United Nations

The United Nations, referred to informally as

the UN, is an intergovernmental organization
whose stated purposes are to maintain
international peace and security, develop
friendly relations among nations, achieve
international cooperation, and serve as a
centre for harmonizing the actions of
nations.[2] It is the world's largest
international organization.[3] The UN is
headquartered on international territory in
New York City, and the organization has other
offices in Geneva, Nairobi, Vienna, and The
Hague, where the International Court of
Justice is headquartered.
 United Nations
Arabic: ‫منظمة األمم المتحدة‬
Chinese: 联合国
French: Organisation des Nations unies
Russian: Организация Объединённых
Наций
Spanish: Organización de las Naciones
Unidas

Flag Emblem

Motto: An inclusive United Nations, It’s your

world!

Peace, dignity and equality on a healthy planet.

Anthem: "Hymn to the United Nations"

United Nations on the March
 Members of the United Nations
Headquarters 760 United Nations
Plaza, Manhattan,
New York City
(international territory)

Official languages Arabic · Chinese ·

English · French ·
Russian · Spanish[1]

Type Intergovernmental
organization

Membership 193 member states

2 observer states

Leaders
• Secretary‑General António Guterres
• Deputy Secretary- Amina J. Mohammed
General
• General Assembly Csaba Kőrösi
President
• Economic and Social Collen Vixen Kelapile
Council President
 • Security Council United Arab Emirates
Presidency (June 2023)
Establishment
• UN Charter signed 26 June 1945
• Charter entered into 24 October 1945
force
Population
• 2016 estimate 7,403,020,000
un.org Website
(https://www.un.org/en/) (General)
un.int (https://www.un.int)
Missions) (Permanent

Preceded by
League of Nations

The UN was established after World War II

with the aim of preventing future world wars,
and succeeded the League of Nations, which
was characterized as ineffective.[4] On 25
April 1945, 50 nations met in San Francisco,
California for a conference and started
drafting the UN Charter, which was adopted
on 25 June 1945. The charter took effect on
24 October 1945, when the UN began
operations. The organization's objectives, as
defined by its charter, include maintaining
international peace and security, protecting
human rights, delivering humanitarian aid,
promoting sustainable development, and
upholding international law.[5] At its founding,
the UN had 51 member states; as of 2023, it
has 193 – almost all of the world's sovereign
states.[6]

The organization's mission to preserve world

peace was complicated in its early decades
due in part to Cold War tensions that existed
between the United States and Soviet Union
and their respective allies. Its mission has
included the provision of primarily unarmed
military observers and lightly armed troops
charged with primarily monitoring, reporting
and confidence-building roles.[7] UN
membership grew significantly following
widespread decolonization in the 1960s.
Since then, 80 former colonies have gained
independence, including 11 trust territories
that had been monitored by the Trusteeship
Council.[8] By the 1970s, the UN's budget for
economic and social development
programmes vastly exceeded its spending on
peacekeeping. After the end of the Cold War
in 1991, the UN shifted and expanded its field
operations, undertaking a wide variety of
complex tasks.[9]

The UN has six principal operational

organizations: the General Assembly, the
Security Council, the Economic and Social
Council, the International Court of Justice, the
UN Secretariat, and the Trusteeship Council,
although the Trusteeship Council has been
inactive since 1994. The UN System includes
a multitude of specialized agencies, funds,
and programmes, including the World Bank
Group, the World Health Organization, the
World Food Programme, UNESCO, and
UNICEF. Additionally, non-governmental
organizations may be granted consultative
status with the Economic and Social Council
and other agencies.

The UN's chief administrative officer is the

secretary-general, currently Portuguese
politician and diplomat António Guterres, who
began his first five year-term on 1 January
2017 and was re-elected on 8 June 2021. The
organization is financed by assessed and
voluntary contributions from its member
states.

The UN, its officers, and its agencies have

won many Nobel Peace Prizes, though other
evaluations of its effectiveness have been
mixed. Some commentators believe the
organization to be an important force for
peace and human development, while others
have called it ineffective, biased, and corrupt.

History

Background (pre-1941)

In the century prior to the UN's creation,

several international organizations such as
the International Committee of the Red Cross
were formed to ensure protection and
assistance for victims of armed conflict and
strife.[10]

During World War I, several major leaders,

especially American President Woodrow
Wilson, advocated for a world body to
guarantee peace. The winners of the war, the
Allies, met to decide on formal peace terms
at the Paris Peace Conference. The League
of Nations was approved, and started
operations, but the U.S. never joined. On 10
January 1920, the League of Nations formally
came into being when the Covenant of the
League of Nations, ratified by 42 nations in
1919, took effect.[11] The League Council
acted as an executive body directing the
Assembly's business. It began with four
permanent members—the UK, France, Italy,
and Japan.

After some limited successes and failures

during the 1920s, the League proved
ineffective in the 1930s; as it failed to act
against the Japanese invasion of Manchuria
in 1933. Forty nations voted for Japan to
withdraw from Manchuria but Japan voted
against it and walked out of the League
instead of withdrawing from Manchuria.[12] It
also failed to act against the Second Italo-
Ethiopian War, when calls for economic
sanctions against Italy failed. Italy and other
nations left the League.

When war broke out in 1939, the League

closed down.[13]
Declarations by the Allies of World War
II (1941–1944)

1943 sketch by Franklin Roosevelt of the UN original three branches: The Four Policemen, an executive branch, and an
international assembly of forty UN member states

The first step towards the establishment of

the United Nations was the Inter-Allied
Conference that led to the Declaration of St
James's Palace on 12 June 1941.[14][15] By
August 1941, American President Franklin
Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston
Churchill had drafted the Atlantic Charter;
which defined goals for the post-war world.
At the subsequent meeting of the Inter-Allied
Council in London on 24 September 1941, the
eight governments in exile of countries under
Axis occupation, together with the Soviet
Union and representatives of the Free French
Forces, unanimously adopted adherence to
the common principles of policy set forth by
the UK and the United States.[16][17]

Roosevelt and Churchill met at the White

House in December 1941 for the Arcadia
Conference. Roosevelt, considered a founder
of the UN,[18][19] coined the term United
Nations to describe the Allied countries.
Churchill accepted it, noting its use by Lord
Byron.[20][21] The text of the Declaration by
United Nations was drafted on 29 December
1941, by Roosevelt, Churchill, and Harry
Hopkins. It incorporated Soviet suggestions
but included no role for France. One major
change from the Atlantic Charter was the
addition of a provision for religious freedom,
which Stalin approved after Roosevelt
insisted.[22][23]

Roosevelt's idea of the "Four Powers",

referring to the four major Allied countries,
the United States, the UK, the Soviet Union,
and China, emerged in the Declaration by the
United Nations.[24] On New Year's Day 1942,
Roosevelt, Churchill, the Soviet Union's former
Foreign Minister Maxim Litvinov, and the
Chinese Premier T. V. Soong signed the
"Declaration by United Nations",[25] and the
next day the representatives of twenty-two
other nations added their signatures. During
the war, the United Nations became the
official term for the Allies. In order to join,
countries had to sign the Declaration and
declare war on the Axis powers.[26]

The October 1943 Moscow Conference

resulted in the Moscow Declarations,
including the Four Power Declaration on
General Security which aimed for the creation
"at the earliest possible date of a general
international organization". This was the first
public announcement that a new international
organization was being contemplated to
replace the League of Nations. The Tehran
Conference followed shortly afterwards at
which Roosevelt, Churchill and Joseph Stalin,
the Leader of the Soviet Union, met and
discussed the idea of a post-war
international organization.

