MODULE I

Diodes, V-I Characteristics, Diode

Circuits

Lesson 1 Definition and

Construction

Lesson 2 Diode Applications

Lesson 3 Half Wave and Full

Wave Rectifiers

Lesson 4 Clippers and Clampers

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MODULE I

DIODES, V-I CHARACTERISTICS, DIODE CIRCUITS

 INTRODUCTION

One of the greatest things people learned to do in the 20th century

was to use electrons to control machines and process information. The
electronics revolution, as this is known, accelerated the computer revolution
and both these things have transformed many areas of our lives.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. Know the principle of Semiconductor Theory.

2. Explain the V-I Characteristic Curve of a diode.
3. Solve unknown parameters given diode circuits.
4. Design a diode circuit with specifications provided.
5. Solve unknown parameters for series, parallel, and series-parallel
configuration of diodes.
6. Familiarize diode circuits with sinusoidal inputs and solve unknown
parameters.
7. Know the different clipper circuits and be able to trace outputs of
these circuits using the principle of diode.
8. Design a clipper circuit given the expected output waveform.
9. Solve unknown parameters for clamper circuits

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are four lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then
answer the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited from
it. Work on these exercises carefully and submit your output to your instructor
or to the COE office.

In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your instructor during
the face-to-face meeting. If not contact your instructor.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

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Lesson 1

 DEFINITION AND
CONSTRUCTION
A semiconductor can be considered a material having a conductivity ranging
between that of an insulator and a metal. Semiconductor plays a vital role in
electronics. Let us first try to recall the structure of an atom which will lead
us to classification of materials where semiconductor is introduced.

Electricity at the Atomic Level

• Elements
The simplest form of matter.

Atoms
Smallest piece of an element containing all of the properties of that
element.

Components of an Atom
• Nucleus – The center portion of an atom containing the protons and
neutrons.
• Protons – Positively charged atomic particles.
• Neutrons – Uncharged atomic particles.

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• Atomic Number – The atomic number is equal to the number of protons

in the nucleus of an atom. The atomic number identifies the element.

THINK!

How many protons are in the nucleus?

• Electrons – Negatively charged particles.

• Electron Orbitals – Orbits in which electrons move around the nucleus
of an atom.
• Valence Electron – The outermost ring of electrons in an atom.

Electrical Classifications of Materials

1. Conductors. Allow electric current to flow through them.
- More electrons that are free to move.
- Supports charge carriers flow.
- Allows electric current to flow with ease.
- Which has a very low electrical resistance.
- Has less than four valence electrons (ideally 1).

Examples: metals, electrolytes, and ionized gases

2. Insulators. Do not allow electric current to flow through them.

- Materials with more than four valence electrons.
- Has a characteristic that is extremely opposite to that of a
conductor.

Examples: glass, mica, and hard rubber

3. Semiconductors. Materials whose conductivity lies in between of

conductor and insulator
- With exactly four valence electrons

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Examples:
Elementary Semiconductors (Group IV A):
Silicon (Si)
Geranium (Ge)

Compound Semiconductors (IIIA – VIA)

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
Aluminum Arsenide (AlAs)
Gallium Phosphide (GaP)

What about for Sulfur?

Ideal - any device or system that has ideal characteristics—perfect in every

way.
Ideal Diode – a two terminal device having the symbol and characteristics
shown:

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The characteristics of an ideal diode are those of a switch that can

conduct current in only one direction.

Forward Resistance, RF

Reverse Resistance, RF

Semi-prefix that is normally applied to a range of levels midway between two

limits

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Resistivity, ρ
- often used when comparing the resistance levels of materials. In
metric units, the resistivity of a material is measured in Ω-cm or Ω-m.

