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Socio Cultural Anthropology Reviewer

The document discusses topics related to socio-cultural anthropology including race, ethnicity, language, culture, and the development of production. It defines key concepts and describes the relationship between language and culture. The document also covers the evolution of energy production and the development of modern society.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
155 views9 pages

Socio Cultural Anthropology Reviewer

The document discusses topics related to socio-cultural anthropology including race, ethnicity, language, culture, and the development of production. It defines key concepts and describes the relationship between language and culture. The document also covers the evolution of energy production and the development of modern society.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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SOCIO-CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

RACE AND ETHNICITY conflict, and how they come to shape and permeate
both
Race identities and institutions.
- Physical appearance
- A category of humankind that shares LANGUAGE AND CULTURE
certain
distinctive physical traits A language is a form of human
- Biological race communication, consisting of structured and
- Identity within a group of people conventionally used words delivered
descended through speech, writing, or gesture.
from a common ancestor
Culture can be defined broadly as the sum
4 Types of Race total of ways of life developed by a group of
1. Caucasians - white men humans and transferred down from
2. Mongoloid - kayumangi, yellow skin generation to generation.
3. Negroid - Maitim
4. Astroloid - mas maitim pa kesa sa negroid UNIVERSAL FEATURES OF LANGUAGE
1. Language is Arbitrary
Socially Constructed - binuo lang ng lipunan. 2. Language is a Social Phenomenon
3. Language is a Symbolic System
18th-19th – enlightenment 4. Language is Systematic
5. Language is Vocal, Verbal, and Sound
Johan blumenback - Ist introduces race 6. Language is Non-Instinctive,
Conventional
Ethnicity 7. Language is Productive and Creative
- Based on their common tradition, beliefs 8. Language is a System of Communication
language, and so on. 9. Language is Human and Structurally
- Large groups of people are classed Complex
according to 10. Language is Unique, Complex, and
the common racial, national, tribal, religious, Modifiable
cultural origin or background.
- Ethnicity refers to the identification of a Biological Language
group
based on a perceived cultural distinctiveness The study of biology and the evolution of
that makes the group into a “people. language is known as biolinguistics. It is
interdisciplinary in nature because it is
Paganism related to various fields of biology,
- Paganism is a term first used in the fourth linguistics, anthropology, mathematics,
century by early Christians for people in the psychology, and neurolinguistics that
Roman Empire who practiced polytheism or explain how language is formed.
ethnic religions other than Judaism.
- 18th century The Biological Adaptation of Language

W.E.B Du Bois ● All societies have language.


- Made one of the most significant and ● There is no correlation between
long-lasting theoretical contributions to grammatical complexity and social
sociology. complexity.
● Most individuals within society are fully
Sociologists Howard Winant and Michael Omi - competent language users.
developed racial formation theory. Omi and Winant ● People do not have to be taught to speak.
provide an account of how concepts of race are Particularly spoken languages are cultural,
created but the capacity to learn to speak a language
and transformed, how they become the focus of is not.
political
CULTURALASPECT OF LANGUAGE in technology are linked to the sources of
energy
● When it comes to culture, language is the most ● Energy is a conserved quantity, it can be
important aspect. converted in form but it can’t be created nor
● You can never understand the essence of destroyed.
language without understanding the cultural ● Energy is the source of the human being to
aspects/outlook of people. perform work.
● According to Christiansen, et al (2009), ● Sun is the primary source of energy.
language is primarily a culturally evolved ● Energy, water, and food are the three major
system, not a product of biological adaption. elements to ensure human survival.
● Ethnolinguistics or cultural linguistics is the
one that studies the relationship between Two Types of Energy Production
language and the cultural behavior of those 1. Renewable energy – These resources
who used that language. regenerate as fast as they are consumed and are
● Language is a cultural adaptation that can be or continuously available. It includes wind, water,
has been learned. solar, and geothermal sources of energy.

Relationship between Language and Culture 2. Non-renewable energy – These resources have
been the most used type of energy in the
Language and culture are closely connected. modern era. it includes fossil fuels and nuclear
Language and culture have a close relationship materials that are removed from Earth and can
because it is impossible to understand a culture be possibly depleted.
without language.
Evolution of Energy
A Specific language usually refers to a specific
group of people. When you communicate with ● In the 18th Century, people relied upon body
another language, you're also dealing with the energy and biomass energy such as physical labor,
culture of that language's speakers. You cannot and agricultural resources. Windmills and
understand a culture without first learning its watermills were other forms of sources that have
language. their specific purposes.

