DAMS

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 DAMS
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• Dam, structure built across a stream or a river to
retain water.

 A dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly

impervious material built across a river to create
a reservoir on its upstream side for impounding
water for various purposes.

 A dam is a barrier constructed across a

river or a natural stream to create a reservoir for
impounding water or to facilitate diversion of
water from the river or to retain debris flowing in
the river along with water.
Purposes to construct a dam are

• Irrigation,
• Hydropower,
• Water-supply,
• Flood Control,
• Navigation,
• Fishing and Recreation.

Dams may be built to meet one of the above

purposes or they may be constructed fulfilling
more than one.
As such, Dam can be classified as: Single-
purpose and Multi-purpose Dam.
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Different parts & terminologies of Dams:

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• Crest:
5 The top of the Dam. In some cases these may
be used for providing a roadway or walkway over the
dam.

• Parapet walls: Low Protective walls on either side of

the roadway or walkway on the crest.

• Heel: Portion of Dam in contact with ground or river-

bed at upstream side.

• Toe: Portion of dam in contact with ground or river-

bed at downstream side.
• Spillway: It is the arrangement made (kind of passage)
near
6 the top of dam for the passage of surplus/ excessive
water from the reservoir.

• Abutments: The valley slopes on either side of the dam

wall to which the left & right end of dam are fixed to.

• Gallery: Level or gently sloping tunnel like passage (small

room like space) at transverse or longitudinal within the
dam with drain on floor for seepage water.
• These are generally provided for having space for drilling
grout holes and drainage holes.
• These may also be used to accommodate the
instrumentation for studying the performance of dam.
• Sluice
7 way: Opening in the dam near the base, provided
to clear the silt accumulation in the reservoir.

• Free board: The space between the highest level of

water in the reservoir and the top of the dam.

• Dead Storage level: Level of permanent storage below

which the water will not be withdrawn.

• Diversion Tunnel: Tunnel constructed to divert or change

the direction of water to bypass the dam construction
site. The dam is built while the river flows through the
diversion tunnel.
 8
Types OF DAMS
Dams may be classified in different ways
on the basis of their

• Function
• Hydraulic design
• Structural design
• Material of construction
Based
9 on the functions of dam, it can
be classified as follows:

1. Storage dams
2. Diversion dams
3. Detention dams
4. Debris dams
5. Coffer dams
 Storage dams: They are constructed to store water during the
rainy season when there is a large flow in the river.
• Many small dams impound the spring runoff for later use in
dry summers.
• Storage dams may also provide a water supply, or improved
habitat for fish and wildlife.
• They may store water for hydroelectric power generation,
irrigation or for a flood control project.
• Storage dams are the most common type of dams and in
general the dam means a storage dam unless qualified
otherwise

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11
Diversion dams:
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A diversion dam is constructed for
the purpose of diverting water of the
river into an off-taking canal (or a
conduit).

They provide sufficient pressure for

pushing water into ditches, canals, or
other conveyance systems. Such
shorter dams are used for irrigation,
and for diversion from a stream to a
distant storage reservoir.
Detention dams:
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Detention dams are constructed for
flood control. A detention dam retards
the flow in the river on its downstream
during floods by storing some flood
water.

Thus the effect of sudden floods is

reduced to some extent. The water
retained in the reservoir is later released
gradually at a controlled rate according
to the carrying capacity of the Channel
downstream of the detention dam.

Thus the area downstream of the

dam is protected against flood.
Debris
14 dams: A debris dam is constructed to retain debris such
as sand, gravel, and drift wood flowing in the river with water.
The water after passing over a debris dam is relatively clear.
Coffer dams: It is an enclosure constructed around the
construction
15 site to exclude water so that the construction can be
done in dry.
A cofferdam is thus a temporary dam constructed for facilitating
construction. A coffer dam is usually constructed on the
upstream of the main dam to divert water into a diversion tunnel
(or channel) during the construction of the dam.
Classification according to Hydraulic
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design

• Overflow Dams
• Non-Overflow Dams
• Rigid Dams
• Non-Rigid Dams
Overflow dam
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The dam body is made of strong material as concrete
and flow is allowed over the dam crest (Concrete
dams)
Non-Overflow
18 dam:
Flow is not allowed over the embankment crest for reasons
of dam safety. (earth, rock) dams.
RIGID DAM.
It19is constructed with rigid material such as masonry,
concrete, steel, or timber.
 NON-RIGID DAM (EMBANKMENT DAMS)
• 20
It is constructed with non-rigid material such as earth,
tailings, rockfill etc.

