Human Growth and Development

There are Four broad development theories

1. Learning- including behavioral theories, social learning theories, and
information-processing theories
2. Cognitive Theories
3. Psychoanalytic Theories- including the neo-Freudians and ego psychology
theories
4. Humanistic and self-theories

Human growth and development changes can be viewed as:

a. Qualitative: change in structure or organization (for example, sexual
development)
Quantitative: change in number, degree, or frequency (content changes, for example,
intellectual development).
b. Continuous: changes are sequential and cannot be separated easily (for example, personality
development) or
Discontinuous: certain changes in abilities or behaviors can be separated from others which
argues for stages of development (for example, language development).
c. Mechanistic: this is the reduction of all behavior to common elements (for example,
instinctual, reflexive behavior) or
Organismic: because of new stages, there is change or discontinuity; it is more than Stimulus-
Response. The organism is involved including the use of cognition. Examples would be moral or
ethical development.

Self-concept
Self-concept may be defined as your perception of your qualities, attributes
and traits. At birth, infants have no sense of self. In early months this quickly changes. By 24
months.

Developmental Concepts
1. Nature vs. Nurture- includes genetic and hereditary factors. Nurture includes learning
and environmental factors.
2. Genotype and Phenotype- genotype is genetic or inherited makeup of the individual.
Phenotype is the way in which a person’s genotype is expressed through physical and
behavioral characteristics
3. What is Tabula Rasa: John Locke’s view that children begin as a ‘blank slate’
acquiring their characteristics through experience.
4. Plasticity: for most individuals lifespan development is plastic representing an
easy and smooth transition from one stage to the next.
5. Resiliency: the ability to adapt effectively despite the experience of adverse
circumstances. For example, some children, despite experiencing potentially damaging
conditions and circumstances, seem to suffer few consequences.
The Four principle neurotransmitters important to counselors:
o Acetylcholine
o Serotonin
o Dopamine
o GABA

Abraham Maslow- Humanistic psychologist. Hierarchy of needs. People are motivated to higher
order needs before they can reach self-actualization.

Robert Havinghurst- identified the stages of growth. Each stage requires completion of the
previous for success and happiness.
Developmental tasks- arise from physical maturation, influences from culture and
society, and desires and values of the person. Developmental tasks are the skills,
knowledge, behaviors, and attitudes that an individual has to acquire through physical
maturation, social learning, and personal effort.

Behaviorism (John B. Watson & B.F. Skinner) – learning approach. Behaviorists believe the
environment manipulates biological and psychological drives and needs resulting in
development. Learning and behavior changes are the result of rewards and punishments.
A reward is a positive-reinforcing stimulus which maintains or increases a behavior.
When a behavior results in the termination of a positive-reinforcing stimulus or the
beginning of a negative stimulus we have punishment. Such a behavior should weaken
or drop out.

We grow, develop, and learn through the nature of experience—the rewards and
punishments we receive.

Law of Effect- developed by Edward Thorndike- a behavior’s consequences determine the

probability of it being repeated.
Freud’s Psychoanalytic approach and Psychosexual Stages of Development
oral stage (Birth-1 year) mouth- erogenous zone
anal stage, (1-3 years) bowel and bladder control- erogenous zones
phallic stage (3-6years) genitals- erogenous zones
latency (6-puberty) libido inactive
genital stage (Puberty- death) maturing sexual interests

 Freud’s Oedipus and Electra Complex- Occurs in the phallic stage. a desire for sexual
involvement with the parent of the opposite sex and a concomitant sense of rivalry
with the parent of the same sex; a crucial stage in the normal developmental process.
 Attachment evolves during the oral stage according to Freud
 Latency least emphasizes sexuality.
 Freud believed that if you were severely traumatized, you could become fixated, or
stuck at a developmental stage where one feels safe. Unable to progress from one stage
to the next.

Defense Mechanisms- unconscious processes that help us control emotions and anxiety.
Repression: rejecting from conscious thought (denying or forgetting) the
impulse or idea that provokes anxiety.
Projection: avoiding the conflict within oneself by ascribing the ideas or
motives to someone else.
Sublimation: may be viewed as a positive defense mechanism wherein
anxiety or sexual tension or energy is channeled into socially acceptable activities such
as work.

Erik Erikson- developed eight stages of psychosocial development. He viewed life as a constant
change where the social context is an important part of the development of the personality.
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (infancy)
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (early childhood)
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (preschool)
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (school age)
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion (adolescence)
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood)
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood)
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (maturity)

Erikson could be considered an ego psychologist. This means he believed in a

individual’s power to control and rationalize to keep impulses in order.

Erikson is also the only developmental psychologist that created a theory that
encompasses the entire lifespan.
 Identity crisis- According to Erikson, an identity crisis is a time of intensive analysis and
exploration of different ways of looking at oneself. ... Instead, identity is something
that shifts and changes throughout life as people confront new challenges and tackle
different experiences.

Jean Piaget- Studied cognitive development or intelligence.

We inherit two tendencies:
Organization: how we systemize and organize mental processes
and Adaptation: how we adjust to the environment.
Two processes within these two are
Assimilation: Assimilation is the application of previous concepts to new
concepts. An example is the child who refers to a whale as a “fish.
and Accommodation: the altering of previous concepts in the face of new
information. An example is the child who discovers that some creatures living in
the ocean are not fish, and then correctly refers to a whale as a “mammal”
Equilibrium- a state of balance between individuals' mental schemata, or frameworks,
and their environment. ... Piaget conceived equilibration as an ongoing process that
refines and transforms mental structures, constituting the basis of cognitive
development.

Piaget had four stages of cognitive development-

Piaget has been criticized for using his own children as study subjects
Piaget can be considered a structuralist that believes change is qualitative. He is also a
stage theorist.
Object permanence- when a child understands objects still exist even though they
cannot be observed.
Centration- term coined by Piaget. When a child focuses on one stimulus but ignores
other aspects. An example of this would be a child focusing on a clown’s red nose.
Lawrence Kohlberg- theory of moral development. in which thinking, and reasoning are
involved.

3 levels with 6 stages

Heinz Story- It is part of Kohlberg's morality development model, and it is designed to

help assess the level of morality a person has achieved by their reactions and reasonings
based on the Heinz scenario.
“A woman in Europe was dying of cancer. Only one drug (a form of radium)
could save her. It was discovered by a local druggist. The druggist was charging
$2,000, which was ten times his cost to make the drug. The woman's husband,
Heinz, could not raise the money and even if he borrowed from his friends, he
could only come up with approximately half the sum. He asked the druggist to
reduce the price or let him pay the bill later since his wife was dying but the
druggist said, "No." The husband was thus desperate and broke into the store to
steal the drug. Should the husband have done that? Why”

Daniel Levinson- Wrote the book The Seasons of a Man’s life. Identified three major transition
times across four different eras of life.
early adult transition (17 to 22)
mid-life transition (40 to 45)
late adult transition (60 to 65).
Levinson believed that majority of men experienced a midlife crisis between 40-45
Urie Brofenbrenner- Ecological Systems theory- believed that it was important to look at all
systems that could impact a person.

Social-learning models- These models see the importance of social environment and cognitive
factors. These go beyond behaviorism, i.e., the simple stimulus-response paradigm because we
can think about the connections between our behaviors and the consequences.

Albert Bandura- Social Learning Theory- One of the central concepts of this cognitive-
behavioral approach is self-efficacy, the belief that we can perform some behavior or task. Self-
efficacy is facilitated through four mechanisms:
1. Modeling-
2. Vicarious experience
3. Verbal persuasion
4. Physiological states
Bobo Doll Experiment- groundbreaking study on aggression led by psychologist Albert Bandura
that demonstrated that children can learn through the observation of adult behavior. The
experiment was executed via a team of researchers who physically and verbally abused an
inflatable doll in front of preschool-age children, which led the children to later mimic the
behavior of the adults by attacking the doll in the same fashion.

Lev Vygotsky- Sociocultural theory- best known for his sociocultural theory. He believed that
social interaction plays a critical role in children's learning. Through such social interactions,
children go through a continuous process of learning. . Vygotsky disagreed with Piaget's notion
that developmental stages take place naturally. Vygotsky insisted that the stages unfold due to
educational intervention.

Zone of proximal development- describes the difference between a child's performance

on a task without the aid of a teacher, and his performance with the aid of a teacher.
(natural capacity vs. capacity through learning)
William Perry- developed a scheme for intellectual and ethical development
Dualism- “Black or white thinking” it’s either good or bad.
Relativistic thinking- Ed Neukrug shares the fact that students in the adolescent stage
assume that a professor has "the answer." As they enter adulthood and move into relativis- tic
thinking the individual now has the ability to perceive that not everything is right or wrong, but
an answer can exist relative to a specific situation. Basically, there can be more than one way to
view the world.

John Bowlby – Attachment theory (Mary Ainsworth) suggests that children come into the
world biologically pre-programmed to form attachments with others, because this will help
them to survive. A child has an innate (i.e. inborn) need to attach to one main attachment
figure. This is called monotropy. Believed attachment was set by the age of 3. If the bond is
severed at an early age, it is known as "object loss," and this is said to be the breeding ground
for abnormal behavior, or what is often called psychopathology. Mahler calls the child's
absolute dependence on the female caretaker "symbiosis." Difficulties in the symbiotic
relationship can result in adult psychosis.

Harry Harlow- known for His work with maternal deprivation and isolation in rhesus monkeys.
He believed that attachment was an innate tendency and not one which is learned.
When given the choice of two cloth-covered mothers—one that provided milk and one that did
not—the infant monkeys chose the one that gave milk.

Konrad Lorenz- researcher who focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds, a concept
he called imprinting. He believed we were animalistic and naturally aggressive.
Imprinting- learning that is irreversible in a sensitive time period ex. attaching to your
mom. This is the work of Konrad Lorenz.
Arnold Gessell- Maturationist, 1880-1961- proposed that maturation plays the most important
role in development. Development is primarily determined via genetics/heredity. Hence, a child
must be ready before he or she can accept a certain level of education (e.g., kindergarten)
Maturation Theory- Maturational theory states that while the child's social and cultural
environments also play a role in their development, these socializing forces are most effective
when they are harmonious with the inner maturational timetable.