Atomic Structure of a Semiconductor

The atoms of both materials (Si and GE) form a very definite pattern that is
periodic in nature
Crystal – one complete pattern
Lattice – periodic arrangement

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Valence Shell – outermost shell

Valence Electron – electrons in the valence shell
Ionization potential – the potential required to remove any one of
the valence electrons

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ENERGY LEVELS

N TYPE AND P TYPE MATERIALS

A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the doping process

is called an extrinsic material. When an intrinsic material is doped (the
addition of impurities) it will become extrinsic.

N TYPE
An extrinsic semiconductor material formed by adding donor impurities
such as pentavalent (with five valence electrons). Common pentavalent
elements are Antimony (Sb), Arsenic (As) and phosphorus (P). If only few
impurities are added it is called lightly doped. With more impurities added,
it is called heavily doped. In semiconductors there are two types of currents:
(1) the negative current or negative carrier, this current is the flow of

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electrons (electron flow), from negative to positive; and (2) the positive
current or positive carrier, this current is the flow of holes (hole flow), from
positive to negative. Ideally, n-type materials have negative carriers only, but
practically there are a few numbers of positive carriers. Thus, for n-type
materials, the majority carriers are electrons, minority carriers are the holes
(absence of electrons).

P TYPE
Ideally, p-type materials have positive carriers only, but practically
there are numbers of negative carriers. The majority carriers for a p-type
material are holes (positive), minority carriers are electrons (negative).

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THINK!

What is the difference between hole flow and electron

flow?

N-Type and P-Type Semiconductor Materials

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
When a p-type material and n-type material are brought together, they
form a so-called pn junction.

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At the junction, the electrons from the n-type and holes from the p-
type attract each other combine, cancelling their net charge. Due to the
combination and cancellation of electrons and holes at the junction, the
junction will have no more charged carriers, and said to be depleted of
charged carriers. The junction is also called depletion region due to the fact
that neither electrons nor holes exist at the junction.

When a potential difference or voltage is applied at the p-type and n-

type materials, the junction will either narrow or widens depending on the
polarity of the applied voltage.

NO BIAS
Under no-bias (no applied voltage) conditions, any minority carriers
(holes) in the n-type material that find themselves within the depletion region
will pass directly into the p-type material. The closer the minority carrier is
to the junction, the greater the attraction for the layer of negative ions and
the less the opposition of the positive ions in the depletion region of the n-
type material. In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of
charge in any one direction for a semiconductor diode is zero.

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REVERSE BIAS
The junction widens when the p-type material is more negative than
the n-type material. Hence, the p-type material is connected to the negative
terminal of the source and the n-type material is connected to the positive
terminal of the source. When reverse biased, holes at the p-type are attracted
to the negative supply and at the same time, electrons at the n-type are
attracted to the positive supply. With these actions, the junction or the
depleted region is widen. The minority carriers at p-type are electrons, and
are repelled by the negative supply towards the n-type. Minority carriers at
the n-type are holes, and are repelled by the positive supply towards the p-
type. Both motions of minority carriers are called minority currents or leakage
current.

FORWARD BIAS
The junction narrows, when the p-type is more positive than the n-
type. The p-type material is connected to the positive terminal of the source
and the n-type material is connected to the negative terminal of the source.
When forward biased, holes (majority carriers) at th p-type are repelled by
the positive supply and flow towards the n-type crossing the narrowed
junction, and then are attracted to the negative supply. Electrons at the n-
type are repelled by the negative supply and flow towards the p-type also
crossing the narrowed junction, and then are attracted to the positive supply.

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CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF A DIODE

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ZENER REGION

Zener Potential – the reverse bias potential that results in dramatic change in
characteristics

The avalanche region Vz may be brought closer to the vertical axis by

increasing the doping levels.

Threshold/offset/firing potential or voltage – the potential at which the rise

voltage occurs.
Ge = 0.3 V; Si = 0.7V

Zener Diodes – diodes employing the avalanche region

RESISTANCE LEVELS

1. DC OR STATIC RESISTANCE

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Example:

AC OR DYNAMIC RESISTANCE

When input is varying such as sinusoid, the resistance is determined by

tangent line in the Q point. The Q point is no varying input signal. Q or
Quiescent means unvarying or still.