• Earthen dam – gravel, sand, silt, clay etc

• Tailings dam – waste or refuse obtained from mines
• Rockfill dam – rock material supporting a water tight
material on the u/s face
• Rockfill composite dam – Rockfill on the d/s side and earth
fill on the u/s side
• Earthen dams are provided with a stone masonry or
concrete overflow (spillway) section. Such dams are called
composite dams.
• In some cases, part of the length of the dam is constructed
as earth dam and the rest (excluding the spillway) as a
masonry dam. Such dams are called masonry cum earthen
dams.
• BASED ON STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR:
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Gravity Dams:
• A gravity dam is a massive sized dam fabricated from
concrete or stone masonry. They are designed to hold
back large volumes of water.
• By using concrete, the weight of the dam is actually able
to resist the horizontal thrust of water pushing against it.
This is why it is called a gravity dam.
• Gravity dams are well suited for blocking rivers in wide
valleys or narrow gorge ways. Since gravity dams must
rely on their own weight to hold back water, it is
necessary that they are built on a solid foundation of
bedrock.
• Examples of Gravity dam: Grand Coulee Dam (USA), (
Nagarjuna Sagar Dam (India) and Itaipu Dam ( Between
Brazil and Paraguay).
22
Earth Dams:
An earth dam is made of earth (or soil) built up by compacting successive
• 24
layers of earth, using the most impervious materials to form a core and
placing more permeable substances on the upstream and downstream
sides.
• A facing of crushed stone prevents erosion by wind or rain, and an ample
spillway, usually of concrete, protects against catastrophic washout should
the water overtop the dam
• Earth dam resists the forces exerted upon it mainly due to shear strength of
the soil. Although the weight of the earth dam also helps in resisting the
forces, the structural behavior of an earth dam is entirely different from
that of a gravity dam.
• They can be built on all types of foundations. However, the height of the
dam will depend upon the strength of the foundation material.
• Examples of earthfill dam: Rongunsky dam (Russia) and New Cornelia
Dam(USA).
Arch Dams:
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• An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards
the upstream side. An arch dam transfers the water
pressure and other forces mainly to the abutments by
arch action.
• An arch dam is quite suitable for narrow canyons with
strong flanks which are capable of resisting the thrust
produced by the arch action.
• Hoover Dam, USA . The section of an arch dam is
approximately triangular like a gravity dam but the
section is comparatively thinner. The arch dam may have
a single curvature or double curvature in the vertical
plane. Generally, the arch dams of double curvature are
more economical and are used in practice.
• Examples of Arch dam: Hoover Dam (USA) and Idukki
Dam (India)
27
Buttress Dams: Buttress dams are of three types :
28(i) Deck type,
(ii) Multiple-arch type, and
(iii) Massive-head type.

• A deck type buttress dam consists of a sloping deck supported by

buttresses. Buttresses are triangular concrete walls which transmit
the water pressure from the deck slab to the foundation.
• Buttresses are compression members. Buttresses are typically
spaced across the dam site every 6 to 30 metre, depending upon
the size and design of the dam. Buttress dams are sometimes called
hollow dams because the buttresses do not form a solid wall
stretching across a river valley.
• The deck is usually a reinforced concrete slab supported between
the buttresses, which are usually equally spaced.
• Buttress Dam In a multiple-arch type buttress dam the deck slab is
replaced by horizontal arches supported by buttresses.
• Examples of Buttress Dam: Bartlett dam (USA) and The Daniel-
Johnson Dam (Canada)
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Deck type