Stanley Coopersmith- Personality theorist. Self-esteem measures. Found that child-rearing

methods seem to have a tremendous impact on self-esteem. A study he conducted indicated
that, surprisingly enough, children with high self-esteem were punished just as often as kids
with low self-esteem. The children with high self- esteem, however, were provided with a clear
understanding of what was morally right and wrong. This was not usually the case in children
with low self-esteem. The children with high self-es- teem actually had more rules than the kids
with low self-esteem. When the child with high self-esteem was punished the emphasis was on
the behavior being bad and not the child. Parents of children with high self-esteem were more
democratic in the sense that they would listen to the child's arguments and then explain the
purpose of the rule.

Gibson & Walk- known for their visual cliff experiment. Conducted in 1960, Gibson and walk
concluded that the ability to perceive depth emerges sometime around the age that an infant
begins to crawl. The fear of heights, they suggested, is something learned later in infancy as
gain experience with bumps, scrapes, and falls

Robert Kegan- Theory of evolution of consciousness. saw the process of development as an

effort to resolve the tension between a desire for differentiation and an equally powerful desire
to be immersed in one's surroundings (Kegan, 1994). The evolutionary truces evident at each
developmental stage of Kegan's (1982) model are temporary solution[s] to the lifelong tension
between the yearnings for inclusion and distinctness. Five orders of consciousness.
Holding Environment- adapted from Daniel Winnicott, a place in which the client can
make meaning in the face of a crisis and can find new direction.
Eric Berne- Father of transactional analysis. put Freudian lingo in everyday language and spoke
of the Parent ego state, which is roughly equivalent to the superego. The Parent ego state is
filled with the shoulds, oughts, and musts which often guide our morality.
Transactional Analysis- Transactional analysis is a psychoanalytic theory and method of
therapy wherein social interactions are analyzed to determine the ego state of the
communicator as a basis for understanding behavior. In transactional analysis, the
communicator is taught to alter the ego state as a way to solve emotional problems.
 Social and Cultural Diversity

Culture- Customs, attitudes, beliefs, art, and language which characterize members of a group
and distinguish it from other groups.
Intercultural counseling- Counseling a client from a different social and/or cultural background
Macro culture- also known as majority culture; the portion of culture that holds the power in
society.
Race- is based on genetics
Ethnicity- focused on cultural identity of a group
Ethnocentrism- is the belief that you use your own culture to measure and assess all other
cultures and that a person believes their personal culture is superior.
Mores- based on morals, regarding the rightness or wrongness of a behavior. Breaking mores
causes harm to others or threatens the existence of the group.
Folkways- describe correct, normal, or habitual behavior. behavior that is considered polite in
particular social interactions. such as shaking hands after a tennis match.
Acculturation- is the process of minority cultures becoming like or adopting pieces of the
majority culture. Learning the behaviors and expectations of a culture.
Assimilation- is the highest form of acculturation and is when members of the minority culture
take on so many aspects of the majority culture that they actually become a part of the
majority culture instead.
Monolithic Cultural Perspective- means that a counselor with this perspective would see all
persons from any culture as the same
Cultural Encapsulation- The disregard of cultural differences & operation under the assumption
that all counseling theories & techniques are equally applicable to all clients. From Gilbert
Wrenn.
Emic approach- the belief that you need to understand and help groups from their
perspectives—their culture—a specific focus.
Etic Approach- the belief that you have a global view of humanity, that is, we are more similar
than different. The focus is on the similarities instead of the differences.
Multicultural Counseling Theory- multicultural counseling should make use of indigenous
helping roles and strike a balance between individual, family and
cultural issues.
Tripartite model of multicultural counseling- Sue (1992)
1. awareness
2. knowledge
3. skills
Locus of control- degree to which one feels they have control over environment
External locus of control- consequences are a result of chance
Locus of responsibility- degree of blame placed on the individual or system
Internal locus of responsibility (IR)- person is to blame for their circumstances
External locus of responsibility (ER)- system is to blame for their circumstances
Autoplastic adaptation- a form of adaptation where the subject attempts to change itself when
faced with a difficult situation. The concept of autoplastic adaptation was developed by
Sigmund Freud.
Alloplastic adaptation- is a form of adaptation where the subject attempts to change the
environment when faced with a difficult situation.
Social Facilitation theory- relating to the tendency for the presence of others to improve a
person's performance on a task.
 Co-action effects: A co-action effect refers to your performance being better on a task,
merely because there are other people doing the same task as you. An example would
be working at an office with coworkers instead of in a solitary environment.
 Audience effects: An audience effect refers to your performance being better because
you are doing something in front of an audience. An example would be a pianist playing
at home versus on stage in front of a crowd.
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)- unanimously held that the racial segregation of children in
public schools violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. Brown claimed
that Topeka's racial segregation violated the Constitution's Equal Protection Clause because the
city's black and white schools were not equal to each other and never could be. Overruled
Plessy v. Ferguson's "separate but equal" doctrine and would eventually led to the
desegregation of schools across the South
People of Color’s racial identity development
1. Pre-encounter: before a racial event; unaware, denial, conformity
2. Encounter: specific experience; awareness of racism, dissonance, conflict, anxiety
3. Immersion-Emersion: response to conflict; retreat into own group, cautious
interaction, rejection of dominant culture
4. Internalization: Identification with other oppressed groups, interact flexibly with
Whites
5. Integration and Action: advocacy to reduce all forms of oppression
White Racial Identity development- Helms' (1995), Hardiman's (1994) WRID
1. Contact: unaware of racism
2. Disintegration: awareness and discomfort with racism, belief in equal opportunities
for all racial groups (universal), believe White values are the "gold standard"
3. Reintegration: try to lessen anxiety, demonstrate intolerance & anger towards
different racial groups
4. Pseudo-Independence: Superficial commitment to racism issues
discrepancies between attitudes & behaviors toward racial groups
5. Immersion/Emersion: renew efforts to address racism &
redefine whiteness, self-reflection
6. Autonomy: advocacy
Robber’s Cave Experiment- The Robbers Cave experiment demonstrated that an attempt to
simply bring hostile groups together is not enough to reduce intergroup prejudice. Rather, this
experiment confirmed that groups must cooperate and have common goals to truly build
peace.
Gender Schema Theory- Sandra Bem (1981) proposes that children learn gender roles from
their culture.
Normative Social Influence- The conformity to group pressure because of a need of acceptance
and approval
Informational Social influence- Group influence that comes from the need for direction and
information and the belief that the group has more knowledge than the individual.
Fundamental attribution error- a mistake in judging the causes of others' behavior that comes
from the tendency to overestimate internal, personal factors and underestimate external,
situational influences.
Saliency Bias- the tendency to focus attention on vivid (salient) or more noticeable factors
when explaining the causes of behavior. The fact that the more noticeable factors out show the
situational factors help us to make quicker judgments. This leads to another factor called
"Blaming the Victim.
Out-group Homogeneity Effect- implies that outgroup members are perceived to be more
similar than ingroup members. ... As predicted, however, this illusion was significantly greater
when the faces allegedly belonged to an outgroup than when they allegedly belonged to an
ingroup.

Universal culture- implies that we are all genetically and biologically similar "biological
sameness" (i.e., we all need air, food and water)
National culture- can determine our language, political views, and our laws
Regional culture- behaviors for a certain region
Ecological culture- where factors such as earthquakes, floods, and food supply may influence
our behavior.
Low context communication versus high context communication- Edward T Hall
Low context implies that there will be a precise EXPLICIT verbal explanation and
possibly repetition such as summarizing at the end of a class, meeting, or group
counseling session.
High context communication is IMPLICIT. It relies on nonverbal over verbal, respect for
tradition and the past and is readily understood by others in the culture with a shared
frame of reference.
Means Tests- determine whether a client is eligible for a social program or benefit such as
temporary assistance for needy families (TANF) or food stamps. Income and assets such as
bank accounts are often used to make this determination. Often contrasted with social
insurance programs such as social security for which an extremely wealthy person could still be
qualified.
Anglo Conformity Theory- Asserts that people from other cultures would do well to forget
about their heritage and try to become like those in the dominant culture.
 Group Counseling and Group Work

Group Counseling- states: Group work refers to the dynamic interaction between collections of
individuals for prevention or remediation of difficulties or for the enhancement of personal
growth/enrichment through the interaction of those who meet together for a commonly
agreed-on purpose.
**Important to note that Jacob Moreno is credited for the term group therapy (1931)

Group counseling prior to 1960’s- took place in dyadic setting, meaning two people.

World War II and Group Therapy- group therapy flourished due to a shortage of individual
therapists during this time.

Group therapy vs. group counseling- group therapy, is also known as a personality
reconstruction group and is of longer duration than group counseling. The word Therapy
always indicates a more severe problem is present.

Role Conflict- When a person’s behavior is not congruent with their expected behavior

Type of groups-
Guidance: the purpose of these groups is to provide information. Discussions are
focused on how this information is relevant to members of the group. Guidance groups
are often found in school settings. (Primary group- preventative-more structured)
Counseling: the purpose of these groups is growth, development, removing blocks and
barriers, and prevention. Group members have problems they are trying to address in a
group format. (Secondary- less structured, issue is present, not severe)
Psychotherapy: the purpose of these groups is remediation, treatment,
and personality reconstruction. Such groups may run longer than others and are found
in mental health agencies, clinics, and hospitals. Therapists in private practice also
conduct such groups. (Tertiary group- requires leader to have most training, likely to
deal with severe pathology)
Psychoeducation: these groups focus on acquiring information and skill- building and
can be preventive, growth-oriented, or remedial. Psychoeducation groups are found in a
variety of social service agencies, mental health settings, and universities.
Structured: these groups are focused on a central theme.
Examples of structured groups are: Learning job seeking skills, anger management,
dealing with ‘drinking and driving’ issues, and loss/grief.
Self-help: these are support systems to help with psychological stress. These groups are
focused on issues such as weight control, survivors of incest, parents who have lost a
child, etc.
These groups are usually not professionally led.
T-Group (training group): the focus of these groups is to examine and improve
interpersonal skills. How one functions within a group (e.g., at a work site) is examined.
(also known as a laboratory group or sensitivity group)
 Task/Work groups: Such groups include committees, planning groups, and study groups
formed to accomplish specific goals. Teams of individuals operating independently and
sharing one or more goals found in work settings is another example.

