PRI

MARYSIXBASICSCIENCE ANDHEALTH
EDUCATIONLESSONNOTES
TERM I
.

THEME:THEWORLDOFLIVI
NGTHINGS
TOPI
C:CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFLIVI
NGTHI
NGS

CONTENT
Charact eri
sti
csofl i
vi
ngt hings
THEYFEED
Ø Var i
ous l iv
ingt
hingsf eedi
ndif
fer
entway sie
Organism Modeoff eeding Typesof nutri
ti
Fungi l
ikey east,moulds, mushrooms, Saprophy t
icall
y Saprophy
ticnut
ri
puffbal
lset c
Parasit
esl iketapewor ms, hook Parasi
ticall
y Par
asi
ti
cnut
ri
ti
on
worms, ti
cks, l
ice,mites et c
Plants Autotr
ophi cal
ly Aut
otr
ophi
cnut
ri
Theymaket heirownf oodbythehel
p
ofsunli
ght
Animals Hetetr
ophi cal
ly Het
erot
rophi
cnu
- SomeHet erotrophical
l
yani
mals
feeddi r
ectl
yonal r
eadymade
foodbypl antsi eherbi
vor
es,
omni vones, carniv
ores

DIFFERENCES I NFEEDI
NGBETWEENPLANTSANDANI
MALS
Pl
ants Ani
mal s
Theymaket hei
rownfoodbyt
hehel
pofsunl
i
ght Thefeedonal
readymadef
oodbypl
(Autotr
ophi
call
y) )

THEYGROW.
Ø Whati sgrowth?
Ø I tref
erstoi
ncreasei
nhei
ghtandsizeofanor
gani
sm.
DIFFERENCESI NGROWTHBETWEENANI MALSANDPLANTS
Animals Plant
s
Growthoccursequal
l
yonallpar
tsofthebody Growthoccur
sonl
yatt
het
ipsofr
oot

Ø Repr
oduct
ionist
heprocessbywhi
chli
vingor
gani
smsmult
ipl
yori
ncr
ease
innumbersast
heygivebi
rt
htoyoungones(
off
spri
ng)
 MOVE
Mainly livi
ngorgani smsl i
keanimalsmov e(l
ocomote)t
odi
ff
erent
pl
acesf orsomer easons.
Reasonwhyani mal smov efrom oneplacet oanot
her
Ø Tol ookforfood(past ure)andwat er.
Ø Tol ookf orshel
ter
Ø Tor unawayf r
om t heirenemies(protecti
on)
Ø Tol ookf ormates( format i
ng)
Ø Looki ngf orthei
ry oungones.
THEYEXCRETE
Excr
eti
onist heremov alofwast eproductsf r
om thebody.

WHYDOLI VI
NGTHINGSEXCRETE?
Togetr
idofwast
eproduct
sfr
om t
hei
rbodi
es.

THEYRESPI RE
Respir
ati
onisthepr
ocessbywhichthebodyusesf
oodandoxy
gent
orel
ease
energy,
carbondi
oxi
deandwatervapour
Howdoor ganismsbenef
itf
rom r
espir
ati
on?
Theygetenergy

TYPESOFRESPI RATION
i
)Aerobi
crespirati
on
i
sthetypeofrespirati
onwhi
chinv
olvesuseofoxy
gen
i
i)Anaer
obicrespir
ation
i
sthetypesofrespirati
onwhi
chdoesnti
nvol
veuseofoxy
gen

THEYRESPONDTOSTI MULI
Ani
malsandpl
antresponddi
ffer
ent
lytoci
rcumstancesint
heenv
ironmentf
or
sur
viv
al,
examplesofsti
muli
touch,heat
,li
ght,
pain, gr
avi
ty,
wateret
c

Li
vi
ngthi
ngsaredi
vi
dedi
ntof i
vekingdomsnamely;
· AnimalKi
ngdom
· PlantKingdom
· Prokaryotal
(Bact
eri
aKingdom)
· Protocti
sta(si
nglecel
l
edor gani
sms)
· Fungi Ki
ngdom

Ani
mal Ki
ngdom
CLASSIFICATI ONOFANI MALS
whytocl assif
yani mals?
Animalsar eclassi
fiedforeasyi
denti
fi
cati
on
Foreasyst udy.
Charact
er i
sti
csusedf orcl
assi
fyi
nganimals
- Ext ernalfeaturessuchascolour,si
ze,shapenumberofl
egs,
hai
ront
he
bodyet c
 - Thei
rdi
ff
erentmodesofr
epr
oduct
ion,
respi
rat
ion and mov
ement

Ani
mal
sar eclassif
iedi
ntot
wogr
oups
· Ver
tebrat
es
· Invert
ebrates

Ver
tebr
ates

Vert
ebratesar eanimalswi thabackbone/ v
ertebr
alcol
umn(
spi
ne)
- Thebackbonepr ot
ectsthespinalcord.
- Allverterbrateshavean endoskel eton
Groupsofv ertebrat
es
Vert
ebratesar eclassif
iedintof
ivegroups;
· Mammal s
· Birds
· Reptiles
· Fish
· Amphi bians

Ver
tebr
atesarealsogrouped basingonthebodyt
emper
atur
e;
i.Warm bl
ooded(homoeot her
mic)
ii
. Coldblooded(poiki
l
other
mic)

Warm bl
ooded
i) Mammal s
ii
) Bi
rds
Col
dblooded
i) Fi
sh
ii
) Rept
il
es
ii
i) Amphi bi
ans

MAMMALS
Mammalsar
ev er
tebr
ateswhi
chhav
emammar
ygl
andsandsuckl
eyoungones
onbr
eastmi
lk

Char
act
eri
sti
csofmammal s
· Mammal sarewarm bl
ooded
· Mostoft hem furonthei
rbodies
· Mostoft hem givebi
rtht
oliv
ingyoungones.
· Theyf eedthei
ryoungonesonbr eastmi
l
k
 · Theybr
eathet
hroughthel
ungs.
· Thei
rhear
tsar
edividedi
ntof
ourchamber
s

Gr
oupsofmammal s
· Pri
mat es(mostadv anced/ f
ingeredmammal
s)
· Ungul at
es(hoofedmammal s)
· Car nivorousmammal s(fl
esheat er
s)
· Rodent s(gnawingmammal s)
· I nsectiv
orous(i
nsecteaters)
· Pouchedmammal s( marsupial
s)
· Fl yi
ngmammal s( chir
optera)
· Eggl ayi
ngmammal s(monot r
emes)
· Seamammal s(cetaceans)

Pri
mat es(fingeredmammal s)
Thesear ethemostadv ancedgr oupofmammal s.
Characteri
stics
· Theyhav ewelldevel
opedbr ain
· Theyusef r
ontlimbsforholdingandhi ndl i
mbsf orwal
king.
· Theyhav efi
vefinger
soneachhandandf ivetoesoneachf oot.
· Theyar eomni vorousi.
e.theyf eedonbot hfleshandvegetables.
· Theyhav ewelldevel
opedsetofal l
thef ourtypesoft
eethi.e.inci
sor
s,
canines,premolarsandmol ar s(32teeth)

Examplesofpr
imates
Man,monkeys, gori
l
las,
baboon,bushbaby,
chimpanzee,
etc.
Theter
mt odescr
ibegori
ll
as,
baboons,bushbabi
es,chi
mpanzeesi
sapes

Ungulat
es(hoof
edmammal s)
Al
lmammal sinthisgr
oupar eher
biv
orousi.
e.t
heyf
eedonv
eget
ati
on.
Ungulat
esaredivi
dedint
ot wosub-groups
i
) Eventoedungulates
i
i
) Oddtoedungulates

Event oedungulat
es
Theyi ncl
ude;Okapi
,deer,pigs, cat
tl
e,gi
raf
fe,sheep,
ant
elopes,
hippopotamus
Event oedungulat
esarefur thersubdivi
dedint
ot wo;
i) Ruminants
ii
) Nonruminants
Rumi nants
Thesear eungulat
eswithf ourst omachsandchewcuds.Mostoft hem have
hornswhi cht
heyusef orpr otecti
on.
Exampl es
· Cat t
le
 · Goat s
· Sheep
· Camel
Ant
elopeet
c

Nonr
uminant
s
· Thesear
eungulat
eswhichdonotchewcudbuthaveacompletedent
it
ion.
· Theyhav
ewelldevel
opedcani
neswhicht
heyuseforpr
otect
ion

Examplesincl
ude;
Pigs,
hippopot
amus,war
thog.

Oddtoedungul
ates
Thenumberoftoesisal
waysoneort
hreet
oese.
g.onei
nhor
se,
donkey
,Zebr
a
andthr
eeinel
ephantandRhi
no.

Carniv
orousmammal s
Character
ist
icsofcarniv
orousanimal s
· Theyar estrongmammal s
· Theyhav ewel l
dev el
opedcaninet eethfort
eari
ngfleshofthei
rprey.
· Theyhav esharpclawsf orhol
di ng,kil
li
ngandtear
ingthei
rprey.
· Theyhav eav erygoodspeed, goodsenseofsmel l,keeneyesi
ghtandgood
heari
ng,sotheyevenhuntatni ght
· Thei rf
eethavesoftpadst her
efor etheycanrunaft
erthei
rpreywithout
makingnoise.

Car
niv
orousmammalsaredi
videdint
otwof amil
ies;
a)Dogfamil
y— Facer esemblesthatofadog
b)Catf
amily— faceresemblesthatofacat.

Examplesoft hedogf amilyinclude;Domesticdog,hyena,jackal

,foxetc
Examplesoft hecatfami l
yinclude;li
on,l
eopard,ti
ger,cheetah,mangoose,
domesticcat .
Somecar nivorousarescav engerse.g.hyena,j
ackal
.
Gnawingmammal s(Rodent s)
· Thesear emammal swhi chhav ewelldevel
opedincisorsusedf orbi
ti
ngand
chewingpower ful
lyandr apidl
y.
· Theydonthav ecanines.
· Mostr odentsareherbi
v ores(vegetar
ians)

Exampl esincl
ude;
Rats,squi
rrel
s,mice,
rabbi
ts,har
es,porcupi
nes,guineapigs
andmol es.
Insecteatingmammals( i
nsecti
vor
es)
· Thesear emammal swhichfeedoninsects.
· Theyhav easensi
ti
vesnout f orsmell
ingandstrongclawsfordigging.
· Theyar
enocturnali
.e.t
heymov eandhuntatnightandsleepduri
ngday.
· Exampl
esincl
ude;Hedgehog,el
ephantshrew,Aardvar
k,antbeare.
t.
c
· Ahedgehogisananimal wi
thspinesoni
tsbody .Whenthreat
ened,i
trol
l
s
i
tsel
fupint
oabal l
.

Fl
yingmammal s(chiropt era)
Batsaretheonlytruef lyingmammal s.
Theyhaveaf oldskinat tachedt othefor eli
mbwhi chactaswi ngs.
Therearethreemai nty pesofbat s;
a)Insecteati
ngbat s: Thesearehel pfult
omanbecauset heyeatmany
harmf uli
nsectsl ikemosqui toes.
b)Fruiteati
ngbat s: -Thesear edanger ousbecauset heyeatourfr
uit
s.
c)Bloodsuckingbat s(vampires)theysuckbl oodfrom l
argeanimalsli
ke
horses,cows, buf faloesetc.batsar enoct
ur nal
i.
e.theymov eandhuntat
nightandsleepdur i
ngday .Theycanf indtheirf
oodatni ghti
ncomplete
darknessbyusi ngechoesf rom thesoundt heyproduce.

Pouchedmammal s(marsupi
als)
Examplesoft
heseincl
ude;Kangaroo,
Koal
abearandWal
l
abi
es
Marsupial
sar
efoundinAustral
iaandsout
hAmerica.

Eggl
ayi
ngmammal s( monot r
emes)
· Thesear ethemostpr i
miti
veint heclassofmammal sbecause;
· Theyr esemblebi r
dsandr ept
ilesinthattheyl
ayeggsandal sohav ebeaks
si
milart othoseofbi rds.
· Theyhav echaracteri
sticsofbirds,mammal sandreptil
es.
· Monot remesar eregar dedasmammal sbecausetheyfeedthei
ry oungones
onmi lkfrom themammar yglandsandf orthecar
et heygi
vetot heiry
oung
onesaf terhatchi
ng.
· Exampl esinclude;theduckbi l
ledplatypusandthespinyanteater(echina)of
Australi
a

Seamammal s(cetaceans)
· Thesearemammal swhi chl iv
ei nthesea.
· Theydonthav egillsbutt heybr eathebymeansofl ungs
· Theyhaveal ayeroff atsundert heski
ncalledblubbertokeepthem war
m.
· Theyhaveahi ghl evelofi ntel
li
gencenexttopr i
mates
· Theyhavemammar yglands
· Theygi
v ebi
rtht olivi
ngy oungonesandsuckl ethem onmilkfr
om the
mammaryglands.
· Mostseamammal shav ef ur.
Exampl
esincl
ude; Bluewhal e, Sperm whale,porpoi
sesseals,dol
phinse.
t.
c
BI
RDS
Char
act
eristi
csofbi rds
· Thei
rbodi esarest r
eaml i
nedi .e.poi
ntedatthefrontandback.
· Thei
rbodi esarecov eredwi thfeatherswhichtheymoul tev
eryy
ear.
· Thei
rbonesar ehollowi .
e.donothav ebonemar row.
· Theyhav escalesont heirlegs
· Theyarewar m blooded
· Theybreathebymeansofl ungs
· Thei
rfrontlimbsar emodi fiedaswi ngs
· Theyhav enot eethbuthav ehor nybeaks.
· Thei
rey eshav ethreelidsthel ower,upperandnictat
ingmembrane.
· Theylayshelledeggswhi char efert
il
izedint
ernal
ly
· Theycar eforthei
ry oungones.
· Manyoft hem canf ly.

Externalfeatur
esofabi r
d
Features,ali
mentarycanalofabi
rd,r
epr
oduct
ioni
nbir
d
ReferstoP. 5(ter
m work)
· Feedi nghabi t
sinbir
ds
· Bi rdshav enoteeth
· Theyhav eahor nybeak
· Theshapeoft hebeakvari
eswit
hthety
peofthef
oodeat
en.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofbirds
· Bir
dshaveanumberofspeci aladaptati
onfeat
ures.
· Theyar
egr oupedaccordi
ngtothetypeabeakandf eet(
claws)theyhav
e.
· Somebirdsaregroupedaccordi
ngt othety
peoff oodtheyeat.

Someoft hegr oupsar e;

· Bi rdsofpr ey
· Per chingbi rds
· Scr atchingbi r
ds
· Swi mmi ngbi r
ds
· Wadi ngbi rds
· Fl ightless( walki
ng)birds
· Cl imbi ngbi rds
· Scav engerbi r
ds
1.Bi
rdsofpr ey
· Theyar ecar nivorousbirdsthathuntandki l
ltheirpr ey.e.g.rats,f
ish,mice,
l
i
zard,chi ckene. t.
c
· Theyhav est rongey esighttospott hei
rpreyev enwhent heyar eflyi
ng
· Theyhav est rongshar p,hookedbeaksf ortearingt hepr ey.
· Theyhav est rongshar pcurvedtalons(claws)forgr ippi
ngandki l
li
ngt heprey.
Examplesi nclude; Hawks, eagl
es,secretar
ybirds,owl s, kit
es,falcons, ki
ngfisher
et
c

Struct
ureofthebeakandclaws
Perchingbir
ds
Thesear ebi
rdswhichhavethr
eetoespoi
ntedf
orwar
dandonetoepoi
nted
backward. Thenat ur
eofthetoest
heyhavear
esuit
abl
eforper
chi
ngontree
branches

Typesofperchingbirds
i
) Seedeat er
s
Thesehaveshor tstr
ongconicalbeakssui
tabl
eforbr
eaki
ngupseedse.
g.pi
geon,
doves,
weav erbirdsfi
nchesetc

St
ruct
ureoft
hebeakandf
oot

i
i
) Insecteaters
Theyhavest outnarrowbeaksforpickinguptheinsect
sfrom t
hebarkoftr
ees.
Examplesinclude;Sparrows,
robbins,swall
ows,andswift
,beeeat
ersetc.
Swall
owsandswi ftshaveshortandwi deopenbeakswhichhelpt
hem tocatch
i
nsectsevenwhenf lyi
ng.

i
i
i) Honeysucker/nect
areat
er
Thosehavet
hinl
ongbeakswhicharesl
i
ght
lycur
ved.
Exampl
e,Thesunbi
rd.

St
ruct
ureoft
hebeak

Fruiteater
Thosehav ealongst
outbeakf
orcol
l
ect
ingf
rui
ts
Exampl e,Hor
nbil
l
Structur
eofthebeak

Scrat
chingbir
ds
· Thesebi r
dsfeedonseedsandi nsect
swhichtheyfindbyscr
atchi
ngtheear
th.
· Theyhav eshort,
strong,fi
rm poi
ntedbeaksforpi
ckingupthi
ngsfrom t
he
gr
ound.
· Theyhav estr
ongf eetwiththi
cktoesandbluntnai
ls.
· Theycanwal keasily
· Theirbodyisheavyandwi ngsareweak.
Examplesincl
ude;domest i
cfowlsi.
e.chi
cken,tur
key,
guineafowl
.

St
ruct
ureoft
hebeakandf
oot
Swi
mmi ngbi r
ds
· Theyhav ewebbedf eetwhichactlikepaddl
es
· Theyhav ebr oadbreastbone.
· Theirskinhasmanyoi lgl
andswhi chproduceoi l
topr ot
ectthei
rbodyagai
nst
water.
· Theyhav ebeakswi t
hsmall cr
osspl at
esont hemar ginswhichhel
pthem t
o
si
evef oodf r
om t hemud.
· Exampl esinclude;Ducks,
swans, geese,penguins,seagull
s,pel
i
cans

Str
uctureofthef oodandbeak
Fl
ight
lessbirds
· Thesear ebi r
dswhi char eunabl etof l
ybutcanr unv eryf
ast.
· Theyhav eweakandsmal lwingscompar edt othebodysi ze.
· Anost ri
chi sthelargestandf astestfl
ightl
essbir d.I
trunsfasterthanahorse
Examplesinclude;Kiwi,pengui ns,ostri
ches,emu, rhea, andcassowar y.
Cli
mbingbirds
· Theyhav et wot oespoi ntedforwar dandot hertwobackwar ds.
· Thisarrangementhel pst hem inclimbingtol ookf orseedsandi nsects.
· Theyl i
veint r
eesandr unaboutonbr anchesoft rees.
· Exampl esinclude;Apar r
ot,awoodpecker .

Thest
ruct
ureoft
hebeakandf
oot

Scavengerbir
ds
· Thesebi r
dsfeedonrottenf l
eshkill
edbyot herani
mals,r
ott
enmeatandf
ish.
· Theyusual l
yhavebeakssi milart
othoseofbi r
dsprey.
· Theyar euseful
becauset heyclearmostoft hedeaddecayi
ngmatt
erwhi
ch
mayotherwisebeasour ceofmanydi seases.
Examplesincl
ude;vul
tur
e,crow, andmar aboustorketc

Thewaysinwhi chbirdsareadapt edforfl

ying
· Theyar estreamlinedtoreducef r
ict
ionsot hattheycanmov ethroughair
easil
y.
· Theyhav ehol l
owboneswhi chreducewei ghtandtheirbackbonesar e
fused(joined)togivethem rigi
dit
y.
· Theyhav est r
ongat t
achmentoft heirpower f
ulandst r
ongfrontmuscles
whichar eusedf ormov i
ngwi ngs
· Theirforelimbsar emodifi
edi nt
owi ngs
· Theyhav enopi nnat oabstr
acttheflowofai r.
· Theyhav egoodey esightt
oseewel lf
rom longdistancesandjudgethe
dist
anceaccur ately
· Theyhav eani cti
tati
ngmembr anewhichcov ertheeyeandpr otectt
hem
 agai
nstmov i
ngairduringfl
ight.
· Thei
rbodiesarecoveredwi t
hfli
ghtfeat
her
s.
· Theyhaveaquickdigestiv
esy stem

NB:
somedomest
icf
owlsareunabl
etof
lyhi
ghbecauset
heyhav
eal
otofbone
mar
rowwhi
chmakethem heav
y.

Adv
antagesofbi rds
· Theyar esourcesoff ood
· Thef eathersareusedf ordecorati
onslike hats,suit
s,handbagsinstaf
fi
ng
mattress
· Bonesar eusedf ormaki ngglue.
· Somebi r dskeptf orcustomar ypurposeli
kemaki ngsacri
ficesandpayi
ng
dowr y.
· Theyar esourceofi ncomet ofarmers.
· Theyat t
racttourist
· Somebi r dspoll
inatef l
owerslikethesunbirds,t
heypolli
natewhencoll
ecti
ng
nectar.
· Somehel ptocleanourenv i
ronmentl i
kethev ul
tures,
crowsandmar abou
stor
ks.

Di
sadvant
agesofbirds
· Manybirdsdamageourcrops.
· Somebi r
dscauseacci
denttorunwaysattheai
rpor
t.
· Theymakeal otofnoi
sel
ikeweaverbi
rds

REPTI
LES
Mostr
ept
il
esar
eav
ipar
ousani
mal
si.
e.t
heyl
ayeggs

Characteri
sticsofrept i
les
· Theyar ecol dbloodedani mal s
· Theybr eathebymeansofl ungs
· Thei rskiniscov eredwi t
hscal es
· Thei rteetharesi mil
ar
· Theyhav eat hreechamber ed hear ti.
e.twoaaur i
clesandoneventr
icl
e
· Theyhav ef ourli
mbswi thclawsapar tfr
om asnake
· Theyhav eext er
nal ears.Thet ympani cmembr ane(
eardrum)isusual
ly
si
tuatedbel owt hesurfaceoft hebody .
· Theyl ayeggswhi char eferti
lizedinternal
ly.Theshel
lsofeggsareeit
her
l
eatheryorqui tehar dmadeofcal cium carbonate.
· Theyusual lydontlookaf tertheiryoungones.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofr
ept
il
es
Repti
lesar
edividedintothef ol
l
owinggroups
i
) Snakes
i
i
) Li
zards
i
i
i) Tur tl
es,t
ortoises,
andt err
api
ns
i
v) Cr ocodil
esandAl igator
s

Snakes
· Theyhav enol i
mbs
· Theyar ecarnivorousani mals
· Thei reyesar ewithoutey elidsbuteachey eisprotect
edbyai mmov able
tr
anspar entmembr ane
· Theyhav eaf orkedt onguewhi chactsasasenseor ganforsmel landtaste.
· Theyhav eal ar
genumberofr ibsandv ert
ebrat
es.
· Theyshed( moult)theirskinafteracertai
nperi
od.
· Thei rbackwar dpoint edteethpreventthepreyfr
om escapi ngfrom the
mout h.
· Somesnakehav epoi sonfangswhi chhav eadeepcanal throughwhi ch
poisonpasses.
· Ther i
bsandl argescal esont heundersideoftheirbodyalsohel pthem t
o
mov e.
· Theyhi deormov eawaywhendi st
urbed.

Classi
fi
cat
ionofsnake
Snakesaregroupedint
othreemai
ngr
oupsnamel
y;
· Poisonoussnakes
· Constri
ctors
· Non-poisonoussnakes

Poisonoussnakes
Theyhav etwol ongteethcall
edf angsnearthef r
ontofthemout ht
oinj
ect
venom.
Exampleofpoi sonoussnakest heCobr a(whichbite/spi
tpoison)
· Mamba( black/gr
een)
· Puf fudder/ ni
ghtudder
· Vi per
Nonpoi sonoussnakes
· Thesedonothav efangsandt hesnakev enom poi son.
· Theyhav esolidunif
ormt eeth.

Constr
ict
ors
Thesetypeofsnakeski
l
lthei
rpr
eybycrushi
ngandsuf
focat
ingt
hem usi
ng
muscles.
Constr
ict
orsli
ckthei
rpr
eytomakethei
rsmoothandsl
ipper
y.

Exampl
esofconst
ri
ctor
s
 · ThePython
· Anaconda
· Boaconstr
ict
or

Fi
rstaidfort hesnakebi t
e
· Appl yblackst oneont heinjuredpar ttosuckt hepoi
sonaf t
ermakingcuts
· St ayquietandr estthebittenpar tsot hatt
hev enom doesnotspread.
· Tieabandage/ tourni
quetbet weent hehear tandthebitt
enparttolimitt
he
f
lowofpoi sonedbloodt ot heheart.
· Cutbet weent hefangmar ksandsuckoutt hev enom i
fyoudonothav e
woundsi nt hemout h.
· Taket hev i
cti
mt othenear estheal t
huni tt
or ecei
veantivenom i
njecti
on.
Howt otell
t hataper sonhasbeenbi t
tenbypoi sonoussnake.
I
tleavestwof angmar ksont hebi t
tenar eathroughwhichsomebl oodoozesout.

LI
ZARDS
Theyhavefourl i
mbsandt
ail
whi
chcangr
owwheni
tscut
.
Examplesoflizards
· Sinks
· Geckos
· Chamel eons
· Agamal i
zards
· Moni t
orlizards
· Iguanal i
zards

Chameleonsareslowmov i
ngrepti
l
eswhichpr
otectt
hemsel
vesbychangi
ng
col
our.(
camouf l
aging)
Theyusetheirl
ongst i
ckytonguestocapt
uret
hei
rprey.
Theyhatchthei
reggsi nsi
dethebodyandlayy
oungones

Tor
toi
ses,turt
les,terr
apins
· Thesear erepti
lesthathavehardshell
sont heirbacks
· Turt
lesandt errapi
nshav ethei
rfeetmodi
fiedintofli
pper
sforswi
mmi
ngi
n
water.
· Tort
oisesmov ebywal ki
ngusingthei
rstr
ongl egs.
· Theyalllaytheireggsinsandont hebankofwat er
.

Di
agram showi
ngt
or t
oiseandat
urtl
e
NB:t
ortoi
sehaver
aisedshell
swhi
letur
tl
eshav
efl
atshel
l
s,

Cr
ocodi
lesandall
igat
or s
· Theyarethel
argestofr ept
il
es
· Theyli
veinwaterandcomeoutt osleepinthesandoftheriv
erbanks.
· Theyhavestr
ongt ail
sforswimmi ngandattacki
ngthei
renemi es/
prey
· Theyhaverowsoft eethinthei
rlongjawsforgri
ppi
ngtheirprey
· Theyproducebyl
ayi
ngeggswhi
char
ebur
iedundersandatt
hebankofl
akes
orri
ver
s.

Di
agr
am
I
mportanceofr eptil
estoman
· Theyhav egoodski nswhichi sf ormakingdrums,bel
ts,andshoes.
· Thei rskinscanbesol dast rophiestogetincome/money .
· Theyar esour cesoffoodtoman.
· Somer eptil
eslikegeckosandl izardshelptoeati
nsectvector
sli
ke
mosqui toesi nthehouses.
· Theyar eusedf orst
udyandr esear ch
· Somel i
kecr ocodil
esactastour istatt
racti
on.
FI
SH
Fi
shbelongst othegr oupofvert
ebr atescall
edpisces

Character
isti
csoff i
sh
· Theyl iveinwater
· Theybr eathethroughgi l
ls
· Theyl ayeggswhi chhat chintofi
res
· Theireggsar efert i
li
zedbyt hemal efr
om outsidet
hef
emal
esbody
.Inwat
er
(
externalfer
ti
li
zation)
· Mosthav escalesont heirbodyexceptcatt
lef
ish.
· Theyhav efi
nsf orswi mmi ngandpr ot
ecti
on
· Theyar ecoldbl oodedv er t
ebrat
es
· Theyf eedonpl ant sandani malsinwater.

Thest
ruct
ureoft
hef
ish

Functi
onsofpartsofafi
sh
Typesoffi
sh
Therearet
hreetypesoffi
sh
· Bonnyf i
sh
· Cart
il
aginousfi
sh
· Lungfish

Bonnyf
ish
Exampl
esofbonnyf i
share;Ni
leperch,
Tilapi
a,herri
ngs,t
rout,
salmons.
· Theyhavenoey eli
ds.
· Theyhaveswim bladderwhi
chhelpst okeepthem buoyantinwater
.
· Thei
rgil
lsareprot
ectedbygil
lcoveroroperculum
· Thei
rbodiesarecoveredbyoverl
appingscales.

Car
ti
lagi
nousf
ish
· Thei
rskini
stoughandshi nny
· Theyhavegi
ll
sslitsi
nsteadofgi ll
cover
.
· Theyhavemostlycart
il
agei nsteadofbonesi
nthei
rskel
etons
· Theydonothaveswi m bladder.
Exampl
esofcart
il
aginousfish
· Dogfish
· Skat es
· Ray s

Lungfish
· Theybr eat
hethroughgill
sinwaterandbyswi m bl
adderwhengi
l
lscannot
suppl
yenoughoxy gen.
· Theyl i
veindir
typools,swampsorriver
s.
· Theyhav elongandt hi
npelvi
candpectoral
fins.
· Theyhi ber
nateindryseasons.

Examplesoflungfi
sh
Thecommonl ungf
ish/
mamba
· Epicer
atodus
· Diponi

Br
eathi
ngi nfi
sh
· Fi
shbr eatheindissol
vedox ygeni nwat er.
· Wat ercontai
ningoxygenmov esthrought hemout handpassesoutovert
he
gi
llswhichabsor btheoxygeni nthewat er.
· Gill
rackerstrapsoli
dpart
iclesordi rttopr eventdamaget othegil
l
s.
· Thegi l
lbarsarespreadoutt hegill
st opr eventinter
locki
ng.
· Gill
fil
ament saremanyinor dert ogivelar gesurfaceareatoabsor
balotof
oxygendissolvedinwaterforr espir
ation.

Di
agr
am

Howisfishadapt edtol i
vinginwat er?
· It
sst r
eaml i
nedbodyhel psi ttomov eeasilyi
nwat er
· Finshelpittomov einwat erandst opitfrom rol
l
ing.
· Theyhav egillsforbreathinginwat er.
· Theyhav elaterall
inet odetectsoundwav es(hearing)ordanger.
· Theirscalesandcol ourpr ov i
depr otecti
on.
· It
sslipperyscalepr otect
si tfrom pr edat
orsandhel psinreduci
ngv i
scosi
ty
(f
rict
ioninwat er)
· Somehav eelectri
cor ganswhi chgi veouthighvoltageofelect
ri
cshocktoits
enemy .
· Somef ishinjectpoisoni ntothei renemies.

Usesoff
isht
oman
· Theyarekeptaspet si
naquari
um fordecoration
· Thei
rbonesar eusedt
omakegl ue
· Theyaresourcesofemploy
mente. g.fi
shmonger
s.
· Theycanbeusedf orr
esearchandl ear
ning.
· Somear eusedasmedici
nee. g.si
lverf
ish.

AMPHIBIANS
Thesear
ecoldbl
oodedv
ert
ebr
atest
hatcanl
i
vebot
hinwat
erandonl
and

Characteri
sticsofamphi bians
· Theyar ecol dbl oodedv ert
ebrates
· Theyr epr oducebyl ayi
ngeggs
· Theyundergoext ernalferti
li
zati
oni.
e.themaleshedssper
msont
heeggs
outsi
det hef emal esbodyast heyarebeingl
aidi
nwater.
· Theyhav enoext ernalearlobes.
· Thei reggsar eusual l
ylaidineggspawns.
· Theyhav escal elessskin
· Thei rhear ti
sthreechamber ed.

Examplesofamphi
bians
Frogs,
toads,
Newts,
salamander
,axol
oti
s,ef
tse.
t.
c

Di
ff
erencesbetweenaf r
ogandat oad
· Frogsmost l
yliveinwat erwhiletoadsmostlyliv
eonl and.
· Frogshav esmoot hslipperyskinswhil
etoadshav ewar t
yroughski
ns.
· Toadslayeggsi nlongr ibbonspawnswhi l
et oadslayeggsinmassspawns.
· Frogshav eful
lywebbedhi ndfeetwhil
etoadshav epartl
ywebbedfeet.
· Frogscanbr eathethrought hei
rlungsandmoi stskinwhilet
oadsbreat
he
throughthei
rlungs.
· Tadpolesoff r
ogsar ebr ownwhi l
eoftoadsar eblack.

Feedi
nginfr
ogs
· Theyfeedonsmalli
nsectsandworms
· Theyusethei
rlongst
ickytonguest
otr
apt
hei
rpr
ey.

Reproducti
oninamphi bians
· Themal eandfemal emate.
· Thef emalelayseggsandt hemal eshedsspermsovert
hem tofer
ti
li
zet
hem
(
externalf
erti
l
izati
on).
· Theeggsdev elopandafteraboutt woweekshatchi
ntotadpol
es.
· Thet adpolesundergosev eralchangestoful
l
ydevel
opintoanadult
.
· Thistakesaboutt hreemont hs.

