0% found this document useful (0 votes)
89 views24 pages

Mental Health Analysis in Social Media Posts: A Survey: Muskan Garg

This document provides a survey of research on analyzing mental health using social media posts. It begins with background on the importance of mental health monitoring given rising suicide rates and limited clinical resources. It then presents a taxonomy of mental healthcare research and highlights key studies on detecting stress, depression, and suicide risk from social media language. The survey finds that machine learning and deep learning models show promise in classification and longitudinal analysis compared to traditional clinical assessments. It identifies opportunities for automated real-time models to identify at-risk users and provide resources.

Uploaded by

Christian Blanco
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
89 views24 pages

Mental Health Analysis in Social Media Posts: A Survey: Muskan Garg

This document provides a survey of research on analyzing mental health using social media posts. It begins with background on the importance of mental health monitoring given rising suicide rates and limited clinical resources. It then presents a taxonomy of mental healthcare research and highlights key studies on detecting stress, depression, and suicide risk from social media language. The survey finds that machine learning and deep learning models show promise in classification and longitudinal analysis compared to traditional clinical assessments. It identifies opportunities for automated real-time models to identify at-risk users and provide resources.

Uploaded by

Christian Blanco
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 24

Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering (2023) 30:1819–1842

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11831-022-09863-z

SURVEY ARTICLE

Mental Health Analysis in Social Media Posts: A Survey


Muskan Garg1

Received: 27 August 2022 / Accepted: 5 November 2022 / Published online: 3 January 2023
© The Author(s) under exclusive licence to International Center for Numerical Methods in Engineering (CIMNE) 2023

Abstract
The surge in internet use to express personal thoughts and beliefs makes it increasingly feasible for the social NLP research
community to find and validate associations between social media posts and mental health status. Cross-sectional and
longitudinal studies of social media data bring to fore the importance of real-time responsible AI models for mental health
analysis. Aiming to classify the research directions for social computing and tracking advances in the development of
machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) based models, we propose a comprehensive survey on quantifying mental
health on social media. We compose a taxonomy for mental healthcare and highlight recent attempts in examining social
well-being with personal writings on social media. We define all the possible research directions for mental healthcare and
investigate a thread of handling online social media data for stress, depression and suicide detection for this work. The key
features of this manuscript are (i) feature extraction and classification, (ii) recent advancements in AI models, (iii) publicly
available dataset, (iv) new frontiers and future research directions. We compile this information to introduce young research
and academic practitioners with the field of computational intelligence for mental health analysis on social media. In this
manuscript, we carry out a quantitative synthesis and a qualitative review with the corpus of over 92 potential research
articles. In this context, we release the collection of existing work on suicide detection in an easily accessible and updatable
repository:https://​github.​com/​drmus​kanga​rg/​menta​lheal​thcare.

1 Background on the mental health and wellness of masses due to eco-


nomic insecurity and isolation. The suicide cases have
According to World Health Organization, more than 0.8 mil- adverse physical, economical, and emotional impact on
lion people die out of suicide every year. According to the social well-being. Early suicide risk prediction may control
recent report of Centers for Disease Control and Preven- the suicide rate by reporting the need of necessary steps to
tion (CDC) WISQARS in 2019 Leading Causes of Death take preventive measures.
Reports, suicide is the tenth leading cause of death in United As per reports released in August 2021,2 1.6 million peo-
States. According to the official data of USA, in every 11.1 ple in England were on waiting lists for mental health care.
min one person commits suicide.1 According to the latest As per estimation, 8 million people could not get specialist
available data, the statistics of Canada estimates 4157 sui- help as they were not considered sick enough to qualify.
cides in 2017, making it the ninth leading cause of death. This situation underscores the need for automation of men-
The clinical psychologists and academic researchers come tal health detection from social media data where people
across increasing number of mental health problems and its express themselves and their thoughts, beliefs/emotions with
exposure to the social media platforms during COVID-19 ease. These writings contain heterogeneous, unstructured
pandemic lockdown. The pandemic has long-term impacts and ill-formed data which is human-readable but difficult

1
* Muskan Garg https://​suici​dology.​org/​wp-​conte​nt/​uploa​ds/​2021/​01/​2019d​atapg​
muskanphd@gmail.com sv2b.​pdf.
2
https://​www.​thegu​ardian.​com/​socie​ty/​2021/​aug/​29/​strain-​on-​men-
1
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32601, USA tal-​health-​care-​leaves-​8m-​people-​witho​ut-​help-​say-​nhs-​leade​rs.

13
Vol.:(0123456789)
1820 M. Garg

to interpret automatically by a system. Recent studies on text using AI models for classification and categorization.
predicting suicidal tendency on social media data by using We witness progressive studies on finding mental
machine learning, ML [1–5] models are more successful as disorder levels from longitudinal data which provides
compared to the medical records [6] and paved the way to useful insights. Based on these interesting investigations,
explore deep learning, DL [7–12] and computational intelli- research community may report the available and required
gence techniques [13] for quantifying suicidal tendency. We resources in near future for medical assistance to people
acknowledge that we limit the scope of our study to stress, at risk. These developments reduces the dependency of
clinical depression, and suicide risk. in-person sessions with therapist/clinical psychologist
and thus, cost of identifying people at risk. As evident
1.1 Motivation from recent deployments of suicide risk detection model
by Facebook [16], we may identifying potential users at
The labour-intensive engineering with traditional clinical risk and offer them help in near future.
psychology is a theoretical approach to identify signs of As evident from studies in the past, social media
suicidal tendencies. This subjective approach follows the platforms has strong association with feelings expressed by
time consuming face-to-face interaction. 80% of people users [17–19]. About 8 out of 10 people tend to disclose
who are at risk are not comfortable in disclosing the level their suicidal tendencies on social media [20]. Mental health
of stress and anxiety that they may have [14]. Further, prediction from social media [21] facilitates suicidal risk
increase in the levels of stress and anxiety may align assessments [22] and early detection of suicidal tendencies
thoughts of a person to suicidal tendencies. Progressive by using emotion spectrum from social media user’s
studies on suicide prevention [15] has enriched the historical timeline [7] due to the presence of Papageno effect
research community with dataset, resources and provides [23]. Such path-breaking developments intensifies faith in
motivation for new-frontiers. developing learning-based mechanisms to capture mental
In the past, we closely observe cross-sectional studies health levels using language.
for identifying mental disorder in a given self-reported

Fig. 1  Taxonomy on mental healthcare

13
Mental Health Analysis in Social Media Posts: A Survey 1821

Fig. 2  Year-wise distribution


of number of publications on
mental disorders

Lorem ipsum

1.2 Mental Healthcare: A Taxonomy text in social media platforms (Twitter, Reddit, Sina Weibo)
and it occasionally contains images for stress, depression
After comprehensive investigation in NLP-centered and suicide risk on social media. There are studies over mul-
problems and social computing of mental health, we timodal (images, audio and visual) social media platforms
introduce a unique taxonomy for mental healthcare as (Instagram, Youtube3) in the past which is beyond the scope
shown in Fig. 1. We further examine mental healthcare as of this manuscript due to different nature and semantics of
an interdisciplinary domain of computational linguistics and available resources.
human–computer interaction to automate the predictions. Social NLP research community investigate six other
We discover different aspects of mental health domain social mental health problems in social media data which
and observe both independent and integrated studies for may/may be directly associated with the suicidal tenden-
each aspect. In this section, we describe different aspects cies. Moreover, among nine mental health problems, stress,
of mental healthcare. Recent developments with ECG sig- clinical depression and suicidal risk detection are the most
nals, Electronic Health Record (EHR), demographic infor- widely studied areas on social media [18]. The success of
mation and other medical reports exemplifies the available existing AI models have given new research direction to
data and resources for neuroscience-based studies known as investigate this problem and motivate academic researchers
biomedical domain. The social aspect of mental health stud- to find its practical application in industry.
ies is closely associated with the human-behaviour within
the society. The psychological aspect is inclined towards 1.3 Corpus Overview
theorizing the thoughts on mental health. The ethical aspect
is concerned with the security of the data which mean to We perform in-depth analysis for 92 research articles which
what extent and in what manner can it be used [24]. The are further classified as 9 articles for stress; 32 articles for
prevention and control measures for mental health issues depression; 37 articles for suicide risk; 14 articles for two
are examine independently or in association with any of the or more mental disorders. The year-wise distribution of
corresponding aspects. publications is shown in Fig. 2 which and top 3 venues are
Conventionally, identification of people at risk is the car- CLPsych, ACL, and AAAI as observed from Fig. 3. We
ried out on digital data and the traditional offline interactions. advocate that the research articles on stress and suicide risk
The use of traditional method is decreasing because of social detection are fewer than the article on identifying clinical
stigma and unavailability of clinical psychologists. Digital depression.
mental health comprises of blogs and diaries of a user, infor- The area of interest by research community has evolved
mation filled in private questionnaires or Google forms, self- from social venues [25–28], to Human–Computer Inter-
reported mental illness (voluntarily), and online social media action venues [29, 30], and Computational Linguistic
data. We choose to explore the online social media language domain of computer science [31, 32]. Existing studies have
resources which contains heterogeneous type of information addressed the concerns on dataset and its ethical constraints
such as linguistics, user-metadata, social metadata, and mul-
timedia data. The scope of this manuscript is to deal with 3
https://​dcaps​woz.​ict.​usc.​edu/.

13
1822 M. Garg

Fig. 3  Year-wise distribution of


publication venues

[17, 33–35]; multi-modal feature extraction [36–39]; classi- NLP-centered applications to handle the problem of mental
fication techniques [1–4, 9, 39–41], graph learning approach disorders. Our major contributions are:
[2]; use of the Internet of Medical Things for real-time appli-
cations [34]; noisy label problem in dataset annotations [42]; • Classification of heterogeneous social media features.
and improvement over the attention mechanisms [9, 11, 43, • State-of-the-art AI models for stress, depression and
44]. suicide risk detection and analysis.
• Available tools, resources, and dataset in this research
1.4 Scope of the Study domain.
• Highlight the open challenges and new frontiers.
The research domain of Mental Illness Detection and
Analysis on Social media (MIDAS) has evolved for less We further structure this work in different sections.
than a decade [45]. In the past, the honest disclosure of Section 2 presents the classification of different features of
public opinion about privacy concerns demands the need social media data for suicide risk detection. We elaborate
of explainable and responsible AI models [46]. An in-depth embedding and feature enhancement in this domain.
study about dataset and its ethical issues were explored in Section 3 give summary of automated learning based
a systematic review for statistical analysis of mental health techniques for quantifying mental health. We further
dataset [17]. A critical review of 75 research articles on the compose a list of available dataset and other tools/resources.
mental health issues from 2013 to 2018 study the design and Section 4 highlights the open challenges and new frontiers.
research methods [18]. A short survey address the concerns Finally, Sect. 5 concludes the manuscript.
of association between social media data and mental health
prediction [47]. Recent advancements yield comprehensive
study of features and online behaviour patterns for mental 2 Features from Social Media Data
health prediction with DL mechanisms [48].
We focus on direct contributions in the field of suicide With this background, data curation becomes the most chal-
risk detection by identifying the extent of suicidal tenden- lenging task as it contains unstructured/semi-structured,
cies which shows new research direction to build real-time user-generated and ill-formed nature. Recent advances in
the development of classifiers [49] enrich natural language