Group dynamics- refers to the development and interaction of the forces

inherent between and among members of a group. Forces relating to the roles members play,
the goals of the group, and the norms the members adopt will influence how the group
behaves. Group behavior may range from positive and socially acceptable to negative and
destructive. Dynamic= always changing.

Content- the subject that is being discussed by the group

Process- how the discussion or interactions are occurring

Group Sessions- characterized as having three sections

1. Warm- up
2. Action
3. Closure

Group cohesion- provides group members the feeling of belonging and inclusion. It is not
automatic. Without a cohesive group, there is not an effective group.
Group members are likely to identify with those they perceive as attractive or
powerful.

Group Polarization- refers to the tendency for a group to make decisions that are more
extreme than the initial inclination of its members.

Risky shift phenomenon- group decisions will be less conservative than the average group
member’s decision, prior to the group discussion.

Group Roles-
Facilitative/building role which may help group members feel a part of the group and
contribute to the positive and constructive functioning of the group.
Maintenance role contributes to the bonding of the group by encouraging the social
and emotional bonding of the group members.
Blocking role often attempts to hinder group formation and accomplishment of goals
through negative and diverting behaviors.
Gatekeeper- Keeps communication channels open; encourages and facilitates
interaction from those members who are usually silent.
Scapegoat- left holding what the group cannot assimilate. Serves as a receptacle for
projections and impulses

Group Leadership Styles

autocratic style is best for quick decision-making but may generate resentment. Leader
is known as the expert. Tend to give a psychoanalytic approach.
 democratic style -doesn't always generate the most production. But most desirable.
More group centered and non-directive. Group “leader” serves as facilitator and not
director of it. Remember, not the most productive of the three but most desirable.
*If the group is committed to a common goal,
laissez faire approach- often yields the best results. Members are left with the
responsibility of leading and directing. If no clear goals or purpose are in place, this
yields the worst results.

Linking: look for themes (common issues) and connecting them. This facilitates members
working on each other’s problems and is part of the facilitator role.

Blocking: stop unproductive behaviors such as scapegoating, storytelling and gossiping. Also,
part of the facilitator role.

Mutuality (universality) is the feeling that one is not alone or unique, and that
others have similar problems or have been in similar situations.

Scapegoating - This is a process whereby several members of a group gang up on an individual

member and ‘dump’ on him or her.

Open vs. closed group.

In an open group you replace members who leave; new members provide new ideas,
stimulation, and resources.
In a closed group where you do not admit new members, building and maintaining
trust and cohesion is facilitated.
Group size.
For an adult group with no co-leader, the optimum size is 8.
With children who are five or six years of age, three or four members
may be ideal. For older children, counseling groups may be larger.
Duration.
The time length of a session with adults may be up to two hours.
For outpatient groups, 90 minutes may be appropriate while inpatient groups may meet
for a shorter time. For children, length of session should be shorter depending upon
their age and may be only 20-30 minutes for five- and six-year-olds.
Norms- are a group’s rules of behavior which provide parameters to members about
acceptable behaviors. There are formal and informal rules, spoken and unspoken ones.
The rules may be different from the norms outside, in the ‘real world.’ For example, sharing
and expressing feelings is okay; self-disclosure is okay.

Lack of goal setting- a common weakness in many groups

Stages of a group- Some writers have identified five stages of a group. One writer (B. Tuckman)
called them: forming, storming, norming, performing, and mourning (adjourning).
**Corey, Corey, & Corey- stages of group…forming, initial, transition, working, ending

Yalom identified four stages: orientation, conflict, cohesion, and termination.

Jacob Moreno- father of psychodrama, Psychodrama emphasizes enacting conflicts or crisis

situations in the present. The focus is on the here and now. The goal is to reorganize
individuals’
perceptions. It allows for catharsis, insight, and reality testing. Psychodrama has a:
director/producer (usually the group leader),
protagonist who is a group member (either a volunteer or selected),
auxiliary ego (may be several, also called actors) representing people or objects and an
audience
the psychodrama occurs on stage and there are three parts
Warm-up (pre action)
Action
Integration

Moreno was the first to use the term ‘group psychotherapy’ in the literature in
the 1920’s.
He founded the American Society of Group Psychotherapy and Psychodrama in
1941.
Family counseling is a special application of group counseling. The parents and
children will be seen together and often alone as well. Much of the emphasis in family
counseling is identification of the family problems, defining personal and family goals, and
teaching family members new behaviors and interaction patterns.
Group couples counseling often focuses on educating couples to improve communication
between themselves and their children, resolve conflicts, and learn parenting skills. A number
of parent education training programs have been developed.
Types of groups
Person-centered Group
Goal: encourage openness; explore full range of feelings; increasing self- understanding;
develop openness, honesty and spontaneity.
Techniques: active listening and reflection; support and ‘being there’ and altering self-
concepts; few structured techniques.
Content: feelings, personal meanings, attitudes, sense of trust in the group.
Focus: insight and affect oriented.
Leader: group member centered and process oriented; leader creates
climate, conveys acceptance, facilitates and links. Multicultural: person-centered
therapy respects cultural values;
encourages active listening; group members may not like 'lack of direction'; they may
want more structure, and a more directive problem-solving approach
Gestalt Group
Goal: awareness, experience in the moment, personality change.
Techniques: focus on the here and now; experiential; use of exercises including
confrontation, empty chair, guided fantasy; catharsis.
Content: clients have responsibility for moment-to-moment experiencing and
awareness; deal with unfinished business.
Focus: action/insight and affect oriented.
Leader: group member centered and process oriented; leader brings
structure to group; serves as catalyst for change; encourages
working through unfinished business.
Multicultural: different techniques can be adapted to different clients;
focus may be on nonverbals and what they mean; many clients are less apt to respond
with intense feelings and be less willing to participate in some techniques
Transactional Analysis Group
Goal: awareness; making new decisions; become free of scripts and
games; altering course of life.
Techniques: interacting with others; making contracts; use script-
analysis checklist; teaching/learning; role-playing.
Content: life script; three dynamic ego states—parent, adult and child;
games people play.
Focus: a combination of insight/action and rational/affect oriented. Leader: leader is
teacher and diagnostician; group is leader-centered with equal process and outcome
orientation.
Multicultural: clients like the structure of the TA group; the contracts they design can
account for cultural values. Clients may have difficulty understanding some TA concepts
and processes; narrow interpretation of human nature.
Cognitive Behavior Group
Goal: eliminate problem behaviors and teach self-management skills.
 Techniques: examine the learning process and find ways of changing/learning
behaviors, cognitions and emotions; use of reinforcement, contracts; modeling.
Content: target behavior, environmental circumstances maintaining the
behavior, and environmental changes and intervention strategies that can change the
behavior.
Focus: action and rational oriented.
Leader: leader centered and action oriented (teacher, expert); teaches
coping skills and methods of modifying behavior.
Multicultural: behavioral groups de-emphasize focus on feelings; they
are often short-term and structured and work toward specific goals; clients learn new
coping strategies; clients may learn new behaviors they will have to integrate with
family and cultural values as well as with historical/systemic factors.
Rational Emotive Behavior Group
Goal: constructive changes in client’s thinking and behavior leading to a
greater acceptance of self; move past self-defeating behaviors.
Techniques: learning A-B-C theory; practicing disputing; exercising self-discipline; role-
playing; homework assignments.
Content: irrational beliefs and values and consequent problem behaviors.
Focus: action/insight and rational oriented.
Leader: leader centered and both process and outcome oriented; confronts
illogical thinking and serves as model for others.
Multicultural: counselor would be viewed as a teacher versus a therapist
and teaches clients to cope better with life—eliminate self- defeating behaviors; many
clients will value expert role and leader directedness.Rational-emotive approach may be
too directive/forceful for some clients and the highly active role of the group leader
could create dependence; what leader views as irrational behavior may not be.
Reality Group
Goal: improve the quality of life by achieving increasing control over
one’s life; taking responsibility.
Techniques: confront and encourage honest self-examination; evaluate
behavior; formulate a plan for change (contract); commit to such a
plan and follow through.
Content: member’s awareness and present behavior; wants and needs;
responsibility.
Focus: rational and action oriented.
Leader: leader centered and outcome oriented; assist members make
choices, formulate and implement a plan.
Multicultural: group work takes on a teaching/learning approach often resulting with
contracts by group members; contracts can be consistent with their own identity and
cultural values; no strong emphasis on feelings; group members may feel leaders do not
understand the strong influence of discrimination and other socio- historical factors; the
cultural emphasis may be to work for the community good and not just for the
individual.
Adlerian Group
Goal: explore basic life assumptions; understand lifestyles; recognize
strengths and accept responsibility; increase self-esteem; develop
social interest.
Techniques: psychoeducational; analysis and assessment; explore
family constellation; cognitive restructuring.
Content: cognitive, behavioral and affective sides of human nature;
early history; lifestyles; belief systems.
Focus: action oriented; goal directed;
Leader: leader centered; challenges beliefs and goals; models;
encourages members to action.
Multicultural: members can view culture from their own unique
perspective and background. They can create their own meaning from their own
personal experiences. Members may be reluctant to share family background details in
the group.
Existential group
Goal: self-awareness; help group members use freedom and assume
responsibility.
Techniques: group members determine issues to explore; self-
disclosure of group leader; counseling and psychoeducation. Content: search for
meaning; dealing with freedom, anxiety and guilt. Focus: insight oriented.
Leader: active and reflective; builds relationships with members;
confronts members in a caring way.
Multicultural: approach encourages understanding clients in their
own cultural and phenomenological world; encourages empowerment; explores values
and lifestyles. Emphasis on individual may conflict with culture’s focus on collectivism.

The Adlerian group approach has been transformed into successful psychoeducation models
for parent education and for use in schools. One of these is the Systematic Training for
Effective Parenting (STEP) program which was developed by Don Dinkmeyer.

Adler’s work is classified as the preface to the group movement.

Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW)
This is one of the divisions of ACA. ASGW has a Best Practice Guidelines
statement for group workers which serves as its code of ethics.
Yalom’s 11 Curative factors
 Career Counseling
Classification of career theories: Actuarial and Developmental
Actuarial: theorists from this perspective focused on some ‘structure’ of the individual
such as needs, traits, interests, etc., and designed a theory of how career development
occurs from that basis.
Examples of actuarial theories are: trait-factor and needs-based theories.
Developmental: theorists from this perspective viewed career development as
occurring over time, usually through stages. This process of career development could
include various ‘structures’ such as self-concept and need.
Donald Super- Development approach to careers. Lifespan, life-space theory, 5 stages of
development and career rainbow. According to Super, self-concept was implemented in choice
of career. He identified the concept of career maturity and later renamed it career
adaptability to make it less age-related. Super also developed the Archway Model as a graphic
representation of the many determinants that comprise one’s self-concept. Lastly, Super is
responsible for the Career Pattern Study which examined the vocational behavior of 9th
graders all the way into their 30s. Those adolescents who were career mature and achieving in
high school tended to be more career mature and successful as young adults.

** Super argues that occupational preferences and competencies, along with an individual’s life
situations all change with time and experience. Super developed the concept of vocational
maturity, which may or may not correspond to chronological age: people cycle through each of
these stages when they go through career transitions.
** This model was initially focused primarily on white, middle-class, college-educated males.

Super also identified five vocational development tasks. These are:

a. Crystallization (ages 14-18)—formulating a general vocational goal through awareness.
b. Specification (18-21)—moving from a tentative to a specific vocational choice.
c. Implementation (21-24)—completing training and entering employment.
d. Stabilization (24-35)—confirming a preferred choice by performing the job.
e. Consolidation (35+)—becoming established in a career; advancing; achieving status.
The nine major roles we play in life are:
child, student, citizen, spouse, homemaker, parent, worker, leisurite, and pensioner.
Roles are played out in four theaters which are: home, community, school, and workplace.
 Archway of determinants
One pillar of the archway represents internal the factors and variables within the individual that
influence career development such as needs, aptitudes, interests and achievements. The other
pillar includes external factors such as family, community, and labor market.
John Holland- Actuarial/structural, RIASEC career model
To Holland, career choice is an expression of personality. We choose a career
based on the stereotypes we hold about different jobs or careers. Holland identified six
modal personal orientations (personality types) which developed based on genetic
factors, environment, and parental influences.

Every person has all six types in varying amounts.

Holland developed the Vocational Preference Inventory and the Self-Directed Search. Other
instruments, such as the Strong Interest Inventory and the Career Assessment Inventory, have
adopted Holland’s typology. Focused questions in an interview can usually determine the
individual’s Holland type as well.
Differentiation: an individual's profile of six types has significant highs and lows (differentiated)
or the profile of six types tends to be flat (undifferentiated).
Congruence: the individual’s type and the environment type are the same. Vocational identity:
high identity individuals are those who have a clear and
stable picture of their interests and goals.
Linda Gottfredson- developmental, this career development theory is called ‘Circumscription
and Compromise’ and focuses on the vocational development processes experienced by
children. Vocational self-concept is central and influences occupational selection.
Individuals circumscribe (narrow down occupations) and compromise (opt out
of unavailable or inappropriate occupations) as they develop.

the theory assumes that we build a cognitive map of occupations by picking up occupational
stereotypes from those around us. Occupations are placed on this map using only a small
number of dimensions: sex-type, prestige level and field of work. As young people build this
map, they begin to decide which occupations are acceptable and which are unacceptable —
those which fit with their own developing self-concept and those which do not.

Gottfredson proposes that when people are forced to compromise their career choices, they
are more likely to compromise first on field of work, then on social level and lastly on sex-type
as the amount of compromise increases. This prediction has been the most controversial with
some research seeming to offer limited support
John Krumboltz- Social Learning theory, Learning theory of career counseling
Unplanned events influence a person’s career choices.
Throughout life people have innumerable learning experiences. Every minute people are
engaged in learning activities whether they know it or not. Some experiences are
planned, many are not. Every time a person talks to another person, he or she learns
something. Every time a person watches TV, listens to the radio, or plays a game, he or
she learns something. The happenstance learning theory categorizes learning
experiences into two major categories:
instrumental - learning through reactions to consequences, results of actions,
and through reactions to others. All instrumental learning experiences take place
in a cultural and opportunity context. Baseball is a popular sport in the
United States, just like Cricket is popular in Europe.
associative- Associative learning experiences come from associations learned
through observations and written materials. They influence an individual’s
perceptions. Someone watching a carpenter may be inspired to be a carpenter.

The Career Beliefs Inventory of Krumboltz may be used to

identify clients’ mental barriers preventing them from taking action. Unplanned and
chance events will influence an individuals’ career development, and such occurrences
should be expected and taken advantage of. Krumboltz refers to these events as
‘planned happenstance.’

Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma – These developmentalists first presented their
theory in 1951 and believed occupational choice progressed through three periods:
a. fantasy (birth to 11). Play becomes work oriented.
b. b. tentative (11-17). Four stages in this period are: interest, capacity, value, and
transition
c. realistic (17+). Three stages in this period are:
exploration- college or formal training
crystallization- declare or commit to a certain type of work
specification- specialize (grad school or specific job)
The Ginzberg group based their early theoretical formulation on a small group of
middle-class males who supposedly had freedom of choice in occupation.
Decision making was important and was influenced by adolescent adjustment patterns. Later,
Ginzberg agreed that occupational decision making was a lifelong process. Their theory
stimulated further research.

Ann Roe (needs approach) – Personality Theory

Roe believed that genetic factors, environmental experiences, and parent-child relations
influenced the needs structure each child developed. Parental influences and early
childhood experiences were viewed as major determiners. Later, occupational selection
would be a function of those needs. A person chooses their career based on their
interaction with their parents. Her theory was also based on Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs. Unmet/unconcious needs motivate career choice.
Robert Hoppock was also a needs-based career theorist. He identified a number of hypotheses
which addressed the role of needs in choosing, changing and being satisfied with career. “we
must find a job to meet our needs”

Tiedeman and Miller-Tiedeman’s – Career decision-making model- emphasized individual

decision-making process. believed that career development occurred as part of cognitive
development as one resolved ego-relevant crises. For them, career development paralleled
the eight psychosocial stages identified by Erikson. Tiedeman saw life decisions and career
decisions as integrally related. Career decision making is a continuous process consisting of two
phases, anticipation or preoccupation, and implementation or adjustment.

Cognitive information processing and career development (CIP)-

Reardon, Lenz, Sampson and Peterson presented a theory of career development based on
cognitive information processing (CIP). A procedure for solving career problems was developed
based on a series of assumptions which emphasize cognitions, information, and problem
solving.This sequential procedure, summarized as CASVE, involves the following processing
skills:
a. Communication: identifying the career-related needs of the client.
b. Analysis: identifying the problem components and placing them in a
conceptual framework.
c. Synthesis: formulating courses of action or alternatives.
d. Valuing: judging each action as to its potential for success or failure
and impact on others. This is a prioritizing process.
e. Execution: developing plans and implementation strategies.
Social cognitive theory and self-efficacy- Concepts are based on Bandura’s social learning
theory. A cornerstone of that theory is self-efficacy which postulates that an individual's
expectations will influence whether a behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be
expended, and how persistent the individual will be in the face of barriers. In short, self-
efficacy theory is an individual’s belief that he or she can perform some task or be successful
in some endeavor. In the career domain, these beliefs will influence choice, performance
and persistence.

Strengthening Self-efficacy-
a. personal performance accomplishments- learning through own experiences
b. vicarious learning- learning through others experiences
c. social persuasion-
d. physiological states and reactions

Constructivism- suggests that individuals construct their own reality or truth through their own
way of organizing information. This becomes a very subjective phenomenon and focuses on
how individuals extract meaning from their present situation.

Contextualism- implies that career development is a constant interplay of forces within the
individual, within the environment, and the interaction between the two. One cannot separate
(remove) individuals from their environments (context) and the individuals’ perceptions and
information organizing processes
create their reality.

Mark Savickas- career construction theory, explains career across the lifespan, developed from
super’s theory. Individuals have one or more life themes that guide their choices. These life
themes become more apparent as individuals tell their stories. Individuals then construct their
careers by imposing meaning on what they do in work. Meaning helps them live out their life
themes.
**Savickas’ approach considers the changing nature of the workplace and the move
toward flexible work schedules and more freelance employment.

H.B. Gelatt- “Expect the unexpected”, Focuses on the decision-making process and Positive
uncertainty. 5 steps to decision making.
a. Recognize a need to make a decision
b. Collect data and look at courses of action
c. Besides looking at courses of action, examine potential outcomes and
their probability
d. Attend to your value system
e. Evaluate and make a decision (choose), and the decision can be
investigatory or permanent
His later model of career decision making is called ‘Positive Uncertainty’ and is viewed as a
whole-brained approach. Rational and intuitive components must be considered in decision
making.
Trait and Factor (career counseling approach) - This approach is sometimes called an actuarial
or matching approach. The trait-factor approach was developed by Frank Parsons (Father of
Guidance). Parsons wrote the book Choosing a vocation (1909)
Trait-factor means you:
a. study the individual (trait)
b. survey occupations (factors)
c. match the person with an occupation (using true reasoning)

Brill- Theory of career choice, Brill believed that sublimation was the method by which we
choose our careers. Roe believed in the power of the unconscious urges on career choice.
(known for his work with anne roe)
Sublimation- channeling impulses or unacceptable behaviors into socially acceptable
ones. For example, someone that’s always getting into fights, becoming a professional
boxer instead.

Job: one person in one position doing a set of tasks.

Occupation: a definable work activity found in many locations (e.g. counseling, welding).

Career: a series of jobs and occupations one does (narrow).

Portfolio career: Refers to the fact that many workers are engaged in more than one line of
work at the same time. These jobs may or may not require similar skills.

Encore career: For a number of reasons, many retired individuals by choice or necessity are
returning to work. Typically, they do not go back to their pre-retirement employer and thus do
a “work encore” in some other
kind of employment.

