SAr. Arthur Cutinho;Er.

Sujata Mehta

TOS 2: UNIT 2
FRAMES AND TRUSSES
1. To Understand Lattice Constructions, Frames and
Frames and Trusses. To Define Perfect and
Trusses
Imperfect Frames.
2. To List the Methods of Solving Frames and
Assumptions on which these methods are
based.
3. To Use Method of Joints and Method of
Sections to Solve Frames
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TOS 2: Unit 2: Frames and Trusses

2.1. Basics: The basic intent of the subject is to understand how loads are transferred from the
highest point in the structure to the lowest point that is the foundations. In doing, we need to
analyze the forces acting on each member and the stresses developed due to these forces and
accordingly economically size the member to take the stresses.
We already learnt last semester two basic methods of load transfer
1. Transfer of the horizontal element load to the vertical element which is a long element also
forming the sides of the structure namely Load Bearing Construction
2. Transfer of the horizontal element load through Horizontal Elements like Beams to the vertical
elements i.e. columns namely Framed Construction.
2.1.1 Frame: A frame is a structure that consists of arbitrarily oriented beam members which are
connected rigidly or by pins at joints. The members support bending as well as axial loads.
1. A Framed Structure is a Network of Beams
and Columns joined up-to form the Skeleton
Framework of the Building

2. The Structural Frame carries the Total Load

of the Building and transfers it to the
Foundation

3. Cladding is fixed over the Framework or In Fill

Panels are placed between its members to
totally enclose the space within the Building

However the Roofs of many structures may not be solid members but a Lattice of members
supporting Thin and Light Roof Coverings.
2.1.2 Lattice: Latticework is an openwork framework consisting of a criss-crossed pattern of strips
of building material, typically wood or metal. The design is created by crossing the strips to form
a grid or weave. Latticework may be functional – for example, to allow airflow to or through an
area; structural, as a truss in a lattice girder; used to add privacy, as through a lattice screen; or
purely decorative; or some combination.

Unit 2 Frames and Trusses 3 Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho;Er. Sujata Mehta
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2.1.3 Truss: A truss is a structure composed of rod members or of any other section arranged to
form one or more triangles. The joints are pinned (do not transmit moments)
We Can Safely Conclude That All Trusses Are Frames but All Frames Are Not Trusses
In this chapter we shall concentrate on Plain Trusses only
Herein let me try and make you understand how planar trusses may be arranged to provide Roof to
a space. I have only shown two roofing materials
• Mangalore Tiles
• G.I Sheets

1. A Single Truss of members joined together to form one or more triangles only

2. Series of Trusses arranged one after the other supported on Columns.

Unit 2 Frames and Trusses 3 Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho;Er. Sujata Mehta
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3. Purlins Spanning between the Trusses to support load of the Roofing and transferring the
same to the Truss as point loads

4. The Entire Roof Assembly.

Unit 2 Frames and Trusses 3 Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho;Er. Sujata Mehta
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2.2. Let us understand the different kinds of trusses based on their internal division.
1. Perfect Frames
2. Imperfect Frames.
2.2.1 Perfect Frames: •Perfect frames are the frames which can be analyzed to get the internal
member forces and external support reactions by using the three conditions of static
equilibrium. And hence they are statically determinate structures. •They are basically divisible
into triangles only. • They follow the following equation
m = 2j -3 where m = number of members, j = number of joints.
Consider the following Trusses used in Factory Buildings, Sheds, Rail-way Platforms as also in
bridges etc. for roofs.
1. Howe Truss:
j=8
2j – 3 = 13
m = 13
Hence m = 2j – 3.
This is a Perfect
Frame.