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Example:

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Solution:

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AC OR DYNAMIC RESISTANCE

AC or Dynamic Resistance with body resistance

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Lesson 2

 DIODE APPLICATIONS

DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements properly chosen to best

represent the actual terminal characteristic of a device, system, or such in a
particular operating region. In other words, once the equivalent circuit is
defined, the device symbol can be removed from a schematic and the
equivalent circuit inserted in its place without severely affecting the actual
behavior of the system. The result is often a network that can be solved using
traditional circuit analysis techniques.

1. IDEAL DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

In this model, the diode is assumed to have a zero threshold voltage,
VTH=0, and has no resistance when forward biased. When reverse biased, it is
assumed to be open-circuited.

Assumptions:
VTH = 0 V (Threshold Voltage)
RF = 0 Ω (Forward Resistance)
RR = ∞ (Reverse Resistance)

2. SIMPLIFIED EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

In this model, the diode is assumed to have a threshold voltage, VTH
but has no resistance when forward biased. When reverse biased, it is open-
circuited.

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3. PIECEWISE-LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

In this model, the diode’s threshold voltage, VTH and forward resistance
are considered. When reverse biased, it is open-circuited.

 LEARNING ACTIVITY

Describe in your own words the conditions established by

forward- and reverse-bias conditions on a p-n junction diode
and how the resulting current is affected.

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In this section, the approximate model is utilized to investigate a

number of series diode configurations with dc inputs. The content will
establish a foundation in diode analysis that will carry over into the sections
and lessons to follow. The procedure described can, in fact, be applied to
networks with any number of diodes in a variety of configurations.
For each configuration the state of each diode must first be
determined. Which diodes are “on” and which are “off”? Once determined,
the appropriate equivalent can be substituted and the remaining parameters
of the network determined.

For each configuration, mentally replace the diodes with resistive

elements and note the resulting current direction as established by the
applied voltages (“pressure”). If the resulting direction is a “match” with the
arrow in the diode symbol, conduction through the diode will occur and the
device is in the “on” state. The description above is, of course, contingent on
the supply having a voltage greater than the “turnon” voltage (VT) of each
diode.

If a diode is in the “on” state, one can either place a 0.7-V drop across
the element, or the network can be redrawn with the VT equivalent circuit.
In time the preference will probably simply be to include the 0.7-V drop across
each “on” diode and draw a line through each diode in the “off” or open
state. Initially, however, the substitution method will be utilized to ensure
that the proper voltage and current levels are determined.

The series circuit of Fig. 2.8 will be used to demonstrate the approach
described in the paragraphs above. The state of the diode is first determined
by mentally replacing the diode with a resistive element as shown in Fig. 2.9a.

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The resulting direction of I is a match with the arrow in the diode

symbol, and since E > VT the diode is in the “on” state. The network is then
redrawn as shown in Fig. 2.9b with the appropriate equivalent model for the
forward-biased silicon diode. Note for future reference that the polarity of
VD is the same as would result if in fact the diode were a resistive element.
The resulting voltage and current levels are the following:

In Fig. 2.10, the diode of Fig. 2.8 has been reversed. Mentally replacing
the diode with a resistive element as shown in Fig. 2.11 will reveal that the
resulting current direction does not match the arrow in the diode symbol. The
diode is in the “off” state, resulting in the equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.12. Due
to the open circuit, the diode current is 0 A and the voltage across the resistor
R is the following:

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VR = IRR = IDR = (0 A)R = 0 V

The fact that VR = 0 V will establish E volts across the open circuit as
defined by Kirchhoff’s voltage law. Always keep in mind that under any
circumstances—dc, ac instantaneous values, pulses, and so on—Kirchhoff’s
voltage law must be satisfied!

