 Anatomy

 the science of body structures and the relationships among them

 It was first studied by dissection(dis- apart; -section act of cutting)
 the careful cutting apart of body structures to study their relationships.
 a variety of imaging techniques also contribute to the advancement of anatomical knowledge
 radiography, MRI, Ultrasound Scanning, computed tomography (CT), coronary (cardiac) computed tomography angiography
(CCTA) scan, positron emission tomography (PET), endoscopy, radionuclide scanning,

 Physiology
 the science of body functions—how the body parts work

 Branches of Anatomy
 Embryology
 The first eight weeks of development after fertilization of a human egg.
 Developmental biology
 The complete development of an individual from fertilization to death
 Cell biology
 Cellular structure and functions
 Histology
 Microscopic structure of tissues.
 Gross anatomy
 Structures that can be examined without a microscope.
 Systemic anatomy
 Structure of specific systems of the body such as the nervous or respiratory systems.
 Regional anatomy
 Specific regions of the body such as the head or chest.
 Surface anatomy
 Surface markings of the body to understand internal anatomy through visualization and palpation (gentle touch).
 Imaging anatomy
 Body structures that can be visualized with techniques such as x-rays, MRI, and CT scans.
 Pathological anatomy
 Structural changes (gross to microscopic) associated with pathdisease) disease.

 Branches of Physiology
 Neurophysiology
Functional properties of nerve cells.
 Endocrinology
Hormones (chemical regulators in the blood) and how they control body functions
 Cardiovascular physiology
Functions of the heart and blood vessels.
 Immunology
The body’s defenses against disease-causing agents.
 Respiratory physiology
 Functions of the air passageways and lungs.

 Renal physiology
Functions of the kidneys.
 Exercise physiology
Changes in cell and organ functions due to muscular activity.
 Pathophysiology
Functional changes associated with disease and aging.

 Levels of Structural Organization of the Human Body

 Chemical Level
 atoms, the smallest units of matter that participate in chemical reactions, and molecules, two or more atoms joined together.
 Certain atoms, such as carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), and sulfur
(S), are essential for maintaining life.
 Ex. Of molecules: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material passed from one generation to the next, and glucose,
commonly known as blood sugar.

 Cellular Level
 Molecules combine to form cells, the basic structural and functional units of an organism that are composed of chemicals.
 Cells are the smallest living units in the human body.
 Among the many kinds of cells in your body are muscle cells, nerve cells, and epithelial cells.

 Tissue level.
 Tissues are groups of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together to perform a particular function
 4 basic types of tissues in your body:
a. Epithelial tissue - covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs and cavities, and forms glands.
b. Connective tissue - connects, supports, and protects body organs while distributing blood vessels to other tissues.
c. Muscular tissue - contracts to make body parts move and generates heat.
d. Nervous tissue - carries information from one part of the body to another through nerve impulses.
 Organ level
 At the organ level different types of tissues are joined together.
 organs are structures that are composed of two or more different types of tissues;
 they have specific functions and usually have recognizable shapes.
 Examples of organs are the stomach, skin, bones, heart, liver, lungs, and brain.

 System level
 A system consists of related organs with a common function.
 An example of the system level, also called the organ system level, is the digestive system, which breaks down and absorbs
food.
 Its organs include the mouth, salivary glands, pharynx (throat), esophagus (food tube), stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
 Sometimes an organ is part of more than one system. The pancreas, for example, is part of both the digestive system and
the hormone-producing endocrine system.
  Organismal level
 An organism (OR-ga-nizm), any living individual
 All the parts of the human body functioning together constitute the total organism.