The new international organisation was

formulated and negotiated amongst the
delegations from the Allied Big Four at the
Dumbarton Oaks Conference from 21
September to 7 October 1944. They agreed
on proposals for the aims, structure and
functioning of the new organization.[27][28][29]
It took the conference at Yalta in February
1945, and further negotiations with Moscow,
before all the issues were resolved.[30]
Founding (1945)

The UN in 1945: founding members in light blue, protectorates and territories of the founding members in dark blue

By 1 March 1945, 21 additional states had

signed the Declaration by the United
Nations.[31] After months of planning, the UN
Conference on International Organization
opened in San Francisco on 25 April 1945. It
was attended by 50 nation's governments
and a number of non-governmental
organizations.[32][33][34] The delegations of the
Big Four chaired the plenary meetings.[35]
Churchill urged Roosevelt to restore France to
its status of a major power after the
liberation of Paris in August 1944. The
drafting of the Charter of the United Nations
was completed over the following two
months, and it was signed on 26 June 1945
by the representatives of the 50
countries.[36][37] The UN officially came into
existence on 24 October 1945, upon
ratification of the Charter by the five
permanent members of the Security Council:
the United States, the UK, France, the Soviet
Union and China — and by a majority of the
other 46 nations.[38]

The first meetings of the General Assembly,

with 51 nations represented,[a] and the
Security Council took place in London
beginning in January 1946.[38] Debates began
at once, covering topical issues such as the
presence of Russian troops in Iranian
Azerbaijan and British forces in Greece.[41]
British diplomat Gladwyn Jebb served as
interim secretary-general.

The General Assembly selected New York

City as the site for the headquarters of the
UN. Construction began on 14 September
1948 and the facility was completed on 9
October 1952. Its site (like UN headquarters
buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi) is
designated as international territory.[42] The
Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was
elected as the first UN secretary-general; as
Jebb was only in the position until a
permanent secretary-general was elected.[38]

Cold War (1947–1991)

Dag Hammarskjöld was a particularly active secretary-general from 1953 until he died in 1961.

Though the UN's primary mandate was

peacekeeping, the division between the
United States and the Soviet Union often
paralysed the organization; generally allowing
it to intervene only in conflicts distant from
the Cold War.[43] Two notable exceptions
were a Security Council resolution on 7 July
1950 authorizing a US-led coalition to repel
the North Korean invasion of South Korea,
passed in the absence of the Soviet
Union,[38][44] and the signing of the Korean
Armistice Agreement on 27 July 1953.[45]

On 29 November 1947, the General Assembly

approved a resolution to partition Palestine,
approving the creation of Israel.[46] Two years
later, Ralph Bunche, a UN official, negotiated
an armistice to the resulting conflict.[47] On 7
November 1956, the first UN peacekeeping
force was established to end the Suez
Crisis;[48] however, the UN was unable to
intervene against the Soviet Union's
simultaneous invasion of Hungary, following
the country's revolution.[49]

On 14 July 1960, the UN established the

United Nations Operation in the Congo (or
UNOC), the largest military force of its early
decades, to bring order to Katanga, restoring
it to the control of the Democratic Republic of
the Congo by 11 May 1964.[50] While travelling
to meet rebel leader Moise Tshombe during
the conflict, Dag Hammarskjöld, often named
as one of the UN's most effective secretary-
generals,[51] died in a plane crash. Months
later he was posthumously awarded the
Nobel Peace Prize.[52] In 1964,
Hammarskjöld's successor, U Thant,
deployed the UN Peacekeeping Force in
Cyprus, which would become one of the UN's
longest-running peacekeeping missions.[53]

With the spread of decolonization in the

1960s, the organization's membership shot
up due to an influx of newly independent
nations. In 1960 alone, 17 new states joined
the UN, 16 of them from Africa.[48] On 25
October 1971, with opposition from the
United States, but with the support of many
Third World nations, the People's Republic of
China was given the Chinese seat on the
Security Council in place of the Republic of
China (also known as Taiwan). The vote was
widely seen as a sign of waning American
influence in the organization.[54] Third World
nations organized themselves into the Group
of 77 under the leadership of Algeria, which
briefly became a dominant power at the
UN.[55] On 10 November 1975, a bloc
comprising the Soviet Union and Third World
nations passed a resolution, over strenuous
American and Israeli opposition, declaring
Zionism to be racism. The resolution was
repealed on 16 December 1991, shortly after
the end of the Cold War.[56][57]

With an increasing Third World presence and

the failure of UN mediation in conflicts in the
Middle East, Vietnam, and Kashmir, the UN
increasingly shifted its attention to its
secondary goals of economic development
and cultural exchange.[58] By the 1970s, the
UN budget for social and economic
development was far greater than its
peacekeeping budget.

Post-Cold War (1991–present)

Kofi Annan, secretary-general from 1997 to 2006

Flags of member nations at the United Nations Headquarters, seen in 2007

After the Cold War, the UN saw a radical
expansion in its peacekeeping duties, taking
on more missions in five years than it had in
the previous four decades.[59] Between 1988
and 2000, the number of adopted Security
Council resolutions more than doubled, and
the peacekeeping budget increased by more
than tenfold.[60][61][62] The UN negotiated an
end to the Salvadoran Civil War, launched a
successful peacekeeping mission in Namibia,
and oversaw democratic elections in post-
apartheid South Africa and post-Khmer
Rouge Cambodia.[63] In 1991, the UN
authorized a US-led coalition that repulsed
Iraq's invasion of Kuwait.[64] Brian Urquhart,
the under-secretary-general of the UN from
1971 to 1985, later described the hopes
raised by these successes as a "false
renaissance" for the organization, given the
more troubled missions that followed.[65]

Beginning in the last decades of the Cold War,

critics of the UN condemned the organization
for perceived mismanagement and
corruption.[66] In 1984, American President
Ronald Reagan withdrew the United States'
funding from the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organisation (or
UNESCO) over allegations of
mismanagement, followed by the UK and
Singapore.[67][68] Boutros Boutros-Ghali, the
secretary-general from 1992 to 1996, initiated
a reform of the Secretariat, somewhat
reducing the size of the organisation.[69][70]
His successor, Kofi Annan, initiated further
management reforms in the face of threats
from the US to withhold its UN dues.[70]

Though the UN Charter had been written

primarily to prevent aggression by one nation
against another, in the early 1990s the UN
faced several simultaneous, serious crises
within Somalia, Haiti, Mozambique, and the
nations that previously made up
Yugoslavia.[71] The UN mission in Somalia
was widely viewed as a failure after the
United States' withdrawal following
casualties in the Battle of Mogadishu. The
UN mission to Bosnia faced worldwide
ridicule for its indecisive and confused
mission in the face of ethnic cleansing.[72] In
1994, the UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda
failed to intervene in the Rwandan genocide
amidst indecision in the Security Council.[73]

From the late 1990s to the early 2000s,

international interventions authorized by the
UN took a wider variety of forms. The United
Nations Security Council Resolution 1244
authorised the NATO-led Kosovo Force
beginning in 1999. The UN mission in the
Sierra Leone Civil War was supplemented by
a British military intervention. The invasion of
Afghanistan in 2001 was overseen by
NATO.[74] In 2003, the United States invaded
Iraq despite failing to pass a UN Security
Council resolution for authorization,
prompting a new round of questioning of the
organization's effectiveness.[75]

Under the eighth secretary-general, Ban Ki-

moon, the UN intervened with peacekeepers
in crises such as the War in Darfur in Sudan
and the Kivu conflict in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo and sent observers
and chemical weapons inspectors to the
Syrian Civil War.[76] In 2013, an internal review
of UN actions in the final battles of the Sri
Lankan Civil War in 2009 concluded that the
organization had suffered a "systemic
failure".[77] In 2010, the organization suffered
the worst loss of life in its history, when 101
personnel died in the Haiti earthquake.[78]
Acting under the United Nations Security
Council Resolution 1973 in 2011, NATO
countries intervened in the First Libyan Civil
War.