Multiple-arch type
Massive-head type
31
BASED ON TYPE OF MATERIALS:
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Masonry dams are built using either stone masonry or brick masonry.
Cement mortar is used to join the masonry blocks.
Gravity dam, arch dam etc. are examples of masonry dams.
Concrete is most commonly used material to construct a
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dam. Most of the major dams in the world are built
using concrete. Gravity dams, arch dam, Buttress dam
etc. can be constructed using concrete.
Timber
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dams generally used for temporary purposes such as to
divert the water for the construction of main dam, to control
flood water flow etc. Timber dams are suitable up to 9 meters
height.
Steel dams are also used for temporary requirements like
timber
35 dams.
Steel plates and inclined struts are used for the construction of
steel dam. This type of dams are suitable up to 15 to 18 meters
of height.
Rockfill Dams: A rockfill dam is
built of rock fragments and
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boulders of large size.

An impervious membrane is
placed on the rockfill on the
upstream side to reduce the
seepage through the dam.

The membrane is usually made of

cement concrete or asphaltic
concrete.

In early rockfill dams, steel and

timber membrane were also
used, but now they are obsolete.
 Factors Governing Selection Of Type Of Dam
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Whenever it is decided to construct a dam, the first
question that one face is which type of dam will be most
suitable and most economical? Following are the factors
affecting selection of dam site by dam type.
• Topography
• Geology and Foundation Conditions
• Availability of materials
• Spillway size and location
• Earthquake zone
• Height of the Dam
• Other factors such as cost of construction and maintenance,
life of dam, aesthetics etc.
 38
Topography
• A narrow U-shaped valley, i.e. a narrow stream
flowing between high rocky walls, would
suggest a concrete overflow dam.

• A low plain country, would suggest an earth fill

dam with separate spillways.

• A narrow V-shaped valley indicates the choice

of an Arch dam
• Geology and Foundation Conditions : The foundation strata should be
strong
39 enough to carry weight of dam. Hence the dam site must be
surveyed by geologists so as to detect the thickness of foundation strata,
presence of faults, fissured material etc.
The various types of foundations generally encountered are :-

• Solid-rock foundation :Similar like granite, gnesis etc. Almost every type
of dam can be built as it is strong enough to withstand the self weight of
the dam and external forces acting on the dam.

• Gravel foundation :This type of foundation is suitable for earth and rock
fill dams. For this foundation, low concrete gravity dams upto height of
15 meter may also be suggested.

• Silt and fine sand foundation: This type of foundation suggeststhe

adoption of earth or very low gravity dam, upto height of 8 meter.

• Clay foundation : This foundation may be accepted for earthen dam

after special treatment.
• Availability of Materials
Availability of materials is another important factor in selecting
the40 type of dam. In order to achieve economy in dam
construction, the materials required must be available locally or
at short distances from the construction site.
• Spillway Size and Location
spillway disposes the surplus river discharge. The capacity of
the spillway will depend on the magnitude of the floods to be
by-passed. The spillway is therefore much more important on
rivers and streams with large flood potential.
• Earthquake Zone
If dam is situated in an earthquake zone, its design must include
earthquake forces. The type of structure best suited to resist
earthquake shocks without danger are earthen dams and
concrete gravity dams.
• Height of Dam
Earthen dams are usually not provided for heights more than 30
m or so. For greater heights, gravity dams are generally preferred.
Selection of Dam Site
41 selection of Dam site for constructing a dam
The
should be governed by the following factors.
• Small river channel width with steep side gorge: short dam crest
length, leads to large storage for small dam length.
• A wide and gently sloping valley upstream of the dam site (for
storage dams) and narrow and steeply sloping valley for
hydropower dams.
• River channel and valley has very flat slopes upstream of dam
site (leads to large storage for small dam heights).
• Where a deep reservoir possible, it resultantly requires less
area and lesser land costs, less surface evaporation.

• Enough water flow/yield should be available to meet the

demand of the area
 Selection of Dam Site cont…
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• High sediment load tributaries are excluded

• Geology should be favorable for foundation (foundation can

be designed at any site, but it increases costs), competent
hard rock is most suitable.