Di
agr
am t
oshowl
i
fecy
cleofanamphi
bian
I
NVERTEBRATES
Thesear eanimal swithoutabackbone.
Theyaremul ti
cell
ular ani
mals.
Classesofi nvert
ebrates
· Coel enterates
· Echinoderms
· Sponges
· Wor ms
· Mol l
uscs
· Arthropods

a)Coelent
erates
· Theyhav ecylindri
calbodi
eswit
honlyoneopeni
ngwhi
chact
sasthemout
h
andtheanus.
· Theyhav estingingcell
sonthetent
acl
essur
roundi
ngt
heopeni
ngs.
· Theyl i
veinwat er.

Examplesofcoel
ent
erat
es
· Corals
· Jell
yfi
sh
· Hydra
· Seaanemone.

b)Echi
noderms
Thehavespinyski
nsandt
ubef eet
.
Theypumpl i
qui
dintot
hei
rfeettomaket
hem expand.
ExamplesofEchi
noder
ms
· Starfish
· Seaur chi
ns
· Seal i
li
es
· Seacucumber s

c)Sponges
· Spongesar eacol
lecti
onofindivi
dualcell
sorganizedintoonebodyont
he
seafl
oor.
· Theycannotmov eaboutbutremai nstuckontheseaf loor
.
· Theysucki nseawaterandfil
teroutti
nypiecesoff ood.
· Theybr eat
heandfeedthroughtheholesintheirbodies.

d)Moll
uscs
· Thesearei
nvert
ebr
ateswit
hsof
tandunsegment
edbodi
escov
eredbya
prot
ecti
veshel
lormantl
e.
· Theyl
iveonlandandinfr
eshwaterorsal
tywat
er.
· Somemol l
usksdonothaveshel
lsli
keoct
opus
· Moll
usesreproducebyl
ayi
ngeggs.

Exampl esofmol l
usks
-Oct opusandsqui ds(
thel
argestandmosti
ntel
l
igent
).Theymov
ebyj
et
propul sion
- Snai lsandSlugs
- Oy st
ers
- Cut t
lefi
sh
- Cl ams
- Mussel

Snai
lsli
veonlandandinwater
Theyfeedonplant
s,whil
eother
sarecar
niv
orous
Sl
ugsar esi
mil
artosnai
lsbutdonothav
eshell
s.

Di
agr
am showi
ngsnai
l
sandsl
ugs

E)WORMS
· Thesearethi
n,l
ongandsoftbodi
edinv
ert
ebr
ates.
· Somel i
veinsoi
lorwat
erwhil
eother
sarepar
asitesl
i
vingi
nsi
deot
her
ani
mal s
· Theybreat
hethrought
hei
rmoistski
ns
· Theylayeggs.

Gr
oups/typesofworms
· Theyar edi
vi
dedintothreegroupsnamel
y;
· Segment edworms( annel
ids)
· Roundwor ms( nematodes)
· Fl atworms(platyhelmint
hes)

a)Segmentedwor ms
Thesearewor mswhosebodiesaredi
vi
dedint
or i
ngsorsegments.
Theymostlyli
veinsoi
landwater.
Examples
· Leeches
· Bri
stleworms
· Eart
hwor ms
· Theyliveinsoi
landeatsoil
ordecayedv
egetati
on.
· Theyareher maphr
odit
ei.
e.hasbothmaleandfemalerepr
oducti
veor
gans
· Theyhelptoaer
atethesoi
lbymaki
ngtunnel
swhichal
sohel
ptoi
mpr
ovesoi
l
drai
nage.
· Theyhelpi
ntheformati
onofhumusinthesoi
l.

Di
agr
am showi
ngcommonsegment
edwor
ms

b)Fl
atwor ms
Theyhavef l
attenedandsegmentedbodi
es.
Manyofthem ar eparasi
tesofmanandotherani
mal
s.
Examplesoff l
atworms
· Tapewor ms
· Pondf latworms
· Liverfl
ukes

Tapewor msf eedondigest

edf oodi
nthesmal
li
ntest
ines
Li
v erfl
ukessuckbloodfrom animal
s.
Diagram showingcommonf latworms

c)Roundworms
· Thesear egroupsofwormswit
hcyli
ndri
cal
bodies.
· Somear eparasi
tesi
nmanandotherani
malsandplant
swhi
l
eot
her
sli
vei
n
water
.
· Theyar epointedonbot
hends.

Commonexamplesofr
oundwor
ms
· Hookworms
· Eelworms
· Pinworms
· Threadworms
· Ascari
s

· Hookwor msent erourbodi

esbypenetr
ati
ngthr
ought heskinofbar
efeet
.
· Theyfeedon bl ood.
· Bathi
ngordrinki
ngcont aminat
edwater
.
F)ANTHROPODS
Thesear
einver
tebrateswithsegment
edbodiesandjoi
ntedlegs.
Character
ist
icsofar thropods
· Theyhav ejointedl egs
· Theyhav ehar dext ernalskel
etoncall
edexo-skel
eton(
cut
icl
e)
· Theycanshedt heircuti
clesthroughthepr
ocessofmoult
ingifgr
owt
hist
o
occur.
· Theyhav esegment edbodies.

Groupsorclassesofar
thr
opods
· My ri
apods
· Arachnids
· Crustaceans
· Insects

Myri
apods
Thesearear thropodswi thmanyj ointedlegs.
Thei
rbodi esar esegment edwi t
heachsegmenthav i
ngat
leastapai
rofl
egs.
Therearet wogr oupsofmy riapods
1.Centi
pedes( chilopoda)
· Thesehav eonepai roflegsi neachsegmentandapai rofant
ennae
· Thef rontlegsar emodi fiedtof orm poisonclaws.
· Theyar ecar nivorous.
2.Mill
i
pedes( diplopoda)
Thesehav etwopai r
sofl egsi neachsegment .
Theycurlorcoi l toprotectthemsel v esorproducesbadsmell.

Di
agr
am showi
ngcommonmy
riapods

b)Crustaceans
· Thesear ear t
hropodswhichhavehardandcr
ustli
keexo-
skel
eton.
· Theyhav ejoi
ntedlegs
· Theirbodi esaredivi
dedint
otwomai npar
tsi
.e.t
hecephal
othoraxandt
he
abdomen.
· Theybr eathethroughgil
l
sortheirski
n.

Examplescr
ustaceans
· Crabs
· Crayfi
sh
· Lobst
ers
· Prawns
· Sandhoppers

Usesofcr
ustaceans
· Theyareeatenasfoodbyman.
· Someareusedasbaitsi
nfi
shi
ngi
ndust
ry.
c)Arachni ds
Thesear ear t
hr opodswi thtwomai nbodypartsandfourpai
rsoflegs.
Thet womai nbodypar tsarecephal
othoraxandabdomen
Exampl esofar achnids
Spiders
Theyhav especi alorganattheendoft hei
rabdomencalledspi
nnerett
esfor
spi
nni ngtheirwebs.
Theybr eathet hroughl ungbooks
Theyuset heirwebsf ormov ement,
buil
dingthei
rnet
s,tr
appingthei
rpreyand
fi
ndingt heirwayback.
Theyr eproducebyl ayingeggs.

i
i.Ti
cksandmi tes
Theyli
veont heskinofani mals
Theyfeedonbl ood
Theyspreadmanydi seasesindomest i
canimalse.
g.Eastcoastfev
er,
redwat
er,
hear
twat er,andt yphusfeverinhumans.
NB:spiders,ticksandmi tesundergoincomplet
emet amorphosi
s
i
ii
.Scorpions
Theyhav eal argetailwit
hapoi sonoussting
Thei
rfrontlegsar emodi fi
edintopincers
Theydonotl ayeggsbutgi vebirt
htoy oungones.

I
nsects
Thesearear
thr
opodswi
th3(
thr
ee)mai
nbodypar
tsorj
oint
edl
egs.

Char
act
erist
icsofinsect s
· Theyhavet hr
eemai nbodypar ts( Head, thorax,
abdomen)
· Theheadcont ai
ns; compoundey es, mout hpart
sandfeel
ers.
· Thethoraxcarri
est hreepai r
sofl egs,thewi ngs.
· Theabdomencont ainst hespiracl es,ovipositor
sandsti
ngsinsomei
nsect
s
· Theyhavet hr
eepai rsofj oi
ntedl egs.
· Theyhaveanexo- skelet oncalledCut icles
· Theyhaveapai roff eelersorant ennae
· Theyhaveapai rofcompoundey es
· Theyreproducebyl ayingeggs
· Theybreathethroughspi r
acles.

Di
agr
am showi
ngpar
tsofani
nsect
Functi
onsofpar tsofani nsect
i
.Mout h par t
s
Probosci si
sat ubef orsuckingfoodini
nsect
sli
kemosqui t
oes,housefl
i
es,
bees,
tset
sef l
iesetc.
Mandi bl
esar eusedf orchewi ngini
nsect
sli
kegrasshopper
s,l
ocusts,
cockroaches, beetl
es,etc

i
i.Antennae/f eelers
Thesear eusedassenseor ganfortouch,
smelldet
ect
ingsound(
hear
ing)and
detecti
ngchangesi nt emperat
ure,humidi
tyandfi
ndi
ngdir
ecti
on.
i
ii
.Wi ngsf orf
lying
i
v.Compoundey esforseeing
v.Halter
esi nhousef lyforbal
ancingduri
ngfli
ght
.
vi
.Spiraclesforbr eathing

Li
fecycl
eofinsects
Metamorphosi
s
Thi
sisacompl etechangeinthel
ifeofaninsectf
rom aneggi
ntoanadul
t.
Therear
etwot ypesofli
fecyclei
ninsect
s
Complet
emet amorphosis
I
ncompletemetamor phosi
s

Completemetamorphosi
s
Thi
sisal i
fecycl
eofsomeinsect
swhi
chgot
hroughf
ourst
agesofdev
elopment
namel
y ;
Eggs— Lar va— Pupa— Adul t

Exampl
esofinsect
swhi
chundergocompl
etemet
amor
phosi
s
· Housefl
ies
· Mosquit
oes
· Butt
erf
li
es
· Bees
· Moth
· Wasps

Lif
eofahousefly
Adult
slayeggsinbatchesof100-150eggsinmanur eheap,r
ott
ingbodi
es,
exposedfoodorfeaces.
Reasonswhyhousef l
ieslayeggsi
nmanur eheapsorr ot
ti
ngbodies
· Topr ovi
dewar mthtoeggssoast ohatchintolar
vae
· Asour ceoffoodtomaggot s(l
arv
ae)afterhatchi
ng
Theeggshatchintolarvacal
ledmaggotsafteraday.

NB:
Somefli
essuchasbl
uebot
tl
efl
yhat
cht
heeggsf
rom i
nsi
det
hebodyand
l
aymaggot
s.
· Maggotsfeedondecayi
ngmatter
,growquickl
yandtur
nint
opupaaft
er4-
6
days.
· Thepupadoesnotfeedbutgr
owsf rom i
nsi
dethepupaacasecal
l
edCocoon.
· Theadultcr
awlsoutoft
hepupaafterabout4-
5days.

Di
agr
am showi
ngt
hel
i
fecy
cleofahousef
ly

Dangers/
economi cimportanceofhousefl
ies
· Theycarryger msont hei
rbody,sal
ivaormout hpar ts,
whichcausethe
fol
l
owingdiseases;di
arrhea,dy
sentery
, chol
era,typhoi
d, t
rachoma,r
edey
es.
· Theyhelptor educethev ol
umeoffeacesi nlatr
ineswhi chgetfi
ll
edup
qui
ckl
y.

MOSQUITOES
Ther
earethr
eemaintypesofmosqui
toesnamel
yanophel
es,
mosqui
to,
Cul
ex
mosqui
to,
aedes/t
iger
smosquito.

i
.Anophelesmosquit
oes
Femaleanophelesmosqui
toesspr
eadaprotozoancal
ledplasmodiawhi
ch
causesmalar
iainman.
Culexmosquit
oesspreadFil
ari
awormswhichcauseselephant
iasi
s
Aedes/t
igermosquit
oesspreadavir
uscausesdenguefeverandyell
owfev
eri
n
humanbeings.

Li
fehi stor
yofmosqui toes
Adul tmosqui toeslayeggsinstagnantwater.
After2- 3dayst heeggshatchintolarvacal
ledWr i
ggl
erswhi
chbreat
hethr
ougha
spiracleont het ai
lendcal
ledSiphon.
Thel ar vadevelopint
opupawhi chbr eat
hesthroughapai
rofspi
racl
escal
led
breat hingtr
umpet s
After2- 3weeksf r
om eggsafull
ygr ownadultcomesoutofthepupa.

Di
agr
am showi
ngl
i
fecy
cleofanophel
esandcul
exmosqui
toes
Diff
erencebet weenanophel esandcul exmosqui toes
Anopheles Culex
Layseggswi thanai rfloat Layseggsi nrafts
Thelarvali
espar all
eltot hewat ersurf
ace Thel arvaliesatanangl etot
he
whenbr eathing. wat erwhenbr eathing.
Adultli
esinasl oppyposi ti
onwhenat Adul tli
eshor i
zontall
ywhenatrest
.
rest
/.
Way sofcont roll
ingmosqui t
oes
· Dr ainstagnantwat eraroundhomes.
· Bur yoldf i
ns, brokenpot s,orbottl
eswher emosqui toescanbr eed.
· Cl earal
l bushesar oundhomeswher emosqui toescanhi de
· Spr ayadul tmosqui toeswi thinsecti
cides
· Sl eepunderi nsecticidetreatedmosqui tonet s.
· Keepf i
shi ndamsorr eservesofwat ertoeatmosqui t
oes l arvae
· Cl osedoor sandwi ndowsear l
yintheev ening
· Appl yrepellantsont hebodyt odriveawaymosqui toes
· Bur nmosqui tocoilst ochaseawaymosqui toes
· Pl anttr
ees/ fl
ower sthatcanr epelmosqui toesi nthecompound.

But
ter
fl
iesandmot h
· Theyundergocompletemetamor phosis
· Femalelayseggsmainlyontheundersideofthel
eaves
· Eggshatchint
olarva/cater
pil
lar
swhi chfeedonleaves
· Thelarvaspi
nsacocoonar ounditsel
fandchangesintopupa/
chr
ysal
iswhi
ch
doesnotmov eoreati.
e.iti
sdormantst age.
· Whent headul
tisful
lygrown,i
tbreaksthepupacaseandcomesout .

Adv
antagesofbutt
erfl
iesandmot hs
· Theyhelpinpol
li
natingfl
owersoffar
merscrops.
· Wegetsilkt
hreadsfrom t
hecocoonsofsomebut t
erf
li
es
· Cater
pil
l
arsareeateninsomesociet
iesasfood.

Di
sadvantagesofbutt
erf
li
esandmoths
· Theirlar
vae/cat
erpi
ll
arsf
eedonl
eavesofcrops/(
croppests)
· Caterpil
l
arshavebri
stl
ehai
rswhi
chcanburnandcausei
rri
tati
oni
tchi
ngor
woundsot heskin.

NB:Mostcater
pil
lar
sprotectthemsel
vesbyuseofpri
ckl
yhai
r.
I
ncomplet
emet amorphosis
Thi
sisali
fecyclewhichi
nv ol
vesthr
eestages ofdevel
opment
,i.
e.
Eggs— Ny mph— Adul t(i
mago)

Theadul
tfemal
elay
seggsi
nthesoi
li
naneggsac(
pouch)
Af
terafewday stheeggshat
chint
oNymphs
Af
tersever
alchanges/moulti
ng,t
heny
mphdev
elopswi
ngsandbecomesaf
ull
y
gr
ownadult.

Di
agr
am showi
ngi
ncompl
etemet
amor
phosi
s

Examplesofi nsectswhi
chunder
goincompletemetamor
phosi
s
i
.Cockr oaches
i
i.Grasshopper s
i
ii
.Damsel fl
i
es i
x. Dr agonfl
i
es
i
v Bedbugs x. Aunt s
v.Termites xi
. Aphi ds
vi
.Prayingmant is xi
i. Fl eas
vi
i.Walkingsticks
vi
ii
.Kay ti
dis

Pr
otocti
staki ngdom (si
ngl ecall
edorgani
sm)
· Thesear egr oupsofv erysimpleli
vi
ngorganism whi
charesingl
e(cel
l
ed
unicell
ular).
· Theyhav eanucleusencl osedinamembr ane
· Theyar enei t
herplants,fungi
,noranimal
s.
· Theyl i
vei nfl
uids(li
quids)orinotheror
ganismsbecausetheydonothave
protecti
onagai nstdrying.

Examplesofpr
otoct
ist
a
Algae
Euglena

a)Al
gae
· Theyhavechlorophyl
landmaket heirownf ood
· Theymostlyrepr
oducebymeansofspor es.
· Theydonothav eroots,st
emsandl eaves.
· Theyappearindif
ferentcol
ourse.g.bl
ue, gr
een,r
ed.
· Theygrowonandwi thi
nthesoil
,wood, moistr
ocks.

Examplesofal
gae
· Spir
ogyra
· Seaweeds
· Focus

Usesofal
gae
· Iti
susedasf
oodbymanandot
herani
mal
ssuchasf
ish.
· Theyaddoxygentowaterwhichi
sbr
eat
hedi
nbywat
erani
mal
s.
· Theyareusedinmaki
ngf er
ti
li
zer
s

Pr
otozoa
· Thesear egroupsofsingl
ecell
edorgani
smswhi chhaveanucleusandthe
cytopl
asm.
· Theydonothav echl
orophyl
lbutcapt
urethei
rfoodorengul
fi
ngusi ng
pseudopodia
· Theyaremi croscopi
c
· Theyaref oundinwaterandonlandindamppl acesandi
nbodyofani malsas
parasi
tes.
· Theyreproducebymeansofpseudopodi ae.g.amoebawhil
eot herbyci
l
iae.g.
paramecium

Exampl
esofprotozoa
· Amoeba
· Parameci
um
· Pl
asmodium
· Try
panosome

I
ll
ust
rat
ionofamoebaandpar
ameci
um

c)Euglena
· Thi sisauni cell
ularor
ganism whichhasbot hplantsandanimalfeat
ures.
· I thaschlorophy l
landproducesitsownf ood.
· I tcanmov ef rom oneplacetoanotherveryquicklyforpr
otect
ionli
kean
animal usi
ngi tsfl
agel
lum.
· I tismicroscopicandlivesindit
chesandponds.

FUNGI KINGDOM
Thesear
esimpl
eorgani
smst
hatl
ackchl
orophy
llandexi
stasamassoft
hreads
cal
ledhy
phae ormycel
li
um.

HOW DOFUNGIFEED?
Theyfeedsapr ophyt
ical
ly.
- Theyliveaspar asi
tesonot
herl
ivi
ngthi
ngsorondeadanddecayi
ngbody
.
- Theygr owwher etherei
smoist
ure.
- Theyrepr oducebymeansofsporesexcepty
eastwhi
chrepr
oduceby
budding.
Commonexampl esoffungi
- Mushr ooms
- Toadst ools
- Yeast
- Moulds
 - Puffbal
ls
I
ll
ust
rat
iontoshowt
hest
ruct
ureofmushr
oom andf
unct
ionsofeachpar
t.

Adv
ant
agesoff ungi
- Somef ungicausedecayandhel psi
nformationofsoi
l.
- Somef ungiareeatenasf oodbyman.Egmushr oom
- Somear eusedi nmakingmedi ci
neegpenici
ll
ium moul
dsf
ormaking
pencil
i
ne.
- Yeasthelpinflavour
ingcheese,for
mati
onofbeerandspir
itmaki
ngbread
sourceofv i
taminBandf ermenti
ng tobacco.

Di
sadv
antagesoffungi
- Somef ungiarepoisonoustoman.
- Fungicauseanumberofdi seaseinani
malsri
ngworm,
eczema,
athl
eti
cs
foot,andfi
nger/toenai l
formation
- Fungicausediseasesinplantseg: pot at
obli
ght.
- Somef ungicausefoodpoisoning

CAREFORANDPROTECTI ONOFVERTEBRATESANDI NVERTEBRATES

- Animal slikehumans, bir
dsneedcar eandprot
ecti
on.Theycanbecared
throught hefollowingway s.
- Traint r
ainableani mal
s
- Treatsi ckdomest i
canimalsandcleanthehousetheystayi
n.
- Gazet teareasf orbothdomest i
candwi l
danimalsasgamepar ksand
gamer eservest opreventext
inct
ionandendangeri
nganimalspecies.
- Regul arvaccinationofanimals
- Enforcingst r
ictlawsthatgrownpol l
uti
on,poachi
nganddestructi
onofbi
o
diversit
y

FORMSOFENERGY
Whatisener
gy?
Ener
gyistheabi
l
ityoft
hebodyt
odowor
k.

Energyexistsinthefoll
owi
ngfor
ms(
types)
i. Soundener gy
ii
.Heatener gy
ii
i.Lightenergy
iv.Mechani calenergy
v.Nucl ear(Atomi cener
gy)
vi.Solarenergy
vii
.Chemi calenergy
 v
ii
i.
Elect
ri
cal
ener
gy

N.
B
Ki
net
icandphy
sical
ener
gyar
efor
msofmechani
cal
ener
gy.

SOUND
Soundisaform ofenergythatst
imulat
esthesenseofheari
ng(t
hatenabl
esus
tohear
)
Useofsound
- Forcommuni cat
ion
- Enter
tainment
- Forprotecti
on
- Forevidenceincourtsofl
aw
- Helpstopr omotecult
urei
.e.t
radi
ti
onalf
olksongsandfol
ktal
es.

TYPES OFSOUND
i. Loudsound
ii
.Sof tsound
ii
i.Highsound
iv.Lowsound.

Sour
cesofsound

Nat
uralsources
· Ani mal s
· Wind
· Storm
· Volcanicer
upt
ion
· Wat erf
all
s
· Rainfal
l

Ar
ti
fi
cialsources
· Musical i
nstr
ument
s
· Vehicles
· Aeroplanes

Howissoundproduced?
Soundi
sproducedbyv i
brat
ion(
whenanobj
ectv
ibr
ates)

Whatisavi
brat
ion?
Avi
brati
oni
sat oandf
romot
ionwhi
chi
scont
inuousl
yrepeat
ed.

Wayshowl i
vi
ngt hi
ngsproducesound
· Humanbei ngsproducesoundbyt hev
ibr
ati
onofthei
rvocal
cords.Vocal
cordsarefoundinthevoicebox.Whenai
rpassesovert
hem, t
heyvibr
ateand
producesound.
· Cricket
sproducesoundbyr ubbi
ngthei
rwingsagainstthehi
ndl
egs.
· Birdssingbythehelpofthei
rri
ngsofcart
il
agethatvibr
ate
· Beesandmosqui toesproducesoundbyvibr
ati
onofwi ngswhenfl
apped
rapidl
y.

Transmissi
onofsound
Howdoessoundt rav
el?
Soundt r
avelsi
nsoundwaves.I
ttr
avel
sthr
ought
hef
oll
owi
ngmedi
a:
· Ai r(
gases)
· Wat er(l
iqui
ds)
· Sol i
dmat er
ial
s

N.
Bsounddoesnott
rav
elt
hroughv
accum.

Reason:
Thevaccum doesnotcontai
nmat ter(molecul
es)
· Thespeedofsoundinairi
s330m/ sec
· Thespeedofsoundinwateris500m/ s.
· Thespeedofsoundinmetals(sol
ids)is4800m/ sec

Ther
efor
e
i
. Soundtr
avelsfastingases
i
i. Soundtravel
sfasterinli
qui
ds.
i
ii
. Soundtravel
sfastestinsol
i
ds.

Fact
orsaf
fecti
ngt
hespeedofsound
· Temperatur
es
· Wind
· Al
tit
ude
· Heat

EFFECTSOFTEMPERATUREANDWI NDONSOUND
- Soundt r
avel
smor eclear
lyduringni ghtwavesmoveclosetotheground.
- Atni ghttemperaturesarelower ( i
tiscool)
- Wheni ti
shot,soundwav esr i
sehi gherabovethegr
ound.
- Wi ndcar
rysoundf urt
herifitisblowi ngthesamedir
ecti
on;buti
fiti
s
blowingagai
nstthesoundi tobstructs
Frequency
Thisisthenumberofv ibrati
onspersecond. /numberofosci ll
ati
onsmadebya
parti
clepersecond.

Pit
ch
Thisi
sthehi
ghnessorl
ownessof sound./i
stheshar
pnessormi
l
dnessof
sound.
Anexper
imentonpi
tch.

Whatdeterminesthepi t
chofsound?
· Sizeofav i
brat
ingobject.
· Lengt hofav ibrat
ingobject
.
· Thi cknessoft hestr
ingproduci
ngsound.
· Tensi on
· Fr equency

CALCULATI ONSONSOUND
NB: Thespeedofsoundi
nairi
s330met r
es/sec
Exampl es
1. I famanhear dagunshotaf
terfourseconds.Howf
arwashef
rom t
he
fi
ringpoint
?
Distance = speed xt i
met aken
Distance =speedxti
metaken
2
= 330m/ secx4sec

2
330m/
secx4sec
2
1
330m x2
= 660metres

2. Ittook3secondstohearechoofamanchoppi
ngwood.Howf
arwast
he
manf
rom achoppi
ngplace?
D = S xT
2

D = (330x3)met
res
2
D = 990
D =495m

NB: Wediv i
deby2becauset herearetwosetsofsoundwavesi
eorgi
nal
wavesandtherefl
ectedwav es(Echo)
3. Amoot iwasst andingacr
osst heval
ley,whichwas660m awayf
rom t
he
cl
i
ffifheshout
s, howl ongwil
litt
aket oheartheecho.
 T = D x 2
S
2
T = 660m x 2
330m/s
1
T = ( 2 x2)second
= 4 seconds
4. Okellowasst
anding165m awayfr
om hi
sfatherwhocal
l
edhi
m by
cl
appi
ng.Howlongdidittakehi
mtoheart
heclapping?
T = D
S
T = 165m
330m/s T =
0.
5sec

Volume
Iti
stheloudnessorsof
tnessofsound. /I
sthemagni
tudeori
ntensi
tyofa
cert
ainsound.

Echo
I
st her
eflect
edsound(
thebounci
ngbackofsoundwaves)
Echoisformedwhensoundisref
lect
edbyanobject
.

Usesofechoi nnat
ure.
· I thelpsbatstofindthei
rwayandlocat ef
ood.
· I thelpssail
orstodetectthedept
hoft heseaorocean.
· Fi shermanuseechot ol
ocateshoalsoffi
shbefor
eletti
ngdowntheirnet
s.
· Pi lot
suseechosur r
oundingfr
om thi
ckclouds,
mount ai
nsetct
oav oid
accidents.

DISADVANTAGESOFECHOESI NNATURE
Echoesar et
roublesomeespeciall
yinemptyhall
s
Theycauseirrit
ating soundsand noi set
otheears
Soft
,poroussurfacesabsorbsound.
Howdowepr ev entechoes
I
ncinemahal ls,
broadcasti
ngstudi
osandconferenceortheatrehal
l
sthewall
s
arecovered usi ngsoftboar
ds,t
hickandheavycurt
ainsthatabsor
bsound.

MUSICALINSTRUMENTS
Theyar
eclassi
fi
edint
othr
ee:
Str
ingi
nst
ruments
Windinstr
uments
Percussi
oninst
rument
s

Str
inginstruments ( chordophones)
Thesepr oducesoundbyv i
brati
onofthei
rstr
ingswhenplucked.
Thepi t
chofsoundi nstr
inginstr
umentscanbeincr
easedbyl ooseni
ngor
ti
ghteningthestr
ings
Exampl es
i
. Cel l
o
i
i.Vi ol
a
i
ii
.Vi ol
in
i
v.Bowhar p(Adungu)
v.Gui tar
vi
.Ly re
vi
i.Tubef i
ddl
e
vi
ii
.Harp

Windinst ruments (Aerophones)

Thesepr oducesoundbyvibrati
onofairblowni nsi
dethem.
Thei
rpi tchisdeter
mined(
increased)byreducingthesizet
hesmal
l
ert
he
i
nstrumentt hehighert
hepit
ch.
Exampl es
· Recor ds Di agr
ams
· Whi stl
es
· Tr umpet
· Panpi pes
· Fluteetc

PERCUSSIONINSTRUMENTS
Thesearei
nstr
umentsthatpr
oducesoundwhenbi
tt
en/hi
t.
Thei
rpit
chcanbeincr
easedbyreduci
ngthesi
zeofthear
east
ruckori
ncr
easi
ng
theti
ght
ness

Exampl
es Di
agr
ams
· Drums
· Thumbpi ano
· Shakers
· Xyl
ophone
· Cymbals
· Shakers
· Ratt
lesetc
Methodsofstoringsoundenergy.
Soundcanstored:-
a)bywri
ti
ngmusi c (Sol
fanotat
ion)
Thisi
saform ofwr i
ti
ngmusicusingsyll
abl
esonstaves
b)Recor
ding
soundcanbest oredonrecor
dplayersdi
scs,compactdi
scs,
comput
erset
c

Ani
l
lust
rat
ion

Dev
icesusedt ostoresound
- Memor ycards
- VCDs
- DVDs
- Magnet ictapes
- Projectors
- Taper ecorders
- Mobi lephones
- Flashcar ds
- Comput erdiscs
- Ipods
- Film str
ipset c

Dev
icesusedt oreproducesound
· recordplay ers
· radiocasset t
es
· taper ecorders
· videodecks
· Film project
ors.
· DVDpl ayers
· Comput ers
· Mobi lephones
· Gr ammarphone

Waysofreproduci
ngst
oredsound.
· Re-
playing
· Si
nging
· Reading

THEMAMMALI ANEAR
Thest
ruct
ureoft
hemammal
i
anear
.
Theeari
sdi vi
dedi
ntot
hreer
egi
onsnamel
y:
a)Out erear
b)Mi ddleear
c)Innerear

Theouterear
I
tconsi
stsof:
i. Pinna
ii
.audi t
orycanal

Thepinner
I
tcol
lectssoundwav
es

Audi
tor
ycanal
I
tdir
ect
ssoundwav
est
otheear
drum

Themiddleear
I
tconsi
stsoft he:
-
i. eardrum
ii
.ossi cles
ii
i.Eustachiantube

Ear
drum
I
tvi
brat
esandt
ransmi
tssoundwav
est
otheossi
cles

Ossicl
es
Thesearet
hreesmal
lbonesf
oundi
ntheearnamel
y;hammeri
ncusandst
apes

The workofossicl
es
· Theytr
ansmitsoundv
ibrat
iontot
hecochl
ea.
· Theyampli
fysoundwavesintheear

Eust
achiant
ube
I
tequal
izesai
rpr
essur
eint
heear
.

Thei
nnerear
I
tconsi
stsof:-
· Semi ci
rcul
arcanal
· TheCochleas
· Audi
torynerv
es
Cochl
ea:
Thi
sisafl
uid—f
il
ledor
ganf
oundi
ntheear
.

Funct
ion:
i
tconvert
s(changes)soundwav
est
osoundsi
gnal
s

Semi
-ci
rcul
arcanal
:
I
thel
psinbodybalanceandpost
ure.

Audi
toryner
ves
Theysendsoundsi
gnal
s(messages)t
othebr
ainf
ori
nter
pret
ati
on

Commondiseasesoftheear
i. Ot
it
isext
ernus
ii
.Otit
isi
nternus
ii
i
.Earcancer

Commondi sorder
soft heear
· Deafness
· Earaches
· Earit
ching.
Usesofwaxf oundintheear
- I
ttrapsdustandsomef oreignbodiesi
ntheear
- I
tcleanstheearcanal
- I
tprotectstheearagai
nstinfect
ions,waxcont
ainschemi
cal
sthatki
l
l
germs

Note:Toomuchearwaxcan l eadt oparti

al(tempor ar
y)deafness
CAREFORTHEEAR.
i.Usesof tmateri
alt
ocleantheear . Sharpobj ectsbreakanddamagethe
eardrum.
ii.
Hav eregul
arhealt
hexamination
iii
.Remov eexcesswaxfrom theexternalearthatcancauset empor
ary
deafness.
iv.Cleany ourearwit
hclearwat erandsoapr egularl
y.
NB.Parti
al deaf
nesscanbecor r
ectedbyearsy ringing(syri
ngefi
ll
edwit
hwarm
water)

COMPARI
NGTHEHUMANEARWI
THORGANSOFHEARI
NG I
NOTHER
ANI
MALS

HEARI
NGINFI SH
Fi
shuselat
eral
linet
odet
ectandpi
ckupsoundv
ibr
ati
onsi
nwat
er

HEARI
NGI
NSNAKES
Snakesdonothaveactualear
s,buttheyhav
einnerearsy
stemssuchascochl
ea
i
nmammal s.
I
nsnakesthecochleaisconnect
edtojawbones,thi
smakesitsensi
ti
vet
o
groundvi
brat
ionsbythehelpofj
awbonesconnectedtocochl
ea.

HEARINGI NBIRDS
Bir
dshav earuffoff
eat
her
scal
l
edaur
icul
arswhi
cht
heyuset
odet
ectsoundi
n
theenvi
ronment.

