWLRQ1H[WRQWKHKLHUDUFK\
are the needs for esteem from others and oneself, which include needs for
self-esteem, honor, prestige, and achievement. Finally, at the highest level
is the need for self-actualization.

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 Humanistic-Existential
Psychology (The Third-Force
Movement)

Figure 11.2: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Source: www.medium.com
A major feature of the concept of self-actualization, as described by
Maslow is that it moves away from the causal tradition as proposed by
both psychoanalysis and behaviourism. In place of that, it is denoting a
teleological perspective. Both psychoanalysis and behaviourism suggest that
EHKDYLRXUKDVDVSHFL¿FFDXVH±XQFRQVFLRXVDQGFKLOGKRRGH[SHULHQFHVLQ
terms of psychoanalysis, and environmental stimuli and reinforcement, in
terms of behaviourism.
0DVORZFOHDUO\GL൵HUHGIURPWKHVHWZRSHUVSHFWLYHVVXJJHVWLQJWKDWWKH
behaviour of individuals is not driven by a cause, but by what they want to
achieve in the future, that is, individuals strive towards future states, and
not something that has already taken place. This perspective is known as
teleology. The teleological perspective, as emphasized by Maslow, is about
explaining behaviour with respect to a future state, a purpose that individuals
strive for. This teleological perspective breaks away from the traditional
physical sciences that psychology had been following. Teleological
explanations, according to Maslow, are completely psychological in nature,
and cannot be found in the physical sciences.
Another feature about the concept of self-actualization is the assumption
of each individual being unique in their own way. The state of self-
actualization, according to Maslow, is not about being a better person. It is
actually about being the person that one is supposed to be. This indicates that
every individual is unique, in the sense as they were genetically determined,
and not shaped by nurturance.
Maslow described self-actualization as an individual’s need to develop
into the real person that he or she is. That real person for one individual
ZLOO GL൵HU IURP WKH RWKHU ZKLFK PDNHV WKH SURFHVV RI DFKLHYLQJ VHOI
actualization unique for every individual. Self-actaulization, therefore, can
be only viewed with respect to behaviours related to a particular person.
0DVORZVWXGLHGLQGLYLGXDOVZKRDFFRUGLQJWRKLPKDGVDWLV¿HGWKHQHHG
for self-actualization. Maslow called such people as psychologically healthy
individuals. For his research, Maslow found that such people share a
number of characteristics. Maslow found that such people have an objective
perception of reality, full self-acceptance, commitment to work, simplicity,
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 Development of a need for autonomy and independence, having peak experiences, empathy,
Psychological Thought non-conformism, creativity, and a high degree of social interest. Maslow
also added that self-actualizing people are free from neurosis and form less
than one percent of the population.
By emphasizing on studying psychologically healthy individuals, Maslow
did not work with people who are considered to be mentally ill. In doing so,
he was emphasizing on aspects of improvement rather than cure. He was,
thus, focusing on the positive aspects of human behaviour. The emphasis on
WKHSRVLWLYHDVSHFWVRIKXPDQEHLQJVODWHUKDGDQLQÀXHQFHRQWKHPRGHUQ
movement, known as positive psychology. Positive psychology focuses on
the good of life, instead of changing the things that are bad. In the 1950s,
Maslow had even used the term “positive psychology”. Even though
Maslow did not work with people who had mental illness, his ideas were
used by others in that context. One person who took forward his ideas and
used them with respect to people with mental illness, is Carl Rogers.
11.2.2 Carl Rogers