• Abutments are water tight, and reservoir rim allows minimum

percolation and seepage losses.
• Small river sediment rate (longer dam life) Depend on river
morphology and catchment characteristics.

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Selection of Dam Site cont…
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Land use of reservoir area should be minimal – Less land area
means lesser compensations to be given to the land owners and
lower land cost.
• Reservoir area not very sensitive to environment (wild life
parks, endangered species, historical places, monuments etc).
• No seismic and tectonic activities or active faults in and near the
site.
• Socio-political stability (no unstable gestures)
• Reservoir and dam area should be thinly populated
• Site must have adequate stream flow record
• Site is easily accessible; approach road is present or can be
developed easily.
• Construction material available nearby easily
• Site near load center (demand area) for water + power.
• No mineral resources in reservoir area (present or future)
• Site allows a deep reservoir & small surface area (less land costs
and small evaporation losses).
• Existing infrastructure, e.g. highway, least affected.
 Advantages of Dams
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 Dams provide us with a source of clean energy.

 Dams help us to retain our water supply
 This technology provides us with critical recreational
opportunities
 A well-constructed dam provides several flood-
control benefits.
 Dams give us a way to irrigate croplands that may
not receive enough moisture.
 A dam can provide a stable system of navigation.
 Reservoirs can serve as a source of drinking water.
 Disadvantages of Dams
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 Dams can displace a significant number of people.

 Reservoirs behind a dam can lead to higher
greenhouse gas emissions.
 This technology disrupts local ecosystems.
 Dams create a flooding risk if they experience a
failure.
 Dams can have an adverse impact on the
groundwater table.
 The construction of a dam is a costly investment.
 Dams can block water progression to different states,
provinces, and countries.
 Reservoirs can be challenging to maintain.
RESERVOIRS
Contents:
• Types
• Investigations
• Site selection
• Zones of storage
• Safe yield
• Reservoir capacity
 What is a
 Itis an Reservoir?
area developed by water body due to
construction of dam.
Storage reservoir serve the following purpose :
 Irrigation
 Water supply
 Hydroelectric power generation
 Flood control
 Navigation
 Recreation
 Development of fish & wild life
 Soil conservation
 Classification of
 Reservoirs
Storage Reservoirs: Storage reservoirs are also
called conservation reservoirs because they are
used to conserve water. Storage reservoirs are
constructed to store the water in the rainy season
and to release it later when the river flow is low.

 Flood Control Reservoirs: A flood control

reservoir is constructed for the purpose of flood
control. It protects the areas lying on its
downstream side from the damages due to flood.
 Retarding Reservoirs: A retarding reservoir is
provided with spillways and sluice ways which
are ungated. The retarding reservoir stores a
portion of the flood when the flood is rising.

 Detention Reservoirs : A detention reservoir

stores excess water during floods and releases it
after the flood. It is similar to a storage reservoir
but is provided with large gated spillways and
sluiceways to permit flexibility of operation.
 Distribution Reservoirs: A distribution reservoir is
a small storage reservoir to tide over the peak
demand of water for municipal water supply or
irrigation. The distribution reservoir is helpful in
permitting the pumps to work at a uniform rate. It
stores water during the period of lean demand and
supplies the same during the period of high
demand.

 Multipurpose Reservoirs: The are constructed

for more than single purpose.

 Balancing Reservoirs: A balancing reservoir is a

small reservoir constructed d/s of the main
reservoir for holding water released from the main
reservoir.
 Investigatio
ns
 Engineering surveys
 Geological investigations
 Hydrological investigations
 Engineering
surveys
 Conducted for dam, reservoir and other
associated work.

 Topographic survey of the area is carried

out and the contour plan is prepared

 The horizontal control is usually provided

by triangulation survey, and the vertical
control by precise levelling.
 Geological
investigation
 Geological investigations of the dam and
reservoir site are done for the following
purposes.

 Suitability of foundation for the dam.