13
Mental Health Analysis in Social Media Posts: A Survey 1823

Fig. 4  Architecture of feature harvesting from social media data for classification algorithms

understanding to infer mental states. In the past, an exclu- extract the textual features using either a conventional
sive study for feature extraction have made headway towards approach or via automation. The conventional approach
finding neuropsychiatric disorders from self-reported text contains surface-level linguistic features and semantic
[13, 50]. level aspects and is referred as handcrafted features. The
The social media platforms are usually characterized automatic features incorporate vector representation for
by one-way connections (Twitter, Reddit, Instagram) and end-to-end pre-trained models.
two-way connections (Facebook). The most widely used
social media platforms are Twitter and Reddit followed by 2.1 Handling Ambiguity of Features
Instagram and Facebook. We observe multimodal models
on social media data but we limit our studies to natural Although there is no ideal classification of features, we
language processing and social features only. classify them into four different categories with few
When the information is limited, it start fabricating exceptions belonging to multiple categories. We resolve the
patterns among them. These patterns aid in feature extrac- perplexities with following guidelines:
tion or transformation for both cross-sectional and lon-
gitudinal study. Recent works for feature extraction have • The metadata of posts yields information about both user
addressed the concerns to explore dominant features [13, metadata: data about the users’ profile and is thus, kept
50, 51]. under user profile features; and post metadata: data about
The architecture of cross-sectional study to infer the post and is categorized under Social features.
mental state from social media data is given in Fig. 4. • The ruminative response style is expression of repetitive
Learning-based models are build on features extracted thoughts and behavior [52]. People with depression tend
from data such as the handcrafted features, the statistical to express their feelings or negative experiences repeat-
information, and automated features to name a few. We edly by repeating the sentences in their posts. Though
categories and discuss four classes of features, namely, the ruminative response style is the part of both user
user-profile features, linguistic features, social features, behaviour and linguistic styles, it is more closely associ-
and multimedia features as given in Fig. 5. ated with user-profile features and thus, studied under
The Social NLP research community exploit social User Profile Feature.
media data for two modalities: text and images. We

13
1824 M. Garg

Fig. 5  Classification of social


media features for quantifying
suicidal tendencies

Table 1  User profile feature Category Sub-category Feature Type Research articles
extraction for mental health
state Demographic Users’ Meta-data Age User [36, 39, 53, 60]
Gender User [36, 36, 39, 53, 60]
Education User [39, 53]
Occupation User [39, 53]
Users’ Network Follower User [61]
Ego-network User [62]
Spatio-temporal Temporal Timeline User [7, 36, 39]
Spatial Location User –
Behavioural Posting Behavior Gen. Behaviour User [39]
Ruminative User [11]
Posting Time User [59, 63]

• An interesting study introduce bBridge [53], a big data 2.1.1 User Profile Features
based feature extraction approach from social media data
which contains both user-profile features and social net- Past studies reveals the proportional impact of employment
working features. on psychiatric behaviour of a person by analyzing their
• The community specific information of the user college degree/type of job [54]. People sharing similar
comprises of the information about followers, and demographic, linguistic and cultural traits as those of
favourites. We associated these features with the user’s depressed users are more at-risk than others [55]. In this
social networking and thus, are discussed in Social context, we further classify the user-profile features in
Features. Table 1.

13
Mental Health Analysis in Social Media Posts: A Survey 1825

Table 2  Linguistic feature Category Sub-category Feature Type Research articles


extraction for mental health
state Emotional Emotional Model EmoBERT Model [7, 67]
MentalBERT Model [67, 68]
Textual Sentiments Emoji Post [39, 63, 76, 77]
Emoticons Post [63, 76, 77]
SentiWordNet Post [11]
SentiNet [78] Post [3]
Semantic Topic Analysis LDA Post [36, 39, 40, 59, 79]
Brown Clustering Post [70]
Statistical Lexical TFIDF Post [1, 7, 80, 81]
Text Post [38, 42, 63, 81–83]
Morphological Post [50, 84]
Stylometric Post [50]
n-gram Post [13, 40, 50, 59, 85]
Punctuation Post [76, 77]
Dictionary LIWC Post [13, 40, 45, 59, 81]
Suicide Dictionary Post [86]
ANEW Post [87]
Syntactical POS Tagging Post [11, 30, 50, 63, 81]
Syntactical POS Tagging Post [11, 30, 50, 63, 81]
Domain Specific Lexicon Antidepressant Wiki [3, 11, 39]
TensiStrength Dict. [59]
Dictionaries Wiki [3]
Dep. Symptoms DSM [88] Dict. [11, 39]
Plutchik Post [7]
VAD Post [36, 39, 89]
Affect and Intensity Post [36]
Big 5 Personality [90] Post [36]
Anxiety, Anger, Dep. Post [36]

Demographic The users’ metadata contains information future, both temporal and location component may simulate
about the age, gender, occupation, race, ethnicity [55]. These significant information for mental health analysis.
characteristics of people disclose their alignment towards Behavioural features Social media users are more likely
psychiatric disorders such as mental disorders fore in old to be expressed late night than during day time [39]. Behav-
aged people more than younger ones. Social well-being of ioural patterns such as insomnia index, sleep cycle [45] and
males decline more than females [56]. ruminative response style [52] affects the user’s state of
Spatio-temporal [7]: models user’s emotional spectrum by mind. People with depression tend to express their feelings
tracking their historical timeline on social media platform. or negative experiences repeatedly. In this context, [59] con-
In their study, the patterns of irregularities among posting sider ruminative response style using text encoding mecha-
behaviour incorporates the time-varying component and use nism resulting into significance of mental health analysis.
time-aware LSTM cell to capture patterns [57]. A shared
task in eRISK workshop at CLEF forum introduce a longi- 2.1.2 Linguistic Features
tudinal dataset which encourages more research contribu-
tions for early risk detection in social media [58]. Similarly, To study linguistic features [54], recapitulate the importance
location of social media post have strong associations with of words that users pick to express their feelings in their
economical indexes like Ease of doing business4 and World personal writings. People with depression exhibit differences
Happiness Report5 with mental health status of residents. In with respect to linguistic styles such as the distribution of
nouns, verbs and adverbs and the unconscious conceptual-
ization of complex sentences [64]. The exclusive studies on
4
https://​en.​wikip​edia.​org/​wiki/​Ease_​of_​doing_​busin​ess_​index. linguistic features reveals the increased use of first person
5
https://​en.​wikip​edia.​org/​wiki/​World_​Happi​ness_​Report. language, the current scenario and anger based terms for

13
1826 M. Garg

Table 3  Social feature Category Sub-category Feature Type Research articles


extraction for mental health
state Social Metadata Post Specific Length Post [7, 30, 43, 94]
#(Hashtags) Post [59]
#(URL) Post [59]
Metadata Reddit [36]
Social Network Networking Interactions User [37, 37, 39, 63, 77]
At-Mentions User [61]
Replied to User [61]
User Specific #(Favourites) User [63, 76]
#(Likes) User [77]
#(Posts) User [39, 63]
#(Comments) User [76, 95]
#(ReTweet) User [43, 76, 80]

person’s state of mind [65]. We further classify linguistic depression symptoms such as Diagnostic and Statistical
features in Table 2. Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV).10
Emotional Features Infusing implicit and explicit emo- Domain Specific With evolving era of ‘Emotional Intel-
tions while encoding text is trending in current scenario. ligence’, we observe a clear description on emotion models
We emphasise and recommend the use of sentiments and in clinical psychology and psychiatric theories for affective
emotions from active vocabulary of a user. The research computing [73]. Valence refers to the pleasant–unpleasant
community witnesses many emotion based pre-trained mod- quality of a stimulus and ranges from negative to positive,
els as word embedding. Such models set strong foundation whereas arousal refers to the intensity of a stimulus and
for building contextual transformer-based models [66]. We ranges from dull to arousing. The past studies with MHA
come across different pre-trained models such as EmoBERT incorporate the Valence arousal dominance (VAD) Emotion
[67], DistillBERT for emotions,6 MentalBERT [68], and model [36, 39, 43, 74] and Plutchik model [7, 75]. Plut-
other Contextual BERT-based models [69]. chik’s theory of emotion and emotional consequences for
Semantic Features The topic modelling methods such cognition, personality, and psychotherapy is derived from
LDA, [28, 70] is used for clustering the posts related to an evolutionary perspective [75].
similar topics. The depressed and non-depressed users
discuss different topics which may help to determine 2.1.3 Social Features
potential depressed users [71]. Another interesting study
aims to understand the Twitter users’ discourse and Depressed people who are conscious about their social cir-
psychological reactions to COVID-19 pandemic time period cle on social media platforms and have limited number of
using topic modeling [72]. friends [91]. The depressed tweet gains more attention from
Statistical Features We categorize the statistical features friends and so, important features are Retweets, comments,
into lexical, dictionary-based, and syntactic. The lexical and favourites [76]. We further classify social features into
features use tokenized form of text to calculate statistical social metadata and social networking as shown in Table 3.
measures such as TFIDF, n-grams, morphology and alike
features. Dictionary features are use existing dictionaries
such as LIWC,7 Suicide dictionary8 and ANEW9 for assign- Table 4  Multimedia feature extraction for mental health state
ing values. We use syntactical features are used to check
the context of a token with respect to its neighbourhood, Category Feature Type Research articles
for instance, Part-Of-Speech tagging. The domain specific Image Colour Combinations Image [37–39, 76]
features are the lexicon of mental health specific words Colour Ratio Image [37–39, 63, 76]
derived from Wikipedia, domain specific dictionaries, and Brightness Image [37–39, 63, 76, 95]
Saturation Image [37–39, 63, 76, 77]
6
https://​huggi​ngface.​co/j-​hartm​ann/​emoti​on-​engli​sh-​disti​lrobe​r ta-​ Convolution Image [38, 96, 97]
base.
7
https://​liwc.​wpeng​ine.​com.
8
https://​sites.​google.​com/​view/​daeun-​lee/​datas​et.
9 10
https://​github.​com/​sbma44/​begin_​anew. https://​en.​wikip​edia.​org/​wiki/​DSM-​IV_​codes.