 Basic Life Processes

 Metabolism
 the sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body.
 Catabolism - the breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler components
 Anabolism - the building up of complex chemical substances from smaller, simpler components.
 Example
- digestive processes catabolize (split) proteins in food into amino acids.
- These amino acids are then used to anabolize (build) new proteins that make up body structures such as muscles and
bones.
 . Responsiveness
 is the body’s ability to detect and respond to changes.
 For example, an increase in body temperature during a fever represents a change in the internal environment (within the
body), and turning your head toward the sound of squealing brakes is a response to a change in the external environment
(outside the body) to prepare the body for a potential threat.
 Different cells in the body respond to environmental changes in characteristic ways. Nerve cells respond by generating
electrical signals known as nerve impulses (action potentials).
 Muscle cells respond by contracting, which generates force to move body parts.
 Movement
 includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and even tiny structures inside cells.
 For example, the coordinated action of leg muscles
 After you eat a meal that contains fats, your gallbladder contracts and releases bile into the gastrointestinal tract to help
digest them.
 When a body tissue is damaged or infected, certain white blood cells move from the bloodstream into the affected tissue to
help clean up and repair the area.
 Inside the cell, various parts, such as secretory vesicles move from one position to another to carry out their functions.

 Growth
 is an increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of existing cells, an increase in the number of cells, or
both.
 In addition, a tissue sometimes increases in size because the amount of material between cells increases.
 In a growing bone, for example, mineral deposits accumulate between bone cells, causing the bone to grow in length and
width.

 Differentiation
 is the development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state.
 stem cells - precursor cells, which can divide and give rise to cells that undergo differentiation
 each type of cell in the body has a specialized structure or function that differs from that of its precursor (ancestor) cells
  For example, red blood cells and several types of white blood cells all arise from the same unspecialized precursor cells in
red bone marrow. through differentiation, a single fertilized human egg (ovum) develops into an embryo, and then into a
fetus, an infant, a child, and finally an adult.

 Reproduction
 the formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement,
 the production of a new individual.
─ The formation of new cells occurs through cell division.
─ The production of a new individual occurs through the fertilization of an ovum by a sperm cell to form a zygote,
followed by repeated cell divisions and the differentiation of these cells.

 Homeostasis
 the condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s internal environment due to the constant interaction of the body’s many
regulatory processes.
 a dynamic condition
 in response to changing conditions, the body’s equilibrium can shift among points in a narrow range that is compatible with
maintaining life.
 For example, the level of glucose in blood normally stays between 70 and 110 milligrams of glucose per 100 milliliters of blood.
 Each structure, from the cellular level to the system level, contributes in some way to keeping the internal environment of the body
within normal limits.

 Body Fluids
 Volume and composition must be maintained
 dilute, watery solutions containing dissolved chemicals that are found inside cells as well as surrounding them
a) intracellular fluid (ICF) - fluid within cells is.
b) extracellular fluid (ECF) - fluid outside body cells
c) Interstitial fluid - ECF that fills the narrow spaces between cells of tissues
 ECF differs depending on where it occurs in the body:
 ECF within blood vessels - blood plasma; within lymphatic vessels – lymph; around the brain and spinal cord – cerebrospinal fluid;
in joints - synovial fluid ; the eyes - aqueous humor and vitreous body.

 Homeostatic Imbalances
 A disorder is any abnormality of structure or function.
 Disease is a more specific term for an illness characterized by a recognizable set of signs and symptoms.
a. local disease affects one part or a limited region of the body (for example, a sinus infection);
b. systemic disease affects either the entire body or several parts of it (for example, influenza).
 Diseases alter body structures and functions in characteristic ways.
 A person with a disease may experience symptoms, subjective changes in body functions that are not apparent to an observer.
Examples of symptoms are headache, nausea, and anxiety.
 Objective changes that a clinician can observe and measure are called signs. Signs of disease can be either anatomical, such as
swelling or a rash, or physiological, such as fever, high blood pressure, or paralysis.
 The science that deals with why, when, and where diseases occur and how they are transmitted among individuals in a community
is known as epidemiology
 Pharmacology is the science that deals with the effects and uses of drugs in the treatment of disease.
 Anatomic Positions

 Planes of Sectioning

 Body Cavities
 Quadrants of the Abdomen

 9 Abdominal Regions