The Millennium Summit was held in 2000 to

discuss the UN's role in the 21st century.[79]
The three-day meeting was the largest
gathering of world leaders in history, and it
culminated in the adoption by all member
states of the Millennium Development Goals
(or MDGs), a commitment to achieve
international development in areas such as
poverty reduction, gender equality and public
health. Progress towards these goals, which
were to be met by 2015, was ultimately
uneven. The 2005 World Summit reaffirmed
the UN's focus on promoting development,
peacekeeping, human rights and global
security.[80] The Sustainable Development
Goals (or SDGs) were launched in 2015 to
succeed the Millennium Development
Goals.[81]

In addition to addressing global challenges,

the UN has sought to improve its
accountability and democratic legitimacy by
engaging more with civil society and fostering
a global constituency.[82] In an effort to
enhance transparency, in 2016 the
organization held its first public debate
between candidates for secretary-general.[83]
On 1 January 2017, Portuguese diplomat
António Guterres, who had previously served
as the UN High Commissioner for Refugees,
became the ninth secretary-general. Guterres
has highlighted several key goals for his
administration, including an emphasis on
diplomacy for preventing conflicts, more
effective peacekeeping efforts, and
streamlining the organization to be more
responsive and versatile to international
needs.[84]

On 13 June 2019, the UN signed a Strategic

Partnership Framework with the World
Economic Forum in order to "jointly
accelerate" the implementation of the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development.[85]
Structure
The United Nations is part of the broader UN
System, which includes an extensive network
of institutions and entities. Central to the
organization are five principal organs
established by the UN Charter: the General
Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic
and Social Council, the International Court of
Justice and the UN Secretariat.[86] A sixth
principal organ, the Trusteeship Council,
suspended its operations on 1 November
1994 upon the independence of Palau; the
last remaining UN trustee territory.[87]

Four of the five principal organs are located

at the main UN Headquarters in New York
City, while the International Court of Justice is
seated in The Hague.[88] Most other major
agencies are based in the UN offices at
Geneva,[89] Vienna,[90] and Nairobi,[91] and
additional UN institutions are located
throughout the world. The six official
languages of the UN, used in
intergovernmental meetings and documents,
are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian
and Spanish.[92] On the basis of the
Convention on the Privileges and Immunities
of the United Nations, the UN and its
agencies are immune from the laws of the
countries where they operate; safeguarding
the UN's impartiality with regard to host and
member countries.[93]
Below the six organs sit, in the words of the
author Linda Fasulo, "an amazing collection
of entities and organizations, some of which
are actually older than the UN itself and
operate with almost complete independence
from it".[94] These include specialized
agencies, research and training institutions,
programmes and funds and other UN
entities.[95]

All organizations in the UN system obey the

Noblemaire principle, which calls for salaries
that will attract and retain citizens of
countries where compensation is highest, and
which ensures equal pay for work of equal
value regardless of the employee's
nationality.[96][97] In practice, the International
 Civil Service Commission, which governs the
conditions of UN personnel, takes reference
to the highest-paying national civil service.[98]
Staff salaries are subject to an internal tax
that is administered by the UN
organizations.[96][99]

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General Assembly

Mikhail Gorbachev, leader of the Soviet Union, addressing the UN General Assembly in December 1988

The General Assembly is the main

deliberative assembly of the UN. Composed
of all UN member states, the assembly meets
in regular yearly sessions at the General
Assembly Hall, but emergency sessions can
also be called.[101] The assembly is led by a
president, elected by the member states on a
rotating regional basis, and 21 vice-
presidents.[102] The first session convened on
10 January 1946 in the Methodist Central Hall
in London and included representatives of 51
nations.[38]

When the General Assembly decides on

important questions such as those on peace
and security, admission of new members and
budgetary matters, a two-thirds majority of
those present and voting is required.[103][104]
All other questions are decided by a majority
vote. Each member has one vote. Apart from
the approval of budgetary matters,
resolutions are not binding on the members.
The Assembly may make recommendations
on any matters within the scope of the UN,
except matters of peace and security that are
under consideration by the Security
Council.[101]

Draft resolutions can be forwarded to the

General Assembly by its six main
committees:[105]

First Committee (Disarmament and

International Security)
Second Committee (Economic and
Financial)
Third Committee (Social, Humanitarian, and
Cultural)
 Fourth Committee (Special Political and
Decolonization)
Fifth Committee (Administrative and
Budgetary)
Sixth Committee (Legal)

As well as by the following two committees:

General Committee – a supervisory

committee consisting of the assembly's
president, vice-president, and committee
heads
Credentials Committee – responsible for
determining the credentials of each
member nation's UN representatives
Security Council

Colin Powell, the US Secretary of State, demonstrates a vial with alleged Iraq chemical weapon probes to the UN Security Council
on Iraq war hearings, 5 February 2003.

The Security Council is charged with

maintaining peace and security amongst
nations. While other organs of the UN can
only make recommendations to member
states, the Security Council has the power to
make binding decisions that member states
have agreed to carry out, under the terms of
Charter Article 25.[106] The decisions of the
council are known as United Nations Security
Council resolutions.[107]

The Security Council is made up of fifteen

member states, consisting of five permanent
members: China, France, Russia, the UK, and
the United States, and ten non-permanent
members elected for two-year terms by the
General Assembly: Albania, Brazil, Gabon,
Ghana, India, Ireland, Kenya, Mexico, Norway
and the United Arab Emirates.[108] The five
permanent members hold veto power over
UN resolutions, allowing a permanent
member to block adoption of a resolution,
though not debate. The ten temporary seats
are held for two-year terms, with five member
states per year voted in by the General
Assembly on a regional basis.[109] The
presidency of the Security Council rotates
alphabetically each month.[110]

UN Secretariat

António Guterres, the current secretary-general

The UN Secretariat carries out the day-to-day

duties required to operate and maintain the
UN system.[111] It is composed of tens of
thousands of international civil servants
worldwide and headed by the secretary-
general, who is assisted by the deputy
secretary-general.[112] The Secretariat's
duties include providing information and
facilities needed by UN bodies for their
meetings and carrying out tasks as directed
by the Security Council, the General Assembly,
the Economic and Social Council, and other
UN bodies.[113]