13
Mental Health Analysis in Social Media Posts: A Survey 1827

Table 5  Feature vector Features Category Subcategory Type Papers


representation for social mental
status detection Traditional FE Statistical Vectorizer Post [13, 42, 50, 106]
Entropy Post [45]
Statistics Post [45]
Dictionaries Dict. learning Post [39, 63]
Embedding Static Word2vec [98] Post [1, 10, 11, 27, 50, 82, 97]
GLoVe Post [10, 11]
Fasttext Post [10, 11]
CE: Transformer BERTa [99] Post [7, 36, 37]
Sentence BERT [100] Post [36, 42]
GUSE [101] Post [42]
Encoding Seq. RNN [107] Post [11, 11]
GRU [108] Post [38, 43]
LSTM [109] Post [7, 63]
Image FE Image VGGNet [102] Image [38, 97]
ImageNet [110] Image [97]
CNN Image [37]
Dim. Red. Linear Filter Vectors [42, 45, 103]
Non-linear NMF Vectors [36]
t-SNE Vectors [1, 40]
Post Feature T. HAN [32] Vectors [11, 43, 44, 105, 111]
Joint Sparse Repr. Vectors [7, 39, 63, 76, 77]
Optimization Vectors [13, 82]

HAN Hierarchical Attention Network


a
https://​github.​com/​google-​resea​rch/​bert

Social Metadata Social information about post of a user feature vectorization as shown in Fig. 6. The text feature
consists of the length of a post, number of hashtags in a post, vectorization comprised of feature extraction and feature
number of URLs used in a post and other minute details embedding. We enlist the past studies along with classified
which is termed as the metadata. insights for feature vector representation in Table 5.
Social Network We observe patterns in interaction and Textual Feature Extraction The traditional methods of
relationships among users [92]. These networking features converting text in vectors (TFEx) is performed with con-
are gaining importance due to non-Euclidean space repre- ventional approach of TFIDF vectorizer, Count vectorizer,
sentation of the problem. Applying hyperbolic geometry on and Hashing vectorizer [42]. For dimensionality reduction,
non-Euclidean representation has given new research direc- the selective features are processed further by using PCA,
tion in the field of mental health analysis [66, 93]. NMF and other filter based linear feature selection algo-
rithms. In the past, authors use one-hot encoding to encode
2.1.4 Multimedia Features a set of Tweets [82]. The uni-modal dictionaries evolves
from text and image data separately which are further useful
The increase in use of images for feature extraction or for joint sparse representation [39]. These traditional fea-
transformation either consider display picture in Twitter ture extraction techniques are convenient for converting the
(also referred as Avtars in Reddit) or images posted by social media data into vector representation for classification
user. The colour combinations, colour ratio, brightness, models.
saturation, and convolution are few interesting features for Feature Embedding With advancements in the word to
mining social media images as shown in Table 4. vector conversion using neural network approach, the word-
2vec [98], the GloVe [10, 11], and the Fasttext are encode
2.2 Feature Vector Representation the text. To handle the longer text like phrase, sentence or
paragraph, the researchers use BERT [99], Sentence-BERT
The feature vectorization is the process of representing input [100], and Google Universal Sentence Encoder (GUSE)
data in the form of a vector. We further classify feature vec- [101] for feature vector representation [42].The use of
tor representation into text feature vectorization and image embedding over dense layers, BERT, GUSE, and GRU [11,

13
1828 M. Garg

Table 6  Feature extraction and Paper Year F1 F2 F3 F4 TFE Emb. DR Output


transformation for mental health
detection Choudhury et al. [45] 2013 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Depression
Lin et al. [76] 2014 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Stress
Lin et al. [77] 2017 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Stress
Shen et al. [39] 2017 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Depression
Song et al. [11] 2018 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Depression
Sawhney et al. [81] 2018 ✓ ✓ Suicidal Id.
Orabi et al. [82] 2018 ✓ ✓ ✓ Depression
Tadesse et al. [40] 2019 ✓ ✓ ✓ Depression
Matero et al. [36] 2019 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Suicidal Id.
Gui et al. [38] 2019 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Depression
Guntuku et al. [59] 2019 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Stress
Xu et al. [112] 2020 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Mental Health
Lin et al. [37] 2020 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Depression
Sawhney et al. [7] 2021 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Suicidal Id.
Haque et al. [42] 2021 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Suicide and Dep.
Zogan et al. [43] 2021 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Depression
Turcan et al. [83] 2021 ✓ ✓ ✓ Stress
Zogan et al. [41] 2021 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Depression
Lee et al. [86] 2022 ✓ ✓ ✓ Suicide Risk
Tavchioski et al. [113] 2022 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Depression
Naseem et al. [114] 2022 ✓ ✓ ✓ Depression
Garg et al. [114] 2022 ✓ ✓ Depression
Yang et al. [85] 2022 ✓ ✓ Depression

F1 User Profile Feature, F2 Linguistic Feature, F3 Social Feature, F4 Multimedia Feature, FEx Feature
Extraction, DR Dimensionality Reduction, FEm Feature Embedding, PFT Post Feature Transformation

Fig. 6  Feature vector representation for mental health analysis in social media posts

38] for sequence to sequence learning has given significant Dimensionality Reduction One of the most promising
contributions in attention based mechanism to enhance the step of social media data mining is dimensionality reduc-
importance of feature across representation. tion. The dimensions of text representation in conventional
An image represents many characteristics of the psycho- feature extraction techniques are reduced by linear and
logical thoughts and health. The permutations and combina- non-linear methods such as Principal Component Analy-
tions of different image features extraction determines the sis (PCA), Deep Neural Autoencoders (DNAE) [103], and
mental health. The research community follows end-to-end Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection (UMAP)
feature transformation technique by using a 16-layer pre- [104] for dimensionality reduction in MIDAS. The Post Fea-
trained VGGNet to use image as features [38, 97, 102]. ture Transformation (PFT) approach is recommended for
transformer-based end-to-end data conversion into feature

13
Mental Health Analysis in Social Media Posts: A Survey 1829

Table 7  Results obtained for Year Dataset Psychological Outcome Papers Avail.
Social Media Health Detection
2015 CLPsych [25] Suicide Risk [25–28, 36, 82, 82, 117] S
2017 MDDL [39] Depression [37–39, 41] ✓
2017 RSDD [115] Depression [11, 41, 44, 115] S
2018 SMHD [118] Mental Health [118, 119] S
2018 eRISK[116] Stress [3, 39, 116] ✓
2018 Pirina [120] Depression [40, 120] ✓
2018 Ji [121] Suicidal id. [1, 13] AOR
2019 Sina Weibo [10] Suicide Risk [2, 10] AOR
2019 Dreaddit [35] Stress [83, 122] ✓
2019 SRAR [123] Suicide Risk [123] S
2019 Aladaug [124] Suicidal Id. [1, 124] AOR
2020 UMD-RD [22] Suicide Risk [22, 36, 123] S
2020 GoEmotion [33] Emotion [83, 125] ✓
2021 SDCNL [42] Suicide/Depression [42] ✓
2022 CAMS [126] Mental Health [126, 127] ✓
2022 RHMD [128] Mental Health [128] ✓
2022 Kayalvizhi [129] Depression [113, 130] ✓

✓: Available, S Available via Signed agreement, AOR Available On Request to authors

vectors. We witness existing works with attention mecha- freely available in public domain, most of the dataset are not
nism such as Hierarchical Attention Mechanism (HAM) [32, available due to sensitivity of the data.
105] to give importance to important posts for identifying
suicidal tendencies [11, 43]. The multi-attributed feature 3.1 Available Dataset
extraction is given as 3-level framework using three-level
features extraction which consists of low level feature (lin- In the past, the research community witness the use of widely
guistic features), middle level features (visual features) and available datasets such as CLPsych shared task [25], Reddit
high-level features (social features) to give as an input to the Self-reported Depression Diagnosis [115], and Language
Deep Sparse Neural Network (DSNN) [76]. They argue the of Mental Health [64], early risk prediction on the Internet
unavailability of all three types of features in data. (eRISK) from CLEF Forum [116]. As discussed earlier,
only a few dataset are available in public domain, many of
2.3 Summary of Feature Extraction them are either reproducible or available on request. Every
and Transformation year we come across more than 12 dataset for predicting
mental health on social media data. Limited availability
The existing potential studies define and explore new fea- of these dataset lead us to enlist either the most popular
tures for mental health detection from social media data as and reproducible dataset, or the dataset which are available
shown in Table 6. Most of the recent approaches use embed- by request or via signed agreement. A list of reproducible
ding techniques and work on post-feature transformation dataset are enumerated in Table 7. In this section, we further
to hypothesise better feature representation. Moreover, all discuss details of each dataset.
existing studies are using the textual information of post and
other features optionally. (1) CLPsych 2015 Shared task dataset: The CLPsych
dataset11 contains three modules which are available
via signed agreement, namely, DepressionvControl
3 Classification (DvC), PTSDvControl (PvC), and DepressionvPTSD
(DvP). To use this dataset, the academic researchers
The classification problem of identifying suicidal tendency must sign a confidentiality agreement to ensure the
on social media use many shallow learning and DL algo- privacy of the data.
rithms. One of the most challenging module is to handle
the unstructured and semi-structured data from social media
data, filling missing values and jointly represent the multi-
modal information. Although, data resource for this task is 11
https://​github.​com/​clpsy​ch/​shared_​task.

13
1830 M. Garg

(2) Multimodal Dictionary Learning (MDDL): MDDL12 out of 10,000 Tweets were extracted for experiments
is a depression detection dataset which comprises and evaluation of the proposed classification approach
of three modules D1, D2, and D3. The Depression for suicidal risk detection. This dataset is referred as
Dataset D1 is constructed using tweets from 2009 Ji dataset17 in this study which is available on-request.
and 2016 where users were labeled as depressed if (8) Sina Weibo: Another dataset which is proposed for
their anchor tweets satisfied the strict pattern “(I’m/I public domain and remains un-named is given the
was/I am/I’ve been) diagnosed depression”. The Non- name of the social media platform, Sina Weibo,18 to
Depression Dataset D2 is constructed in December refer it for this study. The dataset with 3652 users
2016, where users were labeled as non-depressed if having suicidal tendency and 3677 users not having
they had never posted any tweet containing the char- suicidal risk is extracted from Sina Weibo, a Chinese
acter string “depress”. Although D1 and D2 are well- social media platform.
labeled, the depressed users on D1 are too few, thus, a (9) Dreaddit: Dreaddit,19 a new text corpus of lengthy
larger unlabelled Depression-candidate Dataset D3 is multi-domain social media data for the identification
constructed for depression behaviors discovery which of stress. This dataset consists of 190K posts from
contains much more noise. five different categories of Reddit communities;
(3) Reddit Self-reported Depression Diagnosis (RSDD): the authors additionally label 3.5K total segments
The RSDD dataset13 contains the Reddit posts of taken from 3K posts using Amazon Mechanical
approximately 9000 users who have claimed to have Turk. The lexical features which used in this dataset
been diagnosed with depression (“diagnosed users”) are Dictionary of Affect in Language [131], LIWC
and approximately 107,000 matched control users. features [132] and patterns sentiment library [133];
The introduction to Reddit dataset [115] has given syntactic features like unigrams and bigrams, the
a significant contribution which was used by many Flesch-Kincaid Grade level and the automated
existing studies. reliability index; social media features like timestamp,
(4) Self-Reported Mental Health Diagnoses (SMHD) upvote ratio, karma (upvote–downvote) and the total
dataset: The SMHD dataset,14 just like RSDD dataset, number of comments.
can be obtained via signed agreement as per the (10) Suicide Risk Assessment using Reddit (SRAR): The
privacy policy of data. The dataset consists of Reddit SRAR dataset20 is available in public domain. The
posts of the users diagnosed with one or several of dataset is composed of 500 Redditors (anonymized),
nine mental health conditions (“diagnosed users”), their posts and domain expert annotated labels. The
and matched control users. This dataset is also used SRAR is used along with different lexicons which
by few studies in literature and is related to multiple are built from the knowledge base associated with
mental health conditions instead of just the depression mental health like SNOMED-CT, ICD-10, UMLS,
dataset. and Clinical Trials. This dataset is recently used [123]
(5) eRISK: The eRISK dataset15 is available online for and the research community is looking forward to use
experiments and analysis to meet the targets of a this in near future to enhance the proposed techniques.
shared task since few years. The dataset for early risk (11) Aladaug: This dataset is built by Aladaug [124] during
detection by CLEF Lab is given to solve the problems his study on suicidal tendency identification from the
of detecting depression, anorexia and self-harm since posts over social media data. Since, there is no name
few years. given to this dataset, this dataset is named as Aladaug
(6) Pirina: A new dataset is proposed [120], named as to refer it in this study. Among 10,785 posts, 785 were
Pirina to refer it in this study and is available online16 manually labelled for this study. This dataset is avail-
for research purposes. A filtered data is extracted from able on request from authors.
Reddit social media platform for depression detection (12) The University of Maryland Reddit Suicidality Data-
task. Although, this dataset is not actively maintained, set (UMD-RD): The UMD-Reddit Dataset21 contains
it can be extracted and can be used for pilot study. one sub-directory with data pertaining to 11,129 users
(7) Ji: A new Reddit dataset of 5326 suicidal posts out of
20,000 posts were extracted and 594 Suicidal Tweets
17
https://​github.​com/​shaox​iongji/​sw-​detec​tion.
18
12 https://​github.​com/​bryan​t03/​Sina-​Weibo-​Datas​et.
https://​github.​com/​sunli​ghtsgy/​MDDL. 19
13 http://​www.​cs.​colum​bia.​edu/​~eturc​an/​data/​dread​dit.​zip.
http://​ir.​cs.​georg​etown.​edu/​resou​rces/​rsdd.​html. 20
14 https://​github.​com/​Amanu​elF/​Suici​de-​Risk-​Asses​sment-​using-​
http://​ir.​cs.​georg​etown.​edu/​resou​rces/​smhd.​html. Reddit.
15
https://​erisk.​irlab.​org/​eRisk​2021.​html. 21
http://​users.​umiacs.​umd.​edu/​~resnik/​umd_​reddit_​suici​dality_​datas​
16
https://​files.​pushs​hift.​io/​reddit/​submi​ssions/. et.​html.