Hear
ingininsects
- Somei nsectsl
ikemosquitoescoll
ectsoundvi
brati
onsusingtheir
antennae.(f
eeler
s)
- Ot hersli
kecaterpi
ll
ars,butt
erf
li
esandmot hsusesmallhair
scalledsetae
foundont hei
rbodysurf
acest opicksoundvi
brati
ons
NB: Adul tbut
terf
li
esalsodetectsoundvibr
ati
onsthroughv
einsont heirwi
ngs

Heari
nginamphi bians
Therear
et hr
eeor dersoft hel ivi
ngamphi bi
ans.Thesear
e
- Theapoda— t hel eglessandwor mli
ketypesuchascaecil
ians
- Theurodel l
a— t het ail
edf ormssuchasmudpuppi es,Newt sand
salamander s
- TheAnur a— t hetaillessform suchasfrogsandtoads.
NB: Allamphi bi
anshav eear s
Theheari
ngor ganf oramphi biansiscal
ledtheamphibi
anspapil
la

THECIRCULATORYSYSTEM
Theterm bl
oodci r
culati
onref
ert ot
hemov ementofbl
oodfr
om thehear
ttoal
l
bodyparts
Bloodcir
culati
onisv er
yimportanti
nthefoll
owingways
- Itsuppli
esfoodandoxy gentoallpart
softhebody
- Itremov eswasteproductssuchascarbondi
oxi
deoutoft
hebodytothe
excretoryorgans,

TYPESOFBLOODCI RCULATI ON
SI
NGLEBLOODCI RCULATION
- Itisthetypesofci
rculati
onwhenbl
oodmovest
hroughheartonceeg.i
n
f
ishes.
DOUBLEBLOODCI RCULATION
- Itsat ypeofci
rcul
ati
onwhenbloodgoest
otheheartt
wicebeforei
tgoes
t
oal l
bodypartseginmammal s.

BLOOD
Bl
oodisati
ssuefluidwit
hsuspendedcel
l
sthatmov
esi
nandar
oundt
hebody
.
Composi
ti
onsofbl ood
- Redbloodcel l
s(erythr
ocyt
es)
- Whitebloodcells(
leucocy
tes)
 - Pl
atel
ets(t
hrombocy
tes)
- Pl
asma

1.REDBLOODCELL
- Thereareabout30mi ll
ionredbloodcell
sinthehumanbody .
- Theycontai
nar edpigmentcal l
edhaemogl obi
nthatcont
ainsi
ron.
- Theyaremadei nredbonemar r
owofshor tbonesli
kestemum, scapul
a,
ri
bs,vert
ebraandpelv i
s.
- Theydonthaveanucl eus.
- Thei
rfuncti
onistotransportoxygeninthebody.

ADAPTATIONSOFREDBLOODCELLSTOTHEI RFUNCTI ON
- Theyhavehaemoglobinwhichenabl
est hem carr
ymor eoxygenmolecul
es.
- Theyareproduced inlargenumber
.
- Theyhavenonucleusthatprovi
desalargesurfaceareatocarr
ymor e
oxy
gen.
NB:Whenoxygencombineswi t
hheamoglobinitf
ormsoxy haemoglobin

Thest
ruct
ureofar
edbl
oodcel
l
.

Not e:Theredbloodcel l
saredestr
oyedbythepl
asmodiager
msthatcauses
mal ari
a.
Sicklecel
lalsodeformst henor
mal shapeoft
heredbl
oodcell
shencemaking
them unabletocarrythei
rfunct
ion.

WHI
TEBLOODCELLS
- Thesearel
argerthanredbloodcel
ls.
- Theyhaveanucleusandnohaemogl obi
n
- Theyaremadeint hebonemar r
owoflongbones,l
ymphnodesandt
he
spl
een.
- Thei
rmainfuncti
onistofightagai
nstdi
seaseger
ms

Howdowhit
ebloodcellsdefendt
hebodyagai
nstdi
seaseger
ms?
- Byengulf
inganddigesti
nggerms
- Pr
oducingantibodi
esagainstt
heger
ms.

Adapt
ati
onofwhitebloodcell
stotheirfunct
ions
I
thasanucleuswhichcontr
olscel
lact i
vit
ies
I
thascytopl
asm t
hathelpsitt
oengul fgerms.
NOTE: TheHI V/AI DSdestroy
st hewhi t
ebloodcel
l
s.
Thest
ruct
ureofawhi
tebl
oodcel
l
s

PLATELETS
- Aremadeintheredbonemarrow.Thei
rfunct
ioni
stohel
p i
ncl
ott
ingof
bl
ood.
- Bloodcl
ott
ingoccur
sinpr
esenceofvit
aminKandCalci
um

St
ruct
ureofpl
atel
ets

PLASMA
Thi
sisthel i
quidpar tofbl
oodconsi
sti
ngoft
hef
oll
owi
ng
- Wat er
- Bloodpr otein
- Dissolvedf ood
- Mineral salt
s
- Urea
- Carbondi oxide
- Hormones

FUNCTI
ONSOFBLOOD
- Itcarr
iesdigest
edf oodandoxy gentoall
bodypart
s
- Itcarr
ieswastewast epr oductsfrom t
hebodypart
stoexcret
oryor
gans.
- Ittr
ansportscarbondioxidefrom thebodyti
ssuest
othelungs
- Itdist
ri
butesheattot hebody.
- Itcarr
ieshormonest odi ff
erentbodypart
s.
- Defendsthebodyagai nstinfect
ions.

BLOODGROUPS
Ther
ear
efourbl
oodgroup.
A
B
AB
O
NB : ABisauniv
ersalr
eci
pientwhi
l
eOi
sauni
ver
sal
donor
BLOODTRANSFUSI ON
Ist
hetransf
eroftestedandscr
eenedbl
oodfr
om onepersontoanot
her
.The
sci
ent
istwhodiscoveredbl
oodgroupswasSi
rKarl
Landstei
ner.

THEHEART
Thest
ruct
ureoft
hehear
tandf
unct
ionsoft
heeachpar
t

- Thehearti
sdi vi
dedintofourchambers
- Theupperchamber sarecall
edatr
ia(at
ri
um)andthel owerchamber
s
cal
ledvent
ricl
es.
- Thehearti
smadeupspeci almuscl
escall
edcardi
acmuscl es
- Themai nf
unctionofthehearti
spumpbl oodtoal
lbodypar t
s.
OTHERORGANSRELATEDTOTHECI RCULATIONOFBLOOD
- Thelungs— i tswheredif
fusi
onofgasestakespl
ace.
- Thekidney
s -f i
l
tersbl
oodtoremoveexcretor
yproducts.
- Theli
ver— r egulat
esbloodsugar

THEDI
AGRAM TOSHOW CI
RCULATI
ONOFBLOOD

BLOODVESSELS
Thi
sisanet workoftubest ransport
ingbloodint
hebody.
Therearethreebl
oodv essels
- Arteri
es
- Veins
- Capill
ari
es
ARTERIES
- Arteri
esarebloodv esselsthatcarrybl
oodawayf
rom t
hehear
ttot
he
body .
- Theyhav ethi
ckwal ls
- Theyhav eanarrowl umen
- Theycar r
ybloodwi thahi ghpressure
- Theydonthav ev al
ves

Di
agr
am showi
ngt
hewal
l
soft
hear
ter
y
VEI
NS
- Thesear
ebloodvesselsthatcar
ryblood towardst
hehear
t.
- Theyhavet
hinwall
s
- Theyhaveawiderl
umen.
- Theyhaveval
vestopreventthebackflowofbl
ood.
STRUCTUREOFAVEIN

CAPILLARI
ES
- Thesearethesmallestbl
oodv essels
- Theyconnectar
teri
esandv ei
ns
- Exchangeofbodymat eri
alstakeplace i
nthecapi
l
lar
ies.
- Theyhave sot hi
nwal l
s
STRUCTUREOFTHECAPI LLARY

DIFFERENCESBETWEENARTERI ES,VEI
NSANDCAPI LLARI
ES
Arter
ies Veins Capil
laries
Theycarryoxygenatedbl
oodexcept Theycarr
yde— oxy genat
edbl
ood Exchangeofma
thepulmonaryarter
y exceptt
hepulmonaryvei
n andbodyandbo
Theyhav et
hickandmuscularwall
s Theyhavethi
nandlessmuscul
arwal
l
s Theyhav eavery
ti
nyhol esorpon
Theycarr
ybl
oodawayfrom thehear
t Theycarr
ybloodtowar
dsthehear
t Theylinkar t
eri
e
Bl
oodflowsunderhi
ghpressur
e Bl
owsf l
owsunderlowpressur
e Bloodf l
owsund
Theyhaveanarr
owlumen Theyhaveawi del
umen Theyhav eanar
Theyhavenoval
ves Theyhavevalv
es Theyhav enova

I
ncr
easi
ngt
hev
olumeofbl
oodi
nci
rcul
ati
on
 - Eati
ngabal anceddiet
- Bloodtr
ansf usi
on
- Takingalotofflui
dsandt
aki
ngi
ronsuppl
ementt
abl
ets

Diseasesanddi sor dersoft heci r

culat
orysy
stem
Theyar eclassi f
iedi ntothreegr oupsnamely.
- Di seasesofbl ood
- Di seasesoft hehear t
- Her editarydiseases
Diseasesofbl ood Di
seasesoft heheart Her
edi
tarydi
sea
- Leukemi a(bloodcancer ) - Cor onaryheartdi
sease - Haemoph
- Hy pertension(hi ghbl ood - Hear tattack(car
diacar
rest) - Sickl
ece
pressur e) - Hear tstroke(cer
ebrovascul
ar
- Mal aria Accident,CVA)
- AI DS - Hear tfail
ure
- Anaemi a
- Si cklecel lanemi a
- Lowbl oodpr essure
Otherdisor ders
A)ARTI OSCLEROSOS
Thisisthehar deningandt hickeningofthewall
softhear ter
ies

PREVENTIONANDCONTROLOFTHECI RCULATORYDI SEASES

- Properf eedingieeat i
ngf oodt hatmakeabal anceddi
et.
- Eat i
ngmeal sofl ow f atcontent
- Per formi ngregularphy sicalexercises
- Goi ngf ormedi calcheckup.
- Av oidt akingalcohol.
I
MPORTANCEOFHAVI NGREGULARBODYEXERCI SES
- Hel pthehear ttopumpmor ebloodt othebody .
- Theyr educet helevel offatsint hebody .
- Hel ptost r
engthent hemuscl esoft hehear t
.
- Theyr educet her i
skofget ti
nghear tdiseases
- Joint sbecomesmor eflexibl
e.
- Digest ionoff oodiscar riedoutqui cklyandeasi l
y.
- Promot espr operfunct i
oningofbodysy stem
- Itmakest hebodyphy sicall
yfit
.

HI
V/AIDSANDBLOOD
- AIDSi
scausedbyHI V
- TheVir
usdestroyst
hewhi
tebl
oodcel
lsinthebody .
- Thebodybecomesweakandcannotf
ightdiseasegerms
HIVst
andfor
Human
Immuno— defi
ciency
 Vi
rus
AI
DSstandsfor
A -Acquired - meansgetfrom
I- I
mmune— meanspr otect
edagainst
D -Defi
ciency— Lackof
S -Syndrome -I tmeansacombinat
ionofsignsandsy
mpt
oms.

HOW HIV/AI DSISSPREAD

- Thr oughunprotectedsexualint
ercoursewithaninf
ectedper
son.
- Thr oughsharingunsteri
li
zedshar pobject
swithaninf
ectedper
son.
- Fr om mothertochild (MCT)
a) atbi r
th
b)throughbreastfeeding
c)from mothertounbor nchi
ld
-Through unscr eenedbloodtransfusi
on

Si
gnsandsy mpt omsofHI V/AI DS
- Prol ongeddr ycough( chroni
ccough)
- Wi despr eadi tchingandski nrash
- Prol ongeddi arrhoea( chr
onicdi arrhoea)
- Oral thr ush -I tisawhi t
ecoat ingdev elopsinthemout h
- Per sistentf ever .
- Gener al bodyweakness
- Lossofappet ite
- Excessi vesweat i
ngatni ght
- Her pezost er( kisi
pi)
EFFECTSOFHI V/AI DS
I
NDIVIDUAL
a)Lossofi mmuni tyast hevir
usdest roysthewhi t
ebloodcel l
s,the
indiv i
dual isat tackedbysev er
al di
seases.Thedi seasegermst ake
adv ant ageoft heweakenedbody .
Thesedi seaseswhi chat tackaweakenedbodyar ecall
edsecondar yor
opport
unist i
ci nfections
b)Lossofi ncome
c)AI DSl eadst odepr ession,frustrati
onandwor ri
estoani ndi
vidual
.
d)Ani ndi vi
dual canbeabandonedbyt hefr
iendsduet ofearofthe
di
sease
e)Thei nfecti
onscausesdeat h.

FAMI
LY
- Somechi l
drenint
hef amil
ymaybei nfect
edwit
hHI
V/AI
DS
- Reducti
onont hel
abourforcei
nthef amil
y
- Chil
drenbecomeor phanswhenparentsdie.
 - Lossoff
amil
yproper
ty
- Famil
ymembersareseparat
edwhendiff
erentrel
ati
vestakecar
eofthem.
- Thefami
lymayexper
ienceshor
tageofbasicneedsincasetheAID
vi
cti
msarepar
ents

COMMUNITY
- Lossofski
ll
edmanpower
- Causeschi
ldheadedfamil
ies
- Breakdownofsocialor
der/fami l
i
es.
- Short
ageofproducti
vepopul
at i
on
- Itl
eadstol
oweconomi cdevelopment

PREVENTI
ONANDCONTROLOFHI V/AI DS
- Abstinencef r
om sexuntilmarriage
- Hav i
nganHI Vtestbefor
epeopl egetmar ried
- Hav i
ngonl yonelongsexualpar tner
- Properuseofcondoms
- Bloodscr eeni
ngbef or
e t r
ansf usion
- Healthwor dsshouldwearpr otectiveglov
est oav
oidcont
actwi
thbl
ood
- Carryingoutsexeducat i
on i nschool sandhomes

ALCOHOL,
SMOKI
NG,
ANDDRUGSI
NTHESOCI
ETY

ALCOHOLI NSOCI ETY

Whatisalcohol
?
Alcohol
isacolourl
essli
qui
dsubst
ancet
hatmakespeopl
edrunkwhentheydr
ink
toomuchofi t
.Iti
scontai
nedi
nmanydri
nksl
ikebeer
s,wi
nesandspir
it
s.

Typesofal cohol
Therearet wot y
pesofal cohol namely
· Met hanol
· Ethanol
Methanol isfoundmost lyinhomedi st
il
ledalcohol
.
· I ti
sv erydangerousandpoi sonousandmanycausebl indnessordeat
h.
· I ti
smai nlyusedasaf uelorforsteri
li
zingmedicali
nst
ruments.
· Et hanol i
scontainedinal l
alcoholi
cdrinksthatar
econsumed.
· I tcanal sobeusedasf uel
.

Product
ionofal cohol
Commonal coholicdri
nksaremadefr
om jui
cesofbananas,
pineappl
es,
sugar
cane,maize,millet
,sorghum,r
ice,
bar
ley
,cassav
a,potat
oes.

Yeasti
saddedtot
hemi
xtur
eofwat
erandt
hesef
oodsubst
ancest
ospeedup
fer
mentat
ion.
Methodsofpr oducingalcohol
i
. Ferment ation
i
i.Dist
il
lation
Ferment
ati
oni st heprocessbywhichsugarinj
uiceistur
nedi
ntoal
cohol
wit
h
thehel
pofy east.
- Fermentedf r
uitj
uicesmakewine.
- Ferment edst ar
chmi xt
uref
rom gr
ainsorcereal
smakebeer.

Exampl esofdr inkspr oducedlocal

lybyf er mentati
on
- Mwengebi gere - fr
om bananas
- Mal wa( ajon) - fr
om mi l
let/sor ghum
- Kwet e - fr
om cassav a/mai ze
- Munanansi - fr
om pi neapples
- Omur ambi - fr
om sorghum
-Beer - fr
om oats, barleyand sor ghum
Dist
il
lation
- Thi sisthepr ocessbywhi chwegetal cohol f
rom fer
mentation.
- Theal cohol i
nt hefermentedjuiceisheat edandi tevapor
ates.
- Theal cohol vapouristhencondensedandcol lect
ed.

Howdist
il
lationofalcoholi
sdone.
- Crudealcohol i
sboiledt
oproduceal cohol vapour.
- Thevapouri scondensed t ogetl
iqui dalcoholwiththehel
pofcol
dwateras
acondenser .
- Theli
quidal coholnowcall
eddisti
l
latei spassedt hr
oughacoil
eddeli
ver
y
tubei
nt oacl eancontai
neri.
e.bott
lesorj errycans.
- Thedeliverytubeisusual
lycoil
edtoi ncreasethesur f
acear
eafor
condensat i
onofalcoholi
nthecondenser .(
coldwat er
)

I
ll
ust
rat
iononhowdi
sti
l
lat
ioni
sdone;

Usesofal cohol
· Fordri
nking
· Makingmedi ci nes
· Fordisinf
ectingwounds
· Forsaletogetmoney
· Useddur i
ngcul t
uralfunct
ions
· Usedinmaki ngcosmet i
csandper f
umes
· Usedt osteri
lizemedi cal inst
rumentsi
nhospi
tal
s
· Usedasaf uel
· Usedinmaki ngnai l
vanishsoluti
ons

Alcoholi
sm i
sacondi
ti
onwher
eani
ndi
vi
dual
dependsonal
cohol
fornor
mal
functi
oningoft
hebody.
 Al
cohol
i
cisaper
sonwhoi
saddi
ctedt
oal
cohol
.

Addi
cti
onisacondit
ioni
nwhi
chaper
sonhasav
eryst
rongdesi
ret
otake
al
coholev
eryday.

Ef
fectsofalcoholont hecommuni t
y
· Mayl eadtojobnegl ectcausi nglowpr oduct i
vi
ty.
· Maycauset raf
ficaccidentsathome, suicidalbehavi
or.
· Highcr i
mer ateinthesociet ye.grape,def i
lement,r
obberyet
c.
· Canl eadtoincreaseofcer taindiseasesi nthecommuni tye.
gAIDS.
· Alcoholi
csbecomepubl i
cnui sance.
· Nat i
onmayl osev eryimportantpeopl e
· Lossofi ncomet axbaseduet olessproduct i
on.

Reasonswhypeopl edrinkal
cohol
· Idleness
· Frust r
at i
on
· Peerpr essure
· Thedesi retopasst ime,wit
hfri
ends.
· Fami l
ybackgr oundandsoci alenvi
ronment
· Toshowt hattheyar eri
ch.
· Peopl escul t
ureincer emoni
es/celebrat
ions
· Mi sleadingadv ertsonT.V,r
adio,magazines
· Tof orgetthei
rpr obl
ems.
· Influencebypeopl eoneadmi r
ese.g.parent
s,t
eacher
set
c.
.

Ef
fectsofalcoholonpeopl e(immedi at
eef f
ects)
· Slowsdownt heaction(funct
ion)ofthebrain.
· Peoplewhoar enotusedt odrinki
ngal otofal
coholvomitwhent
heydr
inka
lotofit
.
· Peoplegeteasi l
yannoy edaft
erdrinki
ngal otofal
cohol.
· Peoplewhoar edrunkbecomef or
getful
· Peoplewhoar edrunkloserespectforlaws.
· Peoplewhoar edrunklosebalance.

Longter
m effects
· Lossofappet it
e
· Pepti
culcers
· Liv
erdiseases
· Leadstosel fnegl
ect
· Lossofjobs
· Thepancreasmayswel l
.
· Toomuchandconst
antdr
inki
ngmaycausehandt
remor
s

Ef
fectsofal coholtoaf ami l
y
· Leadst ofami l
yneglect
· Leadst opovertyinaf amily
.
· I tcausesspouseandchi ldabuse.
· Leadst obadbehav i
oramongchi l
dren
· I tcausesv i
olenceinhomes.
Howt oav oidalcoholi
sm
· Av oidbadpeergr oups
· Nev erbel i
eveinadv ert
isementswhichprai
sealcohol asagooddr i
nk.
· Nev erdr i
nkalcohol toovercomeapr obl
em.
· Joingr oupswhosemember sdonottakealcohol
.
· Engagei nactivi
ti
eswhi chhelpyoutoappendf r
eetimepr oper
ly.
· Takey ourparentsandot herpeopl
eswar ni
ngaboutt hedangersofalcohol
seriously.

Ugandal
awsonal cohol
· Peopleunder18y ear
sofagear enotal lowedtodri
nkalcoholi
npubl
i
cplaces.
· Noonei sall
owedt odri
veav ehiclewhenhei sdrunk.
· Homedi sti
l
lat
ionofalcoholi
sf orbidden
· Noonei sall
owedt otr
ansportorsel lhomedisti
l
ledalcohol
.
· Publi
cplacesthatusealcoholi
cdr i
nksar eal
lowedtooperateupt
oalimi
ted
t
ime.

SMOKING
Smoki
ngist
hedr
awi
ngi
nsmokef
rom bur
ningt
obaccot
hrought
hemout
h.

Asmokerisaper sonwhosmokest obaccof

requentl
y.
Chemical
scontainedi ntobacco
· Nicot
ine
· Tar
Smokingiseit
heract i
veorpassive
Acti
vesmokingist hatoneinwhicht hesmokertakesi
nsmokedi
rect
lyf
rom
ci
garet
teorsmoki ngpi pe.

Passiv
esmokingisthet
ypeofsmoki
ngi
nwhi
chanonsmokerbr
eat
hesi
nai
r
contai
ningt
obaccosmoke.

Reasonswhypeoplesmoke.
· Topasst i
me
· Toconcentrat
eonwhattheyar
edoi
ng
· Tof eel
warm
· Tof
iti
napeergroup(
peeri
nfl
uence)
· Tof
eelconf
ident

Ef
fect
sofsmoki ngont hehumanbody
· Leadstor espir
atorydiseasessuchas;
· Lungcancer
· Emphy sema
· Heartattack(coronaryheartdisease)
· Pepti
cul cers
· Canceroft hemout handt hroat.

Howt oavoidsmoki ng
· Donotbel i
eveinadv er
ti
sementsaboutci
gar
ett
esmoking.
· Knowt hatther
eisnogoodr easonforsmoki
ng
· Avoidj
oininggroups of smoker s.
· Keepyourselfbusyforexamplebyreadi
nganovel
,ordoi
nganyot
her
meaningfulacti
vi
tiessuchasplay
inggamesetc.

Li
feski
ll
stosaf eguardagainstsmoking.
· Keepawayf r
om peoplewhosmoke
· Neveral
lowanybodyt oconv i
nceyout osmoke.
· Gathermorei nformat
ionondanger sofsmokingfr
om heal
thworker
s.
· Reportyourfriendswhosmoket ot heteacher
sort
hei
rparent
sforadvi
se.
· Li
kegamesandspor t
sdur i
ngyourf r
eetime.
· Neverusey ourmoneyt obuycigarettes.

DRUGS
Adr ugisachemi calsubstancewhi chaffectsthewayonesmi ndandhowthe
bodywor ks.
· I tcanei t
herhelporhar mt hebodysy stem.
· Dr ugsar eeitherinmanuf acturedform orrawf orm
· Rawdr ugsareeitherint hef or
m ofplantsandani malpart
sorextr
act
sfr
om
animal orplants.
· I fdrugsar emanuf acturedandt est
edinl aborator
iest
heyarecal
l
ed
l
abor atorymanuf actureddr ugs.

Char
act
eri
sticsoflaboratorymanuf actureddrugs
· Theyarecar ef
ull
ymadeandt ested.
· Thei
rstrength,st
abili
tyandpur i
tyisknown.
· Theyaret hesamef oreachquant it
y.
· Thei
reffectonhumanheal t
hi sknown,
· Theyarepackagedandpr operl
ypr otected
· Theyarewel ll
abeled
· Theyhav eexpir
yandmanuf actureddates.
 Examplesoflabor
ator
ymanuf
act
ureddr
ugs
· Aspir
in
· Chlor
oquine
· Quini
ne
· Fansi
dar
· Panadol
· Coart
em
· Mabendazole

Char
acter
isti
csoftradit
ional dr
ugs.
· Theyaremadeofr awplant
sandani mals
· Theirst
rength,purityandstabil
i
tychanges.
· Theyareofdi f
ferentquanti
ties
· Theiref
fectsonhumanheal t
hisnotknown.
· Theyarenotwel llabeled
· Theyarenotwel lpackaged.

Examplesoftradi
ti
onal
drugs
· Mululunza
· Kigagi
· Bombo
· Eusuk
· Asimiri

Essent
ial
drugs
Essent
ial
drugsaredrugsneededt
ocareandpr
eventcommondi
seases
aff
ecti
ngthemajori
tyofpeopl
einanar
eaorcount
ry.

Qual
it
iesofessent
ialdr
ugs
· Theyshoul
dbeaf f
ordabl
et omaket hecostoftr
eatmentmanageabl
e.
· Theyshoul
dbeaccessibleandavailabl
ewheneverneeded.
· Theyshoul
dbeef f
ecti
vetocure,preventandcontr
oldi
seases.
· Theyshoul
dbesaf ewhent hecor
rectdosageisused.
· Theyshoul
dhav easati
sfactor
yvalueformoney.

Exampl esofessent
ial
drugs
· Coughmi xt
ure
· Chloroquine
· Paracetamol
· Pir
iton
· Penicil
l
in
· ORS
· Tet
racy
li
ne

Drugprescr
ipt
ion
Thisr
eferstoheal
thwor
ker
swr
it
teni
nfor
mat
iononhowadr
ugshoul
dbeused.

I
fadrugi
stakenwi
thoutapr
escr
ipt
ion,
thepat
ientwi
l
lei
thert
akeunderorov
er
dose.

Overdose
Thi
sisthetaki
ngi
nofmor
emedi
cinet
hani
srequi
red.

Anoverdoseisdanger oust
othebodybecauseitcanleadt
opoisoningordeat
h.
Underdose
Thi
siswhenonet akesfewerdr
ugsthantherequi
red
Themajordisadvantageofanunderdoseisthati
tcausesdrugr
esistance.

Adv
antagesofdrugprescri
pti
ons.
· Ithelpsthepati
enttoknowt hecorrectdr
ug.
· Itsdosagerelat
iontoage,weightanddurationoft
reatment
· Preventoverdoewhi chi
shar mfulandpoisonoust
ot hebody
· Preventsandcontrol
smi suseofdrugs

Drugsofdependence
Thesearedrugswhichcauseaddi
cti
onaf
terpr
olongeduse.
Anaddit
iontoadrugisastrongdi
seaset
hatonefeelsuncomf
ort
abl
ewhenhe/
shedoesnotuset hedr
ug.

Drugsofdependency
Thisi
sthecont i
nuoususeofdrugsonaregul
arbasi
saf
tert
hebodyoft
heuser
.
I
tcanalsobet heil
legal
useofthedrug.
Commondr ugsofdependency
· Mar ij
uana
· Khartormi r
aa
· Cocaine
· Glue
· Aviat
ionfuel
· Heroin
· Alcohol
· Tobacco
· Paintthi
nner.

Drugmis-
use
Thisi
stheuseofadr
ugwi
thoutoragai
nstt
heheal
thwor
ker
sinst
ruct
ion.

Way
sofMi
s-usi
ngdr
ugs
· Shar
ingdr
ugs
· Taki
ngunprescr
ibeddr
ugs

Drugabuse
Thisi
stheuseofadr uginawaywhi chisharm(danger
ous)t
othebody
.
Whypeopleabusedrugs
· Somepeopl eabusedr ugstoovercomefear
· Duetopeerinfl
uence
· Tokeepawakeorsl eep
· Duetogoodadv er
ti
sement
· Topasstime
· Tofeelwarm
· Togetenergy
· Toconcentrat
eonwhatt heyaredoi
ng
· Togainmor eappetite.

Commonpeopl
ewhoabusedr
ugs
·

Eff
ectsofdr ugsofdependencetoani
ndi
vi
dual
· Brai
ndamage
· Lossofappetit
e
· Insomnia(i
nabil
i
tytosleep)
· Jobneglect
· Selfnegl
ect
·Lowi mmunityt
odisease

Ef
fect
s t othefamil
y
·Fami
lyneglect
· Fami l
yaggressionandvi
olence
· Criminalact
slikedefi
l
ementandrape
· Pov er
ty
· Itsetsabadexampl etot
hechildr
en

Ef
fect
stothecommuni t
y
· Itl
eadstoincreasedacci
dent
s
· Cri
minalbehavior
· Poorjobper f
ormance

Li
feski
l
lst
osaf
eguar
dagai
nstal
cohol
,smoki
nganddr
ugdependency

Whatisalif
eskill
?
Iti
spersonalandsoci
alski
llt
hatenabl
esaper
sont
ofunct
ionconf
ident
lyand
competentl
yinordert
ofiti
nacommuni ty
.
Sel
fawar
eness
- Knowy ourself
- Careforyourselftoavoi
ddr ugabuse
- Makechoi ceswhichyouthinkareconsi
stentandofv
alue.
- Avoidassociati
ngwithwronggroups
- SayNot opeopl ei
nfl
uenci
ngy outousedrugs

Copingwi thstress
- Int hissituation, t
rytobef irmt oapr oblem andbereadytocont
aini
t.
- Tr ytoacceptposi ti
vepiecesof adv i
ceswi t
hpati
ence
- Dontdr ink/smokeasmeansofr educi
ngst r
ess
Sel
festeem
- Accepty oursel fasyouandbel i
eveiny oursel
f
- Hav egooddi sci
pli
ne
- Appr eci
at ey ourself
- Peerr esistance
- Av oidbadcompany
Assert
iveness
- Beopenandgi vereasonsf orallyourdecisi
ons
- Insistont hef actthatwr ong t hi
ngsar ewrong.
- Best rai
ghtf or wardandhonestwi thyourself.
Deci
sionmaki ng
- Makeachoi cewi thgoodr esults
- Baddeci si
onmayaf fectyourlifeinfuture
Lei
suretime
- Invol vi
ngy ourselfinmeani ngfulacti
vit
iesduringf
reeti
me.

Li
feski
l
lst hatcanhel pyoutoav oi
ddr ugs
· Desi stfrom badpeergr oups
· Throughcounsel ingandgui dance
· Followgoodmor alsfr
om elders.
· Spendi ngleisur
et imeconstructi
velybyengagi
ngi
npr
oduct
iveact
ivi
ti
es.
· Readi nggoodmat eri
alwhichisusef ul
toli
fe.

TERM I
I
CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFFLOWERI
NGANDNONFLOWERI
NGPLANTS

PLANTKINGDOM
Pl
antsar
edivi
dedintotwogroupsv
iz:
i
. Nonfl
oweri
ngplants
i
i
.Floweri
ngplants
NON — FLOWERINGPLANTS
Thesear
eplant
swhichdontbearf
lower
s.Gr
oupsofnonf
lower
ingpl
ant
s
· Spor
ebeari
ngplant
s
· Coni
fer
ousplant
s

Sporebearingplant
s
Thesearepl ant
sthatr
epr
oducebymeansofspor
es.
Theyincl
ude:
· Fer ns
· Mosses
· Li
verworts
· Horsetai
l
s

Asporeisasi
ngl
ecell
whichi
sabl
etodev
elopi
ntoanewpl
ant
.Aspor
eis
pr
otect
edbyasporecase.

FERNS
· Hav echlorophyl
landcanmaket hei
rownfood.
· Hav eproperroots,st
emsandl eaves.
· Repr oducebymeansofspor es,sporesar
eproduced att
hel
owersi
deof
theleav
es i nsporecases.
· Theygr owi nshadymoistpl
aces.
Diagram

MOSSES
· Thesear esmallgr
eenpl
ant
sgrowonhouseroof
s,v
erandah,
treet
runks,
logs,
rocks,andsoili
ndampshadypl
aces.
· Reproducebymeansofspores.
· Contai
nchl or
ophyl
landmakesi
tsownfood.
Di
agram

LI
VERWORTS
· Growinwetmoi stpl
aces.
· Havechl
orophyll
andmaket
hei
rownf
ood.
· Repr
oducebymeansofspor
es.

CONIFERS
· Thesebearseedsinstr
uctur
escall
edcones.
· Hav esmall
needl
eshapedgreenleaves.
· Donthav ef
lower
sbutproducepoll
enandov
ulesi
ncones.
Examplesincl
ude;
· Pine
· Cedar
· Fir
· Cypress
· Cycades
· Podo
· Ginkgo

Economicvalueofconifer
s
· Giveussof twoodtimber.
· Actaswi ndbreaks.
· Producesoftwoodf ormaki
ngpaper
s,mat
chst
icks,
cei
l
ingboar
ds.
· Earnsforei
gnexchange.

FLOWERINGPLANTS
Thesear
eplant
sthatbearf
lower
sandr
epr
oducebymeansofseeds.

Groupsoffl
ower i
ngplants
· Monocotyledonousplants
· Dicot
yledonousplants.

Monocotyl
edonousplants
Thesearepl
antsthatbearseedswi
thonecot
yledon.
Examples
Mill
et maize
Sorghum ri
ce
Barl
ey wheat
Oats

Char
acter
ist
icsofmonocotyledonouspl ant
· Produceseedswithonecot yledon
· Theyundergohypogeal germinati
on.
· Havefibr
ousroots.
· Haveleaveswit
hparallelleafvenat
ion.
Dicot
yledonousplant
s
Thesear eplant
swhichbearseedswi
thtwocot
yledons.
Examples:
Legumese. g.beans,
peas,gr
oundnut
s,bambar
anutse.t.
c.