The secretary-general acts as the

spokesperson and leader of the UN. The
position is defined in the UN Charter as the
organization's chief administrative officer.[114]
Article 99 of the charter states that the
secretary-general can bring to the Security
Council's attention "any matter which in their
opinion may threaten the maintenance of
international peace and security", a phrase
that secretaries-general since Trygve Lie have
interpreted as giving the position broad scope
for action on the world stage.[115] The office
has evolved into a dual role of an
administrator of the UN organization and a
diplomat and mediator addressing disputes
between member states and finding
consensus to global issues.[116]

The secretary-general is appointed by the

General Assembly, after being recommended
by the Security Council, where the permanent
members have veto power. There are no
specific criteria for the post, but over the
years it has become accepted that the
position shall be held for one or two terms of
five years.[117] The current secretary-general
is António Guterres of Portugal, who replaced
Ban Ki-moon in 2017.
Secretaries-general of the United Nations[118]
Country Took
No. Name Left offic
of origin office

24
United 2 Februa
- Gladwyn Jebb October
Kingdom 1946
1945

2 10
1 Trygve Lie February Novembe
Norway
1946 1952

18
Dag 10 April
2 Septemb
Hammarskjöld Sweden 1953
1961

3 U Thant Burma 30 31
November Decembe
 1961 1971

31
Kurt 1 January
4 Decembe
Waldheim Austria 1972
1981

31
Javier Pérez 1 January
5 Peru Decembe
de Cuéllar 1982
1991

31
Boutros 1 January
6 Egypt Decembe
Boutros-Ghali 1992
1996

31
1 January
7 Kofi Annan Ghana Decembe
1997
2006

8 Ban Ki-moon South 1 January 31

Korea 2007 Decembe
 2016

António 1 January
9 Incumben
Guterres Portugal 2017

International Court of Justice

The ICJ ruled that Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence from Serbia in 2008 did not violate international law.

The International Court of Justice (or ICJ),

sometimes known as the World Court,[119] is
the primary judicial organ of the UN. It is the
successor to the Permanent Court of
International Justice and occupies the body's
former headquarters in the Peace Palace in
The Hague, Netherlands, making it the only
principal organ not based in New York City.
The ICJ's main function is adjudicating
disputes among nations. Examples of issues
they have heard include war crimes, violations
of state sovereignty and ethnic cleansing.[120]
The court can also be called upon by other
UN organs to provide advisory opinions on
matters of international law.[121] All UN
member states are parties to the ICJ Statute,
which forms an integral part of the UN
Charter, and non-members may also become
parties. The ICJ's rulings are binding upon
parties and, along with its advisory opinions,
serve as sources of international law.[119] The
court is composed of 15 judges appointed to
nine-year terms by the General Assembly.
Every sitting judge must be from a different
nation.[121][122]

Economic and Social Council

The Economic and Social Council (or the

ECOSOC) assists the General Assembly in
promoting international economic and social
co-operation and development.[123] It was
established to serve as the UN's primary
forum for global issues and is the largest and
most complex UN body.[123] The ECOSOC's
functions include gathering data, conducting
studies and advising and making
recommendations to member states.[124][125]
Its work is carried out primarily by subsidiary
bodies focused on a wide variety of topics.
These include the United Nations Permanent
Forum on Indigenous Issues, which advises
UN agencies on issues relating to indigenous
peoples, the United Nations Forum on
Forests, which coordinates and promotes
sustainable forest management, the United
Nations Statistical Commission, which co-
ordinates information-gathering efforts
between agencies, and the Commission on
Sustainable Development, which co-ordinates
efforts between UN agencies and NGOs
working towards sustainable development.
ECOSOC may also grant consultative status
to non-governmental organizations.[124] as of
April 2021 almost 5,600 organizations have
this status.[126][127]

Specialized agencies

The UN Charter stipulates that each primary

organ of the United Nations can establish
various specialized agencies to fulfill its
duties.[128] Specialized agencies are
autonomous organizations working with the
United Nations and each other through the
co-ordinating machinery of the Economic and
Social Council. Each was integrated into the
UN system through an agreement with the UN
under UN Charter article 57.[129] There are
fifteen specialized agencies, which perform
functions as diverse as facilitating
international travel, preventing and
addressing pandemics, and promoting
economic development.[130][b]
Specialized agencies of the United Nations

No. Acronym Agency Headquarter

Food and
1 FAO Agriculture Rome, Italy
Organization

International Civil Montreal,

2 ICAO Aviation Quebec,
Organization Canada

International Fund
3 IFAD for Agricultural Rome, Italy
Development

International
Geneva,
4 ILO Labour
Switzerland
Organization
No. Acronym Agency Headquarter

International London,
5 IMO Maritime United
Organization Kingdom

Washingto
International
6 IMF D.C., United
Monetary Fund
States

International
Geneva,
7 ITU Telecommunication
Switzerland
Union

United Nations
Educational,
Paris,
8 UNESCO Scientific and
France
Cultural
Organization
No. Acronym Agency Headquarter

United Nations
Industrial Vienna,
9 UNIDO
Development Austria
Organization

World Tourism Madrid,

10 UNWTO
Organization Spain

Universal Postal Bern,

11 UPU
Union Switzerland

Washingto
12 WBG World Bank Group D.C., United
States

World Health Geneva,

13 WHO
Organization Switzerland

14 WIPO World Intellectual Geneva,

Property Switzerland
No. Acronym Agency Headquarter

Organization

World
Geneva,
15 WMO Meteorological
Switzerland
Organization

Funds, programmes, and other bodies

The United Nations system includes a myriad

of autonomous, separately administered
funds, programmes, research and training
institutes, and other subsidiary bodies.[131]
Each of these entities have their own area of
work, governance structure, and budget such
as the World Trade Organization (or the WTO)
and the International Atomic Energy Agency
(or the IAEA), operate independently of the
UN but maintain formal partnership
agreements. The UN performs much of its
humanitarian work through these institutions,
such as preventing famine and malnutrition
(the World Food Programme), protecting
vulnerable and displaced people (the
UNHCR), and combating the HIV/AIDS
pandemic (the UNAIDS).[132]
Programmes and funds of the United Nations
Acronyms Agency Headquarters Head

United
New York
Nations
UNDP City, United Achim
Development
States Steiner
Programme

United
New York
Nations
UNICEF City, United Catherine
Children's
States M. Russel
Fund

United
Nations New York
Marc
UNCDF Capital City, United
Bichler
Development States
Fund

WFP World Food Rome, Italy David

 Programme Beasley

United
Nations Nairobi, Inger
UNEP
Environment Kenya Andersen
Programme

United
New York
Nations Natalia
UNFPA City, United
Population Kanem
States
Fund

United
Nations
UN- Nairobi, Maimunah
Human
HABITAT Kenya Mohd
Settlements
Sharif
Programme

United
Bonn, Richard
UNV Nations
Germany Dictus
Volunteers
Membership

193 UN member states

2 UN Observer States (Palestine, Vatican)
2 eligible Non-Member States (Niue, Cook Islands)
17 non-self-governing territories
Antarctica (international territory)

All the world's undisputed independent

states, apart from Vatican City, are members
of the United Nations.[6][c] South Sudan, which
joined 14 July 2011, is the most recent
addition, bringing a total of 193 UN member
states.[133] The UN Charter outlines the
membership rules:
1. Membership in the United
Nations is open to all other
peace-loving states that
accept the obligations
contained in the present
Charter and, in the judgment
of the Organization, are able
and willing to carry out these
obligations.
2. The admission of any such
state to membership in the
United Nations will be
effected by a decision of the
General Assembly upon the
recommendation of the
 Security Council. Chapter II,
Article 4.[134]

Under the leadership of Sukarno, Indonesia was the first and only country to leave the United Nations.