13
Mental Health Analysis in Social Media Posts: A Survey 1831

who posted on SuicideWatch, and another for 11,129 sidered as instances of data set with their correspond-
users who did not. For each user there is full longi- ing labels [129].
tudinal data from the 2015 Full Reddit Submission
Corpus. The UMD-Reddit dataset have been used by 3.2 The Historical Evolution of Classification Models
academic researchers actively since 2019 as it is avail-
able via signed agreement. In this section, we discuss the evolution of methods devel-
(13) GoEmotion: The GoEmotion dataset22 contains 58K oped for mental health analysis in the past. The Social NLP
carefully curated comments extracted from Reddit, researchers at Microsoft, one of the leading IT based solu-
with human annotations to 27 emotion categories or tion organization, disclose the significance with role of
Neutral. It also contains a filtered version based on social media in identifying mental health problems. After
reter-agreement, which contains a train/test/validation comprehensive study of 92 research articles on three men-
split. This dataset is proposed [33] in 2020 for emotion tal health problems of stress, depression and suicide risk;
detection and is used to validate the scalability of the the evolution of historical timeline is represented in Fig. 7.
proposed models for stress detection. Furthermore, the architecture of path-breaking models for
(14) SDCNL dataset: The SDCNL23 dataset was collected mental health analysis is shown in Fig. 8.
using Reddit API and scraped from two subreddits, r/ Past studies since 2013 set preamble to investigate the sig-
SuicideWatch and r/Depression which contains 1895 nificance of users’ social media data for predicting depres-
total posts. Two fields were utilized from the scraped sion [45] and suicidal tendencies [60]. With introduction
data: the original text of the post as our inputs, and to word-embedding and vector-space representation [98],
the subreddit it belongs to as labels. Posts from r/Sui- encouraging studies over developing deep neural network
cideWatch are labeled as suicidal, and posts from r/ classifies for psychological perspective has gained much
Depression are labeled as depressed. attention from academic researchers [76, 95]. After linguis-
(15) CAMS: CAMS stand for Causal Analysis for Mental tic features, Ref. [27] introduce unique features, namely,
illness in Social media posts. The introduction of user-profile features resulting into improved performance
CAMS dataset 24 enables academic researchers for classifying posts. We witness exponential growth in this
to perform causal inference, causal explanation domain after release of initial datasets as it resolve the prob-
extraction and causal categorization. The dataset lem with limited availability of sensitive dataset of mental
contains 5051 samples and categorize each sample health in social media posts. CLPsych shared task data paves
into one of the five different causal categories, namely, a way for new studies and development of new datasets for
bias/abuse, jobs and carers, medication, relationships, future use [47].
and alienation. This dataset is publicly available [126]. In 2017, we observe extended studies on different social
(16) RHMD: The RHMD stands for a Real-world Dataset media platforms such as Facebook [16], Sina Weibo (a Chi-
for Health Mention classification on Reddit data.25 The nese online social platform), and Instagram [94, 134]. The
health mention is defined as a problem to find symp- use of social media and social network features for stress
toms and understand its semantics. These semantics detection has enriched this domain with learning-based
specifies the contextual perspective in which a given mechanisms [77]. Simultaneously, the dual-attention mecha-
symptom is used in texts [128]. Every sample of this nism for multimodal approaches reveals the need of explain-
dataset categorizes a given post in five categories ability and reliability of models [135].
health mention, non-health mention, hyperbolic men- In 2018, more studies revolve around the dimensionality
tion, figurative mention, and uninformative. reduction or optimizing the feature vector for ML and DL
(17) Kayalvizhi: A unique dataset26 that not only detects models, respectively [82]. The studies for depression detec-
depression from social media but also analyzes the tion started with the use of different social network features
level of depression. Initially 20,088 instances of [45], evolved with interactions over social media [77] and
postings data were annotated, out of which 16,613 cascading social networks [61] to extract reliable features,
instances were found to be mutually annotated followed by ontology and knowledge graphs [2].
instances by the two judges, and thus they were con- The observations about users’ dynamic historical time-
line on Twitter include improvements with interpretive
Multi-Modal Depression Detection with Hierarchical Atten-
22
https://​github.​com/​google-​resea​rch/​google-​resea​rch/​tree/​master/​ tion Network (MDHAN) [43]. The MDHAN framework
goemo​tions. is designed with multi-model features and two attention
23
https://​github.​com/​ayaan​zhaque/​SDCNL/​tree/​main/​data.
24
https://​github.​com/​drmus​kanga​rg/​CAMS. 26
https://​github.​com/​Kayal-​Sampa​th/​detec​ting-​signs-​of-​depre​ssion-​
25
https://​github.​com/​usmaa​nn/​RHMD-​Health-​Menti​on-​Datas​et. from-​social-​media-​posti​ngs.

13
1832 M. Garg

Fig. 7  The timeline of evolving


important events for quantifica-
tion of suicidal tendency on
social media

mechanisms are applied at tweet-level and at word-level, [136], Wasserstein dictionary learning (WDL) [137], and
respectively. Ref. [38] introduce COMMA, a depression multimodal depressive dictionary learning (MDL) [39]
detection mechanism, to use encoded text/ visual data and methods. The authors in Dual-ContextBERT model [36]
their selection using GRU to apply averaged embedding on use multi-level analysis by removing a limitation of single-
classifier. We further investigate a set of recent contextu- level analysis. It is the best performing model at CLPsych
alized models such as multimodal feature extraction tech- 2019 which feeds BERT encoded posts to attention-based
niques for multiple social networking learning (MSNL) RNN layer.

13
Mental Health Analysis in Social Media Posts: A Survey 1833

Fig. 8  Some existing models for quantifying the suicidal tendency on social media

The performance evaluation for responsible and explain- techniques for feature optimization has resolved the prob-
able models is carried out for mental health prediction using lem of noisy data [13].
Ablation study [7, 83]. After extensive literature over ML During next transition phase, we observe research
and DL algorithms, academic researchers found interesting advancements with historical aspect of the users’ timeline
improvements with hybrid studies [36]. Recent investiga- for identifying different phase of mental health [7], and
tion with Graph Neural Network results into improved early hybrid extractive and abstractive summarization strategy as
risk detection [2]. Furthermore, computation intelligence

13
1834 M. Garg

Table 8  Linguistic feature Outcome Method Dataset Baselines Results C.


extraction for mental health
status Depression MDL [39] MDDL Naive Bayes [136, 137] F1: 85%
Suicidal Id. PHASE [7] Self [81] [10, 36, 81, 123, 142, 143] F1: 80.5% ✓
Depression COMMA [38] MDDL Naive Bayes, [39, 136, 137] F1: 90%
Stress CAE [76] Self (SVM, ANN, DNN) + SAE F1: 86.12%
Stress FGM [77] Self LR, SVM, RF, DNN F1: 93.40%
Depression FAN + CNN [11] RSDD RNN Better P
Suicidal Id. C-LSTM [81] Self [81] LSTM, RNN F1: 82.7%
Suicidal Id. SISMO [31] SRAR​ [4, 10, 36, 123, 142] F1: 73%
Suicidal Id. D-C BERT [36] Self BERT, Dict. F1: 50%
Depression WEO [82] CLPsych Word2vec F1: 86.96%
Dep./SI GUSE [42] SDCNL BERT F1: 95.44% ✓
Depression ML [3] eRISK ML F1: 53% ✓
Depression MDHAN [43] MDDL HAN, CNN, [39], BiGRU​ F1: 89.3%
Stress Turcan [83] Dreaddit + 1 RNN, BERT, Multi-task F1: 80.34% ✓
Depression SenseMood [37] MDDL [39, 63, 135, 140] F1: 93.60%
Depression MLP [40] Pirina SVM, LR, RF, Ada-Boost F1: 93%
Depression XA-Boost [44] RSDD SVM, LSTM, [115, 132] F1: 60%
Depression DepressionNet [41] MDDL [39, 108], BiGRU, CNN F1: 91.2% ✓
Suicidal Id. SNAP-BATNET [61] Self [81] [81], ELMo, RCNN F1: 92.6%
Suicidal Id. LSTM-CNN [1] Self RF, SVM, NB, XGBOOST F1: 93.4% ✓
Suicidal Id. SDM [10] Sina-W NB, LSTM, SVM F1: 90.92%
Suicidal Id. KGbased [2] Sina-W SDM, LSTM, CNN F1: 93.69%
Suicidal Id. DAM [9] Self NB, LSTM, SVM, CNN [10] F1: 91.54%
Depression LSTM + RNN [144] Self LSTM, RNN F1: 98%
Suicide risk C-GraphSAGE [86] UMD SDM, C-CNN, BERT, RF F1: 84% ✓
Depression KG + DR [113] WikiData5m autoBOT, BERT F1: 86.27% ✓
Suicide risk Naseem [114] [123] C-CNN, SDM, SISMO, RF F1: 79%
Suicide risk Garg [126] CAMS LSTM, GRU, CNN F1: 50.13% ✓
Depression KC-Net [85] Dreaddit GRU, BERT, BiLSTM-Att F1: 83.5% ✓