Career guidance: assists individuals in understanding and acting upon self-knowledge and
knowledge of opportunities in work, education, and leisure, and to develop decision-making
skills.

Career counseling: the emphasis is on career development of an individual with special

attention to values and attitudes, in a dynamic environment with a focus on self-understanding,
career information, and career planning and decision making.

Expressed interests are those spoken or reported.

Manifested interests are determined by examining what a person is studying (college major),
previous jobs held, and what activities the person likes.
Tested interests are those measured via inventories or tests.

Aptitude: Each of these measures several aptitudes and many are the same on each
instrument such as verbal reasoning, mathematical reasoning and spatial perception.
O*Net Ability Profiler (formerly, General Aptitude Test Battery, GATB)
Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT)

Achievement: a standardized test developed to measure skills and knowledge

Iowa Tests of Basic Skills (ITBS) Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) American College Test (ACT)
Graduate Record Examination (GRE)

Interest: help identify careers that match interests

strong Interest Inventory (SII) Self Directed Search (SDS) Kuder Career Search Planning System
O*Net Interest Profiler COPSystem 3C ( measure interests, abilities, & values) Campbell Interest
and Skill Survey

**There are also personality and values inventories such as the Myers Briggs and the
Minnesota importance questionnaire.

World of Work Map- The ACT World-of-Work Map is an empirically based system for
summarizing and displaying basic similarities and differences between occupations. ... The Map
serves as a visual bridge, linking people (via career assessment results) to personally relevant
occupations.

Gig economy:
Many workers often viewed as unemployed may, in fact, work in the “gig economy.” The gig
economy includes workers who have temporary contracts, often one after another.
Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act- This federal law was passed in 2014. It
consolidates programs for employment and training, adult education as well as programs under
the 1973. Rehabilitation Act. It replaces the Workforce Investment Act of 1998.

Occupational Outlook Handbook- (OOH) a publication of the United States Department of

Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics that includes information about the nature of work, working
conditions, training and education, earnings and job outlook for hundreds of different
occupations in the United States. (published every two years)

John Crites- Known for research on career maturity, CMI = career maturity inventory, measures
aptitudes of students
 Assessment and Testing
Measurement: general process of determining the dimensions of an attribute or trait.

Assessment: processes and procedures for collecting information about human

behavior.
Assessment tools include tests and inventories, rating scales, observation,
interview data and other techniques.

Appraisal: appraisal implies going beyond measurement to making judgments about

human attributes and behaviors and is used interchangeably with evaluation.

Interpretation: making a statement about the meaning or usefulness of measurement

data according to the professional counselor’s knowledge and judgment.

Measures of central tendency

A distribution of scores (measurements on a number of individuals) can be
examined using the following measures:
Mean: the arithmetic average symbolized by X or M, found by adding all of the data points and
diving by the number of data points.
Example: what is the mean of 2,4,2,2,= 2+4+2+2= 10/4= 2.5
Median: the middle score in a distribution of scores
Example: What is the median of 1,3,4,6,7= the median is 4
Mode: the most frequent score in a distribution of scores
Example: What is the mode: 2,4,6,2,6,2= the mode is 2
All three of these fall in the same place (are identical) when the distribution of scores is
symmetrical, i.e., normally distributed (not skewed).

Skews:

Range: this is the highest score minus the lowest score. Some researchers talk of inclusive
range which is the high score minus the low score and adding one (1).
Ten individuals' ages are: 24, 26, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 39, and 47. 47 - 24 = 23 + 1 = 24
This range is inclusive; everyone is included.
Standard deviation: this value describes the variability within a distribution of scores. Standard
deviation is essentially the mean of all the deviations from the mean. It is an excellent
measure of the dispersion of scores.

Variance: this is simply the square of the standard deviation

Percentage- A percentage is the number out of every hundred with a particular attribute. For
example, if 120 of 150 candidates pass an assessment, the percentage pass rate is 80% (80 out
of every hundred).
Percentile- A percentile is a position in a rank ordering expressed as the percentage who are
lower in the rank order. For example, a student at the 70thpercentile performed better than
70% of other candidates.
Stanine- Stanine(STAndard NINE) is a method of scaling test scores on a nine-point standard
scale with a mean of five (5) and a standard deviation of two (2).
Test scores are scaled to stanine scores using the following algorithm:
1. Rank results from lowest to highest
2. Give the lowest 4% a stanine of 1, the next 7% a stanine of 2, etc., according to the
following table:
Calculating Stanines

Result Ranking 4% 7% 12% 17% 20% 17% 12% 7% 4%

Stanine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Standardized score- In statistics, standardization is the process of putting different variables on

the same scale. This process allows you to compare scores between different types of variables.
... For instance, a standardized value of 2 indicates that the observation falls 2 standard
deviations above the mean.

z-score- The mean is 0; the standard deviation is 1.0. (z= zero)

T score- The mean of this standardized score scale is 50 and the standard deviation is 10. By
(T)ransforming this standard score, negative scores are eliminated unlike the z-score (T= ten)
Correlation coefficient- A correlation coefficient ranges from -1.00 (a perfect negative
correlation) to 1.00 (a perfect positive correlation). shows the relationship between two sets
of numbers. When a very strong correlation exists, if you know one score of an individual you
can predict (to a large degree) the other score of that person. A correlation between two
variables is called bivariate; between three or more variables, it is called multivariate.
The correlation coefficient tells you nothing about cause and effect, only the
degree of relationship.

Reliability- Reliability is the consistency of a test or measure; the degree to which the test can
be expected to provide similar results for the same subjects on repeated measures.

Standard error of measurement - (SEM) is another measure of reliability and useful in

interpreting the test scores of an individual. The SEM may also be
referred to as Confidence Band or Confidence Limits. The standard error of measurement helps
determine the range within which an individual’s test score probably falls.
Validity- Validity is the degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure for the
specific purpose for which it is used. In other words, validity is situation specific – depending on
the purpose and population. An instrument may be valid for some purposes and not others.

Convergent validation occurs when there is high correlation between the

construct under investigation and others.
Discriminant validation occurs when there is no significant correlation
between the construct under investigation and others.
The construct validation process is best when multiple traits are being
measured using a variety of methods.

Tests may be reliable but not valid.

Valid tests are reliable unless of course there is a change in the underlying trait or characteristic
which might occur through maturation, training or development.

Tests may be:

Power based: no time limits or very generous ones (such as the NCE and CPCE).
Speed based: timed, and the emphasis is placed on speed and accuracy. Examples
are measures of intelligence, ability and aptitude.
Assessment may be:
Norm referenced: comparing individuals to others who have taken the test
before. Norms may be national, state or local.
In norm-referenced testing, how you compare with others is more
important than what you know.
Criterion referenced: comparing an individual’s performance to some predetermined
criterion which has been established as important. The National Counselor Exam’s cut-
off score is an example. For the CPCE, university programs are allowed to determine the
criterion (cut-off score). Criterion referenced is sometimes called domain referenced.
Ipsatively interpreted: comparing the results on the test within the individual. For
example, looking at an individual’s highs and lows on an aptitude battery which
measures several aptitudes. There is no comparison with others.
Regression toward the mean
Statistical regression means that if one earns a very low score (at 15% or lower) or very high
score (at 85% or higher) on a pretest, the individual will probably earn a score closer to the
mean on the posttest. This is because of the error occurring due to chance, personal and
environmental factors. These factors can reliably be expected to be different on the posttest.

Standardized: the instruments are administered in a formal, structured

procedure and the scoring is specified. Allow for a continuity and equality of units, and are
conversions of raw score distributions. Z scores and T scores are standardized scores.

Nonstandardized: there are no formal or routine instructions for administration

or for scoring. Some examples may be checklists or rating scales.

Semantic differential
This scale asks respondents to report where they are on a dichotomous range between two
affective polar opposites. For example: “Think about the value of this Study Guide.”
Very Good ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Very Bad

Intrusive (or reactive) measurement means the participant knows he or she is

being watched or questioned and this knowledge may affect his or her performance. Examples
are questionnaires, interviews, or observation.

Unobtrusive (or nonreactive) measurement means data is collected without the awareness of
the individual, or without changing the natural course of events. Examples are reviewing
existing records or unobtrusive observation.

*** Sociometry- Sociometry can be used to identify isolates, rejectees or stars (popular
individuals).You can measure the structure and organization of social groups which could be a
classroom of fourth graders who have been together for a few months, or a work
unit. It requires revealing personal feelings about others.
Sociogram: a figure or map showing the interrelationships or structure of the
group.

Social desirability - This is the tendency for test takers to respond in ways that are perceived to
be socially desirable.

Parametric Statistics- (t-test and analysis of variance) can be used when samples are randomly
drawn from the population and results are distributed along the normal bell curbe

Nonparametric Statistics- (Chi Square and Mann-Whitney U Test) used when data is not
normally distributed and variances are inconsistent.
 Counseling and Helping Relationships
Theorists:
Psychoanalytic (Sigmund Freud)- Freud identified a structure of personality, namely,
the id, ego and superego. Unconscious motivation or energy is the id ruled by the
pleasure principle. The ego is controlled by the reality principle; the superego is
internalized ethics.
** The super ego strives for perfection in contrast to the id who strives for pleasure.
Transference (projections onto therapist) must be worked through.
Example: The client viewing the therapist as a “guru” and feeling the
therapist could do no wrong.
Countertransference consists of projections of the therapist onto the patient.
Example: The therapist feeling angry towards an older male client that
reminds her of her dad.
Manifest content of a dream- surface meaning of a dream
Latent content of a dream- hidden meaning of a dream
Free association- analytic technique used by therapists to instruct the client to
say whatever comes to mind
Slips of the tongue- parapraxis, Freud believed this was part of every day life
Symptom substitution- psychoanalytic concept which means if one symptom is
stopped, a new symptom may start in its place

Neo-Freudian’s- place more emphasis on the ego as well as sociodynamic and

psychodynamic forces. Believe that individuals have the capability of thinking
analytically and making choices.
Karen Horney: Security is each person's major motivation and the person
becomes anxious when it is not achieved. Irrational ways to mend
disrupted human relationships may become neurotic needs.
Erich Fromm: The individual must join with others to develop self-fulfillment -
social character - otherwise she or he may become lonely and nonproductive.
Society offers opportunities to experience mutual love and respect.
Harry Stack Sullivan: A social systems (interpersonal) approach can lead to
Understanding human behavior. Behavior can best be understood in terms
of social interactions, not as mechanistic and linear.