Char
acter
ist
icsofdicotyl
edonousplant
s
· Produceseedswi t
ht wocotyl
edons
· Undergoepigealgerminat
ion
· Haveanet workleafvenat
ion
· Haveat aprootsystem.

Aflower
ingplantconsistsoft
wosy
stems
i
. Rootsystems
i
i. Shootsystem.

Partsofaf l
oweringplant.
Diagram.
Functionsofpartsofaf l
ower i
ngplant.
Terminalbud— Gr owingt i
poftheplant.
Auxil
iarybud— gr owsintobranch,fl
oweretc.
Node— Poi ntonast em whereal eafgrows.
I
nternode:-Theregionbet weentwonodes
Rootcap:-Protectsthetipofthetaproot.(mai
nroot
)

ROOTS
Apartofapl
antt
hatgr
owsi
nthesoi
l
.Itdev
elopsf
rom t
her
adi
cle.

Funct
ionsofroots
· Absorbwat erandmi ner
alsalt
sfrom thesoi
l
.
· Holdtheplantfi
rmlyinthesoil
.
· Somer ootsstorefoodfortheplant.
· Somer ootshelptheplanttobreathe.

Usesofr
oot
stoman
· Somear esoldtogetincome.
· Somer oot
sar esour
cesoffood.
· Somer oot
sar eusedasherbalmedi
cine.
· Somepr ovi
dewoodf uel.

ROOTSYSTEMS
Thesear
etwomai nrootsy
stems
i
. Fi
brousrootsyst
em.
i
i.Taprootsyst
em.

Di
agr
ams
Typesofr oots
i. Proproots
Thesegiv eext
rasuppor
ttoapl
antsuchpl
ant
sincl
ude;
-mai
ze,
sor
ghum,
etc.
Diagram

i
i
.Buttressroots
i
i
i.Cl
aspingroots
i
v.St
il
troots
v
.Breathingroots
v
i.St
oragerootse.g.car
rot
s,cassav
a,sweetpot
atoeset
c

Wi
thdi
agr
ams

OSMOSIS
Thisi
saplantprocesswhereflui
ds(pl
antnut
ri
ent smovef
rom ar
egi
onofl
ow
concent
rat
ionthr
oughasemi -per
meablemembr ane.
Osmosismainl
yt akespl
aceintheroothai
rsofplant
s.

Anexper
imentt
oil
l
ust
rat
eosmosi
s.

STEMS
Funct
ionsofthest em t
oplants.
· Theyholdleav esandbranchesinposi
ti
ontogetsunl
i
ght
.
· Holdthef l
owerforpoll
inati
on
· Helpintranspir
ati
on
· Somest emsmakef oodf ort
hepl
ant.

Funct
ionst
oman.
· Somear esour
cesoffood.
· Somearesourcesofi
ncome.
· Someprovi
deherbalmedi
cine.
· Somear
eusedforpr
opagat
ion.
· Somepr
ovi
deti
mber.

Typesofstems
· Uprightst
ems.
· Creepi
ngst ems
· Undergroundst
ems.

Wi
thdi
agr
ams

Reasonswhyplant
scli
mbother
s.
· Togetsupport
· Toobtai
nsunli
ght.

Wayshowpl
antscli
mbother
s
· Useoft
endri
ls
· Useofhooks
· Byt wi
ningorcl
aspi
ng

Undergr
oundst ems
Examplesar e:
· Bul bs
· Rhi zomes
· St em tubers
· Cor ms
Bulbs
Examplesar e;
Onions,garli
cetc
di
agram ofoni on

Rhizomes
Examplesar
e:t
urmer
ic,
gingeret
c

Stem t
ubers
Examplesare;
Iri
shpot
ato,
whi
tey
amset
c

Corms
Exampl
eiscocoy
am

Pl
antst
em pr
opagat
ion
Thi
sist
hewayplant
scanbegr
ownusi
ngst
ems.
Exampl
es
· Bulbs
· Rhizomes
· Corns
· Stem t
ubers
· Suckers

Wi
thdi
agr
ams

LEAVES
Thestr
uctureofal eaf,par
tsandt
hei
rfunct
ions.
Typesofleaves.
· Simpleleaves
· Simpleserrated
· Simpledivi
ded
· Simplelobed.

Wi
thdi
agr
ams

Compoundl eaves
· Bi
pinnate
· Pi
nnat e
· Di
gitate
· Tr
ifoli
ate

Withdiagr
ams
Funct
ionsofl
eav
est
obot
hpl
ant
sandman(
ani
mal
s)

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Theprocessbywhichgreenpl
ant
smaket
hei
rownf
ood.
Phot
o— meansl ight.
Synt
hesis— meanst obuil
dup.

Rawmat eri
alsforphot
osynt
hesis
· Wat er
· Carbondioxi
de.
Condi
ti
onsnecessar yf
orphotosynt
hesi
s
· Chlorophyll
· Wat er
· Sunlight
· Carbondioxi
de.

I
mport
anceofPhotosynt
hesis
· I
thelpsi
nfoodproducti
on
· I
thelpst
opuri
fytheenvir
onmentbyusi
ngat
mospher
iccar
bondi
oxi
de
Adapt
ati
onsofl eavesforphotosynt
hesis
· Haveabroadf l
atshapetoincreasesurfacear
eaf
orsunl
i
ght
.
· Havethi
nwal l
stoall
owcar bondi
oxide
· Havestomat aforgaseousexchange.
· Haveveinsfortransl
ocation.

TRANSPI RATION
Theprocessbywhi chplantslosewateraswatervapourtot
heat
mospher
e
thoughleaves.
Anexper i
mentt oshowt ranspir
ati
on.
I
mpor t
anceoft ranspir
ation
· Tocool t
hepl ant.
· Helpsplantstoabsor bswaterandmineral
salts.
· Helpsinrainformation

Fact
orsaffectingrateoft ranspi
rati
on
· Temper ature
· Li
ghti ntensit
y
· Wind
· Natureoft hel eaf
· Humi dity
· Stomat a
Waysofreduci ngt r
anspi r
ati
on
· Plant
sshed t heirleaves
· Formingal ayerofwaxont heleafsur
face.
· Reduci ngthesi zeofleavestothorns.

REPRODUCTI ONINFLOWERI NGPLANTS

Therear
et wotypesofrepr
oduct i
oninplant
s.
Asexualr
eproducti
on(Vegetati
vepropagati
on)
Sexualr
eproducti
on.

THEFLOWER
Thest
ruct
ureofaf
lower(
It
spar
tsandf
unct
ions)

POLLI
NATION
Thetr
ansf
erofpol
l
engr
ainsf
rom ant
her
stot
hest
igma.

Ty
pesofpoll
inati
on
· Crosspol l
inat
ion
· Selfpoll
inati
on

SELFPOLLI
NATION
Thetr
ansf
erofpol
l
engr
ainsf
rom ant
her
stot
hest
igmaoft
hesamef
lower
.
NB:Apawpawunder
goessel
fpol
l
inat
ion.
Di
agram

Crosspoll
inati
on:
Thetransferofpol
l
engrai
nsf
rom t
heant
herof onef
lowert
othest
igmaof
anotherfl
owerofthesame ki
nd.
.

NB:Amaizepl
antunder
goescr
osspol
l
inat
ion
Di
agram

Agent
sofpoll
inat
ion
· Animals
· Wind
· Fl
owingwater

Char
act
eri
sti
csofi
nsectandwi
ndpol
l
inat
edf
lower
s

Wind I
nsect
s
Havenonectar Havenectar
Dull
colour
edpetal
s Bri
ght petal
s
Alotofpol
lengr
ains Fewpoll
engrains
Havenoscent Havescent

I
mpor
tancesofpol
li
nati
on
- Ital
lowsf
ert
il
izat
iont
otakepl
acei
ncrops
- Leadstohi
ghy i
eldsi
nfar
mershar
vest
.

Usesoffl
ower s
- Fordecoration onv ar
iousfunct
ions
- Makingofi nsectici
de
- Perf
umemaki ng
- Usedt ogetdy es
- Sourcesofi ncomebygr owi
ng/selli
ng
- Si
gnofl ove.
- Si
gnofr espectf orthedead.

FERTI
LISATI
ON
Theunionofamal eandfemalegamatestof
orm azy
gote.
Aft
erpoll
inat
ion,
pollent
ubesdevel
opreachi
ngdowntheovul
es.
Aft
erfert
li
sat
ionintheovar
y,ovul
esbecomeseedsandanovarydev
elopsi
ntoa
fr
uit
.

Di
agr
am

SEEDS
Aseedisaf
ert
il
isedov
ulet
hatdev
elopsi
ntoanewpl
ant
.

Cl
assesofseeds
· Monocotyl
edonousseeds
· Di
cotyl
edonousseeds

Monocot yl
edonousseeds
Thesehav eonecoytl
edon.
Examples
Dicot
yledonousseeds
Thesear eseedswit
htwocoty
ledons.
Examples

St
ruct
ureofabeanseed

GERMINATION
Thedevel
opmentofaseedi
ntoaseedl
i
ng.

Ty
pesofgerminati
on
· Epi
gealgerminati
on
· Hypogealger
mi nat
ion

EPIGEALGERMI NATION
Thetypeofgerminat
ionwherethecoty
ledonscomeabov
ethegr
oundl
evel
.It
occursi
nalll
egumes.E.g.beans,
peas,G.nut
s,et
c.

HYPOGEALGERMI NATION
Thi
sisthetypeopfger
minat
ionwherethecooty
edonsremai
nbelowtheground
l
evel
.Itoccur
sinall
monocotyl
edonousplant
se.gwheat,
maize,
sorghum et
c.

Di
agr
ams

Condi
ti
onsnecessar
yforger
minat
ion
· Air(
oxygen)
· Water(moist
ure)
· War mth
Di
ff
erencebetweendicot
sandmonotpl ant
s
MONOCOT DICOT
Haveonecotyledon Havetwocot yl
edons
Havefi
brousrootsystem Havetaprootsystems
Haveparal
lell
eafvenati
on Havenetwor kl
eafvenat
ion
Under
goeshy pogeal Under
goesepi geal
ger
minati
on germi
nation
Formstruewood.

FRUITS
Afrui
tisadev
elopedovar
ycontaini
ngseeds.Frui
tshavet
woscar
s.St
ylest
alk
andstal
kscar
.Frui
tspr
otectseedsandassisti
ndisper
sal
.

Ty
pesoffrui
ts
· Succuentf
rui
ts
· Dryfr
uit
s

SUCCULENTFRUI TS/JUICYFRUI TS
Thesearefrui
tswhoseper
icarpandmesocarpbecomej
uicyandf
leshyandcan
beeaten.Theyaredi
vi
dedintothr
eegroups.
· Berri
es
· Drupes
· Pomes.

Berr
ies
Thesearefr
uit
swi
thmanyseeds.Thesof
tper
icar
pisdi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreel
ayer
s.
· Epicar
p
· Mesocar p
· Endocar p

Examples
· Oranges
· Tomatoes
· Pawpaw

Di
agr
am ofanor
angef
rui
t.

Drupes
Thesearefrui
tswihoneseedi
nsi
deahar
dendocar
p.Dr
upeshav
ethr
eel
ayer
s;
· Epicar
p
· Mesocar p
· Endocar
p

Exampl
es
· Mangoes
· Avacadoes
· Coconuts
· Palm oi
l
· Cashewnuts.
etc

Di
agr
ams

Pomes
Thesear efrui
tsi
nwhichther
eceptacl
ebecomesj
uicyandmodi
fi
edasaf
rui
t
whiletheinnercor
eistheper
icar
p.
Exampl es
· Apples
· Figs
· Pearsetc
Diagram

FRUITANDSEEDDI SPERSAL
Thi
sisthescat
ter
ingofseedsandf
rui
tsf
rom par
entpl
ant
stoanew
envi
ronment
.

I
mpor
tanceofseeddi spersal
· Prevent
sov ercr
owdi ng
· Reducescompet it
ionforli
ghtandnut r
ient
s.
· Enablesplant
st ocoloni
senewar eas.
· Thefarmergetsnewspeci esofcr ops.

Agent
sofseeddi
spersal
· Wat er
· Animal
s
· Wind
· Expl
osi
vemechanism

Expl
aint
hechar
act
eri
sti
csofeachandt
hei
rdi
agr
ams.

TROPISM
Tropi
sm i
sgr
owt
hmov
ementofpl
ant
sinr
esponset
oast
imul
us
Ast
imul
usi
sanychangei
ntheenv
ironmentwhi
cht
hepl
anti
ssensi
ti
vet
o

Kindsoftropi
sm
Phototr
opism
Thisisgrowthmov
ementofpl
antst
owardsl
i
ghtegwhenapl
anti
spl
acedi
nthe
darkboxwi t
hasmall
openi
ngtowar
dsthepl
antt
endst
ogrow

Di
agr
am

Geotropi
sm
Thisisagrowthmovementofapl
antt
owar
dst
hedi
rectoff
orceofgr
avi
typl
ant
rootgrowwardsduetof
orceofgr
avi
ty.

Di
agr
am f
ori
l
lust
rat
ion

Hydr
otr
opism
Thi
sisagrowthmov
ementofsomepart
sofcer
tai
npl
antinr
esponset
otouch
onesi
de.Thi
ssti
mul
ushel
pstwinni
ngpl
ant
ssuchasbeans,passi
onf
rui
tsand
yamscli
mbsbyuseoft
endr
il
s,hooks

Chemotropi
sm
Thi
sisthegrowt
hmov ementofplantpar
tst
owar
dst
hesour
ceofchemi
cal
eg
pol
lent
ubesgrowthestyl
etoreachtheovul
es

PLANTPROPAGATI ON
Pl
ant propagat
ion r
efersmethodsusedingr
owi
ngcr
ops
Ther
earetwobasicmethodsofpropagat
ion

i
)Seedpropagati
on
i
i
)Vegetati
vepropagat
ion

SEEDPROPAGATI ON
mostfloweri
ngplant
sarepr
opagat
edbymeansofseedsegbeans,
mai
ze,
coff
ee, mangoetc
veget
ativepr
opagati
on
i
nthi
smet
hodapar
tofapar
entpl
anti
spl
ant
edt
ogi
ver
iset
oanewpl
ant
.

Par
tsi
fplantsusedi
nveget
ati
vepr
opagat
ionar
e:-
- Stems
- Leav es
- Buds

Ty
pesofvegetati
vepr opagat
ion
- Naturalvegetati
vepropagati
on
- Art
ifi
cialvegetati
vepropagat
ion

Nat ur
al vegetati
vepropagat
ion
Plants Met hodsof
propagation
Yams(whi teyams) Stem tubers
Ir
ishpot atoes Stem tubers
Ginger Rhizomes
Banana, pineapple,
sisal Suckers
Pineapples Crowns, sli
p
si
sal Bulbil
s
Onions Bulbs
Strawber ry Runner s
Pyrethrum Spli
t

Art
ifi
cialv
egetat
ivepropagati
on
Thi
sinv ol
vesuseofspecialskil
landtechniquest
opr
oducehi
ghqual
i
tyandhi
gh
yi
eldi
ngcr opswhichareresi
stanttodiseases

Exampl
eofar t
if
icial
veget
ati
ve pr
opagati
on
a) St em cutting
Descr
ipti
on & Diagram

b) Layer
ing
Descr
ipt
ion & Di
agr
am

c) Graf
ti
ng
Descri
pti
on & Di
agr
am
d) Buddi
ng
Descr
ipt
ion & Di
agr
am

e) Marcott
ing
Descri
pti
on & Di
agr
am

ECONOMICVALUESOFPLANTSTOMAN
- Plantsprov i
defoodtoman.
- Plantshelpincontrol
l
ingsoi
lerosi
on
- Plantsareneeded i nconst
ructi
onandbuil
dingindustr
y.
- Theyprov iderawmateri
alsf
oragrobasedindustri
es
- Agricul
turalindust
ryi
sasourceofrevenueforgovernment

ANIMALHUSBANDRY
Animal
husbandryist
hecar
eandmanagementofli
vestock(f
arm animal
s)
Exampl
esoffarm ani
mal
sincl
ude;
goat
s,r
abbi
ts,pi
gs,sheep,cat
tle,
poul
try
.

KEEPI
NGCATTLE
Thi
sisther
ear
ingofcows,
bul
l
s,oxen,
hei
fer
sandbul
l
ocks.

Whyfar
mersrearcatt
le
· Formeatandmi l
kproduct
ion
· Togeti ncome
· Forprov i
si
onoflabour
· Forpay mentofdowryandbridepr
ice

I
mportanceofkeepingcattl
e
· Theyprovideuswi t
hmeatandmi lk
· Theyareasour ceofempl oymenttof ar
mer s
· Bull
sandoxenar eusedforploughingandtranspor
t
· Cowdungi sasourceofmanur e
· Hidesfrom cat
tleareusedtomakel eat
her
· Bones,hornsandhoov esareusedt omakegl ueandani
mal
feeds.
· Cattl
eareusedt opaydowr yorbrideprice.

Ext
ernal
par
tsofacow

Ty
pesofcattl
e
Atypeofcat
tl
emeansacl
assofcat
tl
ekeptf
oraspeci
fi
cpur
pose.
Themajort
y pesofcat
tl
ekepti
nUgandai
ncl
ude;
· BeefCattle
· Dai
ryCat t
le
· DualpurposeCatt
le

Typesofbreedsofcat t
le
Abreedisaf amilyofcatt
lehavi
ngspecif
iccharact
eri
sti
cs. The typeofbreed
ofcatt
learedeterminedby;col
our,si
ze,mil
kyiel
d,bodyconf
ormati
onlikeshape
et
c.
Therearethreetypesofbreedsofcatt
le,namely;
· Local br
eeds/ i
ndi
genousbreeds
· Exoticbreeds
· Crossbr eeds

Localori
ndigenousbreeds
Thesearebreedsthathaveexi
stedi
nEastAf
ri
caf
orl
ong.Theyar
eal
socal
l
ed
Nati
veBreeds.
Examples
· Ankolecow
· Boran
· Zebu

Adv
antagesoflocalbreedsofcattl
e
· Theyar er
esist
anttosomedi seases.
· Theycansur v
iveonpoorpast ur
eandlit
tl
ewat
er
· Theyrequir
elesscareandmanagement
· Theyproducehighquali
tymeatandmi lk
· Disadv
antagesoflocalbreedsofcatt
le
· Theymat ur
eslowly
· Theyproducelessproducts(i
.e.Mi
lkandmeat
)

Adv
antagesofexot
icbreedsofcat
tl
e
· Theygrowandmat urefast
er
· Theypr
oducemor emeatandmil
k

Di
sadvantagesofexoti
cbreedsofcat t
le
· Theyar eeasi
l
yat t
ackedbydiseases
· Theyneedgoodpast ureandwat eral
lthet
ime.
· Theyneedal otofcareandattenti
on.

Typesofcatt
le
Therear
ethreetypesofcatt
lenamel
y;
· Beefcattl
e
· Dair
ycattl
e
· Dualpurposecat
tle
· Wor
kty
pe(
draughtcat
tl
e)

Beefcat
tl
e
Thesearecat
tl
emai
nlykeptf
orbeef(
meat
)pr
oduct
ion.

Char
acter
ist
icsofbeefcat
tle
· Theygrowf ast
· Theyhaveablock(rect
angular
)shape
· Theyhavesmallheads
· Theyhaveshortl
egswi t
hlongbroadbacks.

Exampl
esofbeefcat t
le
· Shorthorn
· Gall
oway
· Hereford
· Aberdeenangus
· Amer i
canBraham
· Charolai
s
· SantaGertr
udis

Di
agr
am ofabeefcat
tl
easseenf
rom abov
eandasi
de.

Seenf
rom asi
de Seenf
rom abov
e

Dair
ycat
tl
e
Thesear
ecat
tl
ekeptmai
nlyf
ormi
l
kpr
oduct
ion

Char
act
eri
sti
csofdairycattl
e
· Theyar
et r
iangul
arinshape
· Theypr oduceal otofmilk
· Theyhav ewel l
setlegstosupporttheirwei
ght.
· Theyhav eplentyofspacebetweent heirhi
ndlegs.
· Theyar eusuall
ydoci l
e(cal
m)
· Theyhav esmal lnecksandwidehindquar t
ers.

Exampl
esofdai
rycat
tl
e
a)Fr
iesian b)BrownSwi
ss
c)Guernsey d)Ay
rshir
e

Di
agr
am ofadai
rycowasseenf
rom abov
eandasi
de

Seenf
rom abov
e Seenf
rom asi
de

Dualpur
posecatt
le
Thesearecat
tl
ekeptf
orbot
hmeatandmi
l
kpr
oduct
ion.

Examples
1.RedPol
l 2.Mi
l
kingShor
thor
n
3.Sahi
wal

Work(draught
)cat
tl
e
Thesearecatt
lemainl
ykeptforprov
idi
nglabouronaf
arm(
ploughi
ng,
transpor
t).
Theyareusedtopl
oughsoil,
pullcar
ts,
etc.

Dif
fer
encesbet weenlocalandexoticbr
eedsofcattle
LocalBreeds Exot
icBreeds
Theyhav edifferentcolours Theyhavespecifi
ccolours.
Theymat uresl owly. Theymat ur
equickly
.
Theyproducel essmeatandmi lk. Theyproducemor emeatandmi l
k.
Theyneedl esscar e. Theyneedal otofcare.
Theyaremor er esi
stanttodiseases. Thearelessresi
stanttodiseases.
Theycansur viv eonpoorpast ureand Theyneedgoodpast ureandwat eral
l
water
. thet
ime.

Breedingofcattl
e
Breedingisthekeeping(maint
aining)ofi
nheri
tedcharacter
ist
icsincat
tl
e.Such
character
ist
icsincl
ude;col
our,growth,di
seaseresi
stance,mil
king,l
ongevi
ty,
(abi
li
tytolovelong).

Ty
pesofbr
eedi
ng
1.I
nBreeding 2.Li
nebreedi
ng
3.OutBreedi
ng 4.Cr
ossbreedi
ng
5.Upgrading 6.Sel
ect
ivebreedi
ng

I
nBreeding
Thi
sisthemat
ingofv
erycl
osel
yrel
atedani
mal
s(suchasbr
other
sandsi
ster
s).

Adv
antagesofi
nbr
eedi
ng
I
tmakesgoodchar
act
eri
sti
csi
nthef
ami
l
yofani
mal
sst
rong.

Di
sadvantages
I
tleadstoproduct
ionofpoorqual
ity
.
I
tcanleadtoinher
itanceofbadtr
ait
s.

Li
neBreedi
ng
Thi
sisthemati
ngofcl
oselyrel
atedani
mals(suchascousi
ns)
.
Li
nebreedi
ngcanl
eadtoinheri
tanceofbadt
rait
s.

OutBr
eeding
Thi
sisthemati
ngofdist
ant
lyrel
atedanimal
s.
Outbr
eeding bri
ngsgoodquali
ti
esthatmaybedi
sappear
ingi
nabr
eed.

CrossBreeding
Thisi
sthemat ingofunrel
atedanimal
sofdiffer
entpurebreeds.(
e.g.Mat
ing
exoti
cbreedswi t
hlocalbr
eeds).
Theoffspringsaft
ercrossbreedi
ngarecal
ledcrossbreeds.
Crossbreedshavebetterperf
ormancethanthei
rparentsorrel
ati
ves.

UpGrading
Thi
sistheimprovementofqual
i
tyofonebr
eedbyusi
ngabr
eedofsuper
ior
qual
i
tyseveral
times.

Sel
ect
iveBreedi
ng
Thi
sisthemat i
ngofsel
ect
edgoodbreedsinaherd.
Badorpoorbreedsi
naherdaresol
doffforsl
aughter
.

Typesofservice/i
nseminati
on
Therear
etwot ypesofinseminat
ion;
a)Natural I
nseminati
on
b)Art
ifi
cialInseminati
on

Nat
ureInseminat
ion
Thi
sisthedeposi
tingofsper
msi
ntot
hef
emal
erepr
oduct
ivesy
stem byamal
e
ani
mal.
Typesofnaturali
nseminat
ion
a)Handmat i
ng
b)Pasturemat i
ng
Handmating
Thismeansbr i
ngingabull
tomat
ewi
thacowonheat
.

Past
ureMat
ing
Thi
smeansall
owi
ngabul
ltomov
ewi
thcowssot
hati
tmat
eseasi
l
ywi
tht
hose
onheat.

Adv
antagesofnaturali
nseminati
on
· Afarmerdoesnotbot hert
olookforanexper
tinsemi
nat
or.
· Itischeapforafarmersincesemenisnotbought
.
· Thebul lnot
icesthecowsonheateasil
y.
· Animalsonheatenj oythefeel
i
ngofsex.

Disadv antagesofnat uralinseminati

on
· Cont roll
ingv ener
aldiseasesisdiffi
cult
.
· Smal l cowscanbei nj
ur edbybigbulls.
· Tr anspor t
ingabullifnoni saroundisexpensive.
· I nbreedi ngiseasil
ypr acti
ced.
Repr oduct i
oni ncatt
le
Repr oduct i
oni stheabil
it
yt oproduceoffspringsandincr
easeinnumber
.
Theremustbeamal eandaf emaletomat eandproduceyoungones.

Mati
ng
Mati
ngist
hesexual uni
onofthemaleandf emaleanimals.
Dur
ingmati
ng,serv
ing(insemi
nati
on)takesplace.
Aheif
eri
sreadyformatingattheageof18mont hs.
Whenacoworhei f
erisreadyformati
ng,itshowssignsofheat
.

Heatperi
od oroest
rusper
iod
Thi
sistheti
mewhenaf emaleani
mal
isr
eadyt
omat
ewi
thamal
eani
mal
.

Oest
ruscycl
e
Thi
sisaperiodwhenaf emaleanimal canconceiv
eifi
tmat
es.
Si
gnsofheat
· Thecowmount sothercows.
· Thecowal l
owsot hercowst omountit.
· Thecowl osesappet it
etograze.
· Mucusdischar gefrom thevulv
a.
· Sli
ghtr
iseint hebodyt emperatureofacow.
· Thevulvaswel l
sandchangesf rom pi
nktored.
· Thecowur inatesfrequentl
y.
· Thecowbecomesr estl
essandmoosal l
thetime.
· Mil
kpr oduct
ioninl
actat
ingcowdrops.
· Threeweeksaf t
ert
heper i
odofser
vice,
ift
hecowshowsnomor
esi
gnsof
heat,
wesayi thasconceiv
ed.

Art
if
ici
ali
nseminat
ion
Thi
smeansdeposi t
ingsper
msintot
hefemal
erepr
oduct
ivesy
stem ofacow
usi
ngssyringeoraninsemi
nat
inggun.

Adv
antagesofar ti
fi
cialinseminati
on
· Itcontrol
sveneraldiseases.
· Iti
scheapert obuysper msthanbuy
ingabul
l.
· Itpreventsi
njur
ytosmal lcows.
· Semenf r
om agooddeadbul l
canbeusedt
oimpr
ovebr
eeds.
· Inbreedingi
scont rolled.
· Wast agesofsemeni smi ni
mized

Di
sadvantagesofart
if
ici
ali
nseminati
on
· Itr
equi r
esanexpertt
ocarryi
tout.
· Stori
ngsemeni sdi
ff
icul
t.
· I
tmaynotgi vegoodresul
ts.
· Af armermaynoteasil
ynoti
cethecowonheat
.

Therepr
oduct
ivesy
stem ofacow.
Diagr
am

Usesofeachpar t
Vul
va
I
treceivesandguidest
hepeni
stothevagi
na.
I
tprotectsandcoverst
hevagi
na.
Vagina
I
treceivessper
msandpassesthem t
otheuter
us.
I
tisabi rt
hcanal
.

Cer
vix
I
tprot
ect
sthef
oet
usdur
ingpr
egnancybycl
osi
ngt
hecer
vix.

Ovary
I
tproducesmat
ureov
a(eggs)
I
tpr
oduceshor
moneswhi
chcont
rol
sthesexual
cycl
e.

Ova
Thesear
efemal
erepr
oduct
ivecel
l
s.Theyf
usewi
thsper
mst
ofor
m azy
got
e.

Ut
erus
I
tiswhereimplant ati
ontakesplace.
I
tprovi
desasui tableenvir
onmentf ori
mpl
ant
ati
ont
otakepl
ace.
Ovi
duct(f
all
opiant ube)
I
tiswherefert
il
izat i
ontakesplace.
I
tpassesaf er
ti
lizedeggt otheuterus.

Thereproducti
vesyst
em ofabull
Usesofeachpar t
· Testes
· Theypr oducesper
ms.
· Theypr oduceahormoneresponsi
blef
orpuber
tyandsexual
desi
re.Thi
s
hor
monei scall
edtest
ost
erone.

Ur
ethra
I
tpassesuri
netot
hepeni
s
I
tpassesspermst
othepeni
s.

Sper
m duct
s
Theycar
rysper
mst
otheur
ethr
a.

Peni
s
I
tdeposi
tssper
mst
othev
agi
na

Test
es
Theyhel
ptomanuf
act
uresper
ms

Epi
didymis
I
tstoressper
ms.

Prost
ateglandsandseminalv
esi
cles
Theyproducesementhroughwhi
chsper
msswi
m.

Scr
otum
Thi
sist heoutercoveri
ngoft hetest
icles.
I
tprotectsthetest
icl
es.
I
tregulatesthetemperatureofthetesticl
es.
Fer
ti
li
zat i
oninacow
Fer
ti
li
zat i
onistheunionofmal eandf emalegamet
est
ofor
m azy
got
e.
Agamet eisar epr
oductivecell
.
Thef
emalegamet
eiscal
ledOv
um
Themal
egametei
scall
edaSperm.

Di
agr
am ofasper
m andanOv
um

Sper
m Ov
um

Aft
erf
ert
il
izat
ion,
thezygot
edevelopsi
ntoanembry
o.
Theembryodevel
opsintoafoet
usandfinal
l
yint
oacal
f.

Zy
got
e Embr
yo Foet
us Cal
f

Theembr
yoi
sat
tachedt
otheut
eruswal
lthr
ought
hepl
acent
a.

I
mplantati
on
Thi
sistheattachmentofthef
oetust
othewallsoft
heut
erus.
Ther
efore,I
mplantat
iont
akesplacei
ntheut
erus.

Gestati
onper i
od
Thi
si sthetimebetweenconcepti
onandgivi
ngbir
th.
Thegest at
ionper
iodofanin-
calfi
s270-280daysorni
nemont
hs.
Anin-calfi
sacowt hati
spregnant.

Si
gnsofpr
egnancy
Acowdoesnotgoonheat21day saft
erser
vice.
· Theut er
usenl argesinthesecondandthirdmont haf
terconcept
ion.
· Theudderenl argesandf i
ll
swithmil
k.
· Thecer v
ixclosesdur i
ngpregnancy.
· Themov ementoff oetuscanbeseenorf eltaf
ter7months.

Dryperi
od
Thisist
hetimewhenalactatingcowislef
twithoutmi
lki
ngitinpr
epar
ati
ont
o
gi
vingbir
th.
Acowi sdri
edsi
xtosevenweeksbef orecalv
ing.
Duringt
hedryper
iod,
thein-calfi
sfedonfoodsr i
chi
nprotei
n.

Steamingup
Thisisthefeedi
ngofani
n-cal
fonf
oodsr
ichi
npr
otei
n.I
tisnor
mal
l
ydonedur
ing
thelasttwomonths.

Whysteami ngup/
advantagesofst eamingup
· I
tencour agesthefoet
ust ogrowheal t
hy.
· I
tbuildsacowsbodyi npr eparati
on f orcal
vi
ng(
par
tur
it
ion)
· I
tincreasesthemanuf act
ureofcol ost
rum.
· I
tprev entsl
owbirthweight.
· I
tprolongsmi l
kletdown.
Cal
vingorpar
tur
it
ion
Thi
sistheactofgiv
ingbi
rt
hincat
tl
e(cows)
.

Si
gnsofcalvi
ng
· Thev ul
vaswell
sandbecomesr ed.
· Thecowliesdownmostoft heti
me.
· Theudderandteat
sbecomeswol len.
· Theamnion(orwatersac)comesoutandi
tbur
sts.

Col
ostr
um
Thi
sisthef
ir
sty
ell
owi
shmi
l
kgotf
rom acowwhi
chhasj
ustgi
venbi
rt
h.

Usesofcolostrum
· Ithasallfoodv al
ues.
· Itopensupt hedi
gesti
vesyst
em ofacalf.
· Itbooststhei mmunityofacal
fsinceiti
sri
chinant
ibodi
es.
· Iti
mpr ovesacal f
ssightsi
nceiti
sr i
chinvi
tami
nA.

Catt
lemanagementonaf arm
Therearevar
iousway sofcatt
lemanagementonaf arm.Theseincl
ude;
1.Numbering 2.Dehorni
ng/Di
sbudding
3.Hooftri
mmi ng 4.Cast
rati
on
5.Dehorni
ng 6.Spray
ing
7.Di
pping 8.Dusti
ng
Numbering
Thi
smeansput t
ingamar korlabelonthebodyofanimals.
Numberingenablesfarmerstoidenti
fyanimal
seasil
y.