DepressionNet [41].27 DepressionNet is a novel approach predictions are comprised of implicit emotion-based features
which summarizes user posts before encoding it via embed- [7] and explicit commonsense knowledge [141].
ding. They apply BiGRU model and concatenate results with People often express their feeling in native language and
encoded current post. The multitask models encode data thus, a potential new research frontier is to build explainable lan-
using pre-trained models and GoEmotions dataset [83].28 guage-independent models for low-resourced languages. A com-
Most of the datasets collected from Reddit are labelled prehensive study for Chinese data reveals interesting insights
using sub-reddits. However, Ref. [42] suggests the problem with semantics in language [145]. Linguistic features analysis
of noisy labels and address it by introducing a new dataset shows significant increase over due to frequency of terms related
on depression versus suicide. In extension to this, a data to affect, positive emotion, anger, cognition (including the sub-
augmentation approach resolve the problem of limited data category of insight), and conjunctions. A recent work with
availability for mental health analysis [138]. code-mixing is carried out over English and Hindi language,
Past studies incorporate the multi-modal feature extrac- which shall help in implementation across multiple platforms
tion for building contextual transformer based models and help in putting a stop to the ever-increasing depression rates
to resolve the problem of depression detection such Co- in a methodical and automated manner [146]. We keep this as
attention [139], Dual attention [135], and Modality atten- an open-research direction to examine mental health for low-
tion [140]. The novel contributions for suicidal tendency resourced languages.
We further observe an improved efficiency of early risk
detection with the help of bidirectional transformer based
27
https://​github.​com/​hzogan/​Depre​ssion​Net. models and ordinal classification [114, 147]. Recent advances
28
https://​github.​com/​eturc​an/​emoti​on-​infus​ed. on early depression detection using attention mechanisms

13
Mental Health Analysis in Social Media Posts: A Survey 1835

Table 9  Inferences of evolving suicidal tendency detection on social media


Paper Year Contributions Det. BA Str Ex LI Code L

Lin et al. [76] 2014 A cross-media auto-encoder for joint representation of ✓ R Chinese
features
Lin et al. [77] 2017 A factor graph model (FGM) with CNN for classification ✓ ✓ ✓ R Chinese, English
Shen et al. [39] 2017 Public dataset, feature extraction with scalable approach ✓ ✓ R English
for SMHP
Almeida et al. [3] 2017 Checked different machine learning models with ✓ A English
classification
Song et al. [11] 2018 A feature attention network for identifying important ✓ I R English
features
Orabi et al. [82] 2018 The Word Embedding Optimization (WEO) for ✓ NA English
optimizing the feature vectors
Gui et al. [38] 2019 Introducing GRU + VGGNet + COMMA model for ✓ ✓ R English
Depression detection
Matero et al. [36] 2019 A dual context based approach by hybridising both ML ✓ NA English
and DL
Guntuku et al. [59] 2019 Implications of using social media as a tool for stress ✓ NA English
detection, studies over Facebook and Twitter
De Choudhury et al. [45] 2013 The use of statistics of social media data for SMHP ✓ NA English
Tadesse et al. [40] 2019 Investigate machine learning techniques for depression ✓ R English
detection
Cong et al. [44] 2018 The model of integrating XGBoost and Attention with ✓ R English
BiLSTM
Vioules et al. [151] 2018 Automatic identification of user’s online behaviour ✓ ✓ ✓ NA English
Mishra et al. [61] 2019 The social networking features based model for ✓ R English
identifying suicide ideation
Cao et al. [10] 2019 A model with two-layered attention mechanism and ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ R Chinese
domain specific word embedding
Xu et al. [112] 2020 Jointly analyzing language, visual, and metadata cues and ✓ R English
their relation to mental health
Lin et al. [37] 2020 A deep visual textual multimodal learning to map ✓ ✓ ✓ R English
psychological state of users on social media

Ex Explainability, A Available, R Reproducible, S Available by Signed Agreement, NA Not Available, Str Streaming Data, LI Language
Independent, L Language used, Det. Detection, BA Behavioural Analysis

over transformer-based model results into explainable AI in 3.3 Tools and Resources


this domain [85, 147–149]. More work with graph convo-
lution encoders [86] and hyperbolic space embedding has As discussed earlier, the social media data is firsthand user-
enriched this domain with new insights on recognizing pat- generated information which is informal in nature. Thus,
terns in graph and visualizing the problem in non-Euclidean identifying named entities and semantics in social media
distance, respectively. Other than improvising cross-sectional posts is still a challenging task. In this section, we enlist
and longitudinal studies with additional attention mechanisms different tools/ libraries as potential sources.
and semantic enhancements, we came across next level study
on finding indicators to state reason behind mental disorders • Python Reddit API The Reddit social media platform
in self-reported texts [126]. Such studies show new research can be scrapped through Python Reddit API Wrapper
direction towards discourses and pragmatics. (PRAW)29 and follows Reddit API rules30 for scrapping
To summarize the extensive study of classification mod- data.
els for identifying suicidal tendency, we reveal information
about recent developments in Table 8 where we mention
dataset, baselines, results and code availability for each
study. We acknowledge that existing studies are not directly 29
https://​github.​com/​praw-​dev/​praw, https://​github.​com/​shaox​iongji/​
comparable. Also, before we discuss new frontiers, we enlist websp​ider.
useful tools and resources for future research. 30
https://​github.​com/​reddit-​archi​ve/​reddit/​wiki/​API.

13
1836 M. Garg

Table 10  Inferences of recent suicidal tendency detection on social media


Paper Year Contributions Det. BA Str Ex LI Code L

Tadesse et al. [1] 2020 The LSTM + CNN classification model ✓ R English
Cao et al. [2] 2020 A knowledge graph and ontology based graphical neural ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ R Chinese, English
network for suicide risk detection
Shah et al. [13] 2020 Hybrid approach by using computationally intelligent ✓ R English
techniques and other optimizations for features
Sawhney et al. [7] 2021 Users’ historical timeline encoded and mapped with other ✓ ✓ A English
features
Sawhney et al. [31] 2021 An ordinal attention network for suicidal ideation detection ✓ ✓ ✓ A English
Zogan et al. [43] 2021 A multi-modal depression detection with HAN (MDHAN) ✓ ✓ R English
Turcan et al. [83] 2021 Multi-task with emotional models for more explainable ✓ ✓ ✓ A English
stress detection model
Haque et al. [42] 2021 The SDCNL model with GUSE—dense over UMAP- ✓ A English
(Kmeans, GMM)
Zogan et al. [41] 2021 DepressionNet using hybrid extractive and abstractive ✓ ✓ A English
summarization strategy
Lee et al. [86] 2022 The great utility in identifying suicidality of individuals ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ A English
using suicide dictionary and graph neural network
Tavchioski et al. [113] 2022 A novel method using knowledge graph and dimensionality ✓ ✓ R English
reduction for depression detection
Naseem et al. [114] 2022 A behaviour prediction model uses ordinal classification ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ NA English
over transformer encoder
Garg et al. [126] 2022 Learning based approach for causal analysis of mental ✓ ✓ A English
health illness in social media posts
Yang et al. [85] 2022 A knowledge-aware module based on dot-product attention ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ A English
to accordingly attend to the most relevant knowledge
aspects

Ex Explainability, A Available, R Reproducible, S Available by Signed Agreement, NA Not Available, Str Streaming Data, LI Language
Independent, L Language used, Det.: Detection, BA Behavioural Analysis

• PyPlutchik: An embedding to employ emotion models as


pre-built tools in Python environment [150] and trained
on Plutchik model of emotions [75].
• DLATK Python Package: DLATK stands for Differen-
tial Language Analysis Toolkit which is an end-to-end
human text analysis package which is specifically suited
for social media and social scientific applications. The
non-neural models may be implemented via the DLATK
Python package [90].
• Optimization: Adaptive experimentation is the ML
guided process of iteratively exploring a (possibly infi-
nite) parameter space in order to identify optimal con-
figurations in a resource-efficient manner. Ax31 currently
supports Bayesian optimization and bandit optimization
Fig. 9  Open challenges and new research directions in identifying as exploration strategies and is used for social mental
suicidal tendency on social media health detection [83].

31
https://​github.​com/​faceb​ook/​Ax.

13
Mental Health Analysis in Social Media Posts: A Survey 1837

4 New Frontiers cal validation must be explored further to enhance the


applicability of the new methods in real-time applica-
After extensive study of 92 research articles related to tions.
stress, depression and suicidal tendency, we make infer- 7. Social Networks and Graph Neural Networks: The
ences to define new research directions and future scope as trend of making use of text, visual, and multimedia
shown in Tables 9 and 10. Finally, we give new frontiers information has given several new research directions
in Fig. 9. in this domain. In the past, network features for Twitter
data shows promising results [153], still there is a big
1. Noisy Labels: We found that the potential of some room to study multi-level networks and heterogeneous
labels of data is found to be corrupted in the past information networks for multi-modal information in
which are mentioned as the noisy labels. To solve this social media for better and integrated representation.
problem, SDCNL model introduced a unique feature Few studies on knowledge graph [2], ontology [2] and
of label correction methodology to classifying posts as graph neural networks [92] validate it as a progressive
suicide versus depression [42]. domain.
2. New Features: The other factors which can be potential 8. Multi-lingual, cross-lingual and language-independent
features are the happiness index of the country of a approach: We find limited studies with low-resourced
user; the ease of living index of the country of the language in this domain. There is no work found in
user; the variation in geographical locations and multi- the multi-lingual approach as observed for offensive
source distributed crawling; detection of multi sources language [154]. Few studies have made progress
communities by using spectral clustering over multi- towards language independent approach [2, 10, 77],
level graphs [53]. Although there are studies on finding however, the existing techniques are not directly or
correlations among different features and map different indirectly not compared for language-independent or
variables for mental illness in China [152], there is the multi-lingual approach.
need to study this for different countries and at global- 9. Incremental Learning from Streaming Data: There
level due to much of socio-political differences in each are some studies on Topic extraction on social media
country. content for early depression detection on retrospective
3. Embedding for Multi-task problem: We observe solu- data [79] and phase change of the user [7, 92]. The
tion of multi-task mental health analysis through sys- existing studies have rarely use the online streaming
tematic word embedding optimizer [82]. However, data [37] and there is no such study which shows
there is no explainability or mathematical validation the concept drift [151] in streaming data. A concept
for why the results are better. drift identifies the level of changing risk in suicidal
4. Time Complexity: Although, it is observed that the tendency.
recent approaches for stress detection shows the 10. Real-time Applications: A real-time mental health
significant improvement with F1-score for FGM prediction is yet to be explored because to the best of
approach [95] but it is computationally expensive and our knowledge, there is only one study on integration
takes almost more than the double time as compared to of Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) and Social
the second best approach. There is need to give equal Media dataset by academic researchers [34].
importance to the complexity in recent advancements.
5. Behavioral Analysis: The mental health detection is the
part of integrated study of computational linguistics, 5 Conclusion
human–computer interactions and clinical psychology.
Few studies have observed the latent patterns among This manuscript is an extensive literature survey on
social media users which express their common but predicting suicidal tendency from social media data. The
sensitive thoughts. Depressed tweets are more likely to exponential progress in the field of data science for mental
be expressed late night than during day time [39]. This health prediction has shown its significance in recent years.
analytical part of human behavior is rarely explored in The corpus of 92 research articles contains studies over
the existing literature as observed from Tables 9 and stress, depression and suicide risk detection on social media.
10. However, there is no substantial work on quantifying the
6. Interpretability and Explainability: There are detailed suicide risk from the longitudinal data of the user. To handle
and theoretical explanations of the proposed approach this and to integrate the existing studies on multiple tasks,
to test its interpretability [11] or explainability [2, 7, an extensive survey is given along with the open challenges
43, 83] via ablation studies. A complete section of ethi- and possible research directions. The major contributions of
this manuscript are enlisting the available dataset (publicly,