DEVELOPMENT OF PRODUCTION ● In the mid-19th Century, the industrial


revolution brought a major shift in energy sources
● Refers to the ways an economy is organized to with the usage of coal, mainly for steam engines,
produce commodities to sustain society. but increasingly for power plants. the industrial
● The goods and services we produce, the cities revolution brought a major shift in energy sources
we live in, and the environment we inhabit can with the usage of coal, mainly for steam engines,
be classified as the development of production. but increasingly for power plants.
● It also refers to the social action made by different
agents such as institutions businesses, ● In the Early 20th Century, the major reliance
state, or independent volunteers who are trying was on coal which was widely used by the people
to modify the economy, technical, political, and but a gradual shift towards higher energy content
social life of a given place. sources like oil began.
● It also refers to the social action made by
different agents such as institutions businesses, ● In the late 20th, other sources such as petroleum
state, or independent volunteers who are trying products and the new nuclear fission were now used
to modify the economy, technical, political, and in the world economy. Though, renewable sources
social life of a given place. such as hydro, wind, and solar remained the
● It improves the well-being of every individual marginal sources of energy production.
in society.
● It is the key aspect in obtaining economic
growth. ● In the 21st Century, it is characterized by the
major shifts in energy sources. Fossil fuels,
What is Energy Production? coal, and oil were slowly turning outdated. As
● Thomas Young is known as the Father of biomass-derived fuel was now potential, wind
Energy. and solar energy were now classified as a
● The development and advancement of human notable share of the energy production and
beings prior to their economic growth and even sources.
The Development of Modern Society - Production is increased by bringing more and
more area under cultivation. It is practiced in a
Modernization moderately populated region.
- Modernization refers to a model of a
progressive transition from a pre-modern to a Industrial Society
modern society. This society was one of the significant events in
- Modernization originated from the ideas of human history. Industrial societies appear in the
German sociologist Max Weber from 1864 to 1700s as the existence and development of
1920 which provides the basis for the paradigm machines and factories replaced the plow and other
of modernization. agricultural equipment. The first machines were
steam-and water-powered, but in the long run,
Different Types of Society electricity became the main source of power.
Industrialization leads to prominent development in
Food Hunting and Gathering technological advances, and individuals in this
● This lifestyle was adopted by early humans society typically enjoy greater political freedom, as
around 11 to 12,000 years ago their daily lives rely well as the issue of gender inequality, had been
upon hunting, fishing, and foraging. lowered.
● They also plan to survive such as nuts, root crops,
and vegetables. Post Industrial Society
● The people who experienced this lifestyle were A post-industrial society is a stage where people are
called Nomads. They kept moving from place to dominated by information, services, and high
place to find food. The people in this society have technology more than the production of goods. The
few possessions, the society is fairly egalitarian, and information revolution began with the invention of
the degree of inequality is very low. The members the integrated circuit, or computer chip. Those
of the society are fairly equal in terms of wealth and inventions revolutionized our daily lives. People use
power. many appliances, calculators, computers, and other
electronic devices to control our world. Compared
HORTICULTURE AND PASTORAL to the industrial societies, post-industrial offers
SOCIETY more service jobs with great occupational structure.
This society focuses on technology and service jobs.
● This society is much larger than the hunting and Furthermore, higher education for human beings is
gathering societies. This society was developed significant to attain and helps in economic success.
about 10,000-12,000 years ago.
● The human being in the horticultural societies HUMAN SEXUALITY
tend to grow crops with simple tools, on the other
hand, SEX
● the people in the pastoral society raised livestock
with the help of goats, sheep, camels, and other - refers to a set of biological characteristics in
domesticated animals. The animals are the major humans. Physical and physiological aspects such as
source of their food and serve as their chromosomes, gene expression, hormone levels and
transportation. Some societies can be recognized as function, and reproductive/sexual anatomy are all
horticultural or pastoral, while other societies linked to it.
combine both this type. Pastoral societies are
somewhat nomadic unlike horticultural. GENDER

AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY - refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviours,