Waysofnumber ing
a)Branding b)EarNotching
c)Eartagging d)Numberlaci
ng
e)Eartattooi
ng f)Tai
lBobbing
g)Grueli
ng

Earnot
ching
Thi
sisthecutt
ingoft
heedgeoft
heear
sofani
mal
swi
thmar
ks.

Di
agr
am

EarTaggi
ng
Thi
smeansf i
xi
ngt
agswi
thnumber
sont
heearofani
mal
s.

Di
agr
am
Number
ingl
aci
ng
Thi
sist
heputt
ingofawoodenoi
ronpi
eceofpl
atear
oundt
heneckofani
mal
s.

Di
agr
am

Eart
att
ooing
Thi
smeansput t
ingper
manentmar
kont
heear
sofani
mal
susi
ngpl
i
erscar
ryi
ng
numbersonthem.

Di
agr
am

Tai
lbobbi
ng
Thi
smeanstri
mmi
ngl
onghai
ront
heani
mal
stai
l(swi
tch)
.

N:
BCowsar
enotusual
l
ydockedi
.e.t
ail
sar
enotshor
tened.

Gruel
i
ng
Thismeanst
ri
mmi
ngl
onghai
rar
oundt
heanusandgeni
tal
par
ts.

Dehor
ning/
disbudding
Thi
sisther
emov alofhor
nbudsf
rom t
hecal
fshead.

Mat
eri
alsusedf
ordehorni
ng
i
) Dehor
ningir
on
i
i) Chemical
ssuchascaust
icst
icks.

Adv
antagesofdehor ni
ng
· Itmakesanimalseasyt ohandle.
· Itr
educestherisksofinjuri
esamonganimal
sandpeople.
· Iti
ncreasesspaceintheKr aal
/Manyani
malscanbekepti
nasmal
lspace.
· Hooft r
imming
· Thismeanscut ti
ngoffov ergr
ownhoovesofani
mals.

Adv
ant
ages
I
treducest
her
iskofi
njur
iesamongcat
tl
e.
I
treducest
her
iskoft
ransmissi
onofdi
seases.

Cast
rat
ion
Thi
sistheremov
alof t
est
icl
esf
rom amal
eani
mal
.

Methodsofcast
rat
ion
Therear
ethreemethodsofcastr
ati
on;
i
) OpenOperat
ion(opencast
rat
ionorSur
ger
y)
i
i
) Cl
osedoperati
on(cl
osedcast
rati
on)
i
i
i) Useofal oop(Rubberr
ing)

Openoperati
on
Thi
sistheremovaloft
est
icl
efr
om amal
eani
mal
byusi
ngashar
pkni
feorbl
ade
tosl
itt
hescrotum.

Di
agr
am

Closedoper
ati
on
Thisist
hecrushi
ngofsper
m duct
sbyusi
ngabur
dizzowhi
chhasbl
untpi
ncer
s.

Di
agr
am ofabur
ndi
zzo

Usesofal
oop
· Thismeanssqueezi
ngsperm ductsusinganelasti
crubberband.
· Whenthesperm duct
s,(
spermaticcords)andbloodvesselsar
ebroken,
the
t
est
esshri
nkanddie.

Di
agram
Advant
agesofcastrati
on
· Itpr
ev ent
sthespreadofSTDsamongcat tl
e.
· Castratedani
malsbecomehumble( doci
l
e)andeasyt ohandle.
· Castratedani
malsfatt
ensformor
ebeef .
· Castratedani
malsgrazewithf
emaleswithoutdi
stur
bingthem.
· Itpr
ev ent
sinbr
eeding
· I
tpr
event
spoorbr
eedssi
ncebul
l
swi
thpoorbr
eedsar
ecast
rat
ed.
.

Di
sadvant
agesofcast
rati
on
Cast
rat
edanimal
smayl osealotofbloodanddie.
Woundsmaybecomesept i
candcausepai nanddeat
h.
Ani
malsaredeni
edtheri
ghtofmating.

Dewor
ming
Thi
smeansgi
vi
ngdr
ugst
odomest
icani
mal
sandbi
rds.

Whydeworm?
Tor
emoveendoparasi
tesf
rom t
hebody
.
Met
hodsofdeworming
1.Drenchi
ng
2.Dozing

Drenchi
ng
Thismeansgiv
ingl
i
quidmedi
cinetoani
mals.
Drenchi
ngcanbedoneusi
ngadrenchi
nggunorabot
tl
e.

Di
agr
am ofadr
enchi
nggun

Dozi
ng
Thi
smeansgi
vingsoli
dmedici
netocattl
e(ani
mals)
Thesol
i
dmedicinei
sinfor
m oftabl
etsorcapsul
es.

Sprayi
ng
Thisi
st heremov
alofect
oparasi
tesonthebodyofanani
mal
byspr
inkl
i
ng
acari
cidesusi
ngaknapsackspr
ayerorspr
ayrace.

Dust
ing
Thi
smeansappl
yi
ng t
hebodyofani
mal
swi
thpowder
edchemi
cal
stoki
l
lect
o
par
asit
es.

Det
icki
ng
Thi
sisthepi
cki
ngoft
icksf
rom t
heski
nofani
mal
susi
nghands.

Dipping
Thismeansmakingani
mal
stoswi
mthr
oughwat
ermi
xedwi
thacar
ici
des i
na
di
pt ank/pool
.

Di
agr
am ofadi
ptank
Remov alofext
rateat
s
Thismeanscut t
ingext
rat
eat
sfr
om t
heudderofacow.Ther
eshoul
dbeonl
y
fourt
eats.

MILKI
NG
Thi
sisther
emov
alofmi
l
kfr
om t
heudderofacowt
hrought
eat
s.

Mi
l
kletdown
Mi
l
kletdownist
hef
lowofmi
l
kfr
om t
heudderofacow.

Typesofmil
ki
ng
Therear
etwotypesofmil
ki
ngnamel
y;
a)handmil
king
b)Machi
neMi l
king

Handmil
king
Handmil
kingisthedrawingofmil
kfr
om theudderofacowbysqueezi
ngt
eat
s
usi
nghands.
Handmil
kingisalsocal
ledful
lhandmil
ki
ng.

Machi
nemi l
ki
ng
Thi
sistheuseofamachi
netodr
awmilkf
rom theudderofacow.
Thepar
tsofami l
ki
ngmachi
nemustbewashedtoavoidmil
kcont
ami
nat
ion.

Di
agr
am i
l
lust
rat
ingmachi
nemi
l
king

Pr
eparat
ionformil
king
· Assemblethemi l
ki
ngequi pment.
· Cleanallt
hemilki
ngequi pmenttomakethem ingoodwor ki
ngorder
.
· Putthecowinami lkingplaceandti
ethehindlegswitharope.
· Givethecowsomef eedstokeepitbusyandrelaxeddur
ingmil
king.
· Washt heudderandt eat
st oencour
agemilkl
etdown.
· Washy ourhandscl ean.
· From eachteat,dr
awoneort wostreamsofmi l
kthr
oughastri
pcupt odetect
thepresenceofmast i
ti
sinmilk.
· Ifthecowhasmast it
is,bl
oodstai
nswillbeseeninmil
kdrawnthroughastrip
cup.
· Acowwi t
hmast it
isshouldbemi l
kedlast.
· Aftermil
king,washt hemilki
ngplaceandequipmentusi
ngdisi
nfectant
s.

STRI
PCUP
Thi
sisani
nst
rumentusedt
odet
ectt
hepr
esenceofmast
it
isi
nmi
l
k.

Diagr
am ofastri
pcup
LACTOMETER
Thisi
sanequipmentusedto;
a)detectt
hepresenceofwateri
fadded i
nmi
l
k
b)detectt
hepresenceoff
atsinmil
k.

Al
act
omet
eri
sacl
osedwei
ghedt
ubegr
aduat
edt
omaket
hel
evel
ofnor
mal
mi
l
k.

Howal actometerworks
· Al act
ometerisdippedinacontainerhavingmilk.
· Ifwaterhasbeenaddedt omilkorf atshavebeenremoved,
itwi
l
lnotget
enoughsuppor tt
of l
oatandthereforeitwil
lsi
nkdeeper
.
Di
agram ofalactometer.

Pr
eserv
ingmil
k
Mil
kisagoodenvi
ronmentf
orbacteri
atomult
ipl
y.
I
tshoul
dther
efor
ebepreser
vedforfutur
euseother
wisei
twi
l
lgobad.

Methodsofpreser
vingmi
l
k
1.Ster
il
izat
ion 2.Ref
ri
ger
ati
on
3.Boil
i
ng 4.

St
eri
li
zation/ pasteuri
zation
· Thismeanski lli
ngger msinmi l
kbymaxi mum boili
ngfol
lowedbycoolingand
boili
ng.
· Itisalsocal l
edpast euri
zati
on.
· Theheat ingkillsgermsandqui ckcool
ingprevent
sbacteri
afrom ent
eri
ng
mi l
kandmul tipl
yinginit.
· Thismet hodwasnamedaf terLouisPasteur
,aFrenchScient
istwho
discoveredt hatmi l
kgoesbadbecauseofbact eri
a.

Ref
ri
gerat
ion
Thi
smeansput t
ingmil
kinar
efr
iger
atorwher
eger
mscanteasi
l
yandqui
ckl
y
mult
ipl
ybecauseofver
ylowt
emperature.
Boi
li
ng
Thi
smeanski
l
li
ngger
msbyboi
l
ingmi
l
kfr
om t
imet
oti
me.

Homogenizi
ng
Thi
sisawayoft r
eati
ngmil
ksothatf
atsar
ebrokenandt
hencr
eam i
smi
xed
wit
htherest
.
Homogenizi
ngisnotawayofpr
eserv
ingmil
k.

Productsf
rom mi
l
k
Butter Cheese cr
eam
Ghee Yoghur
t

CASEI
NANDWHEY
Thi
sisthepar
tlef
taf
terbut
terhasbeenremovedf
rom mi
lk.
Casei
ncanbeusedasar awmat er
ial
formaki
ngshi
nnypaper
.

Whey
Thi
sisthel
i
qui
dpartl
eftaf
tersourmil
khasformedcur
d.
Wheycanbeusedasasourcetoaccompanyfood.

Examplesofpr
ocessedmi
l
k
Wholemi l
k Ski
mmedMil
k
Past
eurizedMi
lk For
ti
fi
edMi
l
k
CondensedMil
k

HOUSINGONAFARM
Usesofhousi
ngonafar
m
· Houseskeepf ar
m produce
· Houseskeepf ar
mr ecords.
· Housesst or
eanimalfeeds,ut
ensil
sandf armtool
sfar
m(equi
pment
)
· Housesar eusedasmi l
kingshadesforanimal
s.
· Housesar eusedastreati
ngplacesforanimal
s.

Typesofhousesonaf ar
m
Therear
etwot y
pesofhousesonaf
arm.Thesear
e;
a)Semi-Per
manenthouses
b)Permanenthouses

Semi -
Permanenthouses
Thesear ehousesmadef rom si
mplelocal
mat
eri
als,
(mud,
reeds,
cowdung,
grass,poles,nail
s)
Exampl esinclude;Kr
aal
sandbyres.

PermanentHouses
Thesearemadef r
om st
rongdur
abl
emat
eri
alssuchast
imber
,br
icks,
concr
ete,
i
ronsheet
s.

Roof
inghousesonaf arm
Roof
ingfarm housesdependsonavai
l
ablemater
ial
s.
Thecheapestform ofroofi
ngi
susi
nggrass,
bananafi
bres,
bambooorst
raws.

Adv
antagesofthat
ching
· Itpr
otect
sanimalsfr
om badweat her
.
· I
tprevent
swaterfrom enter
ingt
hehouse.
· I
tischeapinconstruct
ion.

Di
sadvantagesoft hat
chingusinggrass
· Thatchingmat eri
alscaneasil
ycatchfir
eandbur
nani
mal
s.
· Mat eri
alscaneasil
yrot.
· That chcaneasilyl
eakifnotwelldone.

FENCING
Afenceisabarri
erofl
iveordeadmater
ial
susedt
odivi
del
andi
ntopl
otsor
paddocks.
Fenci
ngmeansput t
ingabarri
erofl
i
veordeadmater
ial
sonl
andtodi
vi
deor
separ
ateiti
ntosi
zeablepi
eces.

Typesoffences
· Naturalfences(li
veFences)
· Arti
fi
cialfences(
deadf ences)

NaturalFences
Thesear eplantedplant
salongboarder
s(mar gins)oflandt obefenced.
Examplesofpl antsusedtomakenat ur
alfencesi ncl
ude; bamboo,si
sal,
cypr
ess,
conif
ers,hedges,thornypl
ants,
tat
ropa,cedar(x-mast ree)

Art
ifi
cialfences
Thesear efencesmadeoutofdeadmat eri
als
Exampl esofmat eri
alsusedincl
ude;
chainli
nks,
bar
bedwi
re,
wir
enet
s,concr
ete,
bri
cks,treatedpoles,nai
ls.

I
mportanceoffencing
· Naturalf
encesactaswi ndbreaks.
· Naturalf
encesmai ntainsoil
fert
il
itybyaddinghumus.
· Fencingcontr
olst hespr eadofdiseasesbycontrol
li
nganimalmov ement
s.
· Fencingall
owspr operuseofpast ure.
· Fenceskeepof fintruderssuchast hievesandwil
danimals.
· Fencespreventthest rayingofanimals.
· Fencesmakecul lingeasy .
· Fencesmakesepar ationofanimal saccordi
ngtoage,sex,t
ype,
sizeand
 heal
theasy
.

PASTURE
Past
urei
sanopengr
assl
andonwhi
chani
mal
sgr
aze.

Typesofpasture
Therear
emai nlytwotypesofpast
ure,
namel
y;
a)Naturalpastur
e
b)PreparedPasture

Nat
uralpastur
e
Thi
sispasturethatgr
owsbyi
tsel
f.I
tiseat
enbyani
mal
sini
tsr
awf
orm.

Examplesofnatural
past
ure.
a)Ki
kuy ugrass b)Gui
neagrass
c)Nandi gr
ass d)El
ephantgr
ass
e)Guatamalagrass f)Al
faal
fa

Preparedpastur
e
Thisispastur
emadeoutoff
oddercrops.
Foddercropsarecr
opsgr
ownforfeedi
ngani
mal
s.

Exampl
esofpr eparedpast
ure
· Sil
age
· Hay
· Cl
ov es
· Mil
letcrops
· Desmodi um

I
mportanceofpasture
· Pastureisusedforfeedinganimals
· Pastureaddshumust othesoil.
· Itpr
ovidesbeddingmat eri
alsforani
mals
· Itpr
ovidesthat
chingmat eri
alsforhouses
· Leguminouspast ur
esf i
xnitr
ogeninthesoil
.

Thedigesti
vesystem ofacow
Usesofeachpar t
Mouth
Forchewingfoodbytheactionoft
het
eet
h.
I
tpassesf oodtothegull
et.
Gul
let
I
tpassesf
oodt
other
umen

Rumen( pouch)
Tost or efoodt emporaril
ybeforeiti
sr etur
nedtothemout hf
orchewing.
I
tiswher efoodisferment ed
I
tist hel argestofthefourstomachs
Reti
cul um ( honeycomb)
Bacter ialacti
oncontinuesher e.For
eignbodiesareret
ainedher
e.
Omasum
I
tchur nsandgr i
ndsfoodi nt
of i
neparticl
es
Wat eri sabsorbedher ealso.
Abomasum ( tr
uestomach)
Digest i
onbyenzy mest akesplacehere.
NB; from abomasum t otherect um,di
gestioni
sthesameasi nnonruminant
s.

Typesoffoodst
uff
s
Roughages
Concentr
ates
Addit
ives

Roughages
Theyincl
udehay(
dri
edgr
ass)
,si
lages(
preser
vedgr
eenpast
ure)
,gr
eengr
ass,
past
ure,l
egumes,
str
aws,
maizestal
ks.

Concentrates
Theseincludecer
eal
s,oi
l
yseedsandl
egumes.

Suppl
ements
Thesei
ncl
udepr
otei
nsandv
itami
nsaddedt
ofeeds.

Addit
ives
Thesearedr
ugs,
flav
our
sandhor
monesaddedt
ofeeds.

Note:
Maint
enancer at
ions
Thesear
ef eedsgivent
oani
mal
stosust
aint
hei
rusual
feeds.

Product
ionrat
ions
Theseareextr
af eedsgi
vent
oani
mal
sforpr
oduct
ionofei
therbeeformi
l
k.

Sal
tsuppl
y
Ani
malsaregivensal
tinorderto;
a)stimulatemil
kproducti
on
b)controlsomediseasessuchasmi
l
kfev
er.
I
ntake
Thisi
st heamountoff oodeat enbyananimal.
CATTLEPRODUCTS
· Meat
· Fats
· Hides
· Bones
· Cattl
edungandur ine
· Milk
· Hornsandhoov es
GRAZI NG
Grazi
ngi stheproperuseofgr asslandbyani
mals
· Sy stemsofgr azi
ng
· Herding/
freerange/opengrazing
· Rotati
onalgrazi
ng
· Zerograzi
ng

HERDING
Thi
smeanslooki
ngaft
erani
malsastheygrazebyaher
dsman.Theher
dsman
gui
desani
malstogoodpast
ureandwater
.

Adv
antagesofherding
· Ani
mal seatavarietyoffeeds.
· Manureisevenlydistri
butedont hefar
m.
· Ani
mal sarenoteasilystolenbecausetheyar
eeasi
l
yandcl
osel
ywat
chedby
aherdsman.

Di
sadv
ant
ages
· Ani
malscaneasi
lygetdi
seasesandpar asi
tes
· Ani
malsmayst r
ayanddest r
oycrops.
· Ani
malsareli
kel
ytostarveifthel
andissmal l
.
· Ani
malsareli
kel
ytoovergrazethepasture.

ROTATIONALGRAZI NG
Thisi
samet hodofgr azi
ngi
nwhichanimal
sgrazeononepor
ti
onofpast
ureata
ti
me.Therearethreemethodsofr
otat
ional
grazi
ng;
i
) Paddocking
i
i) Str
ipgrazing
i
ii
) Tet her
ing

Paddockgr
azi
ng
· Thismeansgr azi
nganimal
sonsmal l
fencedpl
ots.
· Thesmallfencedplot
sarecal
ledpaddocks.
· Theanimalsareall
owedtograzei
nonepaddockf oraf
ewweeksbef
ore
 t
heyar
emov
edt
oanot
herpaddock.

I
ll
ust
rat
ionofpaddockgr
azi
ng

Dr
inki
ngwat
erf
orani
mal
sisf
oundi
npaddocks.

Adv
ant
agesofpaddockgr azing
· Paddockgr azi
ngall
owspr operuseofpasture.
· I
tgivesthefarmertimet odootheracti
vi
ties.
· Manureisevenlydistr
ibutedonthefar
m.
· Paddocksbreakthelifecy cl
eofti
cks.
· I
tgivesgrasstimetogr owback.
· I
tcontrol
sov ergr
azing.

Disadvantages
Fencingpaddocksi sexpensi
ve
Paddockingr equi
resabigpieceofl
and.

STRIPGRAZI NG
Thismeansgr azi
nganimal
sonsmallpl
otsseparatedbyat emporarywir
e.
Thewi r
esomet i
mescarri
essmall
(l
ow)current(
electr
ici
ty)t
hatcontr
olsthe
mov ementofanimalsi
nselect
edpast
ureareas(stri
ps).
Animalsgrazeinonestr
ipatati
meunti
ltheyhavegonet hroughthepastur
eand
backtothefir
ststri
p.

I
ll
ust
rat
ionofst
ri
pgr
azi
ng

Adv
ant
agesofst r
ipgrazing
· Pastureiswellused.
· Parasi
tesanddi seasesar
eeasi
l
ycont
rol
l
ed
· I
trequiresl
esslabour

Di
sadvantages
Maint
aini
ngst r
ipsisexpensi
ve(
cost
ly)
I
tisonlysuit
ableforfewanimal
s.

TETHERING
Thi
sisthety
ingofani
mal
stoapegort
reeusi
ngar
ope.
Theani
mal
stet
her
edcanbemov
edt
oanewpl
acewhennecessar
y.

Advantagesoft et
heri
ng
· Itischeapt omaintain
· I
tdoesnotr equi
remuchat tenti
on
· Animalsdonoteasi l
ydest r
oycor ps
· Animalsdonotgetast ray.
Di
sadv ant
ages
· Animal slackbodyexercises
· Animalsmayber estri
ctedononet ypeofgrass.
· Ropesmayeasi l
yst r
angl eanimals
· Replaci
ngropesdur i
ngt herainyseasoniscostl
y.
· I
tissuitabl
eforfewani mals.
· Animalsmaybeeasi lystolen
· Animalsmaybeeasi lykill
edbywi ldani
mals.

ZEROGRAZING
Thi
smeanskeepi
ngani
malsi
naspeci
albui
l
tst
ruct
ure.
Waterandf
oodar
eprov
idedt
oani
mals.

Requi
rementsforzerograzing
· Awel lconstr
uctedshade
· Ast ore
· Af eedingtrough
· Awat ert
rough
· Wor kers
· Gar denwher efoddersi
sgrown
· Chaf fcutt
erforcutti
ngfoddercr
ops.

I
ll
ust
rat
ionshowi
ngzer
ogr
azi
ng

Advant
agesofzer ogr azi
ng
· Feedsar ewel lused.
· Collecti
ngmanur eiseasy
· Sickani malsar eeasi
lyidenti
fi
edandcul l
ed
· Manyani malsar ekepti
nasmal larea.
· Animal shav elesschancesofget ti
ngdiseases.
· Animal sgrowf atandpr oducemor emeatandmi lk.
Di
sadvantagesofzer ogr azi
ng
· Const r
uctingthest ruct
ureiscostly
.
· Feedshav etobegr ownorbought .
· Cleaningthebui l
tst
ruct
ur edail
yistir
esome.
· Spreadofdi seasesi seasyincaseofoutbr eak.
CATTLEDISEASESANDPARASI TES
Catt
ledi
seasesarecl
assif
iedaccor
dingtothei
rcausati
veagent
s(ger
m)and
methodofspread.
Therear
ethreemaincausati
veagents(ger
ms)namel y
;
· Bacteri
a
· Vir
uses
· Prot
ozoa

Si
gnsofsi
cknessinanimals(cattl
e)
· Theani
mal i
sdullandhasr oughhaironthebody.
· Theani
mal coughsandsneezes
· Ther
eisdiarr
hoea.
· Theani
mal hasdif
fi
cult
yinpassi ngouturi
neanddung(
faeces)
· Ther
eisri
seinbodyt emper at
ureandpulserat
e.
· Theani
mal l
osesappetit
ef orfood(past
ure)

Causesofsicknessofdiseasesi
nanimals
· Diseasesinanimalscanbecausedbylackofsomenut
ri
ent
sint
heani
mal
s
di
et.
· Dirtyenvi
ronmentanddirt
yfood.
· Phy si
cali
njur
iesl
ikecutsandwounds
· Infect
iousbygerms.

Si
gnsofgoodshealthinanimals( cat
tle)
· Theanimal f
eedswel l
i.
e.havegoodappet i
te.
· Theeyesarecleanandbr i
ght .
· Theanimalwalkssteadil
y
· Thenoseiscoldandwet .
· Thehairi
ssmoot handshi ning
· Theanimalsearsarewarm andal ert
.
· Uri
neanddung( feaces)i
spassedoutwi thoutdi
ff
icul
ty.

Waysroutesofdiseaseinf
ect
ioni
nanimal
s
· Dir
ectcontactwithsi
ckanimals
· Dir
ectcontactthr
oughfoodandwat
er.

Ty
pesofcattl
ediseases
· Bacter
ial
diseases
· Thesesarediseasescausedbybact
eri
a

ANTHRAX
· Thisi
scausedbybacil
lusanthraci
sbact
eri
um.
· Iti
sanacutei
nfect
iousdiseasewhichat
tackscat
tl
e,sheep,
goat
s,pi
gsand
humans.
Si
gnsandsy mptoms
· Oozi ngoutofdar kbloodfrom naturalopening
· Deat hwi thi
n24hour s
· Blownupst omachwhenani maldies
Pr
eventionandcont rol
· Treatear l
ycaseswithanti
biot
ics
· Carcassoft heanimalshouldbecompl et
elyburntorbur
ied.
· Donotopent hecarcassofanimalst hataresuspectedt
ohav edi
edof
anthr ax.
· Nev ereatmeatofani mal
ssuspect edt ohavediedofanthrax.
· Vacci nateanimalseveryyear.
· Repor tsuspect
edcasesofant hrax.

MASTITIS
I
tisaninf
ect
iousbacter
ialdiseasethataf
fect
sthemammar
ygl
ands(
teat
sand
udder
)ofcat
tle,
sheep,goats,bit
chesandhumans.

Si
gnsandsy mptoms
· Mil
kt ur
nswat eryorthi
ckclotswi
thbloodandpusi
nit
.
· Theudderandt eatsswell
.
· Thecowr eject
smi l
kingandsucki
ngbythecal
f.
· Theaffect
edudderget sdeadandgivesnomil
k.
· Deathoftheanimal mayresul
t.

Pr
eventi
onandcontrol
· Treatear
lycaseswithanti
biot
ics
· Mil
koutteatsandmassagewi thwar
m wat
er.
· Ensur
egoodhy gienewhenmi lki
ng
· Usedisi
nfect
antswhenmi l
king
· Usetheri
ghtmilkingt
echniques

Cal
fscour
I
tisaninf
ecti
ousdiseasecausedbybact
eri
a.
Att
ackspi
glet
s,cal
ves,ki
ds,andhumans.

Si
gnsandsy mptoms
· Profuseshar
psmel l
ingdiar
rhoea
· Dull
nessandl ossofappeti
te.
· Sli
ghtri
seintemperature
· Suddendeathi ncal
vesandpiglet
swi
thbl
ownupandhar
dst
omachs

Pr
eventi
onandcont
rol
· Str
ictcl
eanl
i
nessmustbeobser
vedi
ncal
fpens,
kraal
s,pi
gst
yset
c.
· Avoiddampwetcondi
ti
ons
· Tr
eati
nfect
edcaseswi
thant
ibodi
es.

Bl
ackquarter
I
tisanacuteinf
ect
iousdi
seasecausedbybacter
ia.
I
tatt
acksruminant
ssuchascattl
e,goat
s,andsheep.

Si
gnsandsy mptoms
· Highfever
· Shiv
ering
· Lossofappeti
te
· Lameness
· Musclesareswoll
enandpai
nful

Pr
event
ionandcontrol
· Vaccinat
eanimalsear
ly
· Neveropencarcassofani
mal
thatshowssi
gnsofbl
ackquar
ter
· Burnorburydeadanimals

PNEUMONI A
I
tisaninfect
iousdiseaseoft
helungs
I
tiscausedbyv ar
ioustypesofbact
eri
aandv
iruses.

Si
gnsandsy mpt oms
· Dif
fi
cultbreathingandcoughi
ngduetocongesti
onofbr
onchi
oles
· Nasaldischarge
· Lossofbodywei ght
· Theanimal isreluct
anttomovedul
landsleepy
.
· Lossofappet it
e
· Theanimal stemper at
uremaybehi
ghorlow.

Pr
eventi
onandcont r
ol
· Treatear
lycasesofpneumoni awit
hanti
biot
ics
· Keepbuil
dingwellvent
il
ated,war
m,andclean
· Provi
desoftfeedsandwat er
.

Footrot
· Itiscausedbybact
eri
aoffusif
ormisgr
oup.
· Itattackshoov
esofal
lhoofedanimal
s.Thi
sdi
seasei
susual
l
ycommon
duri
ngwetweather
.

Si
gnsandsymptoms
Hoovesofani
malsswel
lmakingt
hem l
ame.
Par
tsofhoovesmaycontai
npusandsmel
l.
Pr
event
ionandcont rol
· Tr eatearl
ycasesoff ootr
otwithanti
biot
ics.
· Tr i
m affect
edhoov esproperl
yandisol
atetheani
mal
· Prov i
deanimalswithfootbathever
yweek.
· Rout i
netri
mmi ngandexami nati
onofthefeet.

BRUCELLOSI S
· Iti
sani nfect
iousdiseasecausedbybrucel
laabortusbacter
ia.Itaff
ect
s
catt
le,
goat s,sheep,andman.
· Iti
sspr eadthroughfoodcontaminat
edwi t
hdischargefr
om infected
ani
mal s.

Si
gnsandsy mptoms
Abor
tioninanimalsfol
l
owedbybrowni
shdi
schar
gef
rom t
hev
agi
na
Thetesti
clesswell
Ther
ei ssti
llbi
rt
hsincows
Theplacentaremainsi
ntheut
erus(
womb)

Pr
eventi
onandcont r
ol
· Cullandslaught
ertheinfectedanimal.
· Vacci
nateallyoungfemal esespeci
all
ycatt
le.
· Donttouchabortedfoetuswithbarehands.
· Milkf
rom inf
ectedanimal sshoul
dbeboiledfi
rst
.

Cont
agiousbovi
nepleuro-pneumoni
a
I
tiscausedbybact
eriadischargef
rom t
henosesofi
nfect
edani
mal
s

Preventi
onandcontrol
Cull
andsl aught
eral
l i
nfect
edanimal
s
I
mposequar ant
inei
ncaseofanoutbreak.
Earl
yv acci
nati
onoftheherd.
Thediseasehasnot reatmenty
et.

TUBERCULOSIS
· Iti
sachroni
cinfect
iousdi
seasecausedbymicr
o-bact
eri
um Tuber
cul
osi
s.
· Iti
sspreadthr
oughinhal
ati
onofthebact
eri
a.

Si
gnsandsymptomsoftuberculosis
· Lossofappet
it
eatadvancedst ages
· Coughi
nganddecr
easei nmi l
kproduct
ion

Preventi
onandcontr
ol
Practi
ci
nggoodhy gi
ene
Cullandslaught
eri
nfect
edani
mal
s.
VIRALDI
SEASES
Thesear
ediseasescausedv
iruses,
mostv
iral
diseasesar
e;

Ri
nderpest(Capit
al l
ett
ers)
· Iti
sahighlyinfecti
ousdiseasecausedbyvi
rus.
· I
tattacksthemembr anesofthealiment
arycanal
.
· I
tcanki l
ll
argenumberofani mals.

Si
gnsandsy mpt oms
· Highfever
· Severedull
nessandl ossofappeti
te
· Seri
ousdiar r
heawi thbloodstai
nedcowdung.
· Themuzzl es, noseandmuscl ebecomehotwit
hfastbreat
hing.
· Rapiddehy drati
onresulti
nginemaciat
ionwi
thsunkeneyes.

FOOTANDMOUTHDI SEASE
Thi
sisanacut
econt
agi
ousdiseaseofrumi
nant
ssuchascat
tl
e,sheep,
goat
set
c.
i
tatt
ackst
hemembranesofmout handcor
onet
.

Si
gnsandsympt oms
· Fever
,dull
nessandl ossofappeti
teforpast
ure.
· Seri
oussali
v at
ioninthemouth
· Lamenessduet owoundsonthecor net
.
· Pai
nfulbli
stersaroundthemouth,udderandbetweent
hehoov
es.
· Emaciat
ion
· Reducedmi l
ky i
eld.

Pr
eventi
onandcont rol
· Vaccinateanimals
· Affectedani
malsshoul
dbesl
aught
ered
· Applicat
ionofquar
anti
ne.

Nair
obi sheepdisease
Thi
sisanact ivevir
aldi
seaseofsheepandgoats.
I
tistransmitt
edbyt hebrownearandbontt
icks.

Si
gnsandsy mpt oms
· Hightemper atur
e.
· Diar
rhea
· Nasaldischarge
· Rapidbreathi
ng
· Aborti
oni newes.
Pr
eventi
onandcontr
ol
· Not r
eat
ment
· Cont
rol
tickst
oprev
entt
hedi
sease.

PROTOZOANDI SEASES
Thesearedi
seaseswhi
char emostl
yassociat
edwithbl
oodsucki
ngi
nsect
sand
ti
cksexampl
es;Nagana(t
rypanosomiasi
s),
Eastcoastf
ever
,Redwat
er,
Heart
water
.

REDWATER
I
tiscausedbyapr
otozoat
ransmi
tt
edbybr
owneart
ick. I
tat
tackscat
tl
e,goat
s
andsheep.

Pr
eventi
onandcont r
ol
· Isol
atesi
ckanimals
· cull
andslaughterthesickani
mal
s
· Addcoccidi
ostatinfeedsandwat
er.

Si
gnsandsy mpt oms
· Hightemper atur
e
· Constipati
onanddul l
ness
· Animal becomesanaemi c
· Animal l
ickssoil
· Presenceofr edbloodpigment
sint
heur
ine.
· Swollenlymphnodes.

Pr
eventi
onandcontrol
· Tickcontr
olbyspray
inganddippi
ng
· Inj
ectanimalswi
thant-
babesiadr
ugs.
· Somer espondwitht
etr
acycl
ineanti
biot
ics.