Carl Rogers developed an approach called person-centered approach. From

this approach, Rogers derived his theory of personality that gives emphasis
to a single motivating factor, which is in some ways similar to Maslow’s idea
of self-actualization. However, Rogers did not base his theory by studying
psychologically healthy individuals, like Maslow. He, instead, based his
theory by studying individuals who had come to his counselling center for
treatment.
The name of the approach proposed by Rogers - person-centered - indicates
that the responsibility for change is centered on the person rather than the
therapist. Rogers strongly believed that individuals have the capability to
alter their thoughts and behaviour, bringing about a positive change, leading
to personal growth. According to Rogers, individuals are not always guided
by the unconscious or childhood experiences, like the psychoanalysts had
suggested. He felt personality can be shaped by conscious processes, how
the individuals perceive the present.
Box 11.2: Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers completed his PhD in 1931, from Teachers College of
Columbia University, in clinical and educational psychology. He began
his academic career in 1940. It was during that time that Rogers began to
develop his theory and method of psychotherapy.
5RJHUV¶V DSSURDFK KDV EHHQ KLJKO\ LQÀXHQWLDO LQ WKH GLVFLSOLQH RI
psychology. With a lot of emphasis on the self, his theory has been well
received with respect to both psychotherapy and personality. A major
Figure 11.3: Carl Rogers (1902-1987) FULWLFLVP DJDLQVW 5RJHUV KDV EHHQ KLV ODFN RI VSHFL¿FLW\ 5RJHUV LQ KLV
Source: www.verywellmind.com WKHRU\GRHVQRWJLYHVSHFL¿FLWLHVDERXWWKHLQQDWHSRWHQWLDOWKDWLQGLYLGXDOV
have in attaining self-actualization. Rogers has also been criticized for
emphasizing a lot on subjective conscious experiences and completely
excluding unconscious forces. Nevertheless, the theory and therapy have
been supported by substantial research evidence and are widely used
LQFOLQLFDOVHWWLQJV5RJHUVKDVEHHQDQLQÀXHQWLDO¿JXUHLQZKDWLVVDLG
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 Humanistic-Existential
to be the human potential movement. His work comes under the overall Psychology (The Third-Force
trend of what is suggested to be the humanizing of psychology. Movement)
The approach of Rogers has been applied in many other areas, and not
just for the treatment of the emotionally disturbed. His approach has
been majorly used for enhancing the self-image of people. It has also
been used for training managers, clinical psychologists, social workers,
and counsellors. Rogers has majorly contributed in what is known the
humanizing of psychology. In 1946, he was elected as the president of
the American Psychological Association (APA). He later, received the
'LVWLQJXLVKHG 6FLHQWL¿F &RQWULEXWLRQ $ZDUG DQG WKH 'LVWLQJXLVKHG
Professional Contribution Award.
Rogers suggested that the self is something that is perceived. The self is an
organized conceptual gestalt, which means it is an organized whole, and not
made of smaller elements. Further, the self can grow and develop, and yet
retain its identity. The self, according to Rogers, can be distinguished as the
real self or actual self and the ideal self. The real self is what the individual
feels he or she is, and the ideal self is what the individual wants to be.
The real self and the ideal can either be similar or they can be very
GL൵HUHQW IURP HDFK RWKHU :KHQ WKHUH LV D GLVFUHSDQF\ EHWZHHQ WKH UHDO
and ideal self, it can also be said that there is discrepancy between what
the individual perceives himself or herself to be and the actual experience.
This state is known as incongruence. According to Rogers, the state of
incongruence is psychologically unhealthy, and leads to anxiety. In order
to deal with the anxiety of incongruence, people use defense mechanisms.
Rogers suggested two types of defense mechanisms – distortion and denial.
Distortion involves developing an alternative view of oneself, to maintain
the consistency between what one feels to be and the actual experience. This
may lead the individual to have either irrational positive views or irrational
negative views about himself or herself. The defense mechanism of denial
involves completely denying the experience.
Rogers clearly states that using defense mechanisms are unhealthy. The
greater the incongruence, the more defense mechanisms are used, and the
greater unhealthy state the individual becomes involved into. Therefore, a
major aim of Rogerian therapy is to reduce the discrepancy between what
the person feels like to be and the actual experience – a lesser discrepancy
between the real self and the ideal self. The lesser the discrepancy, the more
the individual will be in the state of congruence, which is a psychological
healthy condition. Further, greater the state of congruence, the more likely
the individual will achieve self-actualization.
Rogers suggested that the drive to self-actualize is the major motivating
force in personality. This tendency to self-actualize is innate, but childhood
experiences and learning can play a role in it. According to Rogers, the
relationship of the child with his or her parents plays a very important role in
VHOIDFWXDOL]DWLRQ,WLVWKHSDUHQWFKLOGUHODWLRQVKLSWKDWEHFRPHVVLJQL¿FDQW
in the growth of the self of the child. If the chilG¶VQHHGIRUORYHLVVDWLV¿HGE\
the parent in an unconditional manner, the child experiences unconditional
positive regard. This enables healthy development of the child.
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 Development of If the love of the parent for the child is conditional on proper behaviour,
Psychological Thought then the child experiences conditional positive regard. Because of this, the
child then internalizes the attitude of the parent and will develop a tendency
to avoid disapproval of the parent. This leads the self not to develop fully.
The child does not express all aspects of the self, fearing that some may
bring about rejection. Therefore, for Rogers, unconditional positive regard
from the parent towards the child is the primary requisite for healthy
psychological development. The parents should demonstrate love and
acceptance towards the child irrespective of the behaviour of the child. If
the child receives such unconditional positive regard, the individual is more
likely to achieve self-actualization.
Rogers suggested that self-actualization is the highest level of psychological
health. Such an individual is also called a fully functioning person. According
to Rogers, a fully functioning person has the following characteristics:
1) An openness to all experience
2) A tendency to live fully in every moment
3) An ability to be guided by one’s own instincts rather than by reason or
the opinions of others
4) A sense of freedom in thought and action
5) A high degree of creativity.
Instead of describing the fully functioning person as actualized, Rogers
described the person as “actualizing”. This is to indicate that self-
development is a continuous process and that it never ends.
Box 11.3: Humanistic Psychology: Not a School of Psychology
Humanistic psychology had a huge impact on the discipline of psychology.
'HVSLWHLW¶VZLGHVSUHDGLQÀXHQFHKXPDQLVWLFSV\FKRORJ\LVQRWFRQVLGHUHG
to be as a proper school of psychology. One of the reasons for this is that
most of the humanistic psychologists were involved in clinical practice,
and were not academicians. Due to this they were not involved in too much
of research and could not publish a lot of papers. Because of not working
in universities, they could not train the next generation of students to take
forward their tradition. The approach of humanistic psychology is also
FRQVLGHUHGWREHQRQVFLHQWL¿FZKLFKKDVUHFHLYHGKHDY\FULWLFLVPIURP
many psychologists.
A major reason why humanistic psychology is not considered to be a
school of psychology, because it is said that humanistic psychologists
were a little late in proposing their ideas. The ideas propagated by
the humanistic psychologists, were actually being written about
extensively much before them by the later psychoanalysts. Ideas
and concepts of humanistic psychology such as free will, ideal self,
positive relationships, love, D৽OLDWLRQ etc. had been talked about
much earlier by neo-Freudians and post-Freudians like Alfred Adler,
Karen Horney, Harry Stack Sullivan, Heinz Kohut, and Erich Fromm.
A number of historians of psychology also suggest that instead of
0DVORZ$GOHU VKRXOG EH FRQVLGHUHG WKH ¿UVW KXPDQLVWLF SV\FKRORJLVW
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 Humanistic-Existential
It was Adler’s concept of social interest that brought about the positive Psychology (The Third-Force
aspects of human behaviour, which the humanistic psychologists were Movement)
later emphasizing upon.