Example 2.4:
For the series diode configuration of Fig.
2.13, determine VD, VR, and ID.

Solution:
Since the applied voltage establishes a
current in the clockwise direction to match
the arrow of the symbol and the diode is in
the “on” state,

VD = 0.7 V
VR = E - VD = 8 V - 0.7 V = 7.3 V
V 7.3V
ID = IR = R = = 3.32mA
R 2.2k

Example 2.5
Repeat Example 2.4 with the diode
reversed.

Solution:
Removing the diode, we find that the
direction of I is opposite to the arrow in the
diode symbol and the diode equivalent is
the open circuit no matter which model is
employed. The result is the network of Fig.
2.14, where ID = 0 A due to the open
circuit. Since VR = IRR, VR = (0)R = 0 V.
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the closed loop yields

E = VD - VR = 0
And VD = E - VR = E - 0 = E = 8 V

In particular, note in Example 2.5 the high voltage across the diode even
though it is an “off” state. The current is zero, but the voltage is significant.
For review purposes, keep the following in mind for the analysis to follow:
1. An open circuit can have any voltage across its terminals, but the
current is always 0 A.
2. A short circuit has a 0-V drop across its terminals, but the current is
limited only by the surrounding network.

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Source Notation
In the next example the notation of Fig. 2.15 will be employed for the
applied voltage. It is a common industry notation and one with which the
reader should become very familiar. Such notation and other defined voltage
levels are treated further in the next lessons to come.

Example 2.6
For the series diode configuration of Fig. 2.16, determine VD,
VR, and ID.

Solution:
Although the “pressure” establishes a current with the
same direction as the arrow symbol, the level of applied
voltage is insufficient to turn the silicon diode “on.” The point
of operation on the characteristics is shown in Fig. 2.17,
establishing the opencircuit equivalent as the appropriate
approximation, as shown in Fig. 2.18. The resulting voltage and current levels
are therefore the following:

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PARALLEL AND SERIES-PARALLEL CONFIGURATIONS

The methods applied for series configuration can be extended to the
analysis of parallel and series-parallel configurations. For each application,
simply match the sequential series of steps applied to series diode
configurations.

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Lesson 3

 HALF WAVE AND FULL WAVE

RECTIFIER
The diode analysis will now be expanded to include time-varying
functions such as the sinusoidal waveform and the square wave. There is no
question that the degree of difficulty will increase, but once a few
fundamental maneuvers are understood, the analysis will be fairly direct and
follow a common thread.

The simplest of networks to examine with a time-varying signal appears

in Fig. 2.43. For the moment we will use the ideal model (note the absence
of the Si or Ge label to denote ideal diode) to ensure that the approach is not
clouded by additional mathematical complexity.

Over one full cycle, defined by the period T of Fig. 2.44, the average
value (the algebraic sum of the areas above and below the axis) is zero. The
circuit of Fig. 2.44, called a half-wave rectifier, will generate a waveform vo
that will have an average value of particular, use in the ac-to-dc conversion
process. When employed in the rectification process, a diode is typically
referred to as a rectifier. Its power and current ratings are typically much
higher than those of diodes employed in other applications, such as computers
and communication systems.

During the interval t = 0 → T/2 in Fig. 2.44 the polarity of the applied
voltage vi is such as to establish “pressure” in the direction indicated and turn
on the diode with the polarity appearing above the diode. Substituting the
short-circuit equivalence for the ideal diode will result in the equivalent
circuit of Fig. 2.45, where it is fairly obvious that the output signal is an exact
replica of the applied signal. The two terminals defining the output voltage
are connected directly to the applied signal via the short-circuit equivalence
of the diode.

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FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION

• Bridge Network
The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100% using
a process called full-wave rectification. The most familiar network for
performing such a function appears in Fig. 2.53 with its four diodes in a bridge
configuration. During the period t = 0 to T/2 the polarity of the input is as
shown in Fig. 2.54. The resulting polarities across the ideal diodes are also
shown in Fig. 2.54 to reveal that D2 and D3 are conducting while D1 and D4 are

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in the “off” state. The net result is the configuration of Fig. 2.55, with its
indicated current and polarity across R. Since the diodes are ideal the load
voltage is vo = vi, as shown in the same figure.