2. Howe and Pratt

Trusses used in
Bridges:
j=8
2j – 3 = 13
m = 13
Hence m = 2j - 3
These are Perfect
Frames

The above Trusses are also called as N Girders and used as Trusses to support the Foot Bridges
across Railway Lines or Roads. However they are much longer in span than shown

Unit 2 Frames and Trusses 3 Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho;Er. Sujata Mehta
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3. Fink Truss: This Truss is basically designed so that the length of the members gets
reduced especially those in compression. (Why this is done can only be explained much
later on in the course)
J = 15
2j-3 = 2 x 15 – 3 = 27
m = 27
Hence m = 2j - 3
This is a Perfect Frame and used in Roof Trusses over Factory buildings and Sheds
2.2.2 Imperfect Frames: •Imperfect Frames are basically those that not divisible into triangles
only. •They do not follow the following equation. These Frames are Statically Indeterminate.
m = 2j -3 where m = number of members, j = number of joints.
When m < 2j-3 the frame is called a Deficient Frame
When m > 2j -3 the frame is called a Redundant Frame

Unit 2 Frames and Trusses 3 Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho;Er. Sujata Mehta
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2.3. Solution of Frames: Solution of frames would be to compute the Magnitude and Type
(whether compressive or tensile) of each member of the frame.
There are two methods of solving a frame
a. Analytical Methods

Method of Joints

Method of Sections
b. Graphical Method
All these methods are based on the following ASSUMPTIONS
1. The Frame is a perfect one
2. The Frame is loaded at the Joints only
3. The Weight of the Frame is negligible compared to the External Loads
4. All the members are connected together at their ends by pin joints which are absolutely
frictionless or All the Joints are Pin Joints and do not transfer Moments.
Due to assumption 2 and 4, any Member is in either Axial Compression or Axial Tension.
Note:

The truss can have only hinged and roller supports.

In field, usually joints are constructed as rigid by welding or have at-least two bolts which
actually do not translate into a pin joint.
2.4. Method of Joints
1. Find Support Reactions
2. Every Joint is a system of Concurrent Forces in equilibrium and hence follows the two
equations of Static Equilibrium and those are ΣFv = 0 and ΣFh=0. As there only two
equations we will have to start at a joint where there are not more than two unknowns.
This is the Support Joint in case of a Simple Supported Frame and the Free End in case of a
Cantilever Frame.
3. Draw this Joint. Assume directions of unknown forces towards the joint and show the
Vertical Component and Horizontal Component of each Force along with their Signs
4. Write down the equation for ΣFV = 0 and ΣFH=0 and Solve these simultaneously.
Fv = F x Sin θ or F x Vertical Distance/Hypotenuse. Fh = F x Cos θ or F x Horizontal
Distance/Hypotenuse
5. After Solving if the answer is positive, Assumed Direction is right and if answer is negative
assumed direction is wrong and needs to be reversed. Draw the correct directions in the
Master Diagram
6. Make a Table For Force, Magnitude and Type. Direction of a Force towards the Joint
means a Compressive Force and away from the joint means a Tensile Force.

Problem 1 Solve the Following Frame

Unit 2 Frames and Trusses 3 Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho;Er. Sujata Mehta
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1. Find Support Reactions

As the Frame is symmetrical VA = VB = (8 + 16 +16 +16 +8)/2 = 32kN
Before going ahead lets calculate the hypotenuse as √(1.5)²+ 2² = 2.5m
Also understand that a Vertical Force has O Horizontal Component
and a Horizontal Force has 0 Vertical Component

2. Start at the joint A as there are only two unknowns AC and AH. Draw the Joint, Assume
Unknown directions towards the joint and draw the components with the signs.
3. Draw the Joint
4. Write ΣFv = 0 and ΣFh=0
3. 1 ΣFv = 0 will give
+32 – 8 – Fac x 1.5/2.5 = 0
(Vertical Component of Fac = F x V.D/Hyp =
F ac x 1.5/2.5)
Hence Fac = 24 x 2.5/1.5 = 40kN