Check Your Progress 1

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………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
2) Who is the major thrust behind the humanistic movement in
psychology?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
3) Why is the approach of Rogers referred to as the person-centered
approach?
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
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………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
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………………………………………………………………………
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Abraham Maslow
Answer: (1) Humanistic psychology and Existential Psychology; (2)

11.3 EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY

The core of existential psychology holds that the individual is free to
GH¿QHOLIH¶VGLUHFWLRQWKURXJKDFRQWLQXHGVXFFHVVLRQRIFKRLFHVEXWWKDW
this freedom also gives the individual responsibility for the outcomes of
personal decisions, so that freedom is a source of anguish and dread.
Existential psychology began to emerge in Europe and the United States
of America shortly after the Second World War. Existential psychology
is rooted in the philosophy of existentialists such as Søren Kierkegaard,
Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger, and Jean-Paul Sartre7KH¿UVW
existential psychologists and psychiatrists were also Europeans, and these
included Ludwig Binswanger, Medard Boss, and Viktor Frankl. For
nearly 50 years, the foremost spokesperson for existential psychology was
Rollo May.
11.3.1 Viktor Frankl
Viktor Frankl suggested that human behaviour is guided by striving towards
VSHFL¿F JRDOV +H GLG QRW DJUHH ZLWK WKH HDUOLHU KHGRQLVWLF WKHRULHV +H
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 Development of suggested that human beings are not motivated to reduce a state of drive. He
Psychological Thought VSHFL¿FDOO\GLDJUHHGZLWK6LJPXQG)UHXG¶VWKHRU\RILQGLYLGXDOVUHGXFLQJ
the id impulses, being guied by the pleasure principle. Frankl suggested
that instead of reducing drive, and being pushed by internal discomfort,
individuals are actually pulled towards a future state.
Box 11.4: Viktor Frankl
Viktor Frankl, the Austrian psychiatrist and psychotherapist, developed
the approach of logotherapy. Logotherapy came to be known as the
WKLUG VFKRRO RI 9LHQQHVH SV\FKRWKHUDS\ 7KH ¿UVW VFKRRO RI 9LHQQHVH
psychotherapy is known as Sigmund Freud’s approach, and the second
school of Viennese psychotherapy is known as Alfred Adler’s approach.
$FFRUGLQJWR)UDQNOWKHPDLQPRWLYDWLRQRILQGLYLGXDOVLVWR¿QGPHDQLQJ
in life, and thus, he suggested that the main purpose of his approach is to
KHOSSHRSOH¿QGWKDWPHDQLQJLQOLIH
Figure 11.4 Viktor Frankl $IWHU FRPSOHWLQJ KLV GRFWRUDWH LQ PHGLFLQH LQ  )UDQNO ¿UVW
Source: www.brainpickings.com worked in Am Steinhof psychiatric hospital, at Vienna, till 1938, after
it was forced to be closed because of the Nazi annexation. He then
became the chief neurologist at Rothschild Hospital, at Vienna. In 1942,
when anti-Semitism was one the rise, Frankl being a Jew, he with his
family were taken to Nazi concentration camps. These were the most
WURXEOLQJWLPHVIRUKLPEHFDXVHDORQJZLWKWKHVX൵HULQJWKDWKHKLPVHOI
IDFHG KLV IDPLO\ PHPEHUV ¿UVW KLV IDWKHU WKHQ PRWKHU DQG WKHQ ODWHU
KLV ZLIH FRXOG QRW VXUYLYH WKH VX൵HULQJV DQG WKH\ DOO SDVVHG DZD\
,WZDVGXULQJWKHVHWLPHVWKDW)UDQNOUHDOL]HGWKHVLJQL¿FDQFHRIPHDQLQJLQ
life, and came up with the idea of logotherapy. Based on his observations,
and his own experiences in the Nazi camps, Frankl suggested that those
ZKRFDQ¿QGPHDQLQJLQVX൵HULQJDUHWKHRQHVZKRFDQVXUYLYHLW$IWHU
liberation, Frankl returned to Vienna. In 1946, Frankl published the classic
book, Man’s Search for Meaning, in which he wrote about his experiences
at the Nazi camps and described his approach of logotherapy. This work
of Frankl has become one of the most widely read books that has sold
PLOOLRQVRIFRSLHVLQPDQ\GL൵HUHQWODQJXDJHV
Frankl taught at the University of Vienna, till 1990. He also taught at a
number of universities in America as well. A few months before his death,
in 1997, Frankl published his book, Man’s Search for Ultimate Meaning,
in which he describe the ideas of meaning in life, and will to meaning,
in a lot more depth than he had done previously. In 1992, at Vienna, the
Viktor Frankl Institute was founded, which is meant to carry forward the
legacy of Frankl.
According to Frankl, one of the goals that people are striving towards is
having meaning in life, referred to as will to meaning. Frankl categorized
PHDQLQJLQOLIHLQWKUHHGL൵HUHQWZD\V7KH¿UVWW\SHRIPHDQLQJDFFRUGLQJ
to Frankl, is the meaning derived from one’s accomplishments, and what
one gives to the world. This also includes creative endevors, and works
of art, according to Frankl. Frankl suggested that the work that a person
does, gives meaning to life. The second type of meaning is derived from
WKHGL൵HUHQWH[SHULHQFHVZLWKWKHZRUOG7KHVHFDQLQFOXGHKDYLQJDOONLQGV
scenic experiences, enjoying nature, as well as the experiences associated
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 with the feelings of love. The third type of meaning, according to Frankl, Humanistic-Existential
LVWKHPHDQLQJWKDWFRPHVIURPWKHLQGLYLGXDO¶VDSSURDFKWRVX൵HULQJDQG Psychology (The Third-Force
Movement)
the things that cannot be changed. This type of meaning is related to the
experiences that Frankl had when he was at the Nazi concentration camp.
)UDQNOIRXQGWKDWLQVXFKFRQGLWLRQVRIVX൵HULQJWKHSHRSOHZKRGHULYHG
meaning were the ones who survived in the best way. He observed people
GHULYLQJ PHDQLQJ LQ VX൵HULQJ E\ GHYHORSLQJ FRPSDVVLRQ KXPRU  DQG
even the feeling of revenge. Frankl felt that the third type of meaning is
DVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHIHHOLQJRIGLJQLW\LQVX൵HULQJ$FFRUGLQJWR)UDQNOWKLV
type of meaning is related to the transcendental nature of human experience.
In relation to meaning in life, Frankl originated the idea of logotherapy.
/RJRWKHUDS\LVDWKHUDSHXWLFDSSURDFKWKDWKHOSVLQGLYLGXDOVWR¿QGPHDQLQJ
in life.
11.3.2 Rollo May
The approach of Rollo May is based on his clinical experiences rather
than the experiment method. He saw people living in the world of current
H[SHULHQFHV DQG ¿QDOO\ EHLQJ DFFRXQWDEOH IRU ZKR WKH\ EHFRPH 0D\
believed that many people do not have the bravery to confront their fate and
escape from it and negate their freedom. By doing so, they escape from their
responsibilities. When they are unwilling to make choices, they lose sight
of themselves and develop a sense of meaninglessness and isolation. In
contrast to that, healthy people confront their fate, treasure their autonomy,
and are trustworthy to other people. They realize the certainty of death and
have the audacity to live life in the present day.
Box 11.5: Rollo May
Rollo May has been one of the major proponents of existential psychology.
$WD\RXQJDJHLQ0D\KDGRQHRIKLVHDUOLHVWSURIRXQGLQÀXHQFHV
He had attented one of Alfred Adler’s summer seminars, and developed
a deep admiration for him. He believed that he learned a lot about human
behaviour from Adler.
May later studied psychoanalysis at the White Institute of Psychiatry,
Psychoanalysis, and Psychology, New York. Over there he met Harry Stack
Sullivan, neo-Freudian and the pioneer of the interpersonal approach to Figure 11.5: Rollo May
psychology. May was highly impressed by Sullivan, who was the president Source: www.brainpickings.com
DQG IRXQGHU RI WKH LQVWLWXWH 0D\ ZDV DOVR KLJKO\ LQÀXHQFHG E\ (ULFK
Fromm, post-Freudian and one of the most well-known psychoanalysts,
who was a faculty member at the White Institute.
In 1949, May earned his PhD at the age of 40, from Columbia University.
+HZDVWKH¿UVW3K'LQFOLQLFDOSV\FKRORJ\IURPWKHXQLYHUVLW\%HIRUH
UHFHLYLQJKLVGRFWRUDWH0D\VX൵HUHGIURPWXEHUFXORVLVZKLFKHQGHGXS
completely changing his life. In those times there were not any proper
medications for tuberculosis. He was uncertain about his life. He was
WHUUL¿HG DQG GHSUHVVHG ,W ZDV GXULQJ WKLV WLPH WKDW KH EHJDQ VWXG\LQJ
the writings of Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, and
Soren Keirkegard, the Danish existential philosopher. He mainly read
WKHLU ZRUNV DERXW DQ[LHW\ 0D\ ZDV LQÀXHQFHG E\ ERWK RI WKHP EXW LW
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 Development of
Psychological Thought
was Keirkegard’s perspective on anxiety that moved him completely.
After he recovered, he continued his teaching, writing, and practicing of
SV\FKRWKHUDS\+HZURWHDQXPEHURILQÀXHQWLDOERRNV7KH¿UVWRQHLV
based on his dissertation, The Meaning of Anxiety (1950). Three years
later, he wrote Man’s Search for Himself (1953). This book gave him a lot
of recognition. His most well-known book is Love and Will (1969), which
was then a national best-seller. May won a number of prestigious awards,
including the Psychological Professional Gold Medal from the American
Psychological Association, for his outstanding, lifetime contributions to
professional psychology.
May related this healthy state to what he called healthy individualism.
Healthy individulism involves self-reliance, competitiveness, and
assertiveness. These characteristics helped clear the frontier, guaranteed
economic development, and increased the prosperity of everyone. Apart
from healthy individualism, May considered another kind of individualism
known as unhealthy individualism. Unhealthy individualism involves severe
mental health issues for individuals due to having no sense of community.
He believed that people tend to develop a sense of unfair means of
competitiveness, that is, hypercompetitiveness. This makes each individual
a strong enemy of his partner, causing deep interpersonal antagonism and
hatred. In turn, this increases apprehension and separation from others.
May also believed that unhealthy individualism involves extreme self-
reliance, which keeps many people away from asking for help and support
ZKHQQHHGHGWKHPRVW0RUHRYHUWKLVFRUUXSWHGVHO¿VKQHVVLVH[KLELWHGLQ
the behaviour of many individuals, because they persistently pursue their
achievements and material properties.
Unhealthy individualism, according to May, makes people encounter
complex problems in their life, which results in a feeling of emptiness.
0D\VXJJHVWVWKDWIHHOLQJVRIHPSWLQHVVGRQRWPHDQWKHXQ¿OOHGRUODFN
of feeling. Instead, this emptiness occurs when someone feels a lack of
power, in which, events are perceived beyond ones control. This happens
to such an extent that individuals become aimless and directionless. They
are unable to motivate others, or to bring changes in their surroundings.
Subsequently, there is profound hopelessness and senselessness. Eventually,
when behaviour does not produce any change, individuals give up their
GHVLUHDQGIHHOLQJVDQGEHFRPHLQGL൵HUHQW
May, further, suggested that this emptiness is strongly associated with
loneliness. The feeling of emptiness makes the individual feel confused
about what he or she wants, believes, or values. In such a scenario, the
individual follows what is called an unhealthy communal orientation. In
this, the individual may look for others in a meaningless way to deal with
the sense of disconnectedness. The more the individual tries to connect
with others to release the feelings of separatedness, the more isolated and
anxious he or she becomes.
$GGLWLRQDOO\WKLVIHHOLQJRIORQHOLQHVVDOVRLQFOXGHVORRNLQJIRUR൵HUVWR
gatherings with people. Inherently the person may not wish to be a part of