13
1838 M. Garg

on-request and via signed agreement); introduction to 12. Ophir Y, Tikochinski R, Asterhan CS, Sisso I, Reichart R (2020)
the taxonomy of the mental healthcare; classification of Deep neural networks detect suicide risk from textual Facebook
posts. Sci Rep 10(1):1–10
feature extraction and transformation techniques for vector 13. Shah FM, Haque F, Nur RU, Al Jahan S, Mamud Z (2020) A
representation; the historical evolution of suicidal tendency hybridized feature extraction approach to suicidal ideation detec-
detection with timeline; new research directions and open tion from social media post. In: 2020 IEEE Region 10 sympo-
challenges. This manuscript further highlights the important sium (TENSYMP), 2020. IEEE, pp 985–988
14. McHugh CM, Corderoy A, Ryan CJ, Hickie IB, Large MM
contributions which can be used as benchmark studies in (2019) Association between suicidal ideation and suicide: meta-
this domain. analyses of odds ratios, sensitivity, specificity and positive pre-
dictive value. BJPsych Open 5(2):e18
15. Stone DM (2021) Changes in suicide rates—United States,
Declarations 2018–2019. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 70(8):261–268
16. Vincent J (2017) Facebook is using AI to spot users with sui-
Conflict of interest On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author cidal thoughts and send them help. Verge
states that there is no conflict of interest. 17. Guntuku SC, Yaden DB, Kern ML, Ungar LH, Eichstaedt
JC (2017) Detecting depression and mental illness on social
media: an integrative review. Curr Opin Behav Sci 18:43–49
18. Chancellor S, De Choudhury M (2020) Methods in predictive
techniques for mental health status on social media: a critical
References review. NPJ Digit Med 3(1):1–11
19. Luxton DD, June JD, Fairall JM (2012) Social media and
suicide: a public health perspective. Am J Public Health
1. Tadesse MM, Lin H, Xu B, Yang L (2020) Detection of suicide 102(S2):195–200
ideation in social media forums using deep learning. Algorithms 20. Golden RN, Weiland C, Peterson F (2009) The truth about illness
13(1):7 and disease. Infobase Publishing, New York
2. Cao L, Zhang H, Feng L (2020) Building and using personal 21. De Choudhury M (2013) Role of social media in tackling chal-
knowledge graph to improve suicidal ideation detection on social lenges in mental health. In: Proceedings of the 2nd international
media. IEEE Trans Multimed. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 109/t​ mm.2​ 020.​ workshop on socially-aware multimedia, 2013, pp 49–52
30468​67 22. Shing H-C, Resnik P, Oard DW (2020) A prioritization model for
3. Almeida H, Briand A, Meurs M-J (2017) Detecting early risk of suicidality risk assessment. In: Proceedings of the 58th annual
depression from social media user-generated content. In: CLEF meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 2020,
(working notes), 2017 pp 8124–8137
4. Amini P, Ahmadinia H, Poorolajal J, Amiri MM (2016) Evalu- 23. Niederkrotenthaler T (2017) Papageno effect: its progress in
ating the high risk groups for suicide: a comparison of logistic media research and contextualization with findings on harmful
regression, support vector machine, decision tree and artificial media effects. In: Media and suicide: international perspectives
neural network. Iran J Public Health 45(9):1179 on research, theory, and policy. Routledge, London, pp 133–158
5. Roy A, Nikolitch K, McGinn R, Jinah S, Klement W, Kamin- 24. Chancellor S, Birnbaum ML, Caine ED, Silenzio VM, De
sky ZA (2020) A machine learning approach predicts future Choudhury M (2019) A taxonomy of ethical tensions in inferring
risk to suicidal ideation from social media data. NPJ Digit Med mental health states from social media. In: Proceedings of the
3(1):1–12 conference on fairness, accountability, and transparency, 2019,
6. Eichstaedt JC, Smith RJ, Merchant RM, Ungar LH, Crutchley pp 79–88
P, Preoţiuc-Pietro D, Asch DA, Schwartz HA (2018) Facebook 25. Coppersmith G, Dredze M, Harman C, Hollingshead K, Mitchell
language predicts depression in medical records. Proc Natl Acad M (2015) CLPsych 2015 shared task: depression and PTSD on
Sci USA 115(44):11203–11208 Twitter. In: Proceedings of the 2nd workshop on computational
7. Sawhney R, Joshi H, Flek L, Shah R (2021) Phase: learning emo- linguistics and clinical psychology: from linguistic signal to
tional phase-aware representations for suicide ideation detection clinical reality, 2015, pp 31–39
on social media. In: Proceedings of the 16th conference of the 26. Milne DN, Pink G, Hachey B, Calvo RA (2016) CLPsych 2016
European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguis- shared task: triaging content in online peer-support forums. In:
tics: main volume, 2021, pp 2415–2428 Proceedings of the third workshop on computational linguistics
8. Zogan H, Razzak I, Wang X, Jameel S, Xu G (2020) Explain- and clinical psychology, 2016, pp 118–127
able depression detection with multi-modalities using a hybrid 27. Preotiuc-Pietro D, Sap M, Schwartz HA, Ungar LH (2015)
deep learning model on social media. arXiv preprint. arXiv:2​ 007.​ Mental illness detection at the world well-being project for the
02847 CLPsych 2015 shared task. In: CLPsych@ HLT-NAACL, 2015,
9. Ma Y, Cao Y (2020) Dual attention based suicide risk detection pp 40–45
on social media. In: 2020 IEEE international conference on arti- 28. Resnik P, Armstrong W, Claudino L, Nguyen T, Nguyen V-A,
ficial intelligence and computer applications (ICAICA), 2020. Boyd-Graber J (2015) Beyond LDA: exploring supervised topic
IEEE, pp 637–640 modeling for depression-related language in Twitter. In: Proceed-
10. Cao L, Zhang H, Feng L, Wei Z, Wang X, Li N, He X (2019) ings of the 2nd workshop on computational linguistics and clini-
Latent suicide risk detection on microblog via suicide-oriented cal psychology: from linguistic signal to clinical reality, 2015, pp
word embeddings and layered attention. arXiv preprint. arXiv:​ 99–107
1910.​12038 29. Tsugawa S, Kikuchi Y, Kishino F, Nakajima K, Itoh Y, Ohsaki
11. Song H, You J, Chung J-W, Park JC (2018) Feature attention H (2015) Recognizing depression from Twitter activity. In: Pro-
network: interpretable depression detection from social media. ceedings of the 33rd annual ACM conference on human factors
In: PACLIC, 2018 in computing systems, 2015, pp 3187–3196

13
Mental Health Analysis in Social Media Posts: A Survey 1839

30. De Choudhury M, Kiciman E, Dredze M, Coppersmith G, Kumar 48. Jia J (2018) Mental health computing via harvesting social media
M (2016) Discovering shifts to suicidal ideation from mental data. In: IJCAI, 2018, pp 5677–5681
health content in social media. In: Proceedings of the 2016 CHI 49. Minaee S, Kalchbrenner N, Cambria E, Nikzad N, Chenaghlu M,
conference on human factors in computing systems, 2016, pp Gao J (2021) Deep learning-based text classification: a compre-
2098–2110 hensive review. ACM Comput Surv 54(3):1–40
31. Sawhney R, Joshi H, Gandhi S, Shah RR (2021) Towards ordinal 50. Stankevich M, Isakov V, Devyatkin D, Smirnov I (2018) Fea-
suicide ideation detection on social media. In: Proceedings of ture engineering for depression detection in social media. In:
the 14th ACM international conference on web search and data ICPRAM, 2018, pp 426–431
mining, 2021, pp 22–30 51. Hussain J, Satti FA, Afzal M, Khan WA, Bilal HSM, Ansaar MZ,
32. Yang Z, Yang D, Dyer C, He X, Smola A, Hovy E (2016) Hier- Ahmad HF, Hur T, Bang J, Kim J-I et al (2020) Exploring the
archical attention networks for document classification. In: Pro- dominant features of social media for depression detection. J Inf
ceedings of the 2016 conference of the North American Chapter Sci 46(6):739–759
of the Association for Computational Linguistics: human lan- 52. Nolen-Hoeksema S (1991) Responses to depression and their
guage technologies, 2016, pp 1480–1489 effects on the duration of depressive episodes. J Abnorm Psy-
33. Demszky D, Movshovitz-Attias D, Ko J, Cowen A, Nemade G, chol 100(4):569
Ravi S (2020) GoEmotions: a dataset of fine-grained emotions. 53. Farseev A, Samborskii I, Chua T-S (2016) A big data plat-
arXiv preprint. arXiv:​2005.​00547 form for social multimedia analytics. In: Conference: the 2016
34. Gupta D, Bhatia M, Kumar A (2021) Real-time mental health ACM, 2016
analytics using IoMT and social media datasets: research and 54. Park M, Cha C, Cha M (2012) Depressive moods of users
challenges. Available at SSRN 3842818 portrayed in Twitter. In: Proceedings of the 18th ACM inter-
35. Turcan E, McKeown K (2019) Dreaddit: a Reddit dataset for national conference on knowledge discovery and data mining,
stress analysis in social media. arXiv preprint. arXiv:1​ 911.0​ 0133 SIGKDD 2012, 2012
36. Matero M, Idnani A, Son Y, Giorgi S, Vu H, Zamani M, Lim- 55. Preoţiuc-Pietro D, Eichstaedt J, Park G, Sap M, Smith L,
bachiya P, Guntuku SC, Schwartz HA (2019) Suicide risk assess- Tobolsky V, Schwartz HA, Ungar L (2015) The role of per-
ment with multi-level dual-context language and BERT. In: Pro- sonality, age, and gender in tweeting about mental illness. In:
ceedings of the sixth workshop on computational linguistics and Proceedings of the 2nd workshop on computational linguistics
clinical psychology, 2019, pp 39–44 and clinical psychology: from linguistic signal to clinical real-
37. Lin C, Hu P, Su H, Li S, Mei J, Zhou J, Leung H (2020) Sense- ity, 2015, pp 21–30
Mood: depression detection on social media. In: Proceedings of 56. Fu S, Ibrahim OA, Wang Y, Vassilaki M, Petersen RC, Mielke
the 2020 international conference on multimedia retrieval, 2020, MM, St Sauver J, Sohn S (2022) Prediction of incident demen-
pp 407–411 tia using patient temporal health status. Stud Health Technol
38. Gui T, Zhu L, Zhang Q, Peng M, Zhou X, Ding K, Chen Z (2019) Inform 290:757–761
Cooperative multimodal approach to depression detection in 57. Baytas IM, Xiao C, Zhang X, Wang F, Jain AK, Zhou J (2017)
Twitter. In: Proceedings of the AAAI conference on artificial Patient subtyping via time-aware LSTM networks. In: Proceed-
intelligence, 2019, vol 33, pp 110–117 ings of the 23rd ACM SIGKDD international conference on
39. Shen G, Jia J, Nie L, Feng F, Zhang C, Hu T, Chua T-S, Zhu knowledge discovery and data mining, 2017, pp 65–74
W (2017) Depression detection via harvesting social media: a 58. Losada DE, Crestani F, Parapar J (2019) Overview of eRISK
multimodal dictionary learning solution. In: IJCAI, 2017, pp 2019 early risk prediction on the Internet. In: International
3838–3844 conference of the Cross-Language Evaluation Forum for Euro-
40. Tadesse MM, Lin H, Xu B, Yang L (2019) Detection of depres- pean Languages, 2019. Springer, pp 340–357
sion-related posts in Reddit social media forum. IEEE Access 59. Guntuku SC, Buffone A, Jaidka K, Eichstaedt JC, Ungar LH
7:44883–44893 (2019) Understanding and measuring psychological stress
41. Zogan H, Razzak I, Jameel S, Xu G (2021) DepressionNet: a using social media. In: Proceedings of the international AAAI
novel summarization boosted deep framework for depression conference on web and social media, 2019, vol 13, pp 214–225
detection on social media. arXiv preprint. arXiv:​2105.​10878 60. Masuda N, Kurahashi I, Onari H (2013) Suicide ideation of
42. Haque A, Reddi V, Giallanza T (2021) Deep learning for suicide individuals in online social networks. PLoS ONE 8(4):62262
and depression identification with unsupervised label correction. 61. Mishra R, Sinha PP, Sawhney R, Mahata D, Mathur P, Shah RR
arXiv preprint. arXiv:​2102.​09427 (2019) SNAP-BATNET: cascading author profiling and social
43. Zogan H, Wang X, Jameel S, Xu G (2020) Depression detection network graphs for suicide ideation detection on social media.
with multi-modalities using a hybrid deep learning model on In: Proceedings of the 2019 conference of the North American
social media. arXiv preprint. arXiv:​2007.​02847 Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: stu-
44. Cong Q, Feng Z, Li F, Xiang Y, Rao G, Tao C (2018) XA- dent research workshop, 2019, pp 147–156
BiLSTM: a deep learning approach for depression detection 62. Burdisso SG, Errecalde M, Montes-y-Gómez M (2019) A text
in imbalanced data. In: 2018 IEEE international conference classification framework for simple and effective early depres-
on bioinformatics and biomedicine (BIBM), 2018. IEEE, pp sion detection over social media streams. Expert Syst Appl
1624–1627 133:182–197
45. De Choudhury M, Gamon M, Counts S, Horvitz E (2013) Pre- 63. Shen T, Jia J, Shen G, Feng F, He X, Luan H, Tang J, Tiropanis
dicting depression via social media. In: Proceedings of the inter- T, Chua TS, Hall W (2018) Cross-domain depression detection
national AAAI conference on web and social media, 2013, vol 7 via harvesting social media. In: International joint conferences
46. Ford E, Curlewis K, Wongkoblap A, Curcin V (2019) Public on artificial intelligence, 2018
opinions on using social media content to identify users with 64. Gkotsis G, Oellrich A, Hubbard T, Dobson R, Liakata M, Velu-
depression and target mental health care advertising: mixed pillai S, Dutta R (2016) The language of mental health prob-
methods survey. JMIR Ment Health 6(11):12942 lems in social media. In: Proceedings of the third workshop
47. Conway M, O’Connor D (2016) Social media, big data, and men- on computational linguistics and clinical psychology, 2016, pp
tal health: current advances and ethical implications. Curr Opin 63–73
Psychol 9:77–82