EASTCOASTFEVER
I
tisaseri
ousprotozoandi
seasespreadbybot
hthered-
leggedandbr
ownear
ti
cks.I
tat
tackscatt
leonl
yespeci
all
ythecal
vesarev
ulnerabl
e.

Si
gnsandsy mptoms
· Thereisrapidri
seintemperat
ure
· Swoll
enl ymphnodesespecial
lyal
ongt
hedel
ap.
· Thereisgeneralbodyweakness.
· Dif
fi
cultyinbreat
hing.

Pr
eventi
onandcontr
ol
· Burni
ngareasaf
fectedwithti
cks.
· Fenci
ngfarmstopreventstr
ayanimal
s.
· Spr
ayinganddippi
nganimalsregul
arl
y.
· Contr
olledgr
azi
ng
· Smear i
ngani
malswit
hacar ci
des
· Deti
ckingbyhands
· Anti
bioti
csandsul
phurdrugsareusedtocont
rol
secondar
yinf
ect
ions.

ANAPLASMOSIS(GALLSICKNESS)
· Iti
scausedbyaprot
ozoan
· I
tist
ransmi
tt
edbythebluet
icks.

Si
gnsandsy mptoms
· Theanimal get
sconst
ipat
ion.
· Bl
oodi nuri
neanddung(feaces)
· Theanimalbecomesanaemi c
· Thetemperatur
emayfall.

NAGANA( TRYPANOSOMI ASIS)

· Iti
saninfect
iousprotozoandiseaseofani malssuchascat tl
e,goat
s,dogs
andhorses.
· Inman, t
hediseaseiscall
edsleepingsickness.Itist
ransmittedbyatset
sefl
y
andcausedbyager m call
edTr ypanosoma( e.g.t.Vi
rax,t
.congol
ese,t
.
bruscei
)

Si
gnsandsy mpt oms
· Fever,
dullnessandlossofappet i
te
· Anaemi aandemaciat i
on
· Li
ckingofsoi l
byAnimal s
· Swoll
enl ymphnodes
· Runningey eswhi
chl eadstobli
ndness.
· Deathmayoccuraf terseveral
weeks.

Pr
eventi
onandcont rol
· Clearbushest ocont
roltset
seflies
· Spraywithinsect
ici
destokilltsetsefli
es
· Usingtsetsefl
ytrapstokil
ladultt set
sefl
ies
· Treatusingdrugssuchaset hidium.

NB;Tset
sefl
iesbr
eedi
nswampyandf r
ostedareas.Theydonotl
ayeggsbut
hat
chtheyoungonesi
nthebodyanddeposi
tthem.

HEARTWATER
Iti
sapr ot
ozoandi
seasespr
eadbyt
icks(
iti
sat
ickbor
nedi
sease)i
tat
tacks
catt
le,
sheepandgoats.

Si
gnsandsy
mpt
oms
·Highfeverandlossofappeti
te
·Animal movesincircl
es
·Animalsbecomer estl
essandplacestheheadagai
nsthar
dobj
ect
s.
·Wheni tfal
l
s,thelegskeeppeddli
ngintheair
.

REDWATER

Cat
tl
epar asites
· Apar asi
t eisali
vi
ngorganism thatl
ivesonanot
herli
vi
ngorganism and
obtai
nsi tsfoodfrom i
t.Or
· Apar asi
t eisali
vi
ngorganism thatdependsonanot
herli
vi
ngorganism for
food.
· Theor ganism onwhichapar asit
edependsforf
oodiscall
edahost.
· Apar asi
t eeatsf
oodmadef orthegrowthanddevel
opmentofthehost.

Typesofparasit
es
Parasi
tesaregroupedint
ot wonamely;
i
) Exter
nalParasi
tes/Ectopar
asi
tes
i
i) Int
ernalPar
asit
es/ Endopar
asi
tes

Exter
nalParasi
tes
Exter
nalparasi
tesar
eparasi
testhatl
i
v eout
sidebodyoft
hehost
.Exampl
esar
e;
ti
cks,t
setsefli
es,mi
tes,
li
ce,
jigger
setc.

I
nter
nal Parasit
es
I
nter
nal parasit
esareparasit
esthatli
vei
nsi
dethebodyofthehost.Theyli
vei
n
muscles,intest
ines,
li
veretcexamplesofi
nter
nalpar
asi
tesare;
tapewor ms,
r
oundwor msandl iv
erfl
ukes.

Ef
fect
sofpar asitesofcattl
e
· Pestsli
ket i
cks, t
set
sef l
ies,mitesandfleassuckbloodfrom thehostleading
toemaci ation.
· Somepest sspr eaddiseasest oanimalse.g.Nagana,Eastcoastfever,
red
water.Etc.
· Somepest scausedamaget ot heski
noft hehostmakingitoflowqual i
ty.
· Somepest scausedi scomf ortandirr
it
ationtothehost
· Somepar asitessuckf oodandbl oodfrom hostmakingitmalnourishedand
unhealthy.

Pr
eventi
onandcont r
olofcat
tl
eparasit
es.
· Someoft hem canbecontrol
l
edbydi ppi
ngandsprayingcatt
lewi
th
acqri
cides
· Clearbushesandusetset
sef l
ytr
apst ocont
rol
tsetsefli
es.
· Draingrazingar east ocontr
olli
verf
lukes.
· De-worm ani malswi thde-wormingdrugs.
· Keepani mal sawayf r
om pastur
eswhi char
efrequent
lycoveredbyf
loods.
· Usedoubl ef encingofgr azi
ngareasandkraal
stocontrolt
icks.
· Burnalltheol dpast ure.
· Practi
cer otati
onal grazi
ng

Requi rement sf orstar ti

ngal i
v est ockf arm
Tost ar taf arm, afarmerr equir est hef ollowi ng;
a)Land
Thisi st hepl acewher et hef armi slocated.i tisusedf orgrowingpast ure,
buildinghouseset c,thel andmaybebought ,inheritedf rom parents,r
ent edor
hired.
b)Capi tal
Thisr efer stot hemoneyandal l t
hebui l
di ngsequi pment sandmat eri
alsandt o
startaf arm.Capi talmaybeadonat ion, bor rowedf rom abanki nherit
edf rom
salesofpr opertyormont hlyear nings.
c)Labour
Ref erst oal lthepeopl ewhoper formt hedi fferentt asksont heaf arm.The
farmerdoesnothav eal ltheski llsandt i
mef orevery thingont hefarm.Hemay
empl oywor kers, hir
elabour ers, orusef ami l
ymember s.
d)Management
Thisr efer stoor ganizing, pl
anni ngandgui di ngt her estoft hewor kerst ocar
ry
outt heirdut iesi namor eor gani zingwayandmaket hef ar
m pr ofi
tabl
e.The
farmermaymanagehi m/ hersel forempl oyot hers.
e)Mar ket
Bef orest artingaf arm, oneshoul densur et hatt her eismar ketforthef arm
product ssuchasmeat ,mi l
k,eggs, hideset c.
f) Far m
Thesear ewr itt
enaccount /document soft heact i
viti
esoft hef arm.

I
MPORTANCEOFKEEPI NGFARM RECORDS
· Tohelpthef armerknowwhet herheismakingpr of
it
sorlosses.
· Forfai
rassessmentoft axes
· Toenablet hefarmertomakedeci si
ons
· Incaseaf armerdieswithoutwr it
ingwil
l,i
thelpsthefamil
ymember
sto
sharepropertyequal
ly.
· Toenablet hefarmerknowt hehistoryofthefarmer.
· Helpsthefarmert oplanandbudgetf orthefarm.

TYPESOFFARM RECORDS
· Breedingrecords:Theseincl
uderepr
oducti
on,bi
rt
hordeathrates.
· Producti
onr ecords:Theseshowyiel
dsofvari
ousfar
m producee.g.eggs,
milk,meatetc.
Heal
threcords:Theseincludewhenandwhi chani
malsweresick,what
tr
eat
mentt heygotorwhi chonest ocul
l
.
· Labourr ecords: Thesei ncl
udet henumberoff armlabourers,
typeofwor k
theydoandt hei rwages.
· Fiel
doper ationsr ecor ds:Thesear erecordsofal ldi
ffer
entacti
vit
ies
carri
edoutont hef arm ploughing,harrowing,planti
ngetc.
· Mar keti
ngr ecor ds: Theseincludewher e,when andwhatpr i
cesv ar
ious
productswer esol d.
· Inventoryrecords: Thisisar ecordofallthethingsaf ar
merownsandt he
cashv aluesofeachi tem.
· Incomeandexpendi t
ures:Thesear erecordsofal lt
hesalesand
purchasesoft hef ar m busi
ness.
· Feedingr ecords: Theseshowt heamountoff eedsbought ,
consumedand
met hodsoff eedi ng.

PRACTI
CESWHI CHHARM CATTLEANDOTHERDOMESTI
CANI
MALS
ATHOME
- Beat i
ngani mals
- Ov erwor kingani
mal
s
- Nott reati
ngsickani
mal
s
- Dehor ning
- Cast r
at i
on
- Brandi ng

I
NTHEFIELD
- Over beatingani
mals
- Overworki
nganimals
- Notgivi
nganimalsadequatefeeds
- I
mpr operdi
sposalofpol
ythenebags

I
N TRANSIT
- Overl
oadingani
mals
- Tr
ansporti
ngani
malswhensomelegsarehangi
ngoutofv
ehi
cles
- Overt
yingani
malsduri
ngt
ranspor
tat
ion.

I
NTHEABATTOI R
- Sl
aughterani
malsbrut
all
y
- Ki
ll
inganimal
sbybangingthei
rheadswi
thhammer,
axeori
ronbar
s
- Handli
nganimal
srudel
ywhengoi ngt
osl
aughter

RESOURCESI NTHEENVI RONMENT

Aresourceissomethi
ngorobjectwhichi
susedforcer
tai
npurpose.
Somer esour
cesaregotf
rom non-l
iv
ingthi
ngswhil
eother
saregotfrom l
i
ving
thi
ngs.

Ty
pesofr
esour
ces
1.Nonrenewabl
eresour
ces
Thesearer
esour
ceswhichcantber
epl
acednat
ural
l
yoncet
heyar
eusedup.

Examplesar
e:
i
)Mineral
sores
i
i)Crudeoi
l(pet
rol
eum)
i
ii
)Coal

2.Renewableresources
Theseareresourceswhi
chcanber
epl
acednat
ural
l
ybef
oret
heyget
exhaust
ed(usedup)

Examplesare:
i
)Soil
i
i
)Wat er
i
i
i)Thesun
i
v) Air(wi
nd)
v
) Plants
v
i) Animals

Resour
cesfr
om nonl
iv
ingt
hings
Anonliv
ingt
hingi
sonewit
houtli
fe.

Exampl
e
· Soil
· Water
· Ai
randwind
· Rocksandminer
als

a)Soil
Soi
li
sanatur
allayerwhichcover
stheear
thssur
face.
Soi
li
sarenewableresource.

Howissoi
lusedasaresour
ce?
I
tisusedf
orgrowi
ngcrops
Soi
li
susedforbui
l
dinghouses i
noursoci
eti
es

b)Wat
er
Wat
eri
sarenewabl
eresour
cewhenusedcar
eful
l
y.

Howwat
erisusedasar esource?
· Wat
erhelpsplantstogrow
· Wat
erisusedt otur
nt ur
binesforhydr
o-el
ectr
icpowergener
ati
on.
· Wat
erhelpstodissolvefoodforeasyabsorpt
ionint
hebodyofani
mal
s.
 c)AirandWi nd
Botharerenewableresour
ces
Ai
risami xtureofgases
Windismov ingair
.

Howwi
ndisuseful
· Wi
ndtur
nswi ndmill
stoproduceel
ectri
cit
y
· Wi
nddri
v eswindmil
lstodrawwaterfr
om theunder
ground
· Wi
ndhelpsinwinnowingofharv
estedcrops.

d)Sun
I
tisarenewabl
eresour
ce

Howthesuni
susedasar esource
· Thesunprovi
dessunli
ghtenergytogreenplantst
omakestar
ch.
· Thesunprovi
dessolarenergythatgi
vesoutheatandl
i
ghtenergyt
oman.
· Thesunhelpsourbodiestomakev it
aminD
· Thesunhelpsi
ngenerationofsolarel
ect
ri
city.

Rocksandmineral
s
Ami ner
ali
sanythingt
hatoccursnatur
all
yli
kear
ocki
ntheear
th.
Theyarenon-
renewabl
eresources.

Exampl
esofmi neral
s
· Crudeoil(
petr
oleum)
· Chalk
· Cl
ay
· Copper
· Gold
· Ti
net c

Mineral
sarenon-r
enewabl
eresour
ces.
N.B:Miner
alsf
rom whichmetal
saregotarecal
l
edor es.
Rocks
Arockisasubstancemadeupofmi ner
alsti
ght
lypackedtoget
hert
ofor
ma
soli
d.

Ty
pesofr
ocks
i) Igneousr
ocks
ii
) Met amor
phi
crocks
ii
i
) Sedi ment
aryr
ocks

I
gneousRocks
Thesear
erocksf
ormedwhenmagmapour
sout
sidet
heear
thasl
avaand
sol
idi
fi
es
Theyaregeneral
l
yhar
dandi
mper
vious.
Examples
· Basalt
· Grani
te
· Quartz

Sedimentar yRocks
Thesear erocksf ormedfr
om brokenparti
clesofsandcl
ayandmudset ti
ngi
n
di
fferentlayers.(st
rat
a)atthebedsofwaterbodiesli
keseas,
lakes,
riv
erset
c.
Sedimentar yrocksaresoftandporous.
Exampl es
· Sandyr ocks
· Limestoneet c

FOSSILS
· Fossil
sareremainsofplant
sandanimalsburi
edunder gr
ound many
thousandsofyearsago.
· Theyarefounddeepinsidetheear
thinsedimentar
yrocks.
· Theseremainsareusuall
yofbonesorteethofanimalsandroot
s,leav
esor
stemsofplants.
· Somet imestheremainsareofmouldofawhol ebodye.g.ofaf
ish.

Usesoff ossi
l
s
· Fossi l
shelpgeologist
stodeterminetheageofapl aceorrock.
· Fossi l
shelpgeologist
stoknowhowdi f
f erentpl
ant
sandanimalshave
exist
edandchanged.
· Fossi l
shelptotell
howl andlookedbefor e.
· Fossi l
sshowushowandwher ethedifferentsedi
mentaryr
ockswereformed.
· Fossi l
shelptotell
whatt heanimalorplantlookedli
ke,
whatitat
e,whereit
l
ivedetc.

I
mpor t
anceofrocks
· Rocksform soil,
whichisi
mpor tanttooursurviv
al
· Rocksmakegoodmat eri
alsf orbuil
dingandroads.
· Theytel
l usabouttheear
thshi story.
· Theycont ai
nmanyv al
uablemi nerals
ALLOYS
Anall
oyisami xtur
eoftwoormor emet als
Al
loy Combi nation Uses
Brass CopperandZi nc - Decorati
ngornament
s
- Makingwi r
es,t
ubi
ngcasesf
or
bul
lets.
Denti
stAmalgam GoldandCopper ,gol
d, - Makingcoins.
copperandmer cury
Solder LeadandTin - Joi
ningmetal
s
Bronze CopperandTin - Usedforor
nament
s,bel
l
s,st
atues
STEEL
Steelconsi
stsofCar
bondi
ssolv
edinir
on.
Diff
erental
loysar
emadefr
om steel

Examplesofalloysmadef r
om st
eel
i
) Manganesest eel
Iti
sami xt
ureofst eelandmanganese
Thisi
sav erytoughal l
oy.
Iti
susedwher efri
ctionmaycauseweare.g.i
nrail
waypoint
s.
i
i) Nickelsteel
Iti
sami xt
ureofni ckelandsteel
Thisal
loydoesnotr ust.Iti
susedformaki
ngcooki
ngandkitchenutensi
lsand
cutl
ery
.
i
ii
) St ai
nlessst eel
Iti
sami xt
ureofcobal tandsteel
Thisal
loyisusedt omakeper manentmagnet
sbecausetheyretai
ntheir
magnetism overalongper i
od.

Whyar
eall
oysmade?
· Tomakethemetalharder
· Tol
owerthemelt
ingpointofthemetal
.
· Tomakethemetalmor er
esist
anttocor
rosi
oni.
e.wearandt
ear
· Toi
ncr
easetheelect
ri
calresi
sti
vi
tyofmetal
s.

FUELS
Afueli
sany
thi
ngt
hatbur
nst
opr
oduceheatandl
i
ghtener
gy.

Examplesoffuel
s
· Fir
ewood
· Charcoal
· CrudeOil(
Pet
rol
eum)
· Coal

· Fir
ewoodandchar coal arer enewabl er esourceswhilecrudeoilandcoal
arenon-renewabler esources.
· Coal wasformedf rom mar shyv eget ablesandpl antswhichli
vedlongago
andwer ebur i
edundergr oundbutduet oheatandpr essuretheychangedt o
coal.
· Coal i
sburnttogett hermal electri
city.
· CrudeOi l(
petrol
eum)i sr efinedt hrought hepr ocessoffract
ionaldist
il
lat
ion.
· Thepr oductsaft
err efi
ningcr udeoi l
( petrol
eum)ar e;Pet
rol,
dieseland
kerosene.
· Thesepr oductsarebur nttopr oduceheatandl i
ght.
· Petr
olanddiesel
areusedtorunengines.
· Oil
wasf or
medf r
om animal
sremainswhichbur
iedunder
groundl
ongago
andwerechangedtocrudeoi
l duet
oheatandpressur
e

Resour
cesfrom l
ivi
ngthings.
· Al i
vi
ngt hi
ngisonewhi chhaslif
e.
· Li vi
ngthingsincl
udeplantsandanimals.
· Mostoft heresourcesfrom l
i
vingthi
ngsarer
enewabl
eresour
cesoncet
hey
ar
elookedafterpr
operly.

Howar
eplantsusedasresources?
· Somepl antsgiveusnatur
alplantfi
bresli
kecott
on,sisal
,j
uteandlinen.
· Cottonandlinenareusedtomakecl otheswhil
esisalandjuteareusedto
makeropes.
· Somepl antsareusedasher balmedici
netocurecertai
ndiseases.
· Somepl antsareeatenasfoodbymanandot heranimals.

Howareanimal susedasr esources?

· Someani malslikemer i
nosheeppr ovidewool,usedtomakecl
othes,
suit
s,
bl
ankets,carpets,curt
ains,
bedsheet setc.
· Sil
kwormspr ovidesil
kusedt omakedi ff
erentty
pesofcl
oths.
· Somedomest icanimalsprovideskinsandhidesusedtomakebags,shoes,
belt
s,et
c
· Cattl
eprovidehor nsandhoov esusedt omakegl ue.
· Beeshelptopol li
natefarmerscrops,provi
dehoneyandbeewax.
· Someani malslikeoxenanddonkey sprovi
delabour.

Conservati
onofr esources
· Conser vati
onist heprotecti
onandpropermanagementofr esour
cesi
nour
envi
ronment .
· Bot hrenewableandnon- r
enewableresour
cesneedt obeconser v
ed.
· Resour cesli
kef orest
s,wildli
fe,
water,soi
l
,rocks,mineralsneedtobe
conserved.
· Conser vati
onofr esourcesisdonetokeept hem doerfutureuse.

Conserv
ingrenewabl eresources
i
) Conservingrenewabl eresources
· Wi l
dli
fereferstoanimal sandpl antsinourenvir
onment .
· Manyki ndsofani malshav edisappearedfrom earthandtheyareexti
nct.
· Otheranimal sareaboutt odisappearandwesayt heyareendangered.
· Ani malsmaybecomeendanger edorext i
nctbecausetheyareki
ll
edf ort
heir
ski
ns,horns,tusks.
· Somepl antshavealsobecomeendanger edorextinctduetotheincr
easing
demandf orwoodandl ocalmedi cine.
Adv
ant ages(impor t
ance)ofconser vingwi l
dli
fe
· Somemammal s,pl
antsandbi r
dsar easour ceoff oodf orman.
· Someani mal sandbirdsar evaluedascul tural heri
tagebysomecountr
ies
andclans.
· Pl antsarehomesofmanyani mal s,bir
dsandi nsect s.
· Tr eesorf or
estshelpint heformat i
onofr ainfall.
· Mammal s,bir
dsandt reesspeci esearnfor ei
gnexchangef ort
he
governmentt hroughtourist
s.
· Pl antsimprovet heatmospher ebybal ancingt heamountofcar bondi
oxide
andni t
rogen.
· Pl antsprovideshadetomanandot heranimal s.

Howtoconser veandpr otectwildlif

e.
· Ani mal sareprotectedbyl awi nthei
rhabitatthr
ought heUgandaWi ldli
fe
Authority(UWA) .
· Ahabi tatisanaturalenvironmentorhomeofapl antoranimal .
· Ugandawi ldl
i
feAut hori
tyisadepar tmentwhi chisresponsibl
eforwildl
ifei
n
Uganda.
· Theani mal sarebeingtakencar eofinnat i
onalgamepar ksandgame
reserves.
· Banni ngt heselli
ngandbuy ingofwi l
dli
fetrophi
eshelpstor educetheir
beingki l
l
ed.
· Fi shescanbeconser vedbycont rol
l
edf i
shing.
· Somer areanimalsshoul dbecaughtandl ettobreedinwildli
feeducati
onal
centre.

Conserv i
ngnonrenewabl eresour
ces
· Soi lerosi
onshouldbecont rol
l
ed.
· Soi lshoul
dbekeptf erti
l
ebyusi ngmanur eandf erti
li
zers.
· Pl asti
cwasteslikebr okenJerrycans,polythenepapersshouldberecycl
ed.
· Vehi clesi
ndanger ousmechani cal condit
ionsshouldber epai
redt
oconserve
fuel.
· Pet rol
eum productsshoul dbeusedwi sel
yt opreventfurt
herexpl
oit
ati
onof
oil
.

Conservi
ngt henat ur
alveget ati
on
· Ov ergraz i
ngshouldbedi scouragedbecausei tcausessoi lerosi
on.
· Bushbur ningshouldber estri
ctedtocer t
ainareas.
· Ov erstockingisdanger ousbecausei tleadst oovergrazing.
· Thegov ernmentshoul dlimitpopulati
ongr owthbecausemor epeoplemeans
morelandt obedestroyedf orhousingandagr icul
tur
e.
· Cat t
lefarmer sshouldpr acti
cer ot
ati
onal grazi
ngwhichl atercausessoi
l
er
osion.
· Afforestationshouldbepr act
iced.
· Swampsandwet l
andsshoul dbedeclaredr estr
ict
edar eas.
HARVESTINGRESOURCES
Thisi
sthecol
l
ect
ionofmater
ial
sfr
om t
heenv
ironmentf
ort
hepur
poseofusi
ng
them

a)Harvesti
ngnon— l ivi
ngresources
- Obt aining sandf rom dryri
verbeds:scoopi
ngitwi
thspades and
machi nery
- Mi ningsandf rom theground
Harvesti
ngmi nerals
- Bymi ning
- Fossi lfuelinglikeoil
- Bydr i
ll
ing
Harvesti
ngener gyf r
om thesun
Ener
gyf rom thesuni sknownassol arener
gy
- Itcanbehar vestedinthefoll
owingway s
- Usesofsol arpanels
- Useofsol arcooker s
- Useofsol ardriers
- Useofsol arheaters
NB: Solarpanel st r
apsunl i
ghtandconv er
titi
ntosol
arel
ectr
ici
ty

Sol
arheaters + cooker str
apr aysf
rom t
hesunandchangesi nt
oheatener
gy
Har
vesti
ngwat er
Waysofhar vesti
ngwat er
- Itcanbecol lectedfrom roof
susingtanksandbigdrums
- Rainwat erfl
owi ngont hegroundisdir
ectedi
ntodams.
- Wat ercanbedr awn f rom wel
lsandbroughtt
ot hesur
faceusi
ngwind
l
ossandel ectri
cpumps.

Har
vest
ingenergyfrom air
- Wi ndcanbet rappedandusedt
odr i
vewindmil
ls
- Itcanbet appedusingsai
ltodr
ivesai
lboat+dhows

Harvest
ingli
vingr esources
Pl
antsresource
- Handpickingripecof feeberri
es,cot
tonbal
l
s
- Pl
uckingtealeav esf r
om teaplant
s
- Readymaizecobsar eharvest
edbyhands
- Bycutti
ngsisal l
eav es

Har
vest
ingwood
- Bypoll
ardi
ng
- Bycoppici
ng
 - Byl opping
- Bysel ecti
vefell
i
ng
Pol
l
arding
Iti
st hecutt
ingoffoft
het
oppar
tofat
reef
oruse.

Di
agr
am

Coppici
ng
Iti
sthecutt
ingoffoft
hemainpartoft
hemai
npar
toft
het
reest
em l
eav
ingt
he
stumptogiveri
setonewshoot.

Di
agr
am

Loppi
ng
Thisi
sthecut
ti
ngoft
hesi
debr
anchf
oruse
Diagr
am

Harvesti
nganimal r
esources
a)Meat
Ani
mal sareslaughtered,ski
nnedandmeatcutof ff
rom thecar
cass.
b)Skinsandhides
Ani
mal sareslaughteredandskinscareful
lyr
emovedfrom t
hecarcass.
c)Horns
The hor nsarecutorsawn of fwiththe sawfrom t
heheadoftheslaught
ered
ani
mal s
d)Milk
i
tisobtainedbymi l
kingusingeitherhandsormachi
nes
d)Honey:
i
tisextractedfr
om honeycombs.

THEENVI RONMENT
Whatis env ironment?
Envi
ronmentr eferstoal
lthi
ngsthatsur
roundman.Theset
hingscanbeai
rwat
er
,pl
antstemper atur
e,fuel,
peoplebuil
dinget
c.
COMPONENTSOFENVI RONMENT
Theenvir
onmenti scomposedofthefoll
owing
- Wat er
- Land(soi l)
- Air(wind)
- Plants
 - Animal
s
- Temperatur
e
- Mountai
ns(hil
l
s)
- Miner
als
- Sun

TYPESOFENVI RONMENT
Envi
ronmenti
sdivi
dedi
ntot
wot
ypes:
-

Biol
ogi
calenvi
ronment (Abi
oti
c/nonphysi
calenvi
ronment)
Thisi
sthetypeofenvi
ronmentwhi
chconsi
stsi
fliv
ingthi
ngsegpl
ant
sand
animal
s

Physi
calenv
ironment (abiot
ic envi
ronment)
Thi
sisthetypeofenvir
onmentwhichconsist
sofnon— l i
vi
ngt
hingseg
mountai
ns,lakes,r
iver
s,temper
ature,wind (ai
r)vapour.

FOODCHAI N
Afoodchain isthewayhowor ganismsinanenvi
ronmentgett hei
rfood.I
nthe
envi
ronment,pl
antsmaket hei
rownf oodandar
ecalledproducers.
Theorgani
smswhi chdependonf oodmadebyplants(pr
oducers) ar ecal
led
consumersar
econsumer s
Consumersaredivi
dedint
ot hefol
lowinggr
oups

Pri
maryconsumer
s
Thesear
eorgani
smswhi
chf
eeddi
rect
lyonpr
oducer
seggoat
s,cat
tl
e,r
abbi
ts,
sheepet
c

Secondar
yconsumers
Theseareor
ganism whi
chf
eedonpr
imar
yconsumer
segf
oxes,
dogs,
li
ons

Tert
iar
yconsumers
Tert
iar
yconsumerswhi chfeedonsecondar yconsumerseg.l
eopards, man
bi
rdsofpreyetc.
NB:Inafoodchain,organism l
ikef
ungi andbacter
iahel
pinreduci
ngfoodtoi
ts
componentparts(decay/r ot
)arecall
eddecomposer s
Thesunisthemainsour ceofsunli
ghtenergyinafoodchainfrom whi
chener
gy
fl
ows t ootheror
ganism intheenvi
ronment

I
ll
ust
rat
ionofafoodchain
Pr
oducer— pri
mar yconsumer— secondar
yconsumer
s— Ter
ti
aryconsumer
s
— pl
antsgr
asshoopers— lizar
d— Hawks

AFOODWEB
Afoodwebi samor ecompli
cat
edint
err
elat
ionshi
pofhoworgani
sm i
nan
envi
ronmentobtai
ntheirf
ood.
Afoodwebi nvol
vesmanyorgani
sm i
nanecosy st
em howt
heygetfoodf
rom
manyot herl
i
vingthi
ngs
Il
l
ustrat
ionofafoodweb

Ecosy
stem
Anecosyst
em i
sthecommunityofl
iv
ingt
hings(
organi
sms)i
nahabi
tatpl
ust
he
nonli
vi
ngparti
ntheenv
ironment.

Ahabi
tat
Ahabi
tati
sahomeofal
i
vingor
gani
sm i
ntheenv
ironment

DEGRADATION
Degr
adati
onist
hewayofl
ower
ing(
spoi
l
ing)t
hequal
i
ty,
stabi
l
ityandusef
ulness
of aresour
ce.

Envi
ronmentdegr
adati
on
Ist
heloweri
ngthequal
ity,
stabi
l
ityandusef
ulnessof r
esour
cesi
nthe
envi
ronment

Ty
pesofenvir
onmentdegradation
- Soil/l
anddegradati
on
- Degradati
on/deforestat
ion
- Wetlanddrai
nage
- Air/atmospheri
cpolluti
on
- Waterpoll
uti
on
- Wildli
fedest
ructi
on(degr adat
ion)

Causesofenvir
onmentaldegr
adat
ion
Therear
etwomai ncausesofenvi
ronment
aldegr
adat
ion
a) Humanact i
vit
ies
b)Natur
alcauses

HUMANACTI VITIESTHATCAUSESENVI RONMENTALDEGRADATI

ON
a)Mini
ng/quarrying
b)Const
ruct
ionandr oadwork
c) Poorwastedisposal
d)Badagri
cult
uralpract
icesegbushbur
ning,
overgr
azi
nget
c

NATURALCAUSESENVIRONMENTALDEGRADATI
ON
- Soil erosi
on/l
eachi
ng
- Sil
ti
ng
- Hurri
canes
- Tornados
 - Whi rl
wi nd/whi lpool
s
- Earthquakes
- Hailstones
- Landsl ides
- Floods
- Tsunami s
- Volcanicer upt
ions
- Global war ning
a)Soi
l/landdegr adation
Thi
sisthedest ructi
on/l ower
ingt
hequal
i
tyorusef
ulnessofl
andbyhuman
act
ivi
ti
esornat uralcauses.

Leachi
ng
I
sapr ocesst
hroughwhichmineralsal
tsornutr
ient
ssi
nkdeeperi
ntot
hesoi
l
l
ayerswheretheycannotbereachedbyplants
I
tiscausedbytoomuch r ai
n.

Soi
ler
osi
on:
Ist
hewashi
ng/bl
owi
ng awayoft
opsoi
lbyagent
sofer
osi
on.

Si
lt
ing
I
stheprocessbywhi
chf
inesand,
mudorot
hert
hingsar
ecar
ri
edi
ntot
hewat
er
body.

Causesofsilti
ng
- Soilerosion
- Cult
ivationnearwatersources
- All
owi nganimalstodrinkf
rom waterbodi
es
- Swampdr ai
nage
- Burning/dest r
oyi
ngv eget
ationi
ntheswamp

Ef
fectofsil
ti
ng
- I tdestroyshabit
atforani
mal sthatl
ive li
veinwat er
- Lowerwat erl
eveland sodr i
esoutwat erbodies
- Dest roy ssour
ceoff oodforfi
shandot heraquati
canimal
s
- Ki l
lsfishofotheranimalsandpl ant
sinwater
- Dest roy seggsoffishandotheraquati
canimals.

Def
orest
ati
on
Def
orest
ati
onisal
socal
l
eddev
eget
aioni
ecut
ti
ngdownl
argenumberoft
rees/
pl
antwit
houtrepl
aci
ngt
hem.

Causesofdeforest
ati
on
- Populat
iongrowthl
eadi
ngt
oneedf
orl
andf
orset
tl
ement,
far
mingand
recr
eati
on
 - I
ndust
rial
i
zation(
developmentof indust
ri
esinanar
ea)
- Wil
dfi
res/bushburning
- Cl
eari
ngforestsf
orf
irewood, char
coal,bui
ldi
ngpol
est
imberet
c

Ef
fect
sofdefor
estati
on
- Itl
eadstoreductionofrainfal
lcausi
ng drought/deser
ti
fi
cat
ion
- Lossofhabitatfordif
fer
entplantsandani
mal speci
es
- Soiler
osi
onl eavi
nginfert
il
esoil
s
- Sil
ti
ngofwat erbodies.