- Agriculture is the art and science of cultivating the activities, and attributes that a given society
soil, growing crops, and raising livestock. It consider appropriate for men and women.
includes the preparation of plant and animal
products for people to use and their distribution to Differentiation Between Sex and Gender
markets.
SEX
Types of Agriculture Biological and physiological differences between
- INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE Male and Female on the basis of their reproductive
- Production is increased by using higher inputs structures. Two main categories: Male and Female.
and new techniques. It is practiced in a densely Determined or inherited by birth. Generally, SEX
populated regions. ROLE cannot be changed by time and culture.
- EXTENSIVE AGRICULTURE
Created by the Reproductive needs, that is TYPES OF SEXISM
biological feature. ● Hostile sexism- is antipathy toward women who
violate traditional gender norms.
GENDER ● Benevolent sexism- is prosocial treatment of
Refers to the social, cultural, behavioural and women who full fill traditional gender roles.
emotional differences between men and women. ● Ambivalent sexism- This is a combination of
Main Categories are: Masculine and Feminine. benevolent and hostile sexism. People who engage
Influence by social, cultural, and behavioural in ambivalent sexism may vary between seeing
factors. Flexible term and its ROLE can be changed women as good, pure, and innocent and seeing them
by time and culture Distinction are created by social as manipulative or deceitful, depending on the
norm. situation.

Gender Stratification SEXISM IN DIFFERENT LEVELS IN


SOCIETY
- refers to the differential ability of men and
women to access society's resources and to ● Institutional Sexism- refers to gender
receive its privileges. discrimination reflected in the policies and practices
of organizations such as governments, corporations
Gender Socialization (workplaces), public institutions (schools, health
- is the process through which children learn care), and financial institutions.
about the social expectations, attitudes and ● Interpersonal Sexism- This manifest during
behaviours typically associated with boys and interactions with others. It can occur in the
girls. workplace, within relationships, among family
members, and in interactions with strangers.
Agents of Gender Socialization ● Internalized Sexism- refers to sexist beliefs that
● Parents a person has about themselves. Usually, a person
● Teacher adopts these beliefs involuntarily as a result of
● Peers exposure to sexist behaviour or the opinions of
● Media others.

SEXUALITY AND SEXUAL ORIENTATION FEMINISM


is the belief in full social, economic, and political
Sexuality is an important part of who we are as equality for women. Feminism largely arose in
humans. Beyond the ability to reproduce, sexuality response to Western traditions that restricted the
also defines how we see ourselves and how we rights of women, but feminist thought has global
physically relate to others. manifestations and variations.

Sexual orientation is a term used to refer to a KINDS OF FEMINISM


person’s pattern of emotional, romantic, and sexual ● Radical Feminism- focuses on male oppression of
attraction to people of a particular gender. females both privately and politically.
● Socialist Feminism- is a vibrant intellectual and
Different Categories of Sexual Orientation political current that has come and gone. It has
● Heterosexuality arisen to produce a creative synthesis of debates in
● Homosexuality the late 1960s about the roots of the oppression of
● Bisexuality women.
● Pansexuality ● Cultural Feminism- mainly describes about
● Asexuality “female nature or female essence” that attempts to
revalue and redefine attributes ascribed to the
SEXISM feminine character.
● Liberal Feminism- is a political and economic
The concept of sexism explains that prejudice and principle that stresses individual independence,
discrimination based on sex or gender, not equality of opportunity, and the protection of
biological inferiority, are the social barriers to individual rights.
women’s and girls’ success in various arenas. The
study of sexism has suggested that the solution to HUMAN SEXUALITY
gender inequity is in changing sexist culture and is the quality of being male or female. It is the way
institutions. in which we experience and express ourselves as
sexual beings.
Gender Role include bullying, harassment, verbal and physical
- is often an outward expression of gender identity. abuse, and threats of non-inheritance of privately
It is manifested within society by observable factors acquired properties of the family.
such as behaviour and appearance. Your gender role
demonstrates the typical characteristics of a person MARRIAGE, FAMILY, & MARITAL
in his or her behaviour. RESIDENCE, KINSHIP AND DESCENT