For the negative region of the input the conducting diodes are D1 and
D4, resulting in the configuration of Fig. 2.56. The important result is that the
polarity across the load resistor R is the same as in Fig. 2.54, establishing a
second positive pulse, as shown in Fig. 2.56. Over one full cycle the input and
output voltages will appear as shown in Fig. 2.57.

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• Center-Tapped Transformer
A second popular full-wave rectifier appears in Fig. 2.60 with only two
diodes but requiring a center-tapped (CT) transformer to establish the input
signal across each section of the secondary of the transformer. During the
positive portion of vi applied to the primary of the transformer, the network
will appear as shown in Fig. 2.61. D1 assumes the short-circuit equivalent and
D2 the open-circuit equivalent, as determined by the secondary voltages and
the resulting current directions. The output voltage appears as shown in Fig.
2.61.

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Lesson 4

 CLIPPERS AND CLAMPERS

There are a variety of diode networks called clippers that have the
ability to “clip” off a portion of the input signal without distorting the
remaining part of the alternating waveform. The half-wave rectifier is an
example of the simplest form of diode clipper—one resistor and diode.
Depending on the orientation of the diode, the positive or negative region of
the input signal is “clipped” off.
There are two general categories of clippers: series and parallel. The
series configuration is defined as one where the diode is in series with the
load, while the parallel variety has the diode in a branch parallel to the load.

• Series

The response of the series configuration of Fig. 2.68a to a variety of

alternating waveforms is provided in Fig. 2.68b. Although first introduced as
a half-wave rectifier (for sinusoidal waveforms), there are no boundaries on
the type of signals that can be applied to a clipper.

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The addition of a dc supply such as shown in Fig. 2.69 can have a

pronounced effect on the output of a clipper. Our initial discussion will be
limited to ideal diodes, with the effect of VT reserved for a concluding
example.
There is no general procedure for analyzing networks such as the type in
Fig. 2.68, but there are a few thoughts to keep in mind as you work toward a
solution.

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• Parallel

The network of Fig. 2.81 is the simplest of parallel diode configurations

with the output for the same inputs of Fig. 2.68. The analysis of parallel
configurations is very similar to that applied to series configurations, as
demonstrated in the next example.

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Example:
1. Sketch the output waveform and solve for dc voltage available at the
output.

Solution:
From Fig. 2.88, we can draw the output waveform:

Vdc = 0.318(Vm )
but Vm = −75V
Vdc = 0.318(−75)
Vdc = 023.85V

2. Sketch the output waveform

Solution:
Using Figure 2.88

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CLAMPERS
The clamping network is one that will “clamp” a signal to a different
dc level. The network must have a capacitor, a diode, and a resistive element,
but it can also employ an independent dc supply to introduce an additional
shift. The magnitude of R and C must be chosen such that the time constant
 = RC is large enough to ensure that the voltage across the capacitor does
not discharge significantly during the interval the diode is nonconducting.
Throughout the analysis we will assume that for all practical purposes the
capacitor will fully charge or discharge in five time constants.
The simplest of clamper network is provided in Fig. 2.89. It is important
to note that the capacitor is connected directly between the input and output
signals and the resistor and the diode are connected in parallel with the
output signal.
Clamping networks have a capacitor connected directly from input to
output with a resistive element in parallel with the output signal. The diode
is also in parallel with the output signal but may or may not have a series dc
supply as an added element.

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Examples:
1. Given the input waveform and clamper circuit below, sketch the
output waveform.

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Answer:

2. Given the input waveform and clamper circuit below, sketch the
output waveform.

Answer:

3. Given the input waveform and clamper circuit, sketch the output
waveform.

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Answer:

4. Design a clamper to perform the function indicated below. Properly

label the circuit.