In addition, there are two non-member

observer states: the Vatican City and
Palestine.[135] The Cook Islands and Niue,
both states in free association with New
Zealand, are full members of several UN
specialized agencies and have had their "full
treaty-making capacity" recognized by the
Secretariat.[136]

Indonesia was the first and the only nation to

withdraw its membership from the United
Nations, in protest to the election of Malaysia
as a non-permanent member of the Security
Council in 1965 during conflict between the
two countries.[137] After forming CONEFO as
a short-lived rival to the UN, Indonesia
resumed its membership in 1966.

Group of 77

The Group of 77 (or the G77) at the UN is a

loose coalition of developing nations that is
designed to promote its members' collective
economic interests and create an enhanced
joint negotiating capacity in the UN. Seventy-
seven nations founded the organization, but
by November 2013 the organization had since
expanded to 133 member countries.[138] The
group was founded 15 June 1964 by the
"Joint Declaration of the Seventy-Seven
Countries" issued at the United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development (or
the UNCTAD). The group held its first major
meeting in Algiers in 1967, where it adopted
the Charter of Algiers and established the
basis for permanent institutional
structures.[139] With the adoption of the New
International Economic Order by developing
countries in the 1970s, the work of the G77
spread throughout the UN system. Similar
groupings of developing states also operate
in other UN agencies, such as the Group of 24
(or the G-24), which operates in the IMF on
monetary affairs.

Objectives
The overarching strategy of the United
Nations in captured in the United Nations
Common Agenda.[140][141]

Peacekeeping and security

The UN, after approval by the Security

Council, sends peacekeepers to regions
where armed conflict has recently ceased or
paused to enforce the terms of peace
agreements and to discourage combatants
from resuming hostilities. Since the UN does
not maintain its own military, peacekeeping
forces are voluntarily provided by member
states. These soldiers are sometimes
nicknamed "Blue Helmets" because they wear
distinctive blue helmets.[142][143]
Peacekeeping forces as a whole received the
Nobel Peace Prize in 1988.[144]

A Nepalese soldier on a peacekeeping deployment providing security at a rice distribution site in Haiti during 2010
The UN has carried out 71 peacekeeping
operations since 1947, and as of April 2021,
over 88,000 peacekeeping personnel from
121 nations have been deployed on
missions.[145] The largest is the United
Nations Mission in South Sudan (or UNMISS),
which has close to 19,200 uniformed
personnel,[146] and the smallest, the United
Nations Military Observer Group in India and
Pakistan (or UNMOGIP), consists of 113
civilians and experts charged with monitoring
the ceasefire in Jammu and Kashmir. UN
peacekeepers with the United Nations Truce
Supervision Organization (or UNTSO) have
been stationed in the Middle East since 1948,
the longest-running active peacekeeping
mission.[147]

A study by the RAND Corporation in 2005

found the UN to be successful in two-thirds
of their peacekeeping efforts. It compared
efforts at nation-building by the UN to those
of the United States, and found that 87.5% of
UN cases are at peace, as compared with
50% of U.S. cases at peace.[148] Also in 2005,
the Human Security Report documented a
decline in the number of wars, genocides, and
human rights abuses since the end of the
Cold War, and presented evidence, albeit
circumstantial, that international activism —
mostly spearheaded by the UN — has been
the main cause of the decline in armed
conflict.[149] Situations in which the UN has
not only acted to keep the peace but also
intervened include the Korean War and the
authorization of intervention in Iraq after the
Gulf War.[150] Further studies published
between 2008 and 2021 determined UN
peacekeeping operations to be more effective
at ensuring long-lasting peace and minimizing
civilian casualties.[151]

The UN Buffer Zone in Cyprus was established in 1974 following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus.
The UN has also drawn criticism for
perceived failures. In many cases, member
states have shown reluctance to achieve or
enforce Security Council resolutions.
Disagreements in the Security Council about
military action and intervention are seen as
having failed to prevent the Bangladesh
genocide in 1971,[152] the Cambodian
genocide in the 1970s,[153] and the Rwandan
genocide in 1994.[154] Similarly, UN inaction is
blamed for failing to either prevent the
Srebrenica massacre or complete the
peacekeeping operations during the Somali
Civil War.[155] UN peacekeepers have also
been accused of child rape, soliciting
prostitutes, and sexual abuse during various
peacekeeping missions in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo,[156] Haiti,[157]
Liberia,[158] Sudan,[159] Burundi, and Côte
d'Ivoire.[160] Scientists cited UN peacekeepers
from Nepal as the source of the 2010s Haiti
cholera outbreak, which killed more than
8,000 people.[161]

In addition to peacekeeping, the UN is also

active in encouraging disarmament.
Regulation of armaments was included in the
writing of the UN Charter in 1945 and was
envisioned as a way of limiting the use of
human and economic resources for their
creation.[106] The advent of nuclear weapons
came only weeks after the signing of the
charter, resulting in the first resolution of the
first General Assembly meeting calling for
specific proposals for "the elimination from
national armaments of atomic weapons and
of all other major weapons adaptable to
mass destruction".[162] The UN has been
involved with arms-limitation treaties such as
the Outer Space Treaty, the Treaty on the
Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, the
Seabed Arms Control Treaty, the Biological
Weapons Convention, the Chemical Weapons
Convention, and the Ottawa Treaty.[163] Three
UN bodies oversee arms proliferation issues:
the International Atomic Energy Agency, the
Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical
Weapons and the Comprehensive Nuclear-
Test-Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory
Commission.[164] Additionally, many
peacekeeping missions focus on
disarmament: several operations in West
Africa disarmed roughly 250,000 former
combatants and secured tens of thousands
of weapons and millions of munitions.[165]

Human rights

One of the UN's primary purposes is

"promoting and encouraging respect for
human rights and for fundamental freedoms
for all without distinction as to race, sex,
language, or religion", and member states
pledge to undertake "joint and separate
action" to protect these rights.[128][166]
Eleanor Roosevelt with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1949

In 1948, the General Assembly adopted a

Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
drafted by a committee headed by American
diplomat and activist Eleanor Roosevelt, and
including the French lawyer René Cassin. The
document proclaims basic civil, political and
economic rights common to all human
beings, though its effectiveness towards
achieving these ends has been disputed since
its drafting.[167] The Declaration serves as a
"common standard of achievement for all
people and all nations" rather than a legally
binding document, but it has become the
basis of two binding treaties, the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the
International Covenant on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights.[168] In practice, the UN is
unable to take significant action against
human rights abuses without a Security
Council resolution, though it does substantial
work in investigating and reporting
abuses.[169]