 Watertightness of the reservoir basin
 Location of the quarry sites for the
construction materials.
 Hydrological
investigations
 The hydrological investigations are
conducted for the following purposes :

 To study the runoff pattern and storage

capacity.
 To determine the maximum discharge
at the site.
 Site
selection
 Large storage capacity
 River valley should be narrow, length
of dam to constructed is less.
 Watertightness of reservoir.
 Good hydrological conditions
 Deep reservoir
 Site selection cont….

 Small submerged area

 Low silt inflow
 No objectionable minerals
 Low cost of real estate
 Site easily accessible
 Zones of
storage
FRL
 Full reservoir level (FRL): The full reservoir
level (FRL) is the highest water level to which
the water surface will rise during normal
operating conditions.

 Maximum water level (MWL): The maximum

water level is the maximum level to which the
water surface will rise when the design flood
passes over the spillway.

 Minimum pool level: The minimum pool level is

the lowest level up to which the water is
withdrawn from the reservoir under ordinary
conditions.
 Dead storage: The volume of water held below
the minimum pool level is called the dead
storage. It is provided to cater for the sediment
deposition by the impounding sediment laid in
water. Normally it is equivalent to volume of
sediment expected to be deposited in the
reservoir during the design life reservoir.

 Live/useful storage: The volume of water

stored between the full reservoir level (FRL) and
the minimum pool level is called the useful
storage. It assures the supply of water for
specific period to meet the demand.
 Bank storage: is developed in the voids of soil
cover in the reservoir area and becomes
available as seepage of water when water levels
drops down. It increases the reservoir capacity
over and above that given by elevation storage
curves.

 Valley storage: The volume of water held by the

natural river channel in its valley up to the top of
its banks before the construction of a reservoir is
called the valley storage. The valley storage
depends upon the cross section of the river.
  Flood/Surcharge storage: is storage contained
between maximum reservoir level and full
reservoir levels. It varies with spillway capacity
of dam for given design flood.

Effective Storage=
useful storage+surcharge storage-
valley storage
 Reservoir
capacity
 Depends upon the inflow available and
demand.

 Inflow in the river is always greater than

the demand, there is no storage required.

 If the inflow in the river is small but the

demand is high, a large reservoir capacity
is required.
 The required capacity for a reservoir can
be determined by the following methods:

1. Graphical method, using mass curves.

2. Analytical method.
3. Flow duration curve method.
 Graphical
method
1. Prepare a mass inflow curve from the flow
hydrograph of the site for a number of
consecutive years including the most critical
years (or the driest years) when the discharge is
low.

2. Prepare the mass demand curve corresponding

to the given rate of demand. If the rate of demand
is constant, the mass demand curve is a straight
line. The scale of the mass demand curve should
be the same as that of the mass inflow curve.
3. Draw the lines AB, FG, etc. such that
 They are parallel to the mass demand
curve, and
 They are tangential to the crests A, F, etc. of
the mass curve.

4. Determine the vertical intercepts CD. HJ, etc.

between the tangential lines and the mass inflow
curve. These intercepts indicate the volumes by
which the inflow volumes fall short of demand.
 Assuming that the reservoir is full at point A, the
inflow volume during the period AE is equal to
ordinate DE and the demand is equal to ordinate
CE. Thus the storage required is equal to the
volume indicated by the intercept CD.

5. Determine the largest of the vertical intercepts

found in Step (4). The largest vertical intercept
represents the storage capacity required.
 The following points should be noted.

 The capacity obtained in the net storage

capacity which must be available to meet the
demand. The gross capacity of the reservoir
will be more than the net storage capacity. It
is obtained by adding the evaporation and
seepage losses to the net storage capacity.
 The tangential lines AB, FG; etc. when extended
forward must intersect the curve. This is
necessary for the reservoir to become full again,
If these lines do not intersect the mass curve,
the reservoir will not be filled again. However,
very large reservoirs sometimes do not get
refilled every year. In that case, they may
become full after 2-3 years.