3. 2 ΣFh = 0 will give

-Fac x 2/2.5 – Fah = 0
(Horizontal Component of Fac = F x H.D/Hyp
= Fac x 2/2.5)
Fah = - 40 x 2/2.5 = -32kN
5. The answer for Fac is +ve so direction assumed is correct, while answer for Fah is negative so
assumed direction is wrong.
Draw the correct directions in the original Frame Sketch

(Herein I have also shown the Vertical, Horizontal and Hypotenuse distances)
3. 1 Let us take Joint H, Draw the directions of unknown forces towards the joint, show vertical
and horizontal components with their signs and solve for ΣFv = 0 and ΣFh = 0

1. ΣFv = 0 will give Fch = 0 ( as there is no other

vertical force)
2. ΣFh = 0 will give Fha = - Fhg. Hence Fhg = - 32kN, as
answer is negative, the direction will have to be reversed.

Unit 2 Frames and Trusses 3 Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho;Er. Sujata Mehta
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Note:
• When there are two horizontal members and one vertical member at a joint, the vertical
member has Zero Force. The Vertical Member is a Redundant Member carrying Zero Force and
has been put in place only to shorten the lengths of members. The Horizontal members have
same force magnitude but opposite direction forces
• When there are two vertical members and one horizontal member at a joint, the Horizontal
member has Zero Force. The Horizontal Member is a Redundant Member carrying Zero Force
and has been put in place only to shorten the lengths of members. The Vertical members have
same force magnitude but opposite direction forces.
• At a joint of 3 members, when there are two linear members and one member at right angle to
the other two members, the two linear members have same magnitude forces but opposite
directions and the member at right angles has Zero or Null Force.
5. Show the member forces and directions in the original frame

3. 1 Let us take Joint C, Draw the directions of unknown forces towards the joint, show vertical and
horizontal components with their signs and solve for
ΣFv = 0 and ΣFh = 0

1. ΣFv = 0 will give

(+40 x 1.5/2.5) -16 – (Fcd x 1.5/2.5) + (Fgc x 1.5/2.5)= 0
Fcd – Fgc = 13.33…………………I

2. ΣFh = 0
(40 x 2/2.5) –( Fcd x 2/2.5) – (Fgc x 2/2.5)=0
Fcd + fgc = 40………………......II

Solving I and II simultaneously

Fcd = 26.66kN and Fgc = 13.34kN

Unit 2 Frames and Trusses 3 Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho;Er. Sujata Mehta
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3. 2 Show the member forces and directions in the original frame

3. 1 Let us take Joint D (better than Joint G, as there are lesser number of Forces). Draw
the directions of unknown forces towards the joint, show vertical and horizontal components
with their signs and solve for ΣFv = 0 and ΣFh = 0
1. ΣFv = 0 will give
(+26.66 x 1.5/2.5) + (+26.66 x 1.5/2.5) -16+Fdg = 0
16 + 16 -16 = -Fdg
Fdg = - 16kN
As the answer is negative assumed direction is
wrong

Final Frame is as shown below

Unit 2 Frames and Trusses 3 Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho;Er. Sujata Mehta
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Tabular Results
Member Magnitude Type
AC, BE 40.00kN Compressive
AH, HG, GF,FB 32.00kN Tensile
CD,DE 26.66kN Compressive
CG,GE 13.34kN Compressive
DG 16.00kN Tensile
CH,EF 00.00kN Nil Force
2.5. Method of Sections:
Dis-advantages of Method of Joints:
• One of the major disadvantages of Method of Joints is that joints need to be successively solved
starting from a joint of not more than two unknowns, till all member forces are computed.
• One cannot find an intermediary member force directly
This disadvantage can be resolved by using Method of Sections
Actual Steps in Using This Method of Sections
1. Find Support Reactions
2. A Section is a line from outside the frame to outside the frame. The Members it cuts across are
the unbalanced members.
3. Take a Section across members whose forces are to be computed. Always try to draw a section
across least possible number of members.
4. We need to consider any one side of the Section either L.H.S or R.H.S. The Cut Members and
External Forces are Unbalanced Forces. Draw the direction of these unknown forces towards
the joint. Show Vertical Component and Horizontal component of all Unbalanced Forces with
their Signs
5. For computing Horizontal Unknown Members, use ΣM = 0 about the point of intersection of
remaining two forces.
6. For computing Vertical and Inclined Unknown Members, use ΣV = 0.
7. After Solving if the answer is positive, Assumed Direction is right and if answer is negative
assumed direction is wrong and needs to be reversed. Draw the correct directions in the Master
Diagram
8. Make a Table For Force, Magnitude and Type. Direction of a Force towards the Joint means a
Compressive Force and away from the joint means a Tensile Force.
Problem 2 For the frame shown below, calculate the forces in members CD, DG, HG, DH and CH.