Wetland
Awetlandi
sanyar
eawhi
chhaswat
erandgr
owi
ngv
eget
ati
ont
hroughoutt
he
year

Examplesofwetl
ands
- Swamps
- Marshes
- Bogs
- Lakesandri
ver
s

I
mpor
tanceofwetl ands
- Theyarehabi t
atstomanypl antandani malsspeces
- Theycontrolfloodsbysuckingthewat er
- Theyfi
ltermuddywat erbytrappingtheimpur i
ti
es
- Theyregulat
et hecli
matebyi nf
luencingthetemper at
ureandhumidi
ty
- Theyprovidewat er
- Theyprovidewat erf
ordomest i
candi ndustri
aluse.
- Theyaresour cesoffoode.g.fi
sh
- Theyproviderawmat eri
alsforarlandcraft
se.g.clay,
papyruset
c
- Theyaresour cesofbuil
dingmat eri
als

POLLUTION
Pol
luti
onistheaddi
ti
onof har
mful(danger
ous)chemical
sint
othe
env
ironment
Pol
luti
ontakespl
acenat
ural
l
yorthr
oughhumanact i
vi
ti
es.

CAUSESOFPOLLUTI ON
- Wast egasesf rom i
ndustri
es
- Industri
alwaste/chemi cal
- Exhaustf umesf r
om vehicl
es
- Oilspil
lsfrom shi
psintheocean
- Chemi calsprays
- Nonbi o-degr
adablewast esegpol
ythene,
glasspl
ast
icset
c
 - Smokef
rom bur
ningt
yres,
oil
orbushes
- Dust

TYPESOFPOLLUTI ON
a) Airpolluti
on - causedbysmokeandf umes/poisonousgases.
b)Soi
l pol
luti
on— causedbyagr icul
tur
al sprays,i
ndust
ri
alwaste,refuseetc
c) Wat erpolluti
on -Bysi
lt,oi
lspil
l
s, r
efuse,humanwast eandindustri
al
waste washedi ntoi
t.
d)Noisepol l
ution— Duetotoomanyv ehicl
esorindust
ri
esintheenvironment
l
oudmusi cet c

EFFECTSPOLLUTI ON
- Poisoningofsoi landwat erbychemical wastesdumpedont hem.
- Deathanddi sappear anceofbi odi
versi
ty( v
ar i
etyofplantsandanimal
s
li
vingthings)
- Outbr eakofdi seasei ntheenvir
onment
- Lossofsoi l
fertil
ityleadingtopoory i
elds
- Format i
onofaci drainsduet ogasesf r
om i ndustr
iesandv ehi
clesast
hey
dissol
v einrain.
- Destructionofhabi t
at sformanyplantsandani mals
- Lesspr oductionofpl antssuchasf i
bers, t
imber sfrui
tsandother
constructionmat eri
als
CONTROLANDPREVENTI ONOFPOLLUTI ONI NTHEENVI RONMENT
- Usesofal t
ernativeener gysourceeg.bi ogas, naturalgas,sol
arener
gy,
windpower, hy droel ect
ricit
y
- Ensurepr operdi sposal ofdomest i
csandi ndustrial
wast es
- Educat i
ngpeopl eaboutt hedangersofpol luti
on
- Usinggoodmet hodoff arming

RESPIRATORYSYSTEM
Whatisrespi r
ati
on?
Respir
ati
oni sthepr ocessbywhichthebodyusesf oodandoxygent
oproduce
energy,
car bondioxideandwatervapour.Respi
rat
iontakespl
aceinbodycel
ls.
Theby-productsofr espir
ati
onar
e;
i
) Carbondi oxi
de
i
i) Waterv apour

BREATHING
Breat
hingisthetaki
ngi nandoutofair
.
Oritmeanst heconstantexchangeofgasesbetweenanorgani
sm andt
he
surr
oundings.Therespirat
oryorgansi
nmanar ethelungs.

Ther
espi
rat
orysy
stem
· Thisdealswiththeuseofoxy geninthebody .
· Lungsaret herespi
rator
yor ganssituat edineithersidesofthechestcavi
ty.
· Lungsarecov eredinamembr anecalledpl euralmembr ane.
· Flui
dthatlubri
catesthelungsandr i
bsandsor educefr
icti
on.
· Lungsarepr ot
ectedbyt hepar tofthebr ai
ncal l
edRibcage.
· Theribsareheldinpositionbyt heinter costalmuscles.
· Inthelowersideofthelungsi sadi aphr agm thatseparatesthechestcav
ity
from t
heabdomen;

Thest
ruct
ureoft
hel
ungs,
par
tsandt
hei
rfunct
ions.

Ty
pesofbreat
hing
i) Expi
rati
on(br
eathi
ngout)exhal
ati
on.
ii
) I
nspirat
ion(
breat
hingi
n)inhal
ati
on.

Functi
onsofpart
softhebreat
hingsyst
em
i
. Thenose
I
tcontainsmucuswhich/t
hatwarmsandmoi st
ensai
rbef
orer
eachingt
hel
ungs.
I
tcontainshai
rli
kest
ruct
urescall
edCil
iat
hattr
apger
msanddirtt
hatmayent
er
thenose.

Whathappenstotheairi
nthenose?
Ai
risfi
l
tered(
cleaned)warmedandmoi
stened.

Whathappenstotheairi
nthemouth?
Nomucust omoistenandwarm ai
r.
Nocil
i
atof i
lt
erai
rbytrappi
nggermsanddi
rt
.

ii
. Thet rachea(windpipe)
Ithasanepi glotti
sthatprot
ectst heopeningoft het
racheawhenswallowing
food.
Epiglot
ti
spr eventschoking.
Airentersintolungswhi chcontainsthevoicebox.Insi
devoiceboxarevocal
cordswhi chhel pinproduci
ngsound.
Tracheacont ainsringsofcart
ilagethatpreventsitf
rom cl
osingandprevent
s
suffocat
ion.
Theexchangeofgasest akeplaceint heairsacs.

ii
i. Theairsacs
Thi
siswher
etheexchangeofgasest
akespl
acebydi
ff
usi
on.

Adaptat
ionsofai
rsacstothei
rfunct
ion
Theyhavewallst
oalldi
ff
usiontakeplace.
Theyaresurr
oundedbyanetwor kofcapil
lar
ieswhi
chbr
ingcar
bondi
oxi
deand
takeoxygen.
Theyar
emanyi
nnumber
.

Thest
ruct
ureoft
hev
il
lus

Compositionofai
rbr
eat
hedi nandout
.
Typeofair Inspi
redai
r Expi
redai
r
Oxygen(O2) 21% 16%
Carbondioxide(
CO2) 0.03% 4%
Nit
rogen(N2) 79% 79%
Watervapour Less More

Whathappensdur i
nginspir
ati
on(inhal
ation)
· Thev olumeoft hechestandl
ungsi ncreases.
· Diaphragm andinter
cost
alsmuscl escontract
s.
· Ri
bsmov eupwar dsandoutwards.
· Thel ungsi
ncreaseinvol
ume

Whathappensdur i
ngexpir
ati
on/ exhal
ati
on?
· Thev ol
umeoft hechestandlungsdecr eases.
· Thediaphragm andint
ercostal
smuscl esrel
ax.
· Ri
bsmov edownwardsandi nwards.
· Thelungsdecreasesinvolume.

Diseasesthatat
tackt
hebr
eat
hing/r
espiratorysy
stem.
Tuberculosi
s Bronchiti
s
I
nf l
uenza Asthma
Diphther
ia Pneumoni a
Emphy sema Whoopi ngCough

Habi
tsthatimprovethewor ki
ngoft her espi
rat
orysy
stem
· Avoidi
ngsmoki ng
· Havingregul
arphysicalexercises.
· Goodf eedi
ng/nutr
it
ion
· Eatfoodwithlowandf at
· Keepawayf rom dustyplaceset c.
Disorder
softher
espi
rat
orysy
stem
Choking
Hiccup
Sneezinget
c

RESPIRATI ONI NRELATI ONTOFOODANDOXYGEN

- Respi r
ati
oni sthechemi calburningoffoodinthepresenceofoxygeni n
ordert or
el ease(pr oduce)ener gy
- Wat erandcar bondioxidear ereleasedasbyproducts.
- Respi r
ati
ont akesplacei nt hebodycell
s
- Food + oxy gen car
bondioxide
+ water + ener gy ( ATP)
(Starch)
Types ofr espi
rat ion
Aerobicrespirat
ion
I
sr espi
rationwhi chusesoxy gen.
Anaerobicr espi
rat i
on
I
tisat ypeofr espi rat
ionwhi cht akesplaceinabsenceofoxy genandinwhi ch
foodsubst ancesar eonlypar tl
ybr okendown.I tpr
oduceslacti
cacidinanimals
andalcohol i
npar ts.Itoccursinmuscl esduri
ngexercise.

SCI
ENCEPRI
MARYSI
XTERM I
II
-2016
SCI
ENCEATHOMEANDCOMMUNI
TY

WATER
Wateri
sacolourl
essl
iqui
dsubst
ancemadeupofhy
drogenandoxy
gengases.
Thesegasesar
eintherat
ioof2:
1(H2O)

Sour
cesofwater
· Rainwater
· Ar tesi
anwel l
s
· Hotspr ings
· St reams,lakes,
riv
ers,
swamps,
ponds,
oceans,
andseas.

Pr
operti
esofpur ewater
· Iti
scolourless
· Iti
swi t
houtsuspendedmat t
erlikegerms.
· Ithasnosmel l
· Purewat eristast
eless
· Purewat erboisat100oC(
l 212oF)andfreezesat0oC(
32oF)atseal
evel
.
· Purewat erfor
msl ather(
foam)v eryeasil
y)wit
hsoap.
Usesofwat ertothebody
· Wat ermakesuppar tofbloodaspl asma
· Hel pst odissolvethedigest
edf oodforeasyabsorpt
ioni
nt hebody.
· Mai nt ainstheshapeofbodycel ls.
· Cool sthebodyi nform ofsweatwheni tevapor
ates.
· Hel psi nformationofbodyf l
uidssuchast ear
s,sal
iv
a,ur
ine,sweatetc.

Ot
herusesofwat er
· Fordomest i
cusee.g.cooking,washinget
c
· Fordr i
nkingbyman, mammal s,andbir
ds
· Fori r
ri
gationinagr
icul
ture
· Usedi nindustri
esf
orcooling,washingmachi
nesandr
awmat
eri
als.
· Usedt ogener at
ehydro-el
ectri
city
· Usedbypl antsf
orphotosynthesis

Prepar
ati
onofsafewaterfordri
nki
ng
i
. Boi l
i
ng
Whenwat eri
sheated,
itboil
s,t
oatemper
at eof100oC(
ur 212oF)t
his
temperat
ureki
ll
sgerms.

i
i. Fi l
ter
ing
Thisi
stheprocessbywhi
chacl
eanorst
eri
l
izedpi
eceofcl
othorl
ocal
wat
er
fi
l
ter.

Exampl
esofsol
i
dimpur
it
iesf
il
ter
edar
edi
rt
,soi
l
,st
ones,
leav
es,
ani
mal
swast
es
etc.

NB:Fi
l
ter
edwat
eri
snotsaf
efordr
inki
ngbecausei
tmaybecont
aini
ngsome
ger
ms.

i
ii
. Tr eat
mentofwater
Treat
mentofwateri
swhenchemical
sar
eaddedtokil
lger
msi nit.
Examplesofchemi
cal
susedtot
reatwat
erar
e;chl
ori
ne,waterguardand
aquasafe.

Advant
agesofchemical
susedinwat
ert
reat
ment
Thechemical
ski
llger
msi nwat
er

Di
sadvantagesofusingchemical
s
· Theyar eexpensi
ve
· Theydonotmakewat ercl
ear
· Theyaddsomesmel landtast
etowat
er.

DECANTING
Decant
ingi
samet
hodofr
emov
ingl
argepar
ti
clesofobj
ect
sfr
om wat
er.
Decantingi
sdonebypouringwat
ersl
owl
yf r
om onecont
ainert
oanothersot
hat
heavi
lypart
icl
esarel
eftbehi
nd.I
nthi
smethod,
thethr
eepotsystem i
susedt
o
puri
fythewater.

WATERI MPURITI
ES
I
mpuriti
esar
econtami
nant
sorfor
eignobject
sinwater
.Wateri
mpur
it
iesmakei
t
unsaf
eforuse.I
mpuri
ti
esmaybesolubl
eorinsol
ubl
eorgani
c.

I
norganicimpur
it
ies
I
tconsistsofdi
ssol
vedmi
ner
alsal
tswhi
chmakewat
erunsaf
etouse.

Organi cimpur i
ties
Thesei ncludebact er ia, fungi andpr otozoaot hersmaybedeadpl antmat er
ial
s
suchasl eav esandgr ass.
Exampl esofwat erimpur iti
es
- Humanwast es
- Ani mal wast esl ikeur ine, dung
- Her bici
des
- I nsect i
cides
- Si ltfrom er osi on
CLEANI NGCLOTHESATHOME
Onemai nuseofwat erathomei stowashcl othes.Thi salsocalledlaundr y
Stepusedi ncleani ngcl ot hesathome
Sor ting
- I tinvolvessel ect ingandput t
ingclothest ogetheraccor dingtocol our,
intensityofdi rt,nat ureoft hef abri
c, useofcl otheset c.
Soaki ng
Itist heput t
ingcl othesi nsoapywat erforsomet ime.
Impor tanceofsoaki ngcl othes
- I thelpst ol oosendi r
tanddi ssol v
est ains
- I tsav est i
medur ingwashi ngasi talittl
eeffortt oremov eit.
- I tsav esagai nstt earandwearduet oconst antr ubbingwhi l
ewashi ngs.
Washi ng
Itist her emov al ofdi rtusi ngwat eranddet ergent
Rinsi ng
Clot hesar eputi ncl eanwat er.Ithelpstoremov eal l
soapywat erfrom the
clothes.
Wr ingi ng
Itinv olvessqueezi ngexcesswat eroutoft hecl ot
hes
NOTE: Wool encl othesshoul dbedr iedwit
houtwr ingingbecausei tmayl oosen
thef abr icandmakest hem t ol osetheirshape.

Dryi
ng
Somecl ot
hescanbedri
edoutcomplet
elyunderthesun.
I
roning
I
thelpstoremovecr
easesfr
om thewashedclothesandbri
ngt
hem t
othei
r
or
igi
nal
for
m

ACCIDENTSANDFI RSTAI D
Whatisanaccident
?
Anaccidenti
sasuddenhappeni ngthatcausehar
mtothebody
.
Acci
dentscantakeplaceanywhere.
Theymayhappenathome, school
,placeofwork,
wher
ewegof orpr
ayer
s,ont
he
pi
tchetc.

Fir
stai
d
Thisi
sthefi
rsthel
pgiv
entoacasual
it
ybefor
ehe/
shei
stakent
ohospi
tal
.a
casual
i
tyisapersonwhohasgotanacci
dent
.

Burns
Thesear
ebodyi
njur
iescausedbyheat
.

Ty
pesofburns
1.Burns
2.Scalds

Bur
nsandscal
ds
Bur
nsarei
njur
iescausedbydr
yheat
.

Causesofburns
a.Hotmet al
s
b.Hotf l
ati
ron
c.Acids
d.Glowingcharcoal
e.Hotcharcoalstov
e
f. Fi
re

Degreeofbur ns
Burnsandscal dsaredescri
bedusi
ngtheworddegreet
otel
lhowsev
eret
heyar
e;
Therearethreetypesofdegreesofbur
ns.Thesear
e;
a)Firstdegreeburns
b)Seconddegr eebur
ns
c)Thi r
ddegr eeburns

Fi
rstdegr
eeburns
Theseareminorburnswhichdonotfor
m bl
isters.
Abli
steri
sar ai
sedskinwithali
qui
dunderneath.
Theskini
stenderforsever
aldays
Theskini
sunbroken.
Fi
rstai
d
Putthebur
ntar
eai
ncool
wat
eri
mmedi
atel
yaf
tert
heacci
dent
.

Why?
Toreducethetemperat
ureoft
hebur
ntpar
t.
N.
B; Fi
rstdegr
eeburnsneednodr
essi
ng.

Seconddegreeburns
Theseareburnswhichfor
m bl
ist
ers.
Theyareseveret
hanfir
stdegr
eeburns.

Si
gnsof seconddegreebur
ns
a)Bli
sterar
eformed
b)Unbrokenbl
ist
ers

FI
RSTAID
I
fthebli
steri
sbr
oken,
washtheareawi
thcleanwat
erandsoap.
Covert
heskinwi
thabandageorcl
eancl
oth.

NB;Iti
snotgoodtobreakthebli
sterbecausei
tmayleadt
oinfect
ionoft
he
woundbygerms.Fat
s, oi
l
,coff
ee,herbsordungshoul
dneverbeputonthebur
n
becauset
heycancauseinfect
ion.

Sugarshouldnotbeputonthebur
nbecauseitat
tr
actshousef
li
eswhi chbr
ing
germstothewound.
Thevict
im oftheseconddegr
eeburnsshoul
dbegivenpl
entyoffl
uidstodr
ink.

Thi
rddegreeburns
Thereareburnswhichcausedeepburni
ngoftheski
n.
Theskinisburntdeepl
yanditappear
sshinnywhi
te.
a)Theskinisburntdeepl
y

FI
RSTAI D
Puttheburnareasincool
water.
Encouragethecasual
it
ytodr
inkalotoff
lui
ds.
NB:Patient
sofsecondandthir
ddegreebur
nsshoul
dbegi
venal
otoff
lui
dst
o
dri
nk.

Why?
Theyl
oseal
otoff
lui
dst
hrought
hebur
ntski
nbyev
apor
ati
on
Pr
eventi
onofbur nsandscal ds
· Useheati nsulatorstohandl ehotobj
ects.
· Cookingf rom raisedpl aces
· Keeppet roleum pr oductsoutofreachofchildr
en.
· Donotal lowy oungchi l
drentocook.
· Refi
ll
lanter nsorl ampsaf t
erputt
ingthem of
f.
· Teachchi ldrenthedanger sofburns
· Tel
lchi l
drent oplayawayf rom f
ir
eplaces.

Feverandconvulsi
ons
Feveri
sthecondi t
ionofthebodywhenit
stemperat
uregoesbey
ondthenormal.
o o
Thenormal bodytemperatur
eis37Cor98.4F.
Feveri
snotani l
lnessbutasymptom ofmanyil
l
nessessuchasmal
aria,
typhoi
d,
measles,et
c

Ef
fectoff
ever
I
tcanleadtoconv
ulsi
ons

Convul
sions
Theseareuncont
rol
l
ablejer
kymovementsofthebody.
Convul
sionscanbestoppedift
hedi
seasecausi
ngthem i
str
eat
ed.

Fi
rstai
dforconvulsi
ons
· Remov eal
lti
ghtclothesfr
om t
hebodyofthevict
im.
· Putanobjectinthemouthofthevi
cti
mt ostophimfr
om bi
ti
ngt
het
ongue.
· Givethevi
cti
m plentyofcol
ddri
nksaft
errecover
y.
· Takethepati
entt ohospi
tal

Fi
rstai
dforfever
Carr
youttepidspongi
ng(col
dcompress) .
Awetclot
hi sputonthefor
eheadorchestofav i
cti
m.
Cauti
on
Donotusev erycol
dwaterbecausei
tleadstoconvul
sions.

Fai
nti
ng
I
tisthel
ossofconsci
ousnessf
orashor
tti
me

Maincauseoffai
nti
ng
Reducedsuppl
yofbloodr
ichi
noxy
genandf
oodt
othebr
ain.

Condi
ti
onsthatcanleadt ofai
nti
ng
· Anxi ety
· Heav ybodyexercises
· Ext remesorrow( sadnews)
f
ear
· Pr
olongedhunger

FI
RSTAID
· Putt hevi
cti
mi nopenai
r.
· Remov et
ightcl
othi
ngsar
oundtheneckandchestt
oenabl
ethev
ict
im get
enoughoxygen.
· Rai set
helegsofthevi
cti
m hi
ghert
hanthehead.

Why?
Toall
owbloodfl
owf ast
ert
othebrai
n.
Dontal
lowthev
icti
mt obeovercr
owded

DROWNI NG
Thismeansdy
ingasaresul
tofhav
inglungsfi
l
ledwat
er.
Drowni
nghasnofi
rstai
dsincet
hevict
im di
es.

Neardrowning
I
tistemporaryl
ossofbreat
hduetohavingonesl
ungsfi
l
ledwit
hwat er
.
Apersonwhohasnear l
ydrownedhasonlyf
ourminut
estoli
vether
efor
eaf
ir
st
ai
dermustbev eryf
asttosavehi
sli
fe.

Fi
rstAi
d
Removethevicti
m qui
ckl
yfr
om wat er
Shoutf
orhelp
Li
ethepersononhisback.
Carr
youtmout htomouthbreat
hing(ki
ssofl
i
fe)

Howtocar r
youtmout ht omout hrespirati
on
· Maket hev i
ctimt olieonhi sback
· Ti
lttheheadbackwar dsandkeephi smout hopened
· Remov eanyobj ectst ucki nthemout h
· Pressthev ict
imsnost ri
l
swi t
hyourf inger
st oclosethem
· Putyourmout hdi rectlyintothemout hsot hatthechestri
ses.
· Stopabi tt
ol ettheai routandbl owagai n
· Repeatthismanyt imes( about15t imesi nami nut
e)
· Continuethest epsunt ilthevict
im canbr eatheagainbyhimself
.
· Pl
acet heheel sofy ourhandsbet weent henav elandtheri
bsofthev
ict
im
· Makeaqui ckstr ongpushf or
wardi ntother i
bcage.

Howtopr eventneardr owning

· Acquireswi mmi ngski l
ls
· Alway sempt ybat htubs
· Cov eringal
lsept i
ctanks
· Puttingonal ifejacketwhentr
avel
i
ngonwater
.
· Fenci ngpit
st hatbuil
dersusedtot
rapwat
er
 · Donotal
l
owchi
ldrentogonearwatersourceswi
thoutadul
ts
· Donotal
l
owbabiestopl
ayinbasi
nsf ul
lofwater
.

Commondrowningpl
aces
· Swi
mmi ngpool
· Ponds
· Str
eams
· Lakes
· Wells
· Seasandoceans
· Bathtubs

Nosebl
eedi
ng
Thi
sist
hefl
owofbl
oodf
rom t
henose.

Causes
· Ov erinhalationofdryair
· Ov erblowingoronesnosewi thcold
· Taki ngfoodsonesbodyi sall
ergi
cto.
· Taki ngmedi cati
onsf oralongt i
me( aspiri
n,garl
i
c,gi
nger)
· Ov eri nhalati
onofdr yairdriesthebloodv esselsi
nthenostr
il
sandtheybreak.
· Ov erbl owingt henoseov erstr
ainsthebloodv essel
sinthenost
ri
lsandthey
break.
· Taki ngaspi ri
n, garl
i
c,andgi ngerpreventsnormal bl
oodclot
ti
ngandinst
ead
thi
nt hebl ood.

Fi
rstAid
· Letthecausalit
ysitandbendf or
war d.
· Squeeze t heuppersideofthenost ri
l
s.
· Encour aget
hecausalit
ytobreathethrought
hemout ht
opreventov
er
st
rai
ningthebloodvessel
s.
· Keept heheadoft hevi
cti
m higherthanthel
evel
ofthehear
t.
· Putthei cewrappedinatowel onthenoseandcheck

Why?
Tomakethel
ini
ngofbloodvesselsi
nthenostr
il
smoist
.
NB:donotmakethecausal
i
tytoleanbackbecausei
tal
lowsbl
oodt
ofl
owback
tot
hethr
oatwhichmaycausevomi t
ingori
rr
it
ati
on.

Pr
eventi
on
· Keepingthenostr
il
smoi st
· Taki
ngci t
rusfr
uit
ssuchasorangesandl
emonst
ost
rengt
hent
hel
i
ningof
bl
oodv essel
s.
· Taki
ngf oodsoneisnotal
l
ergi
cto.
For
eignbodies
Aforei
gnbodyisanyunwantedmat
terthatent
erst
hebody
.
Aforei
gnbodymayenterthebodyt
hroughthe;
· Nose
· Mout h
· Anus
· Ey e
· Ear s
· Vagi na

Examplesoff orei
gnbodies
I
nsects
Smallstones
Seeds(coffee,ber
ries,
beans,
g.nut
s)
Dir
tyordust
Soil

For
eignbodyintheey
e
Obj
ectsthatent
erint
heey
eincl
ude;
dust
,smal
li
nsect
s,soi
l
.

Fi
rstAid
Washt heeyewit
hplentyofcl
eanwater
.
Usethecornerofasoftpi
eceofcl
othtoremov
ethef
orei
gnbody
.
Takethevict
imtotheoculi
st.

Forei
gnbodyi nt
heear
Examples
Smalli
nsects
Smallseeds
Smallstones

Fi
rstAid
· Maket hev ict
im si
tandbendtheheadtooneside.
· Ifiti
sani nsect,
pourcleanwateri
ntheearforthei
nsectt
ofl
oatandcome
out.
· Flashlightattheentr
anceoftheearift
heforei
gnbodyisani
nsect.
· Taket hev i
cti
mt othehospi
tal

For
eignbodyinthenose
For
eignbodi
esi nthenosei
ncl
ude;
· Smal li
nsects
· Smal lseeds
· Smal lstones

Fi
rstAi
d
Tel
lthevi
cti
mtobl
owhi
snosehar
dandf
ast
.
Taket
hecasual
i
tyt
otheheal
thwor
ker
.

For
eignbodyi
nthet
hroat
For
eignbodyi
nthet
hroatar
emainl
ylargepi
ecesoffoodorsmal
lbone.
For
eignbodyi
nthet
hroatl
eadt
ochokinganddeath.

Fi
rstaid
· Gi vethev i
ctim anumberofshar pblowsi ntheback
· Wr apy ourar msaroundhi swaistandpresst hebell
yupwar dsstr
ongly.
· Ifthev i
ctimi sunconscious,l
iehim onhisbackandmakesev er
alsudden
pushesont hebell
yusingheelsofy ourhands.
· Ittheper sondoesnotbr eat
he,tr
ymout htomout hbreat
hing.
· Taket hev icti
mt ohospital
· Ifthev i
ctimi ssmallert
hany ou,tur
nhim overy ourfol
dedlegandgivesharp
bl
owsatt heback.

Pr
eventi
ngaccident scausedbyforeignbodies
· Chewf oodpr operl
y
· Donott al
korl aughwheneat i
ng
· Keepbeads, button,coi
ns,andseedsoutofr eachofchil
dren
· Putti
ngongl asseswhi l
emov i
ngonmot orcycl
esandbicycles
· Teachchil
drennott oputseeds, coi
ns,stones,andsoi
linthei
rey
es,
nose,
ears,andmout h.

Poisoni
ng
Poisoni
sanysubst
anceoncet
akeni
ntot
hebodydamagesbodyor
gansor
causesdeat
h.

Wayspoisoncanbeintroducedint
othebody
· Throughfood
· Throughai
r
· Throughanimalbit
es(snakes,
rapi
ddogs)
· Throughi
nject
ions
· Throughswall
owing(oral
ly)

Commonhousehol
dpoi
sons
Paraffi
n herbici
des
Rootpoison Ji
k
Petrol I
nsect i
cides
Wor mcides Diesel
Acarici
des Drugs(Aspiri
n/chl
ori
qune)

Si
gnsofpoisoning
· Rapidbreathi
ng
· Feverandsweat
ing
· Feel
ingthi
rsty
· Mentalconfusi
on
· Comma
· Vomiti
ng
· Lossofbalance

Fi
rstAi
d
Gi
v et
hecasual
i
tyal
otoff
lui
ds(
freshmi
l
k).

Why?
Todi
lutepoi
soninthest
omach
Makethepersonvomiti
ncasei
tsnon-
cor
rosi
vepoi
son.

Howt
omaket hepersontovomit
· Pl
aci
ngthefi
ngerinthemouthorthr
oat.
· Giv
ethevicti
m watermi
xedwithsoap
· Rushthevict
imtothehospi
tal

NB:I
fthecausal
i
tyhast
akenpar
aff
in,
pet
rol
,orbl
each(
Jik)
,donotmakehi
m
vomi
t.

Why?
I
tcausesmor
edamaget
othest
omachandgul
l
et.

Pr
eventi
ngpoisoning
· Keeppet r
ol,par
af f
inoutofr eachofchi
ldr
en
· Keepdrugsoutofr eachofchildr
en
· Foll
owt hedoctor sprescri
pti
on
· Buydrugsf r
om r ecommendedphar macies
· Disposeexpireddr ugs.
· Avoiddrugsmi suse

TheABCtechni
quef
oll
owedbef
oregi
vi
ngf
ir
stAI
D
A-Airway
B-Breathi
ng
C-Circul
ati
on

TOPI
CALQUESTI ONS
1.Menti
ont hemainr easonforgi
vingfir
staid
2.Di
sti
nguishburnsandscal d.
3.Howisthecauseofbur nssimil
artothatofscal
ds?
4.Whyshoul daburnthandofav i
cti
m bedippedincool
runni
ngwat
er?
5.Whyisitnotadvisabletobreakbli
stersontheski
n?
6.Howdoheati nsulatorspr
eventburnsandscalds?
7.Definefever.
8.Listdownt hemai neff
ectoff ever.
9.Explai
nt hefi
rstaidyoucangi veaper sonwhohasfever
.
10.
Howwoul dyouhel paper sonwhohasconv ulsi
on?
11.
Whati sfai
nti
ng?
12.
Statethemai ncauseoff ainti
ng?
13.
Howdoesdr owningdifferfrom neardrowni
ng?
14.
Whyshoul dpatientsofsecondandt hi
rddegreebur
nsbegi
venal
otofdr
inks?

15.
Giv
eonedi f
ferencebet weenf i
rstdegreeburnsandt hi
rddegreeburns.
16.
Whyisitnotgoodt omaket hev i
ctim whoisnosebleedingtofaceup.
17.
Howdoesaf oreignbodyint hethroatcausechoking?
18.
Whywoul dyougi veplentyofdrinkstoaper sonwhohast akenpoison?
19.
Whyisitdanger oustomakeaper sonwhohasdr unkparaff
intovomi t
?
20.
Menti
ononewayofpr eventi
ngpoi soningathome.

SANITATION
Defi
nit
ion:
Sani
tati
onisthegener
alcl
eanl
i
nessofapl
acewher
ewel
i
ve.

Waysofmai ntai
ningsanit
ati
on
· Const ructi
onoflatr
inesortoil
etsforproperdisposalofwastes.
· Diggingr ubbi
shpitsandpr ov
idingdustbinsforproperdisposal
ofhousehold
refuse.
· Slashingbushesar oundthehomes.
· Drainingawayal lst
agnantwat ertodenymosqui toesbreedi
ngandprotect
ing
wat ersources.

Const
ruct
ingalatr
ineortoi
let
Alat
ri
neispitduginthegroundwher
ehumanexcr
etai
sdeposi
ted.

Usesoflat
ri
nes
Theykeepfaecesandur
inewher
evect
orscannotbr
ingt
hem t
oourf
ood.

Ty
pesofl
atr
ines
i) Pitlatr
ine
ii
) Toilets
ii
i
) Pot ties

Pi
tLatri
nes
Qual
iti
esofawel l
builtlat
ri
ne
· Itshouldbe5to7met resdeep
· Thef l
oorshouldbest r
ongenoughtostandonandsmoot htosweepand
clean.
· Itshouldhaveahol ebigenought
oallowfaecesandur
inetopassandsmal
l
enought opreventchil
drenfr
om f
all
i
nginside.
· I
tshoul
dhavespiralwall
sanddoor st
oprovi
depr i
vacytotheuser.
· I
tshoul
dhavealidtocov ert
hehol e.
NB:
Coveri
ngcont
rolsbadsmel land t hemovementoff l
iesi
scont r
oll
ed.
· I
tshoul
dbeconstructed10met r
esawayfrom themainhouseand30met res
fr
om t
hewatersource.
· I
tshoul
dbebuil
tbelowt hewat ertabl
eorsourcetoavoidcontaminat
ion.

Si
teofapi tl
atr
ine
· Itshouldbeatleast10met r
esfr
om aliv
inghousetopr ev
entfli
esfrom
carryi
nggermsont ofood.
· Itshouldbeatleast30met r
esawayfrom awatersource(watertabl
e)to
preventfeacesandur i
neseepi
ngintowatersourceandcont aminatei
t.
· Itsi
nkingrainyseasons
· Shouldnotbebui ltabovet
hewatert
abletopreventthefeacesandur i
ne
goingintoandcont aminat
e.

Ty
pesofPitl
atr
ine
i) Ordi
narypi
tlat
ri
ne
ii
) VIPl
atri
nes

Ordi
nar
ypi
tlat
ri
ne
I
tiscommoninvil
l
ages
I
tshoul
dhaveali
dt ocov
ert
hehol
e.

TheVIPlat
rine
I
tisaspecial t
ypeofal
atr
inewi
thav
entpi
pet
otakeoutsmel
landascr
eenon
topt
otrapflies.

I
mportantfeatur
esofaVI Pl
atri
ne
· Ventpipe:itl
etsoutbadsmell.
· Screenont op:
trapsf
li
es
· Spiral
shapedwal l
snodoorsforf
reeci
rcul
ati
onofai
r.
· Ithasnolidtoleti
nair

Howt oconstructaVI Platr

ine
· Itshouldbeatl east10met resawayf r
om anyschool
,house,
kit
chen,
and
ot
herbuildi
ngs
· Itshouldbe30met resawayf rom anywat
ersource.
· Itshouldbebui l
tonsol i
dgr oundandnotinv al
leysorswamps.
· Digapi tofabout5- 10met r
esdeep
Coverthepitinanyoft hefollowingway s;
i
.Usest r
ongpol esofhar dtimbers
i
i.Metalbars
i
ii
.Buil
dahouseont opofthepi t
fi
xanetorscr eenont opoft hev entpipe.
Pl
acet
hepi
pei
nit
shol
e.