Answers:

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C
Vi
R Vo
17.5V

OR

C
Vi
R Vo
22.5V

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 MODULE SUMMARY

• The characteristics of an ideal diode are a close match with those of

simple switch except for the important fact that an ideal diode can
conduct in only one direction.
• The diode is short in the region of conduction and an open circuit in
the region of nonconduction.
• A semiconductor is a material that has a conductivity level somewhere
between that of a good conductor and that of an insulator.
• A bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of electrons between
neighboring atoms is called covalent bonding.
• Increasing temperature can cause a significant increase in the number
of free electrons in a semiconductor material.
• Most semiconductors used in the electronics industry have negative
coefficient temperature, that is, the resistance drops with an increase
in temperature.
• Intrinsic materials are those semiconductors that have very low level
of impurities, whereas extrinsic materials are semiconductors that
have been exposed to a doping process.
• An n-type material is formed by adding donor atoms that have five
valence electrons to establish a high level of relatively free electrons.
In an n-type material, the electron is the majority carrier and the hole
is the minority carrier.
• A p-type material is formed by adding acceptor atoms with three
valence electrons to establish a high level of holes in the material. In
p-type material, the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the
minority carrier.
• The region near the junction of a diode that has very few carriers is
called depletion region.
• In the absence of externally applied bias, the diode current is zero.
• In the forward bias region the diode current increases exponentially
with increase in voltage acroos the diode.
• In the reverse-bias region the diode current is the very small reverse
saturation current until Zener breakdown is reached and current will
flow in the opposite direction through the diode.
• The dc resistance of a diode is determined by the ratio of the diode
voltage and current at the point of interest and is not sensitive to the
shape of the curve. The dc resistance decreases with increase in diode
current or voltage.
• The ac resistance is sensitive to the shape of the curve in the region of
interest and decreases for higher levels of diode current or voltage.
• The threshold voltage is about 0.7 V for silicon diodes and 0.3 for
germanium diodes.
• The maximum power dissipation is equal to the product of the diode
voltage and current.

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Congratulations! You have just studied Module I. Now you are ready to
evaluate how much you have benefited from your reading by answering the
summative test. Good Luck!!!

 SUMMATIVE TEST

1. Describe the difference between n-type and p-type semiconductor

materials. (5 points)

2. Describe the difference between donor and acceptor impurities. (5

points)

3. Describe how you will remember the forward- and reverse-bias states
of the p-n junction diode. That is, how you will remember which
potential (positive or negative) is applied to which terminal? (5 points)

4. Describe in your own words the characteristics of an ideal diode and

how they determine the on and off states of the device. That is,
describe why the short-circuit and open-circuit equivalents are
appropriate. (5 points)

5. Determine the level of Vo for the network shown. (5 points)

6. Determine the level of Vo for the network shown. (5 points)

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7. Determine the level of Vo and ID for the network shown. (10 points)

8. Determine Vo for the network shown. (5 points)

9. For the network shown, sketch vo and determine Vdc. (5 points)

10. A full-wave bridge rectifier with a120-V rms sinusoidal input has a load
resistor of 1 kΩ.
a. If silicon diodes are employed, what is the dc voltage available
at the load? (5 points)
b. Determine the required PIV rating of each diode. (5 points)
c. Find the maximum current through each diode during
conduction. (5 points)
d. What is the required power rating of each diode? (5 points)

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11. Determine for vo for each network for the input shown. (5 points)

12. Sketch the output waveform. (5 points)

13. Given the input waveform and clamper circuit below, sketch the
output waveform. (5 points)

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14. Given the input waveform and clamper circuit below, sketch the
output waveform. (5 points)

15. Given the input waveform and clamper circuit below, sketch the
output waveform. (5 points)

16. Design a clamper to perform the function indicated below. (5 points)

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