Unit 2 Frames and Trusses 3 Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho;Er. Sujata Mehta
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1. Find Support Reactions. Since Frame is symmetrical VA = VB = 18 x 3/2 = 27kN

2. Draw Section XX as shown below through CD, DG and HG

1. I have redrawn the frame as below showing rhs in the first sketch and lhs in the second sketch
The Unbalanced Forces are Fdc, Fdh,
Fgh and external forces of 18kN, 18kN
and VB=27kN
I have shown their components with
the signs assuming direction of
unknowns towards the joint
• To find inclined member Fdh use rhs
and ΣV = 0
+Fdh x Sin 45 -18 -18 + 27 = 0
Fdh = +12.72kN
• To Find Horizontal Member Fdg use
ΣM = 0 @ D and use rhs. The
Remember Fdc, Fdh and 18kN (at point G) are passing through point D Hence their
moment is Zero. Clockwise moments are positive and anti-clockwise moments negative
-Fgh x 2 + 18 x 2 – 27 x 4 = 0. Hence Fgh = -36kN (Direction assumed is wrong)
• To Find Horizontal Member Fcd Use ΣM = 0 @ H and
use lhs (Components and their signs are shown assuming
direction of unknowns towards the joint)
Remember Fhd and Fhg and 18kN (at point H) are passing
through point H and their Moments are Zero
ΣM = 0 @ H
-Fdc x 2 + 27 x 2 = 0
Hence Fdc = 27kN

• To Find Force Fch take section YY as shown below

Unit 2 Frames and Trusses 3 Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho;Er. Sujata Mehta
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and consider lhs (easier than rhs).

To Find Vertical Members use ΣV = 0.
+ Fch + 27 = 0 Hence Fch = -27kN
(Direction assumed is wrong and needs to be reversed in the
Master Diagram)

• To Find Fdg take section zz as shown below and consider lhs

To find Vertical Member Fdg Use ΣV = 0 and consider lhs (Direction of unknown towards the joint)
+27 – 18 -18 -12.72 x Sin 45 – Fgd = 0
-9 -9 = Fgd. Hence Fgd = -18kN (Direction assumed is wrong and needs to be reversed)
Tabular Results
Member Magnitude Type
DH, DF 12.72kN Compressive
GH,GF 36.00kN Tensile
CH,EF 27.00kN Compressive
DC,DE 27.00kN Compressive
DG 18.00kN Tensile
Final Frame is as shown below.

Unit 2 Frames and Trusses 3 Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho;Er. Sujata Mehta
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Note:
• It can be easily seen that to calculate an intermediate member of a Truss, it would be easier and
faster to use Method of Sections.
• However the method is good and easily used for the N Girder kind of truss.
2.6. Effects of Horizontal Forces on a Truss:
1. Consider the
following frame with
only vertical loads. The
effect of the vertical
loads will be in creation
of Vertical reactions at
A and B.