such gatherings, but tends to do so, because individuals feel the pressure of
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 proving to themselves that they are not isolated and are connected to others. Humanistic-Existential
The individual longs for acceptance, and feels that it can only happen if Psychology (The Third-Force
Movement)
they are always connected with others. This feeling of acceptance by others
makes them feel alive. This, initially, gives a sense of comfort, but in the
log run the person ends up losing his or her individuality. The person then is
unable to develop what May referred to as a healthy communal orientation.
A healthy communal orientation helps in dealing with loneliness in the long
run. It involves developing a strong and genuine concern for the wellbeing
of others.
May suggested that the experience of loneliness and emptiness results in
the feeling of anxiety. People feel anxious when they become cognizant
about their survival or some value associated with it might be damaged.
According to May, anxiety is the personal condition in which the individual
realizes that his or her existence can be destroyed.
/DWHURQ0D\WHUPHGDQ[LHW\DVDWKUHDWWRDVLJQL¿FDQWYDOXH$Q[LHW\FDQ
therefore, result either from an awareness of its absence or from a threat
to a value essential to its existence. It occurs when one faces the issue of
achieving one’s capabilities. This confrontation may lead to inactivity and
breakdown, but it can also lead to growth and change. When anxiety leads
growth and change, then it is called normal anxiety. According to May,
normal anxiety is equivalent to the threat, but involves no repression and can
be faced constructively at the conscious level. As people grow up from early
childhood to old age, their values keep changing and during each step, they
experience normal anxiety. Normal anxiety can also be experienced during
creativity. For example when an artist, a scientist, or a philosopher suddenly
experiences an insight. Normal anxiety is experienced by everyone.
However, according to May, anxiety may also become neurotic or
LOO +H FDOOHG WKLV QHXURWLF DQ[LHW\ 0D\ GH¿QHG neurotic anxiety as a
disproportionate response to the threat, involving repression and other
IRUPVRILQWUDSV\FKLFFRQÀLFW:KLOHQRUPDODQ[LHW\LVIHOWZKHQYDOXHVDUH
threatened, neurotic anxiety is felt when values become dogma. According
WR 0D\ EHLQJ DEVROXWHO\ ULJKW LQ RQH¶V EHOLHIV R൵HUV WHPSRUDU\ VHFXULW\
but that security comes at the cost of repudiating the possibility of new
learnings and new growth.
Apart from the aforementioned conceptions, May also, extensively wrote
about care, love, and will. According to May, care is an active process of
becoming aware of the individual’s pain, guilt, or pity, and to acknowledge
that person as a fellow individual. It can be seen as the opposite to apathy,
which is a lack of concern.
May, further, suggested that to think about somebody intends to perceive
that individual as a person, to relate to that individual’s agony or euphoria,
and blame or pity. Care is a functioning cycle. For May, care is a state where
VRPHWKLQJGRHVPDNHDGL൵HUHQFH
Additionally, according to May, care is not the same as love, it is rather the
source of love. To love means to care, to recognize the essential humanity
of the other person, and to have active regard for that person’s development.
0D\GH¿QHGlove as a delight in the presence of the other person and an
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 Development of D൶UPLQJRIWKDWSHUVRQ¶VYDOXHVDQGGHYHORSPHQWDVPXFKDVRQH¶VRZQ
Psychological Thought Without care, there can be no love.
May also suggested that apart from the source of love, care is also the source
RIZLOO0D\GH¿QHGwill as the ability to organize oneself for a movement in
DFHUWDLQGLUHFWLRQRUSXUSRVHWRWDNHSODFH0D\GL൵HUHQWLDWHGEHWZHHQwill
and wish. According to May, will involves self-consciousness and implies a
chance at a decision, which is not associated with wish. Wish, on the other
hand, gives brightness, substance, creative spirit, novelty, and wealth to
will. Will provides auto-guiding, development to wish. Will secures wish,
and allows to proceed without taking exceedingly extraordinary risks.
Box 11.6: Existential Psychology and Psychoanalysis
Many of the applications of existential psychology have come from
people who had been trained in psychoanalysis. Rollo May, himself, was
trained in psychoanalysis. His approach is a combination of Freudian
psychoanalysis and existentialism. It is due to this that his approach is
also referred to as the existential-analytic perspective.
Consequently, there have been a number of similarities found between
psychoanalysis and existential psychology:
Ɣ Both ask essential questions regarding human existence.
Ɣ Both focus on rationality as well as irrationality. Freud talked about
WKHVLJQL¿FDQFHRIGHDWKDQGUHIHUUHGWRWKHGHDWKLQVWLQFWDVDVHOI
destructive urge. Similarly, existential psychology talks about how
death is inevitable, and suggests ways of coping from nothingness.
Ɣ %RWKKDYHDGHHSFRQFHUQDERXWWKHDOOHYLDWLRQRIKXPDQVX൵HULQJ
Ɣ %RWKHPSKDVL]HRQKRZFRQÀLFWDQGDQ[LHW\FDQFDXVHGLVUXSWLRQ
within an individual.
Ɣ Both have the assumption that individuals often deal with anxiety
by avoiding responsibilities. Freud talks about avoiding
responsibiliites through repression, and existential psychologists
talk about avoiding responsibilities with respect to people denying
who they really are.
Ɣ Both blame society, to a great extent, for people not being able
to be true to their nature. Freud talks about the superego causing
restrains. Existential psychologists talk about the role of society in
people becoming self-aliented.
Ɣ Finally, both have a deep concern for understanding human nature.