13
1840 M. Garg

65. O’Dea B, Larsen ME, Batterham PJ, Calear AL, Christensen 82. Orabi AH, Buddhitha P, Orabi MH, Inkpen D (2018) Deep learn-
H (2017) A linguistic analysis of suicide-related Twitter posts. ing for depression detection of Twitter users. In: Proceedings
Crisis J Crisis Interv Suicide Prev 38(5):319 of the fifth workshop on computational linguistics and clinical
66. Sawhney R, Agarwal S, Neerkaje AT, Aletras N, Nakov P, Flek L psychology: from keyboard to clinic, 2018, pp 88–97
(2022) Towards suicide ideation detection through online conver- 83. Turcan E, Muresan S, McKeown K (2021) Emotion-infused mod-
sational context. In: Proceedings of the 45th international ACM els for explainable psychological stress detection. In: Proceed-
SIGIR conference on research and development in information ings of the 2021 conference of the North American Chapter of
retrieval, 2022, pp 1716–1727 the Association for Computational Linguistics: human language
67. Aduragba OT, Yu J, Cristea AI, Shi L (2021) Detecting fine- technologies, 2021, pp 2895–2909
grained emotions on social media during major disease out- 84. Wang X, Zhang H, Cao L, Feng L (2020) Leverage social
breaks: health and well-being before and during the COVID-19 media for personalized stress detection. In: Proceedings of the
pandemic. In: AMIA annual symposium proceedings, 2021, vol 28th ACM international conference on multimedia, 2020, pp
2021, p 187. American Medical Informatics Association 2710–2718
68. Ji S, Zhang T, Ansari L, Fu J, Tiwari P, Cambria E (2021) 85. Yang K, Zhang T, Ananiadou S (2022) A mental state
MentalBERT: publicly available pretrained language models knowledge-aware and contrastive network for early stress
for mental healthcare. arXiv preprint. arXiv:​2110.​15621 and depression detection on social media. Inf Process Manag
69. Khadhraoui M, Bellaaj H, Ammar MB, Hamam H, Jmaiel M 59(4):102961
(2022) Survey of BERT-base models for scientific text clas- 86. Lee D, Kang M, Kim M, Han J (2022) Detecting suicidality with
sification: COVID-19 case study. Appl Sci 12(6):2891 a contextual graph neural network. In: Proceedings of the eighth
70. Mitchell M, Hollingshead K, Coppersmith G (2015) Quantify- workshop on computational linguistics and clinical psychology,
ing the language of schizophrenia in social media. In: Proceed- 2022, pp 116–125
ings of the 2nd workshop on computational linguistics and 87. Moulahi B, Azé J, Bringay S (2017) DARE to Care: a context-
clinical psychology: from linguistic signal to clinical reality, aware framework to track suicidal ideation on social media. In:
2015, pp 11–20 International conference on web information systems engineer-
71. Resnik P, Armstrong W, Claudino L, Nguyen T (2015) The ing, 2017. Springer, pp 346–353
University of Maryland CLPsych 2015 shared task system. In: 88. Whooley O (2014) Diagnostic and statistical manual of men-
Proceedings of the 2nd workshop on computational linguistics tal disorders (DSM). In: The Wiley Blackwell encyclopedia
and clinical psychology: from linguistic signal to clinical real- of health, illness, behavior, and society. Wiley, Hoboken, pp
ity, 2015, pp 54–60 381–384
72. Xue J, Chen J, Chen C, Zheng C, Li S, Zhu T (2020) Public dis- 89. Leiva V, Freire A (2017) Towards suicide prevention: early detec-
course and sentiment during the COVID 19 pandemic: Using tion of depression on social media. In: International conference
latent Dirichlet allocation for topic modeling on Twitter. PLoS on Internet science, 2017. Springer, pp 428–436
ONE 15(9):0239441 90. Schwartz HA, Giorgi S, Sap M, Crutchley P, Ungar L, Eichstaedt
73. Zhao S, Wang S, Soleymani M, Joshi D, Ji Q (2019) Affec- J (2017) DLATK: differential language analysis toolkit. In: Pro-
tive computing for large-scale heterogeneous multimedia ceedings of the 2017 conference on empirical methods in natural
data: a survey. ACM Trans Multimed Comput Commun Appl language processing: system demonstrations, 2017, pp 55–60
15(3s):1–32 91. Park M, McDonald D, Cha M (2013) Perception differences
74. Schlosberg H (1954) Three dimensions of emotion. Psychol between the depressed and non-depressed users in Twitter. In:
Rev 61(2):81 Proceedings of the international AAAI conference on web and
75. Plutchik R (1980) A general psychoevolutionary theory of social media, 2013, vol 7
emotion. In: Theories of emotion. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 92. Sawhney R, Joshi H, Shah R, Flek L (2021) Suicide ideation
3–33 detection via social and temporal user representations using
76. Lin H, Jia J, Guo Q, Xue Y, Huang J, Cai L, Feng L (2014) hyperbolic learning. In: Proceedings of the 2021 conference
Psychological stress detection from cross-media microblog data of the North American Chapter of the Association for Compu-
using deep sparse neural network. In: 2014 IEEE international tational Linguistics: human language technologies, 2021, pp
conference on multimedia and expo (ICME), 2014. IEEE, pp 1–6 2176–2190
77. Lin H, Jia J, Qiu J, Zhang Y, Shen G, Xie L, Tang J, Feng L, Chua 93. Sawhney R, Thakkar M, Agarwal S, Jin D, Yang D, Flek L (2021)
T-S (2017) Detecting stress based on social interactions in social HypMix: hyperbolic interpolative data augmentation. In: Pro-
networks. IEEE Trans Knowl Data Eng 29(9):1820–1833 ceedings of the 2021 conference on empirical methods in natural
78. Cambria E, Olsher D, Rajagopal D (2014) SenticNet 3: a com- language processing, 2021, pp 9858–9868
mon and common-sense knowledge base for cognition-driven 94. Cheng Q, Li TM, Kwok C-L, Zhu T, Yip PS (2017) Assessing
sentiment analysis. In: Proceedings of the AAAI conference on suicide risk and emotional distress in Chinese social media: a text
artificial intelligence, 2014, vol 28 mining and machine learning study. J Med Internet Res 19(7):243
79. Maupomé D, Meurs M-J (2018) Using topic extraction on social 95. Lin H, Jia J, Guo Q, Xue Y, Li Q, Huang J, Cai L, Feng L (2014)
media content for the early detection of depression. In: CLEF User-level psychological stress detection from social media using
(working notes), 2018, vol 2125 deep neural network. In: Proceedings of the 22nd ACM interna-
80. Saravia E, Chang C-H, De Lorenzo RJ, Chen Y-S (2016) tional conference on multimedia, 2014, pp 507–516
MIDAS: mental illness detection and analysis via social media. 96. Wang Y, Tang J, Li J, Li B, Wan Y, Mellina C, O’Hare N, Chang
In: 2016 IEEE/ACM international conference on advances in Y (2017) Understanding and discovering deliberate self-harm
social networks analysis and mining (ASONAM), 2016. IEEE, content in social media. In: Proceedings of the 26th international
pp 1418–1421 conference on World Wide Web, 2017, pp 93–102
81. Sawhney R, Manchanda P, Mathur P, Shah R, Singh R (2018) 97. Zhou Y, Zhan J, Luo J (2017) Predicting multiple risky behaviors
Exploring and learning suicidal ideation connotations on social via multimedia content. In: International conference on social
media with deep learning. In: Proceedings of the 9th workshop informatics, 2017. Springer, pp 65–73
on computational approaches to subjectivity, sentiment and
social media analysis, 2018, pp 167–175