Howtomai ntai
naVI Platri
ne
· Thef l
oorshouldbesweptorwashedi fi
tscement ed.
· Washorr emov eanyf eaces,i
nsects,cobwebsanddustfrom wall
sand
cornersoftheroof
· Trim gr
assandbushesar oundthelatri
ne
· Whi l
eusingalatr
ine,makesur ethatthef eacesgodir
ect
lyi
ntothehol
e.
· Cleanwithanysof tt
issueorleaves
· Washy ourhandswi thsoapaf t
erusingt helatr
ine.

Toi
let
s(waterclosetsyst
em)
Thi
sisabowl shapeddev i
ceusedfordi
sposi
nghumanwast
e,whi
chi
sfl
ushed
awaythebowlbywat erfr
om atank(ci
ster
n).

Component sofaf lushtoi l

etsy stem
Partsinclude;
i
. At ankt hatstoreswat erforf l
ushing
i
i.Aseatwi thacov erforsi t
ting.
i
ii
.Api pet hattakeswat erfrom thet ankt othebowl andanot herthattakesi tt
o
sept i
ctank.
i
v.Asept i
ct ank,anunder groundst oragehol eforhumanwast eandwast ewat er
from kitchenandbat hr oom ( i
.e.
Sewage)
Thewast emat eri
alsint hesept i
ct anksar ecall
edsewage.
Sewagef r
om sept i
ct anksmaybecar ri
edawaybypi pes(sewer s)for
tr
eatmentt omakei tlesshar mf ul
.
Wher et hereisnopi pesy stem, i
tiscar r
iedusingv ehiclescall
edcesspool
empt i
ers.
InUganda, coll
ect i
onandt reatmentofsewagef r
om homesandi nsti
tutionsis
donebyNat ionalwat erandsewagecor por
ati
on( NSWSC) .
v.Thel everi sei
therpul ledorpushedt opreleasewat erduringflushing.
Fl
usht oiletsar ecommonl yusedi ncities,t
ownsandot herplaceswher et hereis
pipedwat er.

Adv
ant
ages
· Canbeputi
nsi
dethehouseandvehi
cles
· Theyar
eeasyt
oclean
· Theyar
euserf
ri
endl
y,eveny
oungchil
drencanuset
hem.

Di
sadv
antages
· Theyarever
yexpensiv
e
· Theyr equi
realotofwatertofuncti
on
· Theyar eonlyusedwherethereispipedwater
.
· Theycaneasi l
ygetblockedifhardobject
sareputi
nit
.

Howt
omai
ntai
nfl
usht
oil
ets
 · Keeptheseatclean,donotsteporuri
natei
nthem.
· Fl
ushtoil
etsafteruse.
· Useonlysoftti
ssueortoi
letpaperaft
ercl
eani
ngyoursel
f.
· Donotuset hetoil
etwheniti
sblocked.

THEREPRODUCTI VE SYSTEM
Growt
hisanincr
easeinsi
zee.g.changesfr
om l
arvatoadul
t.
Devel
opmentref
erstogr
owinggraduall
yandbecomingmoremat
ure.

Reproducti
on
Thisistheprocessbywhichal
ll
iv
ingt
hingsmul
ti
plyandi
ncreasei
nnumber
(becomemany )i
.e.gi
veri
set
onewoff-
spri
ngs(
youngones)tocont
inuea
generat
ionofthespecies.

Typesofreproducti
on
Therear
et wotypesofr epr
oducti
on
i
) Asexualreproducti
on
i
i) Sexualreproducti
on

ASexual r
epr
oduct
ion
Thi
si sthety
peofreproduct
ionwher
enor
epr
oduct
ivecel
l
s(gamet
es)ar
eused
toproduceyoungones.

Examplesofasexualreproduct
ion
Vegetat
ionpropagati
oninplantse.g.buddi
ng,graft
ing,layeri
ng,marcot
ing,st
em
cutt
ing,
sulker
s,bulbscrown,sl
ips,leav
es,androotcut t
ing,cell
div
isi
on,binar
y
fi
ssi
oninsinglecel
ledanimalse.g.Amoeba, bacter
ia,paramecium.

Sexual r
epr oduct ion
Thisisthet ypeofr eproducti
onwhi chinvolvesjoini
ng(fusing)ortwo
reproductivecel ls,maleandf emalegamet es.
Theuni on/ fissi
onofamal efemalegamet esi scall
edferti
lizati
on.
Thenucl eioft het wocel l
suniteandf orm aZy gotedevelopsi nt
oanewindivi
dual
orfoetus.
I
nani mal s,themal ereproducti
vecell
s( gamet es)arecall
edsper msandare
producedbyt her epr
oductiveorganscalledtestes.
Thef emal erepr oductivecell
sarecalledOv aandar eproducedbyt heovar
ies.

Hermaphrodi
tes
Theseareani
malst hatcont
ain(
have)bothmaleandfemal
ereproduct
iveor
gans
(Test
esandOv ar
ies)onthemsel
ves.E.g.ear
thwormsandsnai
ls.

Typesoffert
il
ization
Therear
et wot ypesofferti
l
izat
ion
i
) External f
ert
il
iz
ati
on
 i
i
) I
nter
nal
fer
ti
li
zat
ion

Exter
nalf
erti
li
zati
on
Thisi
swher ethefemal
elayseggsandthemalepour
sspermsont
hem out
side
themothersbodytofer
ti
li
zethem e.
g.f
ishandamphibi
ans.

I
nter
nalf
ert
il
izat
ion
Thi
siswheneggsar ef
ert
il
izedi
nsi
det
hemot
her
sbodyaf
termat
ing.

Humansexual
r epr
oducti
on
Di
agr
am showingthecrosssect
ionoft
hef
emal
erepr
oduct
iveor
gans(
syst
em)

Thef emaler epr oductiv

eor gansandt heirfuncti
ons
TheOv ary: t
her ear etwoov ari
es.Oneont hel ef
tandanot heront heright
.Ovari
es
produceov a( ovum)t hefemal ereproducti
vecel l
s.
Oviduct(fallopiant ube):i
tisthetubedownt heuterus(womb)f rom theovary.I
t
i
st hepassagef oranov um tot heuterus.Thisiswher efert
il
izat
iontakesplace.
Uterus(womb) :itisabagl i
kest r
uctureinsidewhi chthefoetusorZy gotegrows
fr
om.
Cervix:
Thi si sar ingofmuscl ewhi chhelpst oclosethelowerendoft heuterus
tothev aginat her ebyprotecti
ngi t/f
oetusf rom exter
naldamage.

Thestr
uct
ureofgametes
i) Femalegamete(anOv
um)
ii
) Malegamete(sper
m)

Thest
ruct
ureofmal
erepr
oduct
iveor
gan

Funct i
onsofpartsofthemal ereproducti
v eorgan
Scrotum: i
tisasacorbagt hatenclosesandpr otect
sthet estes.
Testes: t
heseareglandsthatpr oducet hemal eseminalfluidscontainingsper ms;
Theyl i
eoutsidetheabdomi nal cavi
tytomaket hem havelowert emper aturethan
thenor malbodytemper at
ur eformaxi mum pr oducti
onofsper m;Theyst art
producingsperm cell
sdur i
ngadol escencef rom age11-16y ears
Epididymis:i
tisalongcoiledt ubewhi chstoresandt hencar r
iessperms.
Sperm duct:Iti
sanext ensionoft heepididymisanddel i
verst hespermst othe
urethrawherethey passandgoout .
Prostrategl
and:produceaf l
uid(seminal fl
uid)whichhelpst oneutral
ize( make
harml ess/theaci dinurinei
ntheurethr
a.I
tal
soki
ll
germswhichar
einsper
ms.
Semi nalvesicles:itst
oresexcesssperms.
Erectil
et i
ssue( penis)
:itisaspongyti
ssuewhi
chwhenfi
l
ledwit
hbloodi
ter
ect
s
(stands)toej aculatesperms.

Ovul
ati
on
Thi
siswhenmat ureov
aarereleasedf
rom t
heovary.
Anovaryr
eleasesanovum ev
erymonthi.
e.ther
eleaseofov
aisdoneal
ter
nat
ely
.

Menst ruati
on
Thisist heperi
odicreleaseofbloodf r
om ut erusasar esul
tofrapt
ureofthe
uteruswal l
swhenf ertil
izat
ionhastakenpl ace
Thishel pstowashandcl eantheuterusinpr epar at
iontorecei
veafoetus.
NB:
Thef ir
stmenst r
uationcal l
edmenarebest artsi ngir
lsbetweentheageof9-15
years.
Thel astmenstruati
onper i
odendatar ound45y ear
sandi scall
edmenopause
Nor mal menstr
uationt akes3-4days.
I
tt akesplaceafterever y28daysifallconditionsarenor mal.
I
tmaybei nt
err
uptedbyconcept ion,strongf ever,oranyabnormali
ti
esinthe
body .

Car
eduringmenstruation
· Topreventi
nfectionandav oi
dgerms,diseases,
onemustbecl
ean.
· Usesanit
arymat eri
alssuchast ampax, tampons,al
way
s,cot
ton.
· Visi
theal
thworker sincaseabnormal
iti
esarenoted.

Fer
ti
li
zation
· Ferti
lizationt akespl acei ntheov iduct/ fal
lopi
ant ube.
· Immedi atelyaf t
erfer ti
li
zation, thezy got emovest otheuterus.
· Thezy goteat tachesi tselfont ot hepl acent awitht hehelpofanumbi li
cal
cord, thisprocessi scal ledi mpl antation.
· Thepl acentasuppl i
est heembr yowi thf oodnutrientsandoxy genatthesame
ti
mei tremov eswast epr oduct s.
· Theumbi li
cal cordtranspor tsf oodt ot hef oet
usandwast eproductsfr
om the
foetust ot hepl acentat obecar ri
edawaybybl ood.
· Theper iodofpr egnancyf r
om concept iontobirthiscalledgestati
onperiod
andl ast sfor9mont hsinhumans.
· Devel opmentoft hef oetust akespl acei ntheuterus.
· Theammot icf l
uidactasshockabsor berandpr otectthefoetus.
· Theamni on/amni oticmembr anepr ot ectsthebodyandhadt heflui
ds.

Thest agesofdevelopmentare;
Ferti
l
izati
on - Zy
gote - Foet
us -baby
Diagram showingdev el
opmentoft
hef
oet
usinut
erus
Sexdet ermi
nation
Sexofachi
ldi
sdeter
minedbychr
omosomesf
oundonthegametes/sexcell
s,
ther
eareXandYchromosomesXXchr
omosomesaref
orgir
lsandXYf orboys.
Spermscar
ryXXandXYchromosomes

Si
gnsofpr egnancy(goodandBad)
· Mor ni
ngsi ckness
· Vomi ti
ngandnausea
· Swol l
enl egs
· General bodyweakness
· Swol l
enbel l
y
· Frequentur i
nati
on
· Fasterbr eat
hing

Requi
rementsofanexpect antmot her(
pregnantmot her)
· Gooddi et(balanceddi et)forpr opergrowthoft hebaby.
· Shouldav oidtakingdr ugsl iketobaccoandal cohol.
· Shouldv i
sitantenat alcl
inicf ormedicalcheckupandadv ice.
· Shouldrakev accineagai nstt et
anus(texonustoxed)
· Enoughr estandsl eep.
· Wearmat erni
tydr essest ohav ecomfort
· Perfor
ml ightphy sicalexer cises

BIRTHANDLABOUR
Afterni
nemonthsofpregnancy,t
hemot herwi
l
lgoint
olabourandproducea
chil
d.
Thisiscal
l
edgivi
ngbir
thorpar t
uri
ti
on(chil
dbi
rth)
.
Labourref
erst
otheeffortofchi
ldbir
thshownbycontr
acti
onsoftheuterus.

Whatmakesababyaf terbi
rt
hcr y?
Iti
sduet osuddenchangeintemper at
ure(envir
onmentchange).Cryi
nghel
pst
o
startthenormal f
uncti
oningofthelungsi.
e.breathi
ngstart
satbir
th.
NB: incaseababyf ai
lstocry
/breatheart
if
ici
albreat
hingshoul
dbedone
i
mmedi ately
.
Singlechildbir
th:t
hisiswhenonechi l
disnormallyborntomother.
Multiplebirt
h:thi
siswhentwoormor ebabiesarebornatthesamet i
me.
Twin: whent wobabiesarebornatthesamet imebyt hemother
.

Twins
I
dent i
calt
wins
Thisiswhenonef er
ti
li
zedovum di
vi
desnor
mal
l
yandgr
owsi
ntot
wosepar
ate
babies.
I
dent i
calt
winsareusuall
ysamesex
Allt
heirphysi
cal
aspectsarethesame.

Si
ameset
wins
Thesear
etwi
nswhosebodyr
emai
nedj
oined/
fusedatonepoi
nt.

Frat
ernal
twi
ns
Thisi
swhent woovaarer
eleasedandfer
ti
li
zedandt
hendev
elopi
ntot
wins
fr
ater
naltwi
nsarenotal
wayst hesamesex.

Mult
iplebi
rt
h
I
ftherearethr
eeormor
eov
arel
easedandf
ert
il
izedi
tresul
tsi
ntomul
ti
plebi
rt
h.

Examplesofmul t
ipl
ebirths
Tri
plet
s:Threechil
drenareborn
Quadrupl
ets:Fourchil
drenarebor
n.

Bir
thContr
olContr
acept
ion
Thisisamethodofavoi
dinggett
ingmanychil
dreny
oucannotcaref
orpr
oper
ly
i
.e.havi
ngthenumberofchil
drenyouwantandwhenyouwantthem.

Famil
yplanni
ng
Thi
sistheuseofbir
thcont
rol
methodst
ogett
henumberofchi
l
dreny
ouwant
andwhent ohav
ethem i
nfamil
y.

Chil
dspaci
ng
Thisi
stheprov
isi
onofenought
imebet
weent
hebi
rt
hoft
hedi
ff
erentchi
l
dreni
n
famil
y.

Funct
ionsoff amil
yplanni
ngassociati
on
· Iteducatespeopleaboutchil
dspacing
· Educatespeopleaboutqualit
yofli
fewhenchil
drenaref
ew
· Providespeoplewit
hf amil
yplanni
ngcont
racept
ives.

Reasonswhypeopl ehav emanychi ldr

en
· Ignor
anceoff ami l
yplanni
ngmet hods.
· Highinfantmor tali
tyrare
· Tradi
tionalpracticesandv alues(customs)
· Prest
igeorf ameandsecur i
ty.

Pr
oblemsofhav ingmanychi ldren
Ifafamilyhastoomanychi ldr
en,ther
ewi
l
lbe;
· Inadequatefi
nanci
al r
esour ces.
· Lackofenoughf oodf ort hechildr
en
· Pooreducat i
onforchildren
· Lackofpr opermedical care
· Highinfantmortal
it
yrar e
· Mot
herssicknessasaresul
tofhavi
ngtoomanychi
l
drene.
g.mi
scar
ri
age,
mat
ernal
anemi a,f
ati
gue,l
owbirt
hetc.

Howtoavoidinf
antmor tal
it
yr at
e(deat
h)
· I
mmuni zati
onagainstinfantki
ll
erdi
seases.
· Parti
cipati
ngi
nheal thcareservi
cese.g.heal
theducat
ion
· Practi
cef ami
l
ypl anning.

Adv
antagesoffamilypl
anning
· Immunizati
onagainstinfantkil
lerdiseases
· Itreducesri
skofser i
ousdi seaseandmat er
naldeat
h.
· Itreducescasesofabor ti
on/ miscarr
iages
· Itimprovesthehealthandwel l
beingoft hefamil
y.
· Cont r
olspopulat
iongr owth.

Methodsofbirt
hcont r
ol
Therear
etwomet hodsusedforbi
rt
hcont
rol
namel
y;
i
) NaturalMethods
i
i
) Art
ifi
cialmethods

Nat
uralmet hods
· Abstainingfr
om sex
· Withdrawal/
pull
ingoutbefor
erel
easi
ngsper
msdur
ingsex
· Bedsepar at
ionbycouples
· Prolongedbreastfeedi
ng
· Themucusmet hod( t
esti
ngJel
l)
· Usingcalendarormoonbeads.

Ar
ti
fi
cialmethods
· Useofcondoms
· Useofcont racepti
vepill
s
· Birt
hcontrolinj
ectionse.g.i
njectaplan,
· Int
rauteri
nedev icese.g.coi
ls,spir
als,diaphr
agm.
· Useofj el
l
iesandf oams
· Steri
li
zati
onbyv asectomyi nmenandt ubeli
gat
ion
· Usingnorplant

MYTHSANDMI SCONCEPTI ONABOUTADOLESCENCEANDREPRODUCTION

HEALTH
- Amy th i satraditi
onalbel
i
efthati
snottr
ue
- Mi sconcepti
onsar ef al
sei
deasorbel
ief
s
Mythsandmi sconceptions Trut
h
Famil
yplanni
ngcont racepti
vemakewomenper manent
ly Whenawomanf eel
ssheshoul
dbec
bar
ren j
uststopsusi
ngt
hecont
racept
ivesa
agai
n
Fami
l
ypl
anni
ngi
ncr
easest
eenagepr
egnancy I
nstead t eenager
sar
eprotectedag
pregnanci
esandSTDs /STI s
Useofcontracepti
vecauseshighbloodpressureandkil
l
s Oncet hewomenuse t herightdr
ug
womendur i
ngbi r
th tr
ainedwor ker
.Compl
icat
ionsarere
Useofcontracepti
veleadstoproducingbabi
eswith Thisisnottrue
abnor
maliti
essuchashav i
ngoneey e,earbei
ngblindor
l
ame
Famil
yplanningisagainstt
heteachingofthechurch
Atl
eastt
hechurchsupport
sthenatu
method.
Cont
racepti
vesmakewoment
oloosehai
ront
heheadand Therei
snoscient
if
icproofaboutt
his
gr
owbear ds

Changesdur i
ngadolescenceandpubert
y
Adolescence
Adolescenceisaperiodofdevel
opmentchangesbet
weenchi
l
dhoodandadul
t
hood.
Aper sonatthi
sstageiscall
edanadolescent
.

Pubert
y
Thisi
stheper i
odofphysi
calmental
andsexual
matur
it
yi.e.whenbecomesa
youngadultcapabl
eofproduci
ng.
Changesinadolescent
satpubert
yarecal
l
edsexchar
acteri
sti
cs

Therear
ethreetypesnamel y;
i
) Pri
mar ysexcharact
eri
sti
cs
i
i
) Secondarysexcharact
eri
sti
cs
i
i
i) Emot ional/psy
chologi
calsexchar
act
eri
sti
cs

Pri
marysexeducati
on(Basi
c)
Thi
sinvol
vesthedevel
opmentofsexual
organsf
orr
epr
oduct
ion.

Pri
mar ysexcharacteri
sti
csinboys
Peni
sandt est
icl
esenlarge(i
ncr
easeinsi
ze)
Thetesti
clesstartproduci
ngsperms(boy
sbeginexper
ienci
ngwetdr
eams.
I
nternalorgansbeginproduci
ngflui
dli
kesemen.

Pri
marysexchar act
eri
sti
csingir
ls
Thi
ckeningofuteruswall
s
Menstruat
ionbegins
Ovari
esdev el
opandstartrel
easi
ngeggs(
ovul
ati
onst
art
s)

Secondar
ysexchar
acter
ist
ics(physi
cal
)
Theseinv
olv
ethephysi
caldevelopmentoft
hebodypar
ts.

Secondar
ysexchar
act
eri
sti
csi
nboy
s
· Voi
cebr eaksanddeepens
· Hairgr
owsondi ffer
entpartsofthebodye.
g.peni
s,ar
mpits,
chest
,ar
oundt
he
mouthandanus.
· Bonesandmuscl esenlar
gei .
e.aboybecomesmuscular
.
· Sweatglandsbecomemor eacti
ve.

Secondar
ysexcharacteri
sti
csi
ngirl
s
· Breastsenl
argeandlookstenderandatt
ract
ive
· Sweatglandsbecomeact i
vemakingthefacelooksmooth
· Thehip(pelv
is)enl
argeandagirlput
sonal otofwei
ght.

AIDS
Thet erm AIDSstandsf or;
AcquiredImmuneDef i
ciencySy ndr
omes
Acqui redmeansgotf rom outsi
dethebody
Immunemeanspr otect edagainstorsafefr
om di sease,t
hebodyi sal
ways
protect edbywhit
ebl oodcel l
s.
Deficiencymeansl ackorshor t
ageorAI DSv i
rusdestroy
swhi tebl
oodcell
sand
thebodyhasshor t
ageorshem.
Syndromesmeanacol lecti
onorgroupofdi seasesandsi gnswhichshowthe
presenceofadi sease.
AIDSi sapat t
ernofdi seasesy mptomswhi chat t
achanddest roywhit
eblood
cell
sl eavingt
hebodyunpr ot
ectedagainsti
nfecti
ons.

CausesofAIDS
AIDSiscausedbyav
iruscal
l
edHI
V(HumanI
mmunodef
ici
encyVi
rus)commonl
y
call
edAIDSvir
us.

Tr
ansmissionofAI DSv ir
us
· AI DSv iruscanonl ysur vi
veinthehumanbody .
· Thedi seasecanbespr eadwhenbodyf l
uidsofaninf
ectedper
songeti
nto
contactwi t
h t hatofthehealthyper son.
· Bodyf luidscanbeexchangedi nthef ol
lowingways;
· Sexual cont actswi t
hani nfectedper son.
· Bl oodt ransf usionfrom aninfectedper son.
· Shar ingorusi ngshar pcutti
ngi nstrument s
· Fr om ani nf
ect edpregnantmot hertohernewl ybornbabyatbi
rt
h.
· Fr om themot hertot hebabythr oughbr eastf
eedi
ng.

AI
DSvir
uscannotspr eadby;
· Normalshakingofhands
· Bi
tesfr
om mosqui t
oesandbedbugs
· Cari
ngforAIDSpatient
s
· Shar
ingcutl
eryandcookingut
ensi
l
s
· Huggingorembr aci
ngAI DSpat ients
· Cleaning,washi ngbeddingsandcl othingofpeoplewithHIV/AIDS
Si
gnsandsy mpt omsofHI V/AI DS
Si
gns
· Themaj orsignsofAI DSar e;
· Herpeszost erlocall
ycalledKi si
pi whichinf l
amestheskinmakingitappear
asscal ded.
· Chronicdi ar
rhoeawhi chmayl astformor ethanaweek
· Suddenl ossofabout10%oft henor mal bodyweight.
· Skincancerwhi chisalsocal ledKaposi sscarcomer,i
tcausesit
chi
ngand
leadstoscr atchingthatl
eav esbl ackspot s.
· Swollenl y
mphgl andsespeci all
ythoseoft heneckandarmpits
· Oralthrushwher ebythet ongue, gums, li
ps,andinsi
deofthemout hplusthe
ali
ment arycanal
· Chroniccoughwhi chlastsl ong.

Sy
mptoms
· Tir
ednesswi t
houtanypropercause
· Generalbodyweakness
· Persi
stentfeverwhi
chisonandof f
· Lossofappetite

Peoplewhoar eatriskofgetti
ngHI V/ AI
DS
· Sexuall
yact iv
epeoplebetweent heagesof15-45y
ears
· Rapeanddef il
ementvicti
ms
· Longdi stanttr
uckdri
versandt raderswhooftenhavecasual
sexwhenaway
f
rom t
heirmar ri
edpartnersforalongt i
me.
· Prosti
tuteswhosel lt
hemsel vesf orsextomanypart
ners.
· Barattendants.

Ef
fect
sofAIDS/ HIV
· Thesearemanyef fectsofHI V/AIDSoninfectedper son,f
ami l
yand
communit y
.
· Theysuff
erper sonal painfrom thedi
sease.
· Thefamil
yspendsal otofmoneyont r
eatment ,careandf eedi
ng.
· Theyarestigmatizedori solat
edi nt
hesociety.
· Lossoffami l
yincomei fthebreadwinnerdies.
· Manychildrenareor phanedandbecomechi ldpar ents.

Pr
event
ionandcont r
olofHIV/ AI
DS
· Ther
eiscur rentl
ynocur eagainstAI
DS,
sopeopleneedt
oguar
dthemsel
ves
agai
nstthedi seaseby;
· ABCappr oach
· Havi
ngonef ait
hfulsexualpart
ner
· Abst
ainfrom sexual i
ntercour
seunti
lmarr
iage
· Avoidpr act
iceswhichinvol
ver i
sksofgett
ingAIDSl
i
ket
att
ooi
ng,
earpi
erci
ng.
· Useofcondomsdur i
ngsex.
· Screeningbloodbeforemar r
iageandt r
ansfusi
on
· Steri
li
zi
ngmedi cali
nstr
ument s.
· Disposingsy r
ingesandneedlesafteruse.

HowcanwemanageAI DSpati
ents
· Peoplewi
thAIDSneedsupportinmanyways.
.
· Eati
ngabalanceddiet
.
· Joi
ngoodsocialgroupstorel
axandavoi
dheavywork.
· Shouldgi
veupbadhabi t
sli
kesmokinganddr
inki
ngalcohol

DI
SORDERSOFTHEREPRODUCTI VESYSTEM
· Impotenceistheinabil
i
tyofamanspeni stobecomesti
fforer
ect
· Lowsper m count
· Ist
hei nabi
l
ityofthetestestoproduceenoughsperms
· Peni
lecancer
· Thi
sist hegrowthofabnor malcell
sthatfor
m onthepenis

Enl
argementofthepr
ost
ateglands
Thi
sdisor
deriscommoninelderl
ymenov
er50y
ear
sofage

Fi
broi
ds
Thesear
eswel
l
ingscal
l
edcy
stst
hatdev
elopont
hewal
loft
heut
erus.

Ect
opicpr
egnancy
Thi
sisacondit
ionwhenaf
ert
il
izedeggi
mpl
ant
sit
sel
fint
heov
iduct

Ovari
ant
umours
Thesear
emassesofabnor
mal
cel
l
sthatf
orm ont
heov
ary

Cer
vicalcancer (cancerofthecerv
ix)
Thi
sisthecondit
ioninwhi chthecervi
xdev
elopt
umour
s

I
nfl
ammationoftheoviduct
.
· Counsel
ing,
isaspecialform ofcommunicat
ionthr
oughwhi
chaper
soni
s
hel
pedtocontrol
his/herfeel
ingsbyacounselor

Typesofcounseli
ng
· Pre-HI
Vant i
bodyt estcounseli
ng
· Pest-
HIVantibodyt estcounsel
ing
· Counseli
ngHI V/AIDSpat i
ents

I
mpor
tanceofcounsel
i
ng
· I
tpr
event
sAIDSv i
cti
msfrom commit
ti
ngsuici
de
· Avoi
dsspreadofthedi
seasetoot
hersknowingl
y.
· Toencour
agepeopletoconti
nuet
olivel
ongerandusef
ul.

Organizati
oninUgandathatofferscounsel
ingserv
ices
I
nUganda, t
herearemanygov ernmentalorgani
zat
ionswhichoff
ercounsel
ing.
TASO: TheAIDSSupportOrganizati
on.Ital
soprovi
def ood supplement
sfood
forpatient
s.
AIC:AIDSInformat
ionCentre
ACP: AIDS ControlPr
ogrammeofmi ni
str
yofhealth.I
tal
soprovi
desHIV/AIDS
test
ing.

Gonor
rhea
· Iti
sav ener
ealdi
seasecausedbyabacter
ium call
edgonococci(
sing
gonococcus)
· Iti
sspreadthr
oughunprotect
edsexual
int
ercoursewit
hani nf
ectedper
son.

Si
gnsi
nmen
· Pai
nwhenur inati
ng
· Dischargeofpusfr
om thepenis
· Painful
swel l
i
ngonthetest
icl
es
· Rashandsor esonthegeni
talareas

Si
gnsinwomen
· Sli
ghtpai
nwhenur inat
ing
· Someti
mesv er
ypainfulmont
hlyper
iods.
· Vagi
naldi
schargeofsmell
ypus
· Pai
ninthelowerabdomen.

Si
gnsi
nbabies
· Redandswoll
eney
es
· Puscomesoutoft
hebabyey
es
· Bli
ndness.

Ef
fect
sofgonor rhea
· Itl
eadst opermanentdamageofmal eandfemalerepr
oducti
veor
gans.
· Leadstost er
il
it
yinbothmenandwomen.
· Causebl i
ndnessinbabies.
· Blockstheurethramakinguri
nat
iondi
ff
icul
tandpainf
ul.

Cont
rolandpreventi
onofgonor rhea
· UsingtheABCf ormulaforprev enti
ngAI
DSandot herSTDs.
· A-Abstai
nfrom sexuali
ntercour se
· B-Bef ai
thf
ultoyourpartner
· Condomsshoul dbeuseddur ingsexual
int
ercour
se
· Seekear
lymedi
calt
reatment
· Stoppl
ayi
ngsexunt
ilyouarecompl
etel
ytr
eat
ed.

Syphi
li
s
Syphi
li
sisachroni
canddanger
ousv ener
ealdiseasecausedbyabact
eri
um
cal
ledSpir
ocher
e
Iti
sspreadbyhavi
ngsexual
contactwit
htheinfectedper
son.

Si
gnsandsy mptomsv arywithstages
· Pai nf
ul sorescall
edchancr eappears2-5weeksaft
erinf
ect
ion.
· Insecondst ageanumberofsi gnsandsy mptomssuchassoresinmouth,
t
hroat,itchi
ngskin,rashesappear.
· Int hethirdstagethebact er
iacauseheartdi
sease,
paral
ysi
s,bl
indnessand
i
nsanityormadness.
Pr
ev enti
onandcont r
olofsy phi
li
s
I
tisprevent edbypracti
cingABCappr oach
I
nfectedpeopl eshouldseeadoct ori
mmedi at
ely

Otheruri
narytractinfect
ion
· Pelvicinfl
ammat orydiseases(PID)
· I
nfectedpeopl eshoul dseeadoctori
mmedi
atel
y
· I
taffect
st heabdomi nalandpel
vicar
ea.

Epididymis
Seriousinf
ect
ionoft
heepi
didy
misl
eadi
ngt
oswel
l
ingt
ender
nessandpai
nint
he
testi
cles.

Genit
alher
pes
Thesearesor
es(
inf
lammat
ion)oft
hegeni
tal
scausedbyv
iruscal
l
edher
pes
si
mplex.

Tri
chomoniasi
sVagi nal
is
I
tiscausedbypr ot
ozoacall
edt
richomonas
Thediseasecausesinfl
ammati
onofthevagina

Genit
alwart
s
Thesearesoresi
nthesexual
par
tsandar
oundt
heanus.
Theyarecausedbyavi
rus.

Hydr
ocell
I
tisanincr
easei
nquant
it
yoff
lui
dsi
nthesacar
oundt
het
est
isandepi
didy
mis.

Orchi
ti
s
I
nflammat
ionoft
het
est
isduet
oinj
uryori
nfect
ionoft
uber
cul
osi
s
Candi
dasi
s
I
tisal
socall
edt
hrashandi
scausedbyaf
ungus

Steri
l
ity
I
nabi l
it
yofamant oimpr
egnantawomenorawomanf ai
li
ngtoconcei
ve
Lymphgl andcoma
Thisrefer
stoenlar
gel
ymphnodesspr
eadbysexual
contact
.

Ur
ethri
ris
Adiseasethatcauset
heur
ethr
atobecomesor
eandswol
l
en.

Pr
eventi
on
· UsingABCapproach
· Seekingmedi
calat
tent
ion
· Personal
hygi
eneespecial
l
yoft
hegeni
tal
s.

PIASCYMESSAGESABOUTADOLESCENCEANDREPRODUCTI VEHEALTH
PIASCY STANDS
P — President ial
I— Int
itiati
v eon
A — Aids
S— St rategyf or
C — Communi cat i
ont othe
Y — Yout h
Thefol
lowi ngmessagesar epassedt ousthr
oughPIASCYactivi
ti
es
- Abst ainingf rom sexunt ilmar r
iage
- Lear nhowHI Vi stransmi t
ted
- HI Vdamagest heimmusesy stem
- Peopl elivi
ngwi t
hHI VandAI DSneedcareandsupport
- Test ingf orHI V
- Managi ngmenst r
uat i
on
- Youneedt ounder standhowy ourbodychangesatpubert
y
- Sexual l
yt ransmittedinfectionsmakeiteasi
erforHI
Vinfecti
ons
- SayNot osexf orgifts
- Lifeski l
lshel pst oprotecty oufrom HI
V.
- Usi ngv iolencet ogetsexi swrong
- Youhav et herighttosayNot ofor
cedmarri
ages.
- SayNot obadt ouches
- Chooset odel aysex
- Av oidr i
skypl acesandr iskybehav i
our
s