Check Your Progress 2

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Freud?
………………………………………………………………………
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 Humanistic-Existential
2) According to May, how does unhealthy individualism result in the Psychology (The Third-Force
feelings of emptiness and loneliness? Movement)
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
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………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

11.4 HUMANISTIC AND EXISTENTIAL

PSYCHOLOGY: SIMILARITIES AND
DIFFERENCES
Humanistic and existential psychology emerged out of the phenomenological
movement, which is why there can be a number of similarities found
EHWZHHQWKHP+RZHYHUWKH\DUHDOVRPDQ\GL൵HUHQFHVEHWZHHQWKHWZR
Both humanistic and existential psychology have a number of common
tenets, which are:
1) Human beings have free will, and thus, are responsible for their
actions.
2) Phenomenology, the study of subjective experiences is the most
appropriate method to examine human beings.
3) In order to understand human beings in a proper way, they must be
studied as a whole. Elementism distorts the perspectives about human
nature.
 +XPDQEHLQJVDUHXQLTXHDQGYHU\GL൵HUHQWIURPDQLPDOV$Q\WKLQJ
that is learned about animal behaviour is of limited use in order to
understand human beings.
5) All human beings are unique in their own way. The understanding of
one human being is of limited use in order to understand other human
beings.
6) Being able to live an authentic life is better than living an inauthentic
life.
 +XPDQEHLQJVFDQQRWEHH൵HFWLYHO\VWXGLHGE\XVLQJWKHWUDGLWLRQDO
VFLHQWL¿FPHWKRG+XPDQEHLQJVKDYHXQLTXHDWWUEXWHVOLNHIUHHZLOO
ZKLFKLVQRWVXLWHGIRUWKHVFLHQWL¿FPHWKRG
Even though humanistic and existential psychologists have a number of
FRPPRQWHQHWVWKH\PDMRU\GL൵HUZLWKUHVSHFWWRWKHLUDVVXPSWLRQVDERXW
human nature. Humanistic psychologists have the assumption that people
are basically good, and thus, if placed in a healthy environment, they will
live with each other in a harmonius manner. The main motivation of human
beings, according to humanistic psychologists, is the actualizing tendency.
This tendency is innate and drives individuals towards activities and events
that favor self-actualization.

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 Development of The existential psychologists, instead of assuming that human beings are
Psychological Thought good-natured, have the view that human beings are essentially neutral.
According to existentialists, the only thing that human beings are born
with is their freedom to choose the nature of their existence. They suggest
that human beings are free to choose their own essence of uniqueness.
People, according to existentialists, are what they make of themselves. By
making the right kind of choices, human beings are seeking meaning in life.
Existential psychologists suggest that without meaning, life has little worth.
Finding meaning in life is then a major motivation in life, as per existential
psychologists. The existentialist, Victor Frankl, called this need, the will to
meaning.
The perspective that humanistic psychologists have makes them to be more
optimistic about people. According to them, if societies could be made
compatible, then people can live together in a peaceful and harmonius
manner.
In comparison to humanistic psychologists, the perspective of existential
psychology is more pessimistic. The existential psychologists suggest that
all individual have a freedom of choice; they have free will. Due to this
free will, individuals cannot blame anyone or anything else for their actions
and behaviours, making them responsible for whatever they do. This sense
of responsibility, however, turns out to be more of a curse for individuals.
This happens because, instead of asserting their choice, people conform to
societal norms and values.

11.5 SUMMARY
Now that we have come to the end of this Unit, let us list all the major points
that we have learned:
Ɣ 7KHWHUPWKLUGIRUFHDQDSSURDFKWKDWGL൵HUHGIURPSV\FKRDQDO\VLV
DQG EHKDYLRXULVP ZKLFK DUH UHIHUUHG WR DV WKH ¿UVW IRUFH DQG
second force, respectively. The third-force movement emphasized
on the method of phenomenology. Phenomenology is the study of
phenomena that is experienced by the individual, emphasizing on
how that phenomenon revealed itself.
Ɣ Humanistic psychology, emerging in the 1940s and 1950s, opposed
the two existing dominant schools of psychology – psychoanalysis
and behaviourism. It gives emphasis to personal freedom and personal
UHVSRQVLELOLW\LQWKHIXO¿OPHQWRIKXPDQSRWHQWLDO
Ɣ Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers are regarded as the pioneers of
the humanistic movement in psychology. Maslow believed that every
individual has an innate tendency to completely develop his or her
abilities and realize one’s true potential. This tendency is referred to
as self-actualization.
Ɣ A major feature of the concept of self-actualization, is that it denotes
a teleological perspective. The teleological perspective is about
explaining behaviour with respect to a future state, a purpose that
individuals strive for.
Ɣ Carl Rogers developed the approach called person-centered therapy.
The self can be distinguished as the real self or actual self and the
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 ideal self. The real self is what the individual feels he or she is, and Humanistic-Existential
the ideal self is what the individual wants to be. Psychology (The Third-Force
Movement)
Ɣ When there is a discrepancy between the real and ideal self, it can
also be said that there is discrepancy between what the individual
perceives himself or herself to be and the actual experience. This state
is known as incongruence.
Ɣ In order to deal with the anxiety of incongruence, people use defense
mechanisms. Rogers suggested two types of defense mechanisms –
distortion and denial.
Ɣ ,IWKHFKLOG¶VQHHGIRUORYHLVVDWLV¿HGE\WKHSDUHQWLQDQXQFRQGLWLRQDO
manner, the child experiences unconditional positive regard. This
enables healthy development of the child.
Ɣ Rogers suggested that self-actualization is the highest level of
psychological health. Such an individual is also called a fully
functioning person.
Ɣ Viktor Frankl suggested human behaviour is guided by striving
WRZDUGV VSHFL¿F JRDOV 2QH RI WKH JRDOV WKDW SHRSOH DUH VWULYLQJ
towards is having meaning in life, referred to as will to meaning.
Ɣ )UDQNOFDWHJRUL]HGPHDQLQJLQOLIHLQWKUHHGL൵HUHQWZD\V±LQWHUPV
of accomplishments and creativity, love, and individuals’ approach
WRZDUGVVX൵HULQJ7KHWKLUGW\SHRIPHDQLQJLVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKH
IHHOLQJRIGLJQLW\LQVX൵HULQJ7KLVW\SHRIPHDQLQJLVUHODWHGWRWKH
transcendental nature of human experience.
Ɣ In relation to meaning in life, Frankl originated the idea of logotherapy.
,WLVDWKHUDSHXWLFDSSURDFKWKDWKHOSVLQGLYLGXDOVWR¿QGPHDQLQJLQ
life.
Ɣ The approach of Rollo May was based on clinical experience rather
than the experiment method.
Ɣ Healthy individulism involves self-reliance, competitiveness,
and assertiveness. These characteristics helped clear the frontier,
guaranteed economic development, and increased the prosperity of
everyone.
Ɣ Unhealthy individualism involves severe mental health issues
for individuals due to having no sense of community. Unhealthy
individualism makes people encounter complex problems in their
life, which results in a feeling of emptiness.
Emptiness is strongly associated with loneliness.
Ɣ In an unhealthy communal orientation, the individual may look for
others in a meaningless way to deal with the sense of disconnectedness
from others. The more the individual tries to connect with others to
release the feelings of separateness, the more isolated and anxious he
or she becomes.
Ɣ A healthy communal orientation helps in dealing with loneliness in
the long run. It involves developing a strong and genuine concern for
the wellbeing of others.
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 Development of Ɣ May suggested that the experience of loneliness and emptiness results
Psychological Thought in the feeling of anxiety. When anxiety leads growth and change, then
it is called normal anxiety. Neurotic anxiety is a disproportionate
response to the threat, involving repression and other forms of
LQWUDSV\FKLFFRQÀLFW
Ɣ Care is an active process of becoming aware of the individual’s
pain or joy, guilt or pity and to acknowledge that person as a fellow
individual. Love is a delight in the presence of the other person and
DQD൶UPLQJRIWKDWSHUVRQ¶VYDOXHDQGGHYHORSPHQWDVPXFKDVRQH¶V
own.
Ɣ 0D\GH¿QHGZLOODVWKHDELOLW\WRRUJDQL]HRQHVHOIIRUDPRYHPHQW
in a certain direction or purpose to take place. Will provides auto-
guiding, development to wish. Will secures wish, and allows to
proceed without taking exceedingly extraordinary risks.
Ɣ Humanistic psychologists have the assumption that people are
basically good. The existential psychologists, instead of assuming
that human beings are good natured, have the view that human beings
are essentially neutral.
Ɣ The perspective that humanistic psychologists have makes them
to be more optimistic about people. In comparison to humanistic
psychologists, the perspective of existential psychology is more
pessimistic.