Gender Identity MARRIAGE


- Is the personal sense of one's own gender. There ● Marriage is the legally and sanctioned union of
are many different gender identities, including male, two people.
female, transgender, gender-neutral, non-binary, ● It is regulated by laws, rules, customs, beliefs, and
agender, pan gender, gender queer, two-spirit, third attitudes.
gender, and all, none or a combination of these. ● The universality of marriage within different
societies and cultures is attributed to the basic social
Gender Equality and personal functions for which it provides
- Permits man and woman equal enjoyment of structures.
human rights. is when people of all genders have
equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities. History of Marriage
● The best available evidence suggests that
Human sexuality in different cultural set ups marriage is 4,350 years old.
● The first recorded evidence of a marriage
● In Cordillera Indigenous communities there ceremony uniting one woman and one man can be
remains a low level of acceptance of LGBTQIA+. traced from 2350 B.C. in Mesopotamia.
In effect, many LGBTQIA+ still prefer not to reveal ● Over the next several hundred years, marriage
their gender identity. evolved into a widespread institution that was
embraced by ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and
● LGBTQIA+ are also discriminated against due to Romans.
their non-conformity with the requisites of
traditional leadership, where one has to be married FORMS OF MARRIAGE
to a person from the opposite sex, produce children, Polygamy- is the practice of marrying multiple
and have physical and mental strength. In this spouses.
context, being an LGBTQIA+ is taboo, and until
this day remains a sensitive issue. Polyandry is a form of polygamy in which a
woman
● All of the elderly women interviewed said that as takes two or more husbands at the same time.
far as they can remember, doing the kaingin with
their parents were one of their main tasks. Polygyny is contrasted with polygyny, involving
Kaingin is slash-and-burn farming (swidden one male and two or more females.
farming) where trees are cut and burned to make
way for temporary fields, with the ashes used as Fraternal polyandry in which a group of brothers
fertilizers. shares a wife.

● It is normally the men who do the preparation of a Non-fraternal polyandry in which a woman's
kaingin while women do the planting. Planting and husbands are not related.
harvesting crops like rice, gallang, ginger, taro and
kamote (sweet potato) have been the Kalanguyan’s Sororal polygyny (White 1988) is described as a
way of life while growing up. They are a very marriage in which a man is married to two or more
hardworking tribe that does not discriminate sisters.
between men and women when it comes to work.
Non-sororal polygyny is the practice of one man
● There is still a low level of acceptance of being married to at least two women at the same
LGBTQ+ in the Mangyan Indigenous Group, but time, but the co-wives are not related to each other.
like in Cordillera IPs, many of them did not reveal it
because some LGBTQ+ in Mangyan were ● Monogamy- the practice or state of being married
experience discrimination. to one person at a time.
● Same-sex marriage- a marriage between partners
● Examples of discrimination against LGBTQ+ in of the same sex and/or gender identity.
Indigenous communities in the Mangyan IPs
Problems of Marriage ● Levirate Marriage- Forced marriage of a
• Divorce and Remarriage widow to the brother of her deceased husband.
• Child Abuse
• Domestic Violence ● Sororate Marriage- Forced marriage of the
sister of a deceased or infertile wife to marry or
Economic Aspects of Marriage have sex with her brother-in-law, the
•Bride Price - A gift of money or goods from the widower/husband.
groom or his kin to the bride’s kin. ● Arranged marriage- Bride and groom are
primarily selected by individuals other than the
• Bride Service - The provision of labor to the couple themselves, particularly by family
bride's family. members such as the parents.

• Exchange of Females - A custom whereby a FAMILY


sister or female relative of the groom is exchanged A family is the smallest set of people who are
for the bride. connected with one another.

• Dowry- Generally is practiced in cultures where Functions of Family


women’s roles are less valued then men. This • Emotional Support
practice requires the transfer of goods from the • Procreation
bride’s family to the groom to compensate for • Economic Support
acceptance of the responsibility of her support. • Socialization
• Regulate Sexual Behaviour
• Indirect dowry
- occurs when a woman uses her dowry to “marry Grandparents Families
up” and increase her and subsequently her A grandparent family is a family with grandchildren
children’s social status. and no parents present in the intervening generation.