 The vertical distance such as FL between the

successive tangents represents the volume of
water spilled over the spillway of the dam.
 Analytical
• method
Capacity of the reservoir is determined from
the net inflow and demand.
• Storage is required when the demand
exceeds the net inflow.
• The total storage required is equal to the sum
of the storage required during the various
periods.
1.Collect the stream flow data at the reservoir site
during the critical dry period. Generally, the monthly
inflow rates are required. However, for very large
reservoirs, the annual inflow rates may be used.

2.Ascertain the discharge to be released

downstream to satisfy water rights or to honour the
agreement between the states or the cities.
3.Determine the direct precipitation volume
falling on the reservoir during the month.

4.Estimate the evaporation losses which would

occur from the reservoir „The panevaporation
data are normally used for the estimation of
evaporation losses during the month.

5. Ascertain the demand during various months.

6.Determine the adjusted inflow during different
months as follows:
Adjusted inflow = Stream inflow + Precipitation -
Evaporation – Downstream Discharge

7.Compute the storage capacity for each

months.
Storage required = Adjusted inflow – Demand

8.Determine the total storage capacity of the

reservoir by adding the storages required found in
Step 7.
 Safe
yield
 Yield is the volume of water which can be
withdrawn from a reservoir in a specified
period of time.

 Safe yield is the maximum quantity of

water which can be supplied from a
reservoir in a specified period of time
during a critical dry year.
 Secondary yield: is the quantity of water which
is available during the period of high flow in the
rivers when the yield is more than the safe yield.

 Average yield: The average yield is the

arithmetic average of the firm yield and the
secondary yield over a long period of time.

 Design yield: The design yield is the yield

adopted in the design of a reservoir. The design
yield is usually fixed after considering the
urgency of the water needs and the amount of
risk involved.
Determination of Yield of a Reservoir

 The yield from a reservoir of a given capacity can

be determined by the use of the mass inflow curve
1.Prepare the mass inflow curve from the flow
hydrograph of the river.

2.Draw tangents AB, FG, etc. at the crests A, F,

etc. of the mass inflow curve in such a way that
the maximum departure (intercept) of these
tangents from the mass inflow curve is equal to
the given reservoir capacity.
3.Measure the slopes of all the tangents
drawn in Step 2.

4.Determine the slope of the flattest

tangent.

5.Draw the mass demand curve from the

slope of the flattest tangent (see insect).
The yield is equal to the slope of this line
1. The major resisting force in a gravity dam is:
Water pressure
Wave pressure
Self weight of the dam
Uplift pressure

2.The water stored in the reservoir below the minimum pool level is called
Useful storage
Dead storage
Valley storage
Surcharge storage

3. The temporary dam constructed for dewatering the area tofacilitates the
execution of foundation work is known as
Detention dam
Diversion dam
Coffer dam
Storage dam

4. Steel dam offer more resistance to catastrophic failure due to

Ground settlement
Sliding
Overturning
Tension
5. The main advantage of arch dam is
Minimum depth
Minimum length
Maximum span
Minimum width

6. For wave action in dams, the height of freeboard is generally taken to be

equal to
0.5hw
0.75hw
1.25hw
1.50hw

7. The availability of water over certain period is known as

Discharge
Assured flow
Run flow
Yield

8. When the height of the dam exceeds 15m, then it is termed as

Small dam
Saddle dam
Large dam
Tailing dam
9. Storage capacity of small dam is less than m3
106
104
206
305

10. A major dam project has hydraulic head equal to

0.5Mm3
More than 60
10
10-60

11. A medium dam project has hydraulic head equal to

12 to 30m
12m
7.5m
More than 30m

12. The water stored between the zone of minimum pool level and normal pool
level is known as
Valley storage
Dead storage
Surcharge storage
Live storage
13. The water stored temporarily in zone between normal pool level and
maximum pool level is known as
Dead storage
Live storage
Valley storage
Surcharge storage

14. The hirakud dam is build across which river

Saraswati
Mahanadi
Godavari
Kaveri

15.Which is the highest , longest dam in india

Tehri
Bhakranangal
Hirakud
Koyna

16. When the reservoir is full, the maximum compressive force in a gravity dam is
produced
At the heel
At the toe
At the centre of base
At centre of height