Other neo-Freudians include Otto Rank, Wilheim Reich, and Theodore Reik,
Carl Jung and Alfred Adler.

Object Relations Theory- Object relations theory is centered on our internal relationships with
others. ... Objects refer to people or physical items that come to symbolically represent either a
person or part of a person. Object relations, then, are our internalized relationships to those
people
The theory suggests that the way people relate to others and situations in their adult
lives is shaped by family experiences during infancy. For example, an adult who
 experienced neglect or abuse in infancy would expect similar behavior from others who
remind them of the neglectful or abusive parent from their past.

Four broad stages of development have been identified as important in the first three years of
life These are: (Margaret Mahler)
a. Fusion with mother: normal infantile autism (first 3 to 4
weeks of life)
b. Symbiosis: with mother (3rd to 8th month)
c. Separation/Individuation: (starts the 4th or 5th month) d. Constancy of self and
object: (by the 36th month)
* Attachment, borderline, and narcissistic disorders may occur when normal progression
throughout these stages does not occur.

Person Centered: (Carl Rogers)

Rogers reacted against the directive psychoanalytic approach which put the counselor in
charge of giving advice, teaching and interpreting. His focus was more on the person’s
phenomenological world reflecting and clarifying their verbal and nonverbal
communication
*Rogerians do not emphasize diagnosis or giving advice

Gestalt:
based on existential principles, has a here-and-now focus, and a holistic systems theory
viewpoint. Key concepts in the theory include personal responsibility, unfinished
business, and awareness of the ‘now.’ This is an experiential therapy, encouraging the
taking of responsibility by the client. The counselor uses confrontation and encourages
the client to stay with feelings and to relive experiences and finish business.
Role playing, two-chair techniques, and dream work are used. Interpretation is done by
the client not by the counselor.

Individual Psychology (Adler and Dreikurs)

The belief in the uniqueness of each individual is influenced by social factors. Each
person has a sense of inferiority and strives for superiority.
We choose a lifestyle, a unified life plan, which gives meaning to our
experiences which include habits, family, career, attitudes, etc. Counseling goals are to
help the client understand lifestyle and identify appropriate social and community
interests. Also, counseling strives to explain clients to themselves and for them to
overcome inferiority. Techniques used are those leading to insight such as life histories,
homework assignments, and paradoxical intentions.
*Dreikurs was the first to discuss the use of group therapy in private practice, introduced
Adlerian principles into school settings as well.
Transactional Analysis (Eric Berne)
The personality has three ego states: Parent, Adult, and Child.
A life script develops in childhood and influences a person’s behavior. Many transactions
with others can be characterized as games with the intent to avoid intimacy.
Complementary transactions (Adult to Adult) lead to good communication.
Crossed transactions (Adult to Child & Child to Parent) lead to barriers to
communication.

Existential (Rollo May, Victor Frankl, Irvin Yalom)

Phenomenology is the basis of existential therapy.
Phenomenology is the study of our direct experiences taken at their face value.
We have freedom of choice and are responsible for our fate. We search for meaning
and struggle with being alone, unconnected from others. Anxiety and guilt are central
concepts: anxiety is the threat of non-being and guilt occurs because we fail to fulfill
our potential.
The principles underlying his theory are individuals’:
a. motivation to find meaning in their life journey,
b. freedom to choose what they do, think and how they react, and
c. with freedom of choice comes personal responsibility.

Cognitive Behavioral Counseling

The leading proponents of cognitive and behavioral counseling include Joseph Wolpe,
Donald Meichenbaum, Aaron Beck, and Albert Bandura. The stimulus-response and
stimulus-organism-response paradigms are at the
basis of this theory.The belief is that behavior is learned and, consequently, can be
unlearned and relearned.The goals of counseling are to identify antecedents of
behavior and the nature of the reinforcements maintaining that behavior. The counselor
helps create learning conditions and may engage in direct intervention.

Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT) - Marsha Linehan developed this therapeutic approach for
the treatment of borderline personality disorder. It is now used more widely with a variety of
disorders including traumatic brain injury, eating disorders, as well as a range of mood
disorders. A basic principle of DBT, in addition to the usual cognitive behavioral techniques, is
helping clients increase emotional and cognitive regulation by learning the triggers that lead
to their undesired behaviors. The dialectical principle of recognizing two sides to situations,
such as the need for accepting change and recognizing the resistance to change, receives
attention. DBT is viewed as a long-term therapeutic intervention in part because it requires
the learning, practicing and acquiring of a number of skills by the client. The skills are
conceptualized in the following four modules:
a. Mindfulness – paying attention to the present moment nonjudgmentally, and
experiencing one’s emotions and senses fully.
b. Distress tolerance – accepting and tolerating oneself and the current situation, often
painful and negative, in a non-evaluative way.
 c. Interpersonal effectiveness – developing effective strategies for asking for what one
needs, saying no as appropriate, and coping with interpersonal conflict.
d. Emotion regulation – identifying emotions and obstacles to changing them, reducing
vulnerability, and increasing positive emotions.

Rational emotive behavior therapy -- REBT (Albert Ellis)

REBT is based on the philosophy that it is not the events we experience that influence
us, but rather it is our interpretation of those events that is
important.Individuals have the potential for rational thinking. In childhood, we learn
irrational beliefs and re-indoctrinate ourselves on a continuing basis. This leads to
inappropriate affect and behavior. Belief system, self-talk and ‘crooked thinking’ are
major concepts. Therapy follows and A-B-C-D-E system:
A = external event (an activity or action)
B = belief—in the form of a self-verbalization.
C = consequent affect—which may be rational or irrational.
D = Disputing of the irrational belief which is causing the affect/behavior.
E = Effect (cognitive)—which is a change in the self-verbalization.

Multimodal therapy (Arnold Lazarus)

This is a comprehensive, holistic approach sometimes classified as eclectic. It
has strong behavioral ties.
This multimodal model addresses seven interactive yet discrete modalities
summarized in the acronym BASIC ID. These seven modalities are:
B = Behaviors (acts, habits and reactions)
A = Affective responses (emotions and moods)
S = Sensations (five senses as touch, smell, sight, hearing and taste)
I = Images (how we see selves, memories, dreams)
C = Cognitions (insights, philosophies, ideas)
I = Interpersonal relationships (interactions with people)
D = Drugs which is to signify, more generally, biology including nutrition
Assessment covering all seven modalities is necessary to determine total human
functioning.

Reality therapy (William Glasser)- Although it is based on Choice Theory, Glasser continued to
refer to the therapy as Reality. Individuals determine their own fate and are in charge of their
lives. Our perceptions control our behavior and we behave (appropriately or inappropriately)
to fill our needs. We have five genetically-based needs: survival, love and belonging, power or
achievement, freedom or independence, and fun.
Robert Wubbolding has developed a system for helping counselors learn and use
reality therapy. The acronym, WDEP, represents:
W – exploring clients’ wants as these relate to perceived needs
D – encouraging clients to discuss actions and feelings
E – refers to self-evaluation by clients concerning their behaviors
P – following self-evaluation, planning in order to effect change
Feminist therapy- Feminist therapy origins can be traced back to the women’s movement in
the 1960’s.

Solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT)

Solution-focused brief therapy does not address the history or past experience of a
problem. Understanding the nature of the problem is not
necessary to generating solutions to a problem.
One focus of solution-focused brief therapy is to maintain a positive orientation
believing that the client can construct solutions. Stress is placed on what is
working for the client, the exceptions that exist to the problem pattern. Some principal
therapeutic techniques and procedures include:
a. Exceptions question: what were the circumstances when the problem did not exist;
these circumstances represent news of difference.
b. Miracle question: If a miracle happened, how would you know and what would be
different?
c. Scaling questions: Using a scale from one to ten, identify changes in the client’s affect,
anxiety, etc. Focus is on any positive change and then duplicate or increase that change.
Narrative therapy
As one of the strength-based therapies, narrative therapy’s philosophical basis is social
constructionism. This post-modern approach believes that independent, objective
reality exists through subjective experiences, and the client’s perception of reality is
valid. This reality is based on the language and words clients use to represent their
situation and circumstances in which people live.
Consequently, their realities are socially constructed.
Narrative therapy believes that clients’ lives are stories in progress and these stories
can be told and explored from a variety of perspectives. Stories use words and language
to give meaning to experiences and help determine feelings and attitudes. They are
subjective and constructed by the individual living within a
context made up of family, culture, race, ethnicity, gender orientation, etc.

Neurobiology and psychotherapy- The brain grows and differentiates not only because of
genetics but continues this process through its continuous interaction with the environment.
Consequently, the person’s experiences with different environmental conditions and events
throughout life can promote re-mapping of different regions of the brain. So, too, the
experience of psychotherapy can restructure neural networks in the brain.
The Surviving brain is the stem and responds to danger and controls automatic
functions (flight-fight).
The Feeling brain (limbic system) is the emotion center, mediating feelings and
thoughts, and storing some memory.
The cortex comprises the Thinking brain including executive functions, meaning making
and self-awareness.
* Neuroplasticity is the brain’s ability to reproduce new neurons and reorganize itself as the
individual experiences new situations and experiences (including psychotherapy).
** Research suggests that cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) promotes cognitive
restructuring useful in working with clients who have experienced trauma such as PTSD.
CBT promotes new connections within their memory network
leading to a reduction of symptoms. Eye-Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing
(EMDR) is believed to help clients access new, more adaptive
information.

** Biofeedback (or neurofeedback) has been found useful for a number of client problems
such as sleep disorders, anxiety attacks, phobias and migraine
headaches. Biofeedback procedures attempt to “re-wire” neural networks.