• Hypergamy Extended Family


- is a little like bride price. With this custom, the a family that includes in one household near
groom’s family gives goods to the bride’s father relatives (such as grandparents, aunts, or uncles) in
who in turn gifts them to his daughter. addition to a nuclear family

• Women Exchange Nuclear Family Nuclear Family, also called


- With woman exchange, no gifts are exchanged by elementary family, in sociology and anthropology,
the families but each family gives a bride to the is a group of people who are united by ties of
other family; each family loses a daughter but gains partnerships and parenthood and consist of a pair of
a daughter-in-law. adults and their socially recognized children.
Typically, but not always, the adults in a nuclear
• Gift exchange family are married.
- In this practice, the families of the betrothed
exchange gifts of equal value. PART OF NUCLEAR FAMILY
Mother and Father
Restriction on Marriage Parents who may identify as LGBTQ+
Biological or adopted children
● In Western societies love between spouses Legally married parents, or parents who
came to be associated with marriage, but even aren't married, but are committed to each
in Western Cultures love was not the primary other and their family.
motive for matrimony in most eras, and one’s
marriage partner was carefully chosen. Unconventional Families (Polygamous family)
● Endogamy- Cultural pressures to marry within As in polygamy one man is allowed to marry more
one’s social, economic, and ethnic group are than one wife at a time. Accordingly, a polygamous
still very strongly enforced in some societies. family consists of a husband and his several wives
● Exogamy- Marrying outside the group. and their children. In this type of family all the wife
● Child marriage- Any marriage entered into may stay together along with their children or each
where one or both parties are children (persons may have a separate household.
below 18 years old), and solemnized in civil or
church proceedings, or in any recognized One-Parent Domestic Family
traditional, cultural or customary manner.”
"A single parent is a person who lives with a child Ancestry and descent, are the basis of individual
or children who does not have a spouse or live-in- and collective identity.
partner."
Types of single parent
Divorce parent
Widowed parent
Non-married
Parent who split up
Parent who are single by choice

KINSHIP

Kinship is the single most important social structure


in all societies. Kinship is based on both
consanguineal (blood) and affinal (marriage)
relations or even fictive ties (adoption, godparents). Descent Systems
1. Unilineal Descent
3 TYPES OF KINSHIP • Matrilineal - Mother's Brother
- Descent is traced through parents and ancestors of
Affinity (Karelasyon, dapat kasal) only one sex.
a kinship created by marriage, such as the bond • Patrilineal
between a man and his wife and her family (in-
laws). People who have an affinity relationship with
each other are "affines."

Consanguinity (Kadugo)
Consanguinity literally means "with the blood"
Socially recognized biological descent link, such as
between a woman and her father, aunt, or daughter.
Individuals who have a consanguinity relationship
are "consanguines".

FICTITIOUS/FICTIVE KINSHIP
Fictitious kinship is, in other words, a kind of
relationship in which two individuals create a kind
of parent-child relationship without any blood or
marriage ties.

Through:
1. adoption
2. fostering
3. god-parenthood, etc.

Functions of Kinship:
1. Vertical Function – binding together successive
generations, thereby providing social continuity.
2. Horizontal Function – typing people across a
single generation through marriage practices.

DESCENT

Method of classifying individuals in terms of their


various kinship connections.

Relationship between an individual and their


ancestors through blood (consanguinity), marriage
(affinity), or adoption.
Segmentary Lineages, may be divided and
subdivided into smaller segments. Lineages
constructed on the basis of acknowledged descent
lines occur in various sizes according to their
"generational depth". The number of branches at
each point of division is dependent upon the number
of sons or daughters attributed to the previous
ancestor.

DETERMINANTS OF CLAN
A kind of kin group whose members claim a shared
identity and certain rights based upon descent from
a common ancestor.

What is Marital Residence?


The legal residence of husband and wife, and any
children, during the period of the marriage.

FOUR MAJOR RESIDENCE PATTENS

Neo-locality

having a new location specifically: located apart


from the families of either spouse is called a
DETERMINANTS OF BILATERAL DESCENT
neolocal residence.
Bilateral systems are usually based on defining
Patrilocality
circles of relationship, or kindreds, on the basis of
an egocentric kinship network. An alternative
Patrilocality is found usually in societies that have
arrangement, a bilateral descent group, or stock, is
patrilineal descent, which is when descent is traced
formed on the basis of common ancestry from an
only through male ancestors to their offspring.
identified founder.
Because the husband is able to remain in his
childhood setting while the wife is taken away from
Lineage is a descent group reckoned through only
hers, patrilocality gives the husband's family more
one parent. it is either the father or mother.
authority.
DETERMINANTS OF LINEAGE
Matrilocality
Patrilineage- Lineage-based approaches analyze
DNA on the Y chromosomes which is passed down
Matrilocal residence is instituted by a rule that a
almost unchanged from father to son. Agnatic
woman remains in her mother's household after
reaching maturity and brings her husband to live
Matrilineage- Analyse mitochondrial DNA which is
with her family after marriage. Sons, conversely,
passed down nearly from mother to children.
move out of their natal household after marriage to
Uxorial
join their wife's household.
SEGMENTARY LINEAGES
village. The instruments are made from carabao horn
Avunculocality (gisi), bent by fire with lemon thorns and/or four
needles (gambang) attached at the tip.