11.6 KEY WORDS

Third-force Movement: ,WLVDQ\DSSURDFKWKDWGL൵HUHGIURPSV\FKRDQDO\VLV
DQGEHKDYLRXULVPZKLFKDUHUHIHUUHGWRDVWKH¿UVWIRUFHDQGVHFRQGIRUFH
respectively. The movement emphasized on the method of phenomenology.
Phenomenology: The study of phenomena that is experienced (as it appears
in consciousness, without prejudgment, bias, or any preconceived notion)
by the individual, emphasizing on how that phenomenon revealed itself. It
LVDERXWZKDWHYHUPD\EHVLJQL¿FDQWWRWKHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIDSKHQRPHQRQ
Humanistic Psychology: The idea that humans are always seeking to
develop their full potential.
Existential Psychology: 7KHLGHDWKDWWKHLQGLYLGXDOLVIUHHWRGH¿QHOLIH¶V
direction through a continued succession of choices, but that this freedom
also gives the individual responsibility for the outcomes of personal
decisions, so that freedom is a source of anguish and dread.
Romanticism: The philosophy that human nature should be viewed in
terms of personal, subjective feelings, and experiences, and that human
beings are naturally good in nature.
Hierarchy of Needs: A theory of motivation suggesting that individual
QHHGVFDQEHSODFHGRQDKLHUDUFK\(DFKLQGLYLGXDOPXVW¿UVWVDWLVI\WKH
QHHGVWKDWDUHORZHULQWKHKLHUDUFK\2QFHRQHQHHGLVVDWLV¿HGRQO\WKHQ
the individual gets motivated for the next need on the hierarchy.

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 Self-actualiztion: An innate tendency to completely develop one’s abilities Humanistic-Existential
and realize one’s true potential. It is to become everything that one is Psychology (The Third-Force
Movement)
capable of becoming.
Teleology: The perspective that explains behaviour with respect to a future
state, a purpose that individuals strive for.
Psychologically Healthy Individuals: ,QGLYLGXDOVZKRKDYHKDGVDWLV¿HG
the need for self-actualization.
Person-centered Approach: An approach that indicates that the
responsibility for change is centered on the person rather than the therapist.
Self: An organized conceptual gestalt, an organized whole.
Real Self: What the individual feels he or she is.
Ideal Self: What the individual wants to be.
Congruence: The real and ideal self being similar, or having a lesser
discrepancy between the real self and the ideal self; a psychological healthy
condition.
Incongruence: A discrepancy between the real and ideal self, which can
also be said to be a discrepancy between what the individual perceives
himself or herself to be and the actual experience. This is a psychologically
unhealthy state.
Distortion: A defense mechanism that involves developing an alternative
view of oneself. This may lead the individual to have either irrational
positive views or irrational negative views about himself or herself.
Denial: A defense mechanism that involves completely denying the
experience.
Unconditional Positive Regard: &KLOG¶V QHHG IRU ORYH LV VDWLV¿HG E\
parents in an unconditional manner, enabling healthy development of the
child.
Fully Functioning Person: An individual at the highest level of
psychological health, characterized by openness to all experience, tendency
to live fully in every moment, ability to be guided by one’s own instincts, a
sense of freedom in thought and action, a high degree of creativity.
Will to Meaning: The tendency of striving towards having meaning in life.
Logotherapy: $WKHUDSHXWLFDSSURDFKWKDWKHOSVLQGLYLGXDOVWR¿QGPHDQLQJ
in life.
Healthy Individualism: Characteristic that involves self-reliance,
competitiveness, and assertiveness.
Unhealthy Individualism: A state involves a severe mental health issues
for individuals due to having no sense of community. Such people are
hypercompetitive, making them have deep interpersonal antagonism and
hatred. This increases apprehension and separation from others.
Emptiness: The feeling of lack of power, in which, events are perceived
beyond ones control. The person becomes aimless and directionless. It
occurs as a result of unhealthy individualism.