In 1979, the General Assembly adopted the

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women; followed by
the Convention on the Rights of the Child in
1989.[170] With the end of the Cold War, the
push for human rights action took on new
impetus.[171] The United Nations Commission
on Human Rights was formed in 1993 to
oversee human rights issues for the UN,
following the recommendation of that year's
World Conference on Human Rights. Jacques
Fomerand, a scholar of the UN, describes the
organization's mandate as "broad and vague",
with only "meagre" resources to carry it
out.[172] In 2006, it was replaced by a Human
Rights Council consisting of 47 nations.[173]
Also in 2006, the General Assembly passed a
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
People,[174] and in 2011 it passed its first
resolution recognizing the rights of members
of the LGBTQ+ community.[175]
Other UN bodies responsible for women's
rights issues include the United Nations
Commission on the Status of Women, the
United Nations Development Fund for Women
and the United Nations International
Research and Training Institute for the
Advancement of Women.[176] The UN
Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, one
of three bodies with a mandate to oversee
issues related to indigenous peoples, held its
first session in 2002.[177]
Economic development and
humanitarian assistance

Millennium Development Goals[178]

1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

2. Achieve universal primary education
3. Promote gender equality and empower
women
4. Reduce child mortality
5. Improve maternal health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other
diseases
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
 8. Develop a global partnership for
development

Another primary purpose of the UN is "to

achieve international co-operation in solving
international problems of an economic,
social, cultural and humanitarian
character".[166] Numerous bodies have been
created to work towards this goal, primarily
under the authority of the General Assembly
and the ECOSOC.[179] In 2000, the 192 UN
member states agreed to achieve eight
Millennium Development Goals by 2015.[180]
The Sustainable Development Goals were
launched in 2015 to succeed the Millennium
Development Goals.[81] The SDGs have an
associated financing framework called the
Addis Ababa Action Agenda.

The UN Development Programme (or the

UNDP), an organization for grant-based
technical assistance, is one of the leading
bodies in the field of international
development. The organization also
publishes the UN Human Development Index,
a comparative measure ranking countries by
poverty, literacy, education, life expectancy,
and other factors.[181][182] The Food and
Agriculture Organization (or the FAO)
promotes agricultural development and food
security.[183] The United Nations Children's
Fund (or UNICEF) was created in 1946 to aid
European children after the Second World
War and expanded its mission to provide aid
around the world and to uphold the
convention on the Rights of the Child.[184][185]

Three former directors of the Global Smallpox Eradication Programme reading the news that smallpox has been globally
eradicated in 1980

The World Bank Group and the International

Monetary Fund (or the IMF) are independent,
specialized agencies and observers within
the UN framework.[186] They were initially
formed separately from the UN through the
Bretton Woods Agreement.[187] The World
Bank provides loans for international
development, while the IMF promotes
international economic co-operation and
gives emergency loans to indebted
countries.[188]

In Jordan, UNHCR remains responsible for the Syrian refugees and the Zaatari refugee camp.

The World Health Organization (or WHO),

which focuses on international health issues
and disease eradication, is another of the
UN's largest agencies. In 1980, the agency
announced that the eradication of smallpox
had been completed. In subsequent decades,
WHO eradicated polio, river blindness, and
leprosy.[189] The Joint United Nations
Programme on HIV/AIDS (or UNAIDS) co-
ordinated the organization's response to the
AIDS epidemic.[190] The UN Population Fund,
which also dedicates part of its resources to
combating HIV, is the world's largest source
of funding for reproductive health and family
planning services.[191]

Along with the International Red Cross and

Red Crescent Movement, the UN takes a
leading role in co-ordinating emergency
relief.[192] The World Food Programme (or the
WFP) provides food aid in response to
famine, natural disasters, and armed conflict.
The organization feeds an average of 90
million people in 80 nations per year.[192][193]
The Office of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees (or the UNHCR)
works to protect the rights of refugees,
asylum seekers and stateless people.[194]
The UNHCR and the WFP programmes are
funded by voluntary contributions from
governments, corporations, and individuals,
though the UNHCR's administrative costs are
paid for by the UN's primary budget.[195]

Environment and climate

Beginning with the formation of the UN

Environmental Programme (or the UNEP) in
1972, the UN has made environmental issues
a prominent part of its agenda. A lack of
success in the first two decades of UN work
in this area led to the Earth Summit in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992; which sought to give
new impetus to these efforts.[196] In 1988, the
UNEP and the World Meteorological
Organization (or the WMO), another UN
organization, established the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,
which assesses and reports on research on
global warming.[197] The UN-sponsored Kyoto
Protocol set legally binding emissions
reduction targets for ratifying states.[198]

Other global issues

Since the UN's creation, over 80 colonies have

attained independence. The General
Assembly adopted the Declaration on the
Granting of Independence to Colonial
Countries and Peoples in 1960 with no votes
against but abstentions from all major
colonial powers. The UN works towards
decolonization through groups including the
UN Committee on Decolonization.[199] The
committee lists seventeen remaining "non-
self-governing territories", the largest and
most populous of which is the Western
Sahara.[200]

The UN also declares and co-ordinates

international observances that bring
awareness to issues of international interest
or concern; examples include World
Tuberculosis Day, Earth Day, and the
International Year of Deserts and
Desertification.[201]
Funding
Top 25 contributors to the United Nations
budget for the period 2019–2021[202]
Contribution
Member state
(% of UN budget)
United States 22.000
China 12.005
Japan 8.564
Germany 6.090
United Kingdom 4.567
France 4.427
Italy 3.307
Brazil 2.948
Canada 2.734
Russia 2.405
 South Korea 2.267
Australia 2.210
Spain 2.146
Turkey 1.371
Netherlands 1.356
Mexico 1.292
Saudi Arabia 1.172
Switzerland 1.151
Argentina 0.915
Sweden 0.906
India 0.834
Belgium 0.821
Poland 0.802
Algeria 0.788
Norway 0.754
Other member states 12.168
The UN budget for 2022 was $3.1 billion, not
including additional resources donated by
members, such as peacekeeping
forces.[203][204]

The UN is financed from assessed and

voluntary contributions from its member
states. The General Assembly approves the
regular budget and determines the
assessment for each member. This is broadly
based on the relative capacity of each nation
to pay, as measured by its gross national
income (or GNI), with adjustments for
external debt and low per capita income.[205]

The Assembly has established the principle

that the UN should not be unduly dependent
on any one member to finance its operations.
Thus, there is a "ceiling" rate, setting the
maximum amount that any member can be
assessed for the regular budget. In December
2000, the Assembly revised the scale of
assessments in response to pressure from
the United States. As part of that revision, the
regular budget ceiling was reduced from 25%
to 22%.[206] For the least developed countries
(or LDCs), a ceiling rate of 0.01% is
applied.[205] In addition to the ceiling rates,
the minimum amount assessed to any
member nation (or "floor" rate) is set at
0.001% of the UN budget ($31,000 for the
two-year budget 2021–2022).[207][208]
A large share of the UN's expenditure
addresses its core mission of peace and
security, and this budget is assessed
separately from the main organizational
budget.[209] The peacekeeping budget for the
2021–2022 fiscal year is $6.38 billion,
supporting 75,224 personnel deployed in 10
missions worldwide.[210] UN peace
operations are funded by assessments, using
a formula derived from the regular funding
scale that includes a weighted surcharge for
the five permanent Security Council members,
who must approve all peacekeeping
operations. This surcharge serves to offset
discounted peacekeeping assessment rates
for less developed countries. The largest
contributors to the UN peacekeeping budget
for 2020–2021 are: the United States
(27.89%), China (15.21%), Japan (8.56%),
Germany (6.09%), the United Kingdom
(5.78%), France (5.61%), Italy (3.30%), Russia
(3.04%), Canada (2.73%), and South Korea
(2.26%).[211]