2. VA = VB = 20Kn
3. Now consider a
horizontal force of 80kN
acting at Point D.
ΣFH=0 gives HB = 80kN
ΣFM=0 about A will give
(10 x 2) + (10 x 4) + (10 x
6) + (5 x 8) + (160 x 2) =
VB x 8
Hence VB = 60kN
VA + VB = 40kN, Hence
VA = 40 – 60 = -20kN. This means that the Truss have a downward reaction at Point A which is a
Roller Support.
4. Thus the Truss will
over- turn w.r.t A
One of the ways to
prevent this overturning
would be to interchange
the supports. I.e. Make
A an Hinge Support
and B a Roller Support

Unit 2 Frames and Trusses 3 Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho;Er. Sujata Mehta
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For Light Weight Roofing and Truss Materials, the Horizontal Effect of the Wind Load is
prominent. Hence Uplift or Over Turning becomes Critical

Wind Load acting Outward or Upward (Sucking Condition) Over Turns Trusses.
So in the Design of Trusses, Angle of the Truss, Support Conditions and Geometry become
important criteria.
Problem 3 Find Forces in members EH, EF, EC, ED, CB and CD

I am going to use both methods.

• First by Method of Joints I will resolve Joint H. Joint H is the only joint with Two Unknowns
namely EH and FH. V.D = 2.5m, H.D = 2.0m, Hyp = √(22) +(2.52) =3.2m
 ΣV = 0 will give –Feh x 2.5/3.2 – 18 = 0
Hence Feh =- 23.04kN Tension
(Assumed direction is wrong)Feh is in Tension
 ΣH = 0 will give +Feh x 2/3.2 + Ffh = 0
Hence -23.04 x 2/3.2 = -Ffh . Ffh = 14.4kN Comp.
(The problem has not asked for this member to be
solved)
You can also observe Joint F and Understand that Fef
has to balance 18kN Downward Load and Ffd has to
balance Ffh . Hence Fef = 18kN Tension
Ffd = Ffh = 14.4kN Tension
• Let us draw the whole frame again and mark the forces we know. Also I have marked the
unknowns at Joint E, their components assuming directions towards the joint E

Unit 2 Frames and Trusses 3 Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho;Er. Sujata Mehta
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• Solve Joint E
 ΣV = 0 will give
-18 – (23.04 x 2.5/3.2) -18 + (Fed x 2.5/3.2) = 0. Hence Fed = + 69.12kN Compressive
 ΣH = 0 will give
+Fec + (23.04 x 2/3.2) + (Fed x 2/3.2) = 0
+Fec + 14.4 + 43.2 = 0 Hence Fec = - 57.6kN Tension.

Let us draw all the members we know into the frame now

A little consideration will show that at Joint C Fcd has to be 18kN upwards i.e. Compressive to match
the 18kN load coming down and Fcb has to match Fce
Hence Fcb = 57.6kN Tensile and Fcd = 18kN Compressive.
• To find member Fbd let us take section zz and consider rhs

The Unbalanced forces on rhs are Fcd, Fda, and Fdb in addition to all external loads as shown
 ΣV = 0 will give
(-Fdb x 2.5/3.2) -18 -18 -18 -18 -18 = 0
Hence Hdb = -115.2kN Tensile
Unit 2 Frames and Trusses 3 Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho;Er. Sujata Mehta
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Have you noticed?

In the First two frames which are simple supported, top members are in compression and
bottom Members are in Tension similar to the action on a Simple Supported Beam

In the last frame which is a Cantilever the top members are in Tension and the Bottom
Members are in Tension similar to the action on a Cantilever Beam.

Member Magnitude Type

EH 23.04kN Tensile
HF,FD 14.40kN Compressive
FE 18.00kN Tensile
DC,DE 27.00kN Compressive
DG 18.00kN Tensile

Suggested Theory Questions: Unit 2

1. Explain in Brief Lattice Construction, Frames and Trusses
2. Define a Perfect Truss giving an Example
3. Define an Imperfect Truss and give the example of a Deficient Frame
4. Define an Imperfect Truss and give the example of a Redundant Frame
5. What are the different Methods of Solving a frame? What are the assumptions in the
Solution of Frames?

Unit 2 Frames and Trusses 3 Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho;Er. Sujata Mehta