Robert Carkhuff - Carkhuff developed 5-point scales to measure empathy, genuineness,

concreteness and respect.
Level 1: Does not attend to or detracts significantly from the client’s affect.
Level 2: Subtracts noticeably from the client’s affect.
Level 3: Interchangeable with the client’s content and affect.
Level 4: Adds noticeably to the client’s affect.
Level 5: Adds significantly to the client’s affect and meanings.
Carl Jung- believed in the collective unconscious.
The collective unconscious is determined by the evolutionary development of the human
species and it contains brain patterns for the most intense emotional
responses that humans experience. The operant for the collective unconscious is the archetype.
An archetype is a response pattern occurring universally in the human experience and is
characterized by an emotional charge to the existential issues of identity, meaning, and
purpose.
Examples of archetypes are: anima and animus (female and male traits).
Believed men operated on Logic aka Logos principle and women are intuitive aka eros
principle
Mandalas: term borrowed from Hinu writings by Jung that stands for a magic protective
circle that represents self-unification.
Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)- most widely used measure of personality
preference and disposition, 4 bipolar scales

Gordon Allport and Kurt Lewin

Allport acknowledged that individuals with their personalities exist within systems.
Behavior of an individual must be viewed as fitting any system of
interaction including culture, its situational context, and field theory. Lewin, a field
theorist, believed behavior is a function of life space which is a function of the person
and the environment. He challenged the linear, mechanistic view of behavior.

Joseph Wolpe- developed a theory of reciprocal inhibition. The underlying principle states that
a person cannot be both anxious and relaxed at the same time. Systematic desensitization
(based on the theory of reciprocal inhibition) is a behavioral intervention of
counterconditioning. The goal is to reduce anxiety by associating negative stimuli with
positive events. Specifically, negative images are paired with muscle relaxation.
Subjective Units of Distress Scale (SUDS)- concept used in forming a hierarchy to
perform Wolpe's systematic desensitization (aka, technique for curbing phobic reactions
and anxiety)

Paradoxical intention: With this method, clients are urged to ‘intend’ that
which they fear or wish to change. It may work with a variety of unwanted behaviors such as
insomnia, smoking, arguing, etc.

Implosive therapy: This behaviorally based intervention induces anxiety around the problem by
presenting vivid images or cues (flooding). The anxiety is expected to diminish (extinguish) with
repeated exposure and in the
absence of any threat.

Thought stopping: This behavioral intervention is designed to inhibit recurring

thought by consciously stopping it whenever it occurs.
Thanatos- Greek for death; thanatologists study death

Eros- Greek god of love life, Freudians also use it to talk about self-preservation

Catharsis- talking about difficulties in order to purge emotions in a curative process

Reaction Formation- occurs when a person can't accept a given impulse and this behaves in the
opposite manner.

Sour Grapes Rationalization- underrating a reward (because they didn't get it)
Example: the pizza party wasn’t even cool

Sweet Lemons Rationalization- Overrates a reward (to protect self from bruised ego)
Example: This pizza party is the coolest party I’ve ever been to.
help remembering: (sweets are overrated)

What are the three types of learning?

-reinforcement (operant conditioning)
-association (classical conditioning)
-insight

Eidetic Imagery- Also known as photographic memory. ability to remember the most minute
details of a scene or picture for an extended period of time (children have it but is it gone by
adolescence).

Baseline- frequency that a behavior is manifested prior to or in the absence of treatment.

Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT) - Henry Murray's 1938 work, Exploratoin in Personality -
subjective test

Eclectic Counseling- Associated with Frederick C. Thorne, is when a counselor chooses the best
theoretical approach based on a client’s attributes. About 50% of counselor’s claim to be
eclectic.

Luft & Ingham- personality awareness

 Professional Practice and Ethics

American Counseling Association- Consists of 20 divisions

In 2010 the ACA sponsored task force, 20/20: A Vision for the Future
of Counseling, achieved consensus on the following definition of counseling:
Counseling is a professional relationship that empowers diverse individuals, families,
and groups to accomplish mental health, wellness, education, and career goals.
The ACA Code of Ethics (2014) contains guidelines and mandatory ethics that must be
followed. It should be noted that laws trump ethics.
**According to the ACA code of ethics, a counselor must wait five years before
having a personal relationship with a client
Important Dates:
1913--National Vocational Guidance Association founded – first professional
counseling association
1942--Carl Rogers published Counseling and Psychotherapy
1945+ during the post WWII years, counseling services to veterans in the VA
were greatly expanded
1951--The American Personnel and Guidance Association was founded 1954--The
Office of Vocational Rehabilitation was created
1958--The National Defense Education Act was passed
This provided money for training of school counselors
1960s--Several new theoretical counseling approaches were developed such as
behavioral, reality, gestalt, and rational emotive
1976--State of Virginia passed the first general practice counselor licensure law
1981--Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs
(CACREP) was established

Continuing Trends and Issues

Disaster mental health- A number of events, circumstances and natural phenomena
are leading to an increased focus of the profession on disaster, trauma and crisis
counseling. Natural disasters, wars and conflicts, terrorism and other traumatic events
require particular mental health diagnostic skills and treatment interventions. Beginning
with the 2010 national convention of the ACA, a new category of programs titled
Disaster Mental Health appeared. The Council for Accreditation of Counseling and
Related Educational Programs (CACREP) requires counselor training standards for
disaster, trauma and crisis counseling.

Definition and scope of practice- counseling continues to define areas of interest and
competence such as violence/trauma/crises, multiculturalism, spirituality, wellness, and
technology. Because of the diversity of what counselors do, a ‘collective identity’ is
difficult to establish. Scope of counseling practice is dynamic as changing state laws and
other professions exert influence on the profession.
 Conversion therapy
Conversion therapy is a set of practices that intend to change a person’s sexuality or
gender identity to fit heterosexual or cisgender (sex assigned at birth) standards and
expectations. Such therapy is usually religiously motivated. About 12 states have a
pending ban on conversion therapy.

State of Tennessee- In 2016, the State of Tennessee passed a law that allowed
counselors to refuse to counsel any client because the counselor’s “sincerely held
principles” were in conflict with that of the client. This is a violation of the ACA Code of
Ethics. Although originally focused on sexual orientation differences between counselor
and client, the final version of the law does not target any particular group.

Portability- Portability is the ability of a professional counselor who is licensed in one

state to become licensed in another. Currently, there is no easy transition. Licensed
counselors may become licensed in another state by meeting the
requirements of the “new” state.

Other accrediting bodies-

American Psychological Association (APA) accredits clinical, counseling, school, and
combined areas psychology programs – all at the doctoral level. Nearly 400 separate
programs are accredited.
Commission on Accreditation for Marriage and Family Therapy Education (COAMFTE)
accredits marriage and family therapy training programs at the master’s, doctoral, and
postdoctoral levels.

Reciprocity- This is a process whereby one credentialing agency (e.g., state) accepts the
credential of another agency as equivalent to its own. For example: One state licensure board
accepts the license of another state as equivalent. Some states call this process endorsement
instead of reciprocity.

Confidentiality and privileged communication

Confidentiality is an ethical concept. It springs from the privacy expected in a
counseling relationship and is respected by the counselor.
Privileged communication is a legal concept. It is granted to counselors when a
state law has been passed, such as a licensure law.

Duty to warn (Tarasoff Case) - The Tarasoff family sued the Board of Regents of the University
of California after Tatiana Tarasoff was murdered by Prosenjit Poddar, a client of a university
psychologist. In session, Poddar had threatened to kill Tarasoff. The California court ruled in this
1976 case that failure to warn an intended victim was professionally irresponsible. Under such
circumstances, you must break confidentiality (and waive the privilege if you have it) and warn
the intended victim(s). Clearly, the ability of the counselor to adequately and appropriately
determine the client’s intentions is critical.
Physician-assisted suicide- As of 2017, six states and the District of Columbia allow physician-
assisted suicide: Oregon, Vermont, Washington, Colorado, California and Montana (court ruling,
not state law) and New Mexico (one county only). In general, the individual must have a
terminal illness. Physicians are allowed to prescribe medications to hasten death and cannot be
prosecuted for doing so.

Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974 (FERPA)- This federal law is also referred to
as the Buckley Amendment. The intent of the act was to protect the privacy of individuals. It
allows parents of students under 18 years of age and students themselves, if they are at least
eighteen years old, access to information in their educational (not counseling) records.

Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) – Enacted in 1975 and
renamed in 1990, applies to any school that receives federal funding and prohibits educational
institutions from putting any student at a disadvantage based on disabilities. All students with
disabilities must be given Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) that addresses their
individual needs and helps ready them for higher levels of education or employment. Students
are eligible to receive services until the age of 21.
Every student that is eligible for services under IDEA must also have an Individualized
education plan (IEP) this is reviewed yearly.

U.S. Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Section 504)- Civil rights act that covers individuals with
disabilities and protects them from discrimination from any organization receiving federal
funds.

Title IX of the educational amendments - This 1972 legislation bans sex discrimination in
schools (K-12 and colleges) in academics and athletics. The focus of this law has been mostly on
providing women equal opportunities as men in sports. The same sports do not need to be
available, but women must be provided the same proportional participation
opportunities (same number of athletes, not number or kinds of teams).

Managed health care- Managed health care refers to requirements promoted by insurance
companies to reduce health care costs. It includes strict compliance with policies regarding
diagnosis, treatment plan, record-keeping, etc. Many mental health professionals including
counselors, social workers, and psychologists, who choose to practice privately, apply for
provider list status which are managed by Health Maintenance Organizations (HMOs) or
Preferred Provider Organizations (PPOs).

Affordable Care Act – 2010

The purpose of the Affordable Care Act was to increase the quality and affordability of health
insurance, lower the uninsured rate by expanding public and private insurance coverage, and
lower the costs of healthcare for both individuals and government. A number of tools were
designed to address this including mandates, subsidies, and insurance exchanges to increase
coverage and affordability. Insurance was to cover all applicants within new minimum
standards and offer the same rates regardless of pre-existing conditions. In general, mental
health care services are to be treated the same as regular health care.

Mental health parity, TRICARE, and the VA

The federal law titled Paul Wellstone and Pete Domenici Mental Health Parity and Addiction
Equity Act is now in effect. Private sector health plans covering 50 or more employees and
state and local government plans (not self- insured) must now provide the same level of
coverage to individuals with mental health and addiction issues as to individuals with medical
and surgical issues. The law does not speak to providers of those mental health or
addiction services.