Avunculocal Residence is also related in matrilineal SCARIFICATION


societies however in this case the couple moves to
live with the husband’s mother’s brother. They live Scarification involves scratching, etching,
with the most significant man, his uncle, because burning/branding, or superficially cutting designs,
pictures, or words into the skin as a permanent body
it’s who they will later inherit everything from. modification or body art. In the process of body
scarification, scars are purposely formed by cutting or
ARTS: BODY DECORATION AND branding the skin by various methods.
ADORNMENTS
BODY PIERCING
Anthropology of art is a sub-field in cultural a type of body modification, is the practice of cutting
anthropology dedicated to the study of art in or puncturing a section of the human body to make a
different cultural contexts. The anthropology of art hole for the insertion of an implant or the wearing of
studies and analyze the wide range of jewelry. The term "piercing" can be used to describe
material objects produced by people around the either a physical opening made as a result of body
piercing, or it can refer to the act itself.
world. These are considered not merely as
aesthetic objects but are understood to play a wider NOSE PIERCING
role in people's lives, for instance in there The Mughal Empire brought nose piercing to the Indian
beliefs and rituals. The materials studied include subcontinent for the first time in the 16th
century. Nowadays, a phul (a stud) or nath (a ring) is typically
sculpture, masks, paintings, textiles, baskets, worn in the left nostril and occasionally connected to the ear
pots, weapons, and the human body itself. by a chain.

Body decoration and adornments EAR PIERCING


Ear piercing is a practice among the Dongria Kondh of the
Body decorations refer to the various modifications, Niyamgiri hills in northeast India for defense.
enhancements, or embellishments that individuals or
LIP PIERCING
communities apply to their bodies for aesthetic,
Nommo had used in their mythical weaving, all of which are
cultural, social, or symbolic purposes. These
connected to the notion of speech.
decorations can take the form of tattoos, piercings, For the Dogon women, wearing lip rings forms a ritualistic
scarification, body paint, clothing, jewelry, hairstyles, passage from childhood to womanhood.
and other forms of bodily alterations. The delivery of
each culture’s customs regarding body modification BODY PAINTING
and the symbolism found therein reveals a lot about Another example of body art is body painting. In some
the people’s philosophy and social standards. cultures, body painting is limited to the face, while others
cover their entire bodies. The purposes of this type of body art
The origins of body decorations and adornments can include, but are not limited to, sub-cultural identification and
be traced back to ancient times, and they have been announcements of social status and accomplishments.
practiced by diverse cultures worldwide.
Variation of arts
TATTOOING
Art varies depending on how a culture is express. Culture is
diverse and it can be seen on how they express it.
is a form of body art that has been practiced for
thousands of years. It involves inserting pigment into ● Different societies have different standards of beauty, and
the skin to change its color permanently. It can be body decorations play a role in meeting those standards.
traced back 4000 years to Egyptians who used a ● Different societies have different belief system of religion.
sharp needle to puncture the skin. Polynesians, ● Different societies have different expression of power and
Maoris, Maya, Incas, Celts, Danes, Saxons, and Scots social status.
also tattooed their bodies to identify their job, marital ● Different societies have different expression of cultural
status, or to memorialize battles, journeys, visions, or identity.
clan or caste status. Tattoos developed into an art
form in eighteenth-century Japan, often covering the
entire body.

Tattooing can be a way for individuals to express


membership in a larger community. Not only are
communities formed around having body art, but some may
obtain tattoos as a mark of belonging to a certain community
(e.g., tattoos of a cross as a symbol of the Christian faith).

Batek is the Kalinga term for the traditional tattoos,


or inscriptions found on their skin. Batek is done
through hand-tapped pricking, the traditional method
of tattooing done by a manbatek (tattoo artist) in the

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