Special UN programmes not included in the

regular budget, such as UNICEF and the
World Food Programme, are financed by
voluntary contributions from member
governments, corporations, and private
individuals.[212][213]
Evaluations, awards, and
criticism

The 2001 Nobel Peace Prize to the UN—diploma in the lobby of the UN Headquarters in New York City

Evaluations

In evaluating the UN as a whole, Jacques

Fomerand writes that the "accomplishments
of the United Nations in the last 60 years are
impressive in their own terms. Progress in
human development during the 20th century
has been dramatic, and the UN and its
agencies have certainly helped the world
become a more hospitable and livable place
for millions".[214] Evaluating the first 50 years
of the UN's history, the author Stanley Meisler
writes that "the United Nations never fulfilled
the hopes of its founders, but it
accomplished a great deal nevertheless",
citing its role in decolonization and its many
successful peacekeeping efforts.[215]

British historian Paul Kennedy states that

while the organization has suffered some
major setbacks, "when all its aspects are
considered, the UN has brought great
benefits to our generation and will bring
benefits to our children's and grandchildren's
generations as well."[216]
Then French President François Hollande
stated in 2012 that "France trusts the United
Nations. She knows that no state, no matter
how powerful, can solve urgent problems,
fight for development and bring an end to all
crises. France wants the UN to be the centre
of global governance".[217] In his 1953
address to the United States Committee for
United Nations Day, American President
Dwight D. Eisenhower expressed his view
that, for all its flaws, "the United Nations
represents man's best organized hope to
substitute the conference table for the
battlefield".[218]

UN peacekeeping missions are assessed to

be generally successful. An analysis of 47
peace operations by Virginia Page Fortna of
Columbia University found that UN-led
conflict resolution usually resulted in long-
term peace.[219] Political scientists Hanne
Fjelde, Lisa Hultman and Desiree Nilsson of
Uppsala University studied twenty years of
data on peacekeeping missions, concluding
that they were more effective at reducing
civilian casualties than counterterrorism
operations by nation states.[220] Georgetown
University professor Lise Howard postulates
that UN peacekeeping operations are more
effective due to their emphasis on "verbal
persuasion, financial inducements and
coercion short of offensive military force,
including surveillance and arrest", which are
likelier to change the behavior of warring
parties.[151]

Awards

A number of agencies and individuals

associated with the UN have won the Nobel
Peace Prize in recognition of their work. Two
secretaries-general, Dag Hammarskjöld and
Kofi Annan, were each awarded the prize; as
were Ralph Bunche, a UN negotiator, René
Cassin, a contributor to the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, and the
American Secretary of State Cordell Hull for
his role in the organization's founding. Lester
B. Pearson, the Canadian Secretary of State
for External Affairs, was awarded the prize in
1957 for his role in organizing the UN's first
peacekeeping force to resolve the Suez
Crisis. UNICEF won the prize in 1965, the
International Labour Organization in 1969, the
UN Peacekeeping Forces in 1988, the
International Atomic Energy Agency (which
reports to the UN) in 2005, and the UN-
supported Organisation for the Prohibition of
Chemical Weapons in 2013. The UN High
Commissioner for Refugees was awarded the
prize in 1954 and 1981, becoming one of only
two recipients to win the prize twice. The UN
as a whole was awarded the prize in 2001,
sharing it with Annan.[221] In 2007, the IPCC
received the prize "for their efforts to build up
and disseminate greater knowledge about
man-made climate change, and to lay the
foundations for the measures that are
needed to counteract such change."[222]

Criticism

Role

Marking of the UN's 70th anniversary – Budapest, 2015

In a sometimes-misquoted statement,
American President George W. Bush stated in
February 2003—referring to UN uncertainty
towards Iraqi provocations under the Saddam
Hussein regime—that "free nations will not
allow the UN to fade into history as an
ineffective, irrelevant debating
society."[223][224][225]

In 2020, former American President Barack

Obama, in his memoir A Promised Land
noted, "In the middle of the Cold War, the
chances of reaching any consensus had been
slim, which is why the UN had stood idle as
Soviet tanks rolled into Hungary or U.S.
planes dropped napalm on the Vietnamese
countryside. Even after the Cold War,
divisions within the Security Council
continued to hamstring the UN's ability to
tackle problems. Its member states lacked
either the means or the collective will to
reconstruct failing states like Somalia, or
prevent an ethnic slaughter in places like Sri
Lanka."[226][227]

Since its founding, there have been many

calls for reform of the UN but little consensus
on how to do so. Some want the UN to play a
greater or more effective role in world affairs,
while others want its role reduced to
humanitarian work.

Representation and structure

Core features of the UN apparatus, such as

the veto privileges of some nations in the
Security Council, are often described as
fundamentally undemocratic, contrary to the
UN mission, and a main cause of inaction on
genocides and crimes against
humanity.[228][229]

Jacques Fomerand state that the most

enduring divide in views of the UN is "the
North–South split" between richer Northern
nations and developing Southern nations.
Southern nations tend to favour a more
empowered UN with a stronger General
Assembly, allowing them a greater voice in
world affairs, while Northern nations prefer
an economically laissez-faire UN that
focuses on transnational threats such as
terrorism.[230]
There have also been numerous calls for the
UN Security Council's membership to be
increased, for different ways of electing the
UN's secretary-general, and for a UN
Parliamentary Assembly.

Exclusion of countries

After World War II, the French Committee of

National Liberation was late to be recognized
by the United States as the government of
France, and so the country was initially
excluded from the conferences that created
the new organization. Future French president
Charles de Gaulle criticized the UN, famously
calling it a machin (contraption), and was not
convinced that a global security alliance
would help maintain world peace, preferring
direct defence treaties between
countries.[231]

Since 1971, the Republic of China, also known

as Taiwan, has been excluded from the UN
and consistently denied membership in its
reapplications. The UN officially adheres to
the "One China" policy endorsed by most
member states, which recognizes the
People's Republic of China as the only
legitimate Chinese government.[232] Critics
allege that this position reflects a failure of
the organization's development goals and
guidelines,[233] and it garnered renewed
scrutiny during the COVID-19 pandemic, when
Taiwan was denied membership into the
World Health Organization despite its
relatively effective response to the virus.[234]
Support for Taiwan's inclusion is subject to
pressure from the People's Republic of China,
which regards the territories administered by
Taiwan as their own territory.[235][236]

Independence

Throughout the Cold War, both the United

States and the Soviet Union repeatedly
accused the UN of favouring the other. In
1950, the Soviet Union boycotted the
organization in protest to China's seat at the
UN Security Council being given to the anti-
communist Republic of China. Three years
later, the Soviets effectively forced the
resignation of UN Secretary-General Trygve
Lie by refusing to acknowledge his
administration due to his support of the
Korean War.[237]