13
Mental Health Analysis in Social Media Posts: A Survey 1841

98. Mikolov T, Chen K, Corrado G, Dean J (2013) Efficient esti- 117. Jamil Z (2017) Monitoring tweets for depression to detect at-risk
mation of word representations in vector space. arXiv preprint. users. PhD Thesis, University of Ottawa
arXiv:​1301.​3781 118. Cohan A, Desmet B, Yates A, Soldaini L, MacAvaney S, Gohar-
99. Devlin J, Chang M-W, Lee K, Toutanova K (2018) BERT: pre- ian N (2018) SMHD: a large-scale resource for exploring online
training of deep bidirectional transformers for language under- language usage for multiple mental health conditions. arXiv pre-
standing. arXiv preprint. arXiv:​1810.​04805 print. arXiv:​1806.​05258
100. Reimers N, Gurevych I (2019) Sentence-BERT: sentence embed- 119. Gamaarachchige PK, Inkpen D (2019) Multi-task, multi-channel,
dings using Siamese BERT-networks. arXiv preprint. arXiv:​ multi-input learning for mental illness detection using social
1908.​10084 media text. In: Proceedings of the tenth international workshop
101. Cer D, Yang Y, Kong S-Y, Hua N, Limtiaco N, John RS, Constant on health text mining and information analysis (LOUHI 2019),
N, Guajardo-Céspedes M, Yuan S, Tar C et al (2018) Universal 2019, pp 54–64
sentence encoder. arXiv preprint. arXiv:​1803.​11175 120. Pirina I, Çöltekin Ç (2018) Identifying depression on Reddit:
102. Simonyan K, Zisserman A (2014) Very deep convolutional net- the effect of training data. In: Proceedings of the 2018 EMNLP
works for large-scale image recognition. arXiv preprint. arXiv:​ workshop SMM4H: the 3rd social media mining for health appli-
1409.​1556 cations workshop and shared task, 2018, pp 9–12
103. Wang W, Huang Y, Wang Y, Wang L (2014) Generalized autoen- 121. Ji S, Yu CP, Fung S-F, Pan S, Long G (2018) Supervised learn-
coder: a neural network framework for dimensionality reduction. ing for suicidal ideation detection in online user content. Com-
In: Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and plexity. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1155/​2018/​61572​49
pattern recognition workshops, 2014, pp 490–497 122. Harrigian K, Aguirre C, Dredze M (2020) On the state of social
104. McInnes L, Healy J, Melville J (2018) UMAP: uniform mani- media data for mental health research. arXiv preprint. arXiv:​
fold approximation and projection for dimension reduction. arXiv 2011.​05233
preprint. arXiv:​1802.​03426 123. Gaur M, Alambo A, Sain JP, Kursuncu U, Thirunarayan K,
105. Ive J, Gkotsis G, Dutta R, Stewart R, Velupillai S (2018) Hierar- Kavuluru R, Sheth A, Welton R, Pathak J (2019) Knowledge-
chical neural model with attention mechanisms for the classifica- aware assessment of severity of suicide risk for early interven-
tion of social media text related to mental health. In: Proceedings tion. In: The World Wide Web conference, 2019, pp 514–525
of the fifth workshop on computational linguistics and clinical 124. Aladağ AE, Muderrisoglu S, Akbas NB, Zahmacioglu O, Bin-
psychology: from keyboard to clinic, 2018, pp 69–77 gol HO (2018) Detecting suicidal ideation on forums: proof-
106. Al Asad N, Pranto MAM, Afreen S, Islam MM (2019) Depres- of-concept study. J Med Internet Res 20(6):215
sion detection by analyzing social media posts of user. In: 2019 125. Burkhardt H, Pullmann M, Hull T, Aren P, Cohen T (2022)
IEEE international conference on signal processing, informa- Comparing emotion feature extraction approaches for pre-
tion, communication and systems (SPICSCON), 2019. IEEE, pp dicting depression and anxiety. In: Proceedings of the eighth
13–17 workshop on computational linguistics and clinical psychol-
107. Elman JL (1990) Finding structure in time. Cogn Sci ogy, 2022, pp 105–115
14(2):179–211 126. Garg M, Saxena C, Krishnan V, Joshi R, Saha S, Mago V,
108. Chung J, Gulcehre C, Cho K, Bengio Y (2014) Empirical evalu- Dorr BJ (2022) CAMS: an annotated corpus for causal analysis
ation of gated recurrent neural networks on sequence modeling. of mental health issues in social media posts. arXiv preprint.
arXiv preprint. arXiv:​1412.​3555 arXiv:​2207.​04674
109. Hochreiter S, Schmidhuber J (1997) Long short-term memory. 127. Saxena C, Garg M, Ansari G (2022) Explainable causal analy-
Neural Comput 9(8):1735–1780 sis of mental health on social media data. In: Proceedings of
110. Russakovsky O, Deng J, Su H, Krause J, Satheesh S, Ma S, ICONIP, 2022
Huang Z, Karpathy A, Khosla A, Bernstein M et al (2015) Ima- 128. Naseem U, Khushi M, Kim J, Dunn AG (2022) RHMD: a real-
geNet large scale visual recognition challenge. Int J Comput Vis world dataset for health mention classification on Reddit. IEEE
115(3):211–252 Trans Comput Soc Syst. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​TCSS.​2022.​
111. Wang N, Luo F, Shivtare Y, Badal VD, Subbalakshmi K, Chan- 31868​83
dramouli R, Lee E (2021) Learning models for suicide prediction 129. Kayalvizhi S, Thenmozhi D (2022) Data set creation and
from social media posts. arXiv preprint. arXiv:​2105.​03315 empirical analysis for detecting signs of depression from social
112. Xu Z, Pérez-Rosas V, Mihalcea R (2020) Inferring social media media postings. arXiv preprint. arXiv:​2202.​03047
users’ mental health status from multimodal information. In: Pro- 130. Sivamanikandan S, Santhosh V, Sanjaykumar N, Durairaj T
ceedings of the 12th language resources and evaluation confer- et al (2022) scubeMSEC@ LT-EDI-ACL2022: detection of
ence, 2020, pp 6292–6299 depression using transformer models. In: Proceedings of the
113. Tavchioski I, Koloski B, Škrlj B, Pollak S (2022) E8-IJS@ LT- second workshop on language technology for equality, diver-
EDI-ACL2022-BERT, AutoML and knowledge-graph backed sity and inclusion, 2022, pp 212–217
detection of depression. In: Proceedings of the second work- 131. Whissell C (2009) Using the revised dictionary of affect in
shop on language technology for equality, diversity and inclu- language to quantify the emotional undertones of samples of
sion, 2022, pp 251–257 natural language. Psychol Rep 105(2):509–521
114. Naseem U, Khushi M, Kim J, Dunn AG (2022) Hybrid text rep- 132. Pennebaker JW, Boyd RL, Jordan K, Blackburn K (2015) The
resentation for explainable suicide risk identification on social development and psychometric properties of LIWC2015. Tech-
media. IEEE Trans Comput Soc Syst. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​ nical report
TCSS.​2022.​31849​84 133. De Smedt T, Daelemans W (2012) Pattern for Python. J Mach
115. Yates A, Cohan A, Goharian N (2017) Depression and self-harm Learn Res 13(1):2063–2067
risk assessment in online forums. arXiv preprint. arXiv:​1709.​ 134. Reece AG, Danforth CM (2017) Instagram photos reveal pre-
01848 dictive markers of depression. EPJ Data Sci 6:1–12
116. Losada DE, Crestani F, Parapar J (2018) Overview of eRISK: 135. Nam H, Ha J-W, Kim J (2017) Dual attention networks for
early risk prediction on the Internet. In: International confer- multimodal reasoning and matching. In: Proceedings of the
ence of the Cross-Language Evaluation Forum for European IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition,
Languages, 2018. Springer, pp 343–361 2017, pp 299–307

13
1842 M. Garg

136. Song X, Nie L, Zhang L, Akbari M, Chua T-S (2015) Multi- 147. Naseem U, Dunn AG, Kim J, Khushi M (2022) Early identifica-
ple social network learning and its application in volunteerism tion of depression severity levels on Reddit using ordinal clas-
tendency prediction. In: Proceedings of the 38th international sification. In: Proceedings of the ACM web conference 2022,
ACM SIGIR conference on research and development in infor- 2022, pp 2563–2572
mation retrieval, 2015, pp 213–222 148. Zogan H, Razzak I, Wang X, Jameel S, Xu G (2022) Explainable
137. Rolet A, Cuturi M, Peyré G (2016) Fast dictionary learning depression detection with multi-aspect features using a hybrid
with a smoothed Wasserstein loss. In: Artificial intelligence deep learning model on social media. In: World Wide Web, 2022,
and statistics, 2016. PMLR, pp 630–638 pp 1–24
138. Ansari G, Garg M, Saxena C (2021) Data augmentation for 149. Wang X, Cao L, Zhang H, Feng L, Ding Y, Li N (2022) A meta-
mental health classification on social media. arXiv preprint. learning based stress category detection framework on social
arXiv:​2112.​10064 media. In: Proceedings of the ACM web conference 2022, 2022,
139. Lu J, Yang J, Batra D, Parikh D (2016) Hierarchical question- pp 2925–2935
image co-attention for visual question answering. arXiv pre- 150. Semeraro A, Vilella S, Ruffo G (2021) PyPlutchik: visualis-
print. arXiv:​1606.​00061 ing and comparing emotion-annotated corpora. arXiv preprint.
140. Moon S, Neves L, Carvalho V (2018) Multimodal named entity arXiv:​2105.​04295
disambiguation for noisy social media posts. In: Proceedings of 151. Vioules MJ, Moulahi B, Azé J, Bringay S (2018) Detection of
the 56th annual meeting of the Association for Computational suicide-related posts in Twitter data streams. IBM J Res Dev
Linguistics: long papers, 2018, vol 1, pp 2000–2008 62(1):7:1-7:12
141. Ghosal D, Majumder N, Gelbukh A, Mihalcea R, Poria S (2020) 152. Li H, Han Y, Xiao Y, Liu X, Li A, Zhu T (2021) Suicidal ideation
COSMIC: commonsense knowledge for emotion identification in risk and socio-cultural factors in China: a longitudinal study on
conversations. In: Findings of the Association for Computational social media from 2010 to 2018. Int J Environ Res Public Health
Linguistics: EMNLP 2020, 2020, pp 2470–2481 18(3):1098
142. Sawhney R, Manchanda P, Singh R, Aggarwal S (2018) A com- 153. Yazdavar AH, Mahdavinejad MS, Bajaj G, Romine W, Sheth A,
putational approach to feature extraction for identification of sui- Monadjemi AH, Thirunarayan K, Meddar JM, Myers A, Pathak
cidal ideation in tweets. In: Proceedings of ACL 2018, student J et al (2020) Multimodal mental health analysis in social media.
research workshop, 2018, pp 91–98 PLoS ONE 15(4):0226248
143. Sinha PP, Mishra R, Sawhney R, Mahata D, Shah RR, Liu H 154. Ranasinghe T, Zampieri M (2021) Multilingual offensive lan-
(2019) # suicidal—a multipronged approach to identify and guage identification for low-resource languages. arXiv preprint.
explore suicidal ideation in Twitter. In: Proceedings of the 28th arXiv:​2105.​05996
ACM international conference on information and knowledge
management, 2019, pp 941–950 Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
144. Amanat A, Rizwan M, Javed AR, Abdelhaq M, Alsaqour R, Pan- jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
dya S, Uddin M (2022) Deep learning for depression detection
from textual data. Electronics 11(5):676 Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds
145. Yu L, Jiang W, Ren Z, Xu S, Zhang L, Hu X (2021) Detecting exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the
changes in attitudes toward depression on Chinese social media: author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted
a text analysis. J Affect Disord 280:354–363 manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of
146. Belinda CM, Ravikumar S, Arif M et al (2022) Linguistic analy- such publishing agreement and applicable law.
sis of Hindi–English mixed tweets for depression detection. J
Math. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1155/​2022/​32259​20

13

You might also like

pFad - Phonifier reborn

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.

Note: This service is not intended for secure transactions such as banking, social media, email, or purchasing. Use at your own risk. We assume no liability whatsoever for broken pages.


Alternative Proxies:

Alternative Proxy

pFad Proxy

pFad v3 Proxy

pFad v4 Proxy