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 Development of Loneliness: A sense of disconnectedness, and a longing for acceptance. A
Psychological Thought state of being confused about what one wants, believes, or values.
Unhealthy Communal Orientation: A condition in which the individual
may look for others in a meaningless way to deal with the sense of
disconnectedness from others. The more the individual tries to connect with
others to release the feelings of separateness, the more isolated and anxious
he or she becomes.
Healthy Communal Orientation: An orientation that helps in dealing
with loneliness in the long run. It involves developing a strong and genuine
concern for the wellbeing of others.
Anxiety: The feeling that is a result of experiencing loneliness and emptiness.
It occurs when one faces the issue of achieving one’s capabilities.
Normal Anxiety: Anxiety that leads to growth and change. It involves no
repression and can be faced constructively at the conscious level.
Neurotic Anxiety: A disproportionate response to the threat, involving
UHSUHVVLRQDQGRWKHUIRUPVRILQWUDSV\FKLFFRQÀLFW
Care: An active process of becoming aware of the individual’s pain or joy,
guilt or pity and to acknowledge that person as a fellow individual. It is
contrary to apathy, which is a lack of concern.
Love: $GHOLJKWLQWKHSUHVHQFHRIWKHRWKHUSHUVRQDQGDQD൶UPLQJRIWKDW
person’s value and development as much as one’s own.
Will: The ability to organize oneself for a movement in a certain direction
or purpose to take place.

11.7 REVIEW QUESTIONS

 :KDWDUHWKHFRPPRQDVSHFWVRIWKHGL൵HUHQWIRUPVRIWKHWKLUGIRUFH
movement?
2) How does the concept of self-actualization move away from the
causal tradition as proposed by psychoanalysis and behaviourism?
3) How does Rogers describe the role of unconditional positive regard in
self-actualization?
4) In what wats did humanistic psychology disagree with psychoanalysis
and behaviourism?
 'HVFULEHWKHGL൵HUHQWQHHGVIURPWKHORZHVWWRWKHKLJKHVWKLHUDUFK\
as suggested by Maslow.
6) How does self-actualization emphasize the uniqueness of individuals?
 'HVFULEHWKHGL൵HUHQWW\SHVRIPHDQLQJDVVXJJHVWHGE\)UDQNO
 +RZ GRHV 5ROOR 0D\ GL൵HUHQWLDWH EHWZHHQ KHDOWK\ DQG XQKHDOWK\
individualism.
9) How do the feelings of emptiness and loneliness develop an unhealthy
communal orientation, among people?
  'L൵HUHQWLDWH EHWZHHQ KXPDQLVWLF SV\FKRORJ\ DQG H[LVWHQWLDO
psychology.

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 Humanistic-Existential
11.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING Psychology (The Third-Force
Movement)
Brennan, J. F. (2014). History and Systems of Psychology. Harlow: Pearson
Education Ltd.
Chung, M. C. & Hyland, M. E. (2012). History and Philosophy of
Psychology. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell Publications
Feist, J. & Feist, G. J. (2008). Theories of Personality. San Jose: McGraw-
Hill Education
Glassman, W. E. & Hadad, M. (2009). Approaches to Psychology. London:
McGraw-Hill Education
Hergenhahn, B. R. & Henley, T. B. (2009). An Introduction to the History
of Psychology. Wadsworth: Cengage Learning
Ryckman, R. M. (2008). Theories of Personality. Belmont: Thomson
Higher Education
Schultz D. P. & Schultz, S. E. (2008). A History of Modern Psychology.
Wadsworth: Thomson Learning, Inc

11.9 REFERENCES FOR FIGURES

The New Hierarchy of Needs
The New Hierarchy of Needs — Maslow’s lost apex | by Jessi Christian |
Coachilla HQ | Medium
Cherry, K. (2020). Biography ofAbraham Maslow (1908 – 1970). https://www.
verywellmind.com/biography-of-abraham-maslow-1908-1970-2795524
Cherry, K. (2020). Psychology and Life Quotes from Carl Rogers. https://
www.verywellmind.com/carl-rogers-quotes-2795693
Popova, M. (n. d.). Viktor Frankl and the Human Search for Meaning.
https://www.brainpickings.org/2013/03/26/viktor-frankl-mans-search-for-
meaning/
Popova, M. (n. d.). Love and Will: The Great Existential Psychologist Rollo
May on Apathy, Tanscendence, and Our Human Task in Times of Radical
Transition. https://www.brainpickings.org/2017/05/11/love-and-will-rollo-
may/

11.10 WEB RESOURCES

Boeree, C. G. (2006). Carl Rogers, Personality Theories. http://webspace.
ship.edu/cgboer/rogers.html
Boeree, C. G. (2006). Rollo May, Personality Theories. https://webspace.
ship.edu/cgboer/may.html
Celestine, N. (2021). Abraham Maslow, His Theory and Contribution to
Psychology. https://positivepsychology.com/abraham-maslow/
Farooqi, S. (2010). Self-satisfaction: The Ultimate Goal of Life. http://
www.lifeandpsychology.com/2010/06/self-satisfaction-ultimate-goal-of-
life.html

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 Development of )DURRTL6  3V\FKRDQDO\WLF,QÀXHQFHVRQ+XPDQLVWLF3V\FKRORJ\
Psychological Thought KWWSZZZKLVWRU\RISV\FKRORJ\QHWSV\FKRDQDO\WLFLQÀXHQFHV
on-humanistic.html
Gregory, E. M. (2015). May the 3rd Force be With You: Humanistic Psychology
and the Third Force of Psychology. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/
blog/the-secular-shepherd/201506/may-the-3rd-force-be-you
Spear, J. (n. d.). Existential psychology. https://psychology.jrank.
RUJSDJHV([LVWHQWLDO3V\FKRORJ\KWPOaWH[W ([LVWHQWLDO
SV\FKRORJ\LVDQDSSURDFKKDYHPDQ\OHYHOV
RIVHOI'
Spiegelberg, H. (2017). Phenomenology. https://www.britannica.com/
topic/phenomenology
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2020), Viktor Frankl. https://
www.britannica.com/biography/Viktor-Frankl
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2020). Humanistic psychology.
https://www.britannica.com/science/humanistic-psychology

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