Ironically, the United States had

simultaneously scrutinized the UN for
employing communists and Soviet
sympathizers, following a high-profile
accusation that Alger Hiss, an American who
had taken part in the establishment of the UN,
had been a Soviet spy. American Senator
Joseph McCarthy claimed that the UN
Secretariat under Secretary-General Lie
harboured American communists, leading to
further pressure that the UN chief resign.[238]
The United States saw nascent opposition to
the UN in the 1960s, particularly amongst
conservatives, with groups such as the John
Birch Society stating that the organization
was an instrument for communism.[239]
Popular opposition to the UN was expressed
through bumper stickers and signs with
slogans such as "Get the U.S. out of the U.N.
and the U.N. out of the U.S.!" and "You can't
spell communism without U.N."[240]

National sovereignty

In the United States, there were concerns

about supposed threats to national
sovereignty, most notably promoted by the
John Birch Society, which mounted a
nationwide campaign in opposition to the UN
during the 1960s.[241][242][243]

Beginning in the 1990s, the same concern

appeared with the American Sovereignty
Restoration Act, which has been introduced
multiple times in the United States Congress.
In 1997, an amendment containing the bill
received a floor vote, with 54 representatives
voting in favor.[244][245] The 2007 version of
the bill (H.R. 1146 (https://www.congress.go
v/bill/110th-congress/house-bill/1146) ) was
authored by U.S. Representative Ron Paul, to
affect the United States' withdrawal from the
United Nations. It would repeal various laws
pertaining to the UN, terminate authorization
for funds to be spent on the UN, terminate UN
presence on American property, and withdraw
diplomatic immunity for UN employees.[246] It
would provide up to two years for the United
States to withdraw.[247] The Yale Law Journal
cited the Act as proof that "the United
States's complaints against the United
Nations have intensified."[248] The most
recent iteration, as of 2022, is H.R.7806,
introduced by Mike D. Rogers.[249]

Bias

The UN's attention to Israel's treatment of

Palestinians is considered excessive by a
range of critics, including Israeli diplomat
Dore Gold, British scholar Robert S. Wistrich,
American legal scholar Alan Dershowitz,
Australian politician Mark Dreyfus, and the
Anti-Defamation League.[250] In September
2015, Saudi Arabia's Faisal bin Hassan Trad
was elected chair of an advisory committee
in the UN Human Rights Council,[251] a move
criticized by human rights groups.[252][253] The
UNHRC has likewise been accused of anti-
Israel bias, as it has passed more resolutions
condemning Israel than the rest of the world
combined.[254]

Effectiveness

According to international relations scholar

Edward Luck, the United States has preferred
a feeble United Nations in major projects
undertaken by the organization to forestall
UN interference with, or resistance to,
American policies. "The last thing the U.S.
wants is an independent UN throwing its
weight around," Luck said. Similarly, former
US Ambassador to the United Nations Daniel
Patrick Moynihan explained that "The
Department of State desired that the United
Nations prove utterly ineffective in whatever
measures it undertook. The task was given to
me, and I carried it forward with not
inconsiderable success."[255]

In 1994, former special representative of the

secretary-general of the UN to Somalia
Mohamed Sahnoun published Somalia: The
Missed Opportunities,[256] a book in which he
analyses the reasons for the failure of the
1992 UN intervention in Somalia. Sahnoun
claims that between the start of the Somali
civil war in 1988 and the fall of the Siad Barre
regime in January 1991, the UN missed at
least three opportunities to prevent major
human tragedies. When the UN tried to
provide humanitarian assistance, they were
totally outperformed by NGOs, whose
competence and dedication sharply
contrasted with the UN's excessive caution
and bureaucratic inefficiencies. Sahnoun
warned that if radical reform were not
undertaken, then the UN would continue to
respond to such crises with inept
improvisation.[257]
Beyond specific instances or areas of alleged
ineffectiveness, some scholars debate the
overall effectiveness of the UN. Adherents to
the realist school of international relations
take a pessimistic position, arguing that the
UN is not an effective organization because it
is dominated and constrained by great
powers. Liberal scholars counter that it is an
effective organization because it has proved
capable of solving many problems by working
around the restrictions imposed by powerful
member states. The UN is generally
considered by scholars to be more effective
in realms such as public health, humanitarian
assistance, and conflict resolution.[258]
Inefficiency and corruption

Critics have also accused the UN of

bureaucratic inefficiency, waste, and
corruption. In 1976, the General Assembly
established the Joint Inspection Unit to seek
out inefficiencies within the UN system.
During the 1990s, the United States withheld
dues citing inefficiency and only started
repayment on the condition that a major
reforms initiative be introduced. In 1994, the
Office of Internal Oversight Services (or the
OIOS) was established by the General
Assembly to serve as an efficiency
watchdog.[259]
In 2004, the UN faced accusations that its
recently ended Oil-for-Food Programme — in
which Iraq had been allowed to trade oil for
basic needs to relieve the pressure of
sanctions — had suffered from widespread
corruption, including billions of dollars of
kickbacks. An independent inquiry created by
the UN found that many of its officials had
been involved in the scheme, and raised
significant questions about the role of Kojo
Annan, the son of Kofi Annan.[260]

Model United Nations

The United Nations has inspired the
extracurricular activity Model United Nations
(or MUN). MUN is a simulation of United
Nations activity based on the UN agenda and
following UN procedure. It is usually attended
by high school and university students who
organize conferences to simulate the various
UN committees to discuss important issues
of the day.[261] Today, MUN educates tens of
thousands on the activities of the UN around
the world. MUN has many famous and
notable alumni, such as the former UN
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon.[262]

See also
Politics
portal
World
portal

International relations
List of country groupings
 List of current Permanent Representatives
to the United Nations
List of multilateral free-trade agreements
United Nations in popular culture
United Nations Memorial Cemetery
United Nations television film series
World Summit on the Information Society
Spying on United Nations leaders by United
States diplomats
League of Nations
UNICEF

Notes
a. Poland had not been represented among the
fifty nations at the San Francisco conference
due to the reluctance of the Western
 superpowers to recognize its post-war
communist government. However, the Charter
was later amended to list Poland as a
founding member, and Poland ratified the
Charter on 16 October 1945.[39][40]
b. Some sources identify seventeen specialized
agencies, taking into account the three
specialized agencies that make up the World
Bank Group, which is now treated as one
organization: the International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the
International Development Association (IDA),
and the International Finance Corporation
(IFC).
c. For details on Vatican City's status, see Holy
See and the United Nations.
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(https://archive.org/details/insidersguidetou00li
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archive.org/details/unset0000unse_h8s1) . New
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Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
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Man: The Past, Present, and Future of the United
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0375703416.
Manchester, William; Reid, Paul (2012). The Last
Lion: Winston Spencer Churchill. Vol. 3: Defender
of the Realm, 1940–1965. New York: Little
Brown and Company. ISBN 978-0316547703.
Meisler, Stanley (1995). United Nations: The First
Fifty Years (https://archive.org/details/unset000
0unse_z7w4) . New York: Atlantic Monthly
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Race to Host the United Nations. New York
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Schlesinger, Stephen C. (2003). Act of Creation:
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Further reading
Lowe, Vaughan; Roberts, Adam; Welsh, Jennifer;
Zaum, Dominik, eds. (2008). The United Nations
Security Council and War: The Evolution of
Thought and Practice since 1945. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0199533435.
Mazower, Mark (2009). No Enchanted Palace:
The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of
the United Nations. Princeton University Press.
 Roberts, Adam; Kingsbury, Benedict, eds