TRICARE allows active and retired military service members and their families to get services
from TRICARE Certified Mental Health Counselors without first seeing a physician, or getting a
referral from a physician. Other licensed professional counselors can continue to practice under
the supervision of a TRICARE-authorized physician.

The Veteran’s Administration has approved the hiring of licensed professional mental health
counselors. Counselors must have a master’s degree in counseling or a related field from a
graduate program recognized by CACREP.

Needs assessment- A need is a discrepancy between what is and what is desired. A needs
assessment measures these discrepancies. The actual form of the needs assessment may vary
although a written questionnaire is often used. For efficiency and cost purposes, a needs
assessment may be conducted electronically. However, needs assessments may also be
conducted through interviews and focus groups. To insure validity of the needs assessed,
random sampling is critical in order to get a representative response and accurate picture of
the needs. The needs assessment process should be structured so the data gathered can be
compiled, analyzed and interpreted.

Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA)- Any counselor who suspects child abuse
or neglect is required by law to report the suspicion to the local child protective services (CPS)
agency within 72 hours from the time of first awareness of the potentially abusive or neglectful
event. Must also submit a written report to CPS after submitting the initial account.

Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPPA) – established in 1996, Used to
protect the privacy of individuals, medical and mental health records. Health organizations
were to be compliant with this law by 2003. Gives patients access to their medical records as
well as say over who can access their medical records.

Ethical Decision Making-

a. beneficence, working for the good of the individual and society
b. nonmaleficence, not doing or inflicting harm
c. autonomy, respecting freedom of choice and self-determination
 d. justice, treating individuals equitably, fairly
e. fidelity, honoring commitments and keeping promises
f. veracity, being truthful with individuals

Chi Sigma Iota- this is the Counseling Academic and Professional Honor Society International
which began in 1985 at Ohio University. The purpose of Chi Sigma Iota is to promote
scholarship, research, professionalism, and excellence in counseling. Members are students,
educators and counseling practitioners. About 120,000 individuals have been initiated into CSI
in chapters in the U.S. and abroad. An important function of Chi Sigma Iota is the development
of leaders in the field of counseling.

Three Conditions of Malpractice- for a malpractice claim to succeed in a court of law, three
conditions must be met
1. The client suffered a physical or psychological injury
2. The injury was caused by a breach of duty
3. There was a breach of duty
 Research and Program Evaluation
Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing data for some purpose
such as investigating a problem or answering a question.

Evidence-based inquiry is the search for knowledge using empirical data which has
been gathered systematically.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

Research may be:

Inductive: this research begins at the real world, practical level. It tends to be
descriptive, correlational, or historical and leads to the building of theory.
Deductive: this research springs from theory which is already established.
This research tries to determine what the relationships are between elements of
the theory and may be experimental in nature.
Non-Experimental Designs- Defining characteristic: Lack of manipulation of the independent
variable. Instead, the researcher studies what occurs or what has already occurred. This can be
done through:
Survey: Questionnaires, interviews, etc. Response rate tends to be below 50%. It can
also be difficult to generalize a survey unless you know the characteristics of the
populations are similar enough.
Descriptive: describes an existing state of events.
Comparative: investigates whether there are differences between two or more groups
without manipulation of variables.
Correlational: Uses the correlation coefficient two determine the degree of relationship
between two or more levels. An example of this could be: income level and attitude
towards counseling
Ex Post Facto: Also known as casual- comparative, studies causal relationships of
variables after the fact. An example of this could be studying two different
psychoeducational groups that included reading and no reading material and finding
that the group that had reading material did better on their posttest. T-test and analysis
of variance are typical statistics used in ex post facto.

Experimental Designs: involve the manipulation of variables

True Experiment: use to determine cause and effect. Random assignment to each
experimental control group.
Quasi-Experiment: Similar to experimental research, but random assignment to control
groups is not possible. It could be that no control group or comparison group is
available. An example of this could be comparing the scores of two classrooms on a test.

Qualitative Research- involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or
audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences.
Interactive: conducted primarily through observation
Case study: individual or individuals that are studied in a particular setting
Ethnography: The systematic study of individual cultures, groups, or a society.
Data is collected through observation and interview.
Non-interactive: conducted primarily through document analysis
Historical Analysis- collecting and analyzing data from former events
Biographical analysis- could be written or oral
Legal analysis- focuses on legal or court decisions

Mixed-Method Research Designs- combine the use of qualitative and quantitative research.
Typically the designs are used sequentially or right after the other. An example of this is that
qualitative research may be performed and then quantitative research may be used to gather
more data and understand relationships.

Single Subject Design- studies the effects of a program or a treatment on an individual. Usually
a baseline has previously been established.
Action Research- Conducted to attempt the improvement of a program or services. A pilot
study may be used in this case.

Longitudinal Research- Collecting data from the same group over a period of time. Also called
a panel study.

Cross Sectional Research- Collecting data from different groups at the same time.

Research can be measured

Within Subjects: measuring changes that occur in the members of a group
Between Subjects: examining changes that occur between two or more groups

Meta-Analysis- Compares findings across multiple different studies.

Internal Validity- relates to how well a study is conducted also known as causal validity.
External Validity- relates to how applicable the findings are in the real world
Threats:
Nonrepresentative samples: your samples can’t be generalized to other
populations
Changes over time
**Ecological Validity: does the result transfer to the real world in regard to
settings?
Placebo effect- subjects could be influenced by the placebo and react in different
ways
**Hawthorne effect- individuals modify behavior if they know they’re being
observed
Experimenter bias

Four Levels of Measurement:

Sampling
How well sampling is conducted will determine how validly we can generalize from a sample to
a population. Sampling involves the selection of a part of the population.
Sampling Methods

Purposeful sampling: In some studies, there may be no interest in generalizing

findings so purposeful sampling may be carried out.
Cluster Sampling: In this sampling, the unit is not an individual but naturally
occurring groups of individuals such as classrooms, city blocks, etc. Clusters are
randomly selected for study.

Sample Size: Sample size influences statistical hypothesis testing. Tables for determining
appropriate sample size are available. A general rule is that 5 to 10 percent of the
population is adequate.
The suggested minimum sample sizes for different kinds of research are:
Correlational: 30
Ex post facto and experimental: 15
Survey: 100

Statistical analysis
Descriptive: also called a summary. used to describe the data collected for a research
sample or population, and include means, standard deviations, frequency counts, and
percentages.
Inferential: used to make inferences from the sample to the population. The goal is to
determine the probability of some event occurring. Z-test and T-test commonly used.
Parametric vs. Non-parametric

Variables: Dependent and Independent

Null Hypothesis: states there is no difference between the variables or groups measured.

hypothesis (directional) - states that one group’s score will be significantly different from
another group’s score (one-tailed test). Example: the girls will have a higher GPA than the boys
at the end of year.

hypothesis (nondirectional) states that there will be differences between the groups but
which group has higher or lower scores is not indicated (two-tailed test). Example: the boys
and girls will have a different GPA at the end of year.

Significance Levels: The significance level may be set by you before data analysis at .05, .01 or
some other level such as .001. The level selected is your willingness to make an error, that is,
rejecting the null hypothesis, when in fact there is not a significant difference between the
groups.
Type I vs Type II errors

T-Test- CAN ONLY BE USED WHEN THERE ARE TWO GROUPS- used to determine whether the
mean scores of two groups are significantly different from each other.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Nonparametric tests- When you cannot assume that your distribution of scores is normally
distributed (resembles a normal curve) or that the variance of your sample is similar to the
variance of the population (homogeneity) you must use nonparametric statistics.
Mann-Whitney U test: when you collect data from two samples that are independent
from each other and the scores are not normally distributed.
Wilcoxen signed-rank test: when you have scores for two samples and these scores are
correlated (that is, you matched them or got two scores for each individual – repeated
measures). However, the scores do not approximate a normal distribution.
Kruskal-Wallis test: when you have more than two mean scores on a single variable.
This is a nonparametric one-way analysis of variance.
Chi Square- Chi-square is another nonparametric test and is used when you have nominal data
(groups or categories). This statistic is used to determine whether two
distributions differ significantly.

Solomon four-group design- This design examines the effect of any pretest used on the
experimental treatment.

Multiple regression- This is the use of the correlation coefficient to determine the strength of
the relationship of predictor (independent) variables on a criterion (dependent) variable.
Multiple regression adds together the predictive power of several
independent variables (predictors).
For example: Predictor variables such as high school GPA, class rank, and ACT
scores may be used to predict the criterion (outcome) variable, which
could be end-of-college freshman year GPA.
Scatterplot (scattergram)- This is a graphic representation of the relationship between two
variables for a group of individuals. Each 1 on the graph is an individual who receives a score on
the X test (e.g., anxiety) and a score on the Y test (e.g., hostility).

Factor analysis- This is a statistical method using the correlation coefficient to determine
whether a set of variables can be reduced to a smaller number of factors.
For example: A factor analysis of all the items on a long inventory with 15 scales may
uncover only four or five factors independent of each other underlying the scales. This
many of the constructs of the 15 scales overlap with each other.

Likert scale- This is a widely used technique for measuring attitudes or opinions. It allows
for several response choices, e.g., a five (or seven or nine) point scale

Halo effect -- this is the tendency for the observer (researcher or data
collector) to form an early impression of the person being observed and then letting this
impression influence observations or ratings

Heteroscedasticity -- one end of a distribution of scores has more variability than the other end
resulting in a fan-like appearance.

Homoscedasticity -- there is an equal distribution of scores throughout the range of scores,

i.e., around a line of best fit.

Inter-rater reliability -- in qualitative research, the reliability calculated by correlating the

responses of several raters.

Observer bias -- this is the tendency of researchers to see, hear and remember what they
want to.

Emphasis on accountability- The emphasis on accountability in the human services field

accelerated in the 1970s and continues today. There is an acute need to demonstrate the
efficacy of counseling in general and the effectiveness of specific theories, techniques, and
approaches inparticular. The emphasis on short-term therapy, often between six and twelve
sessions, argues for research and evaluation to determine what works well for
what kinds of problems with what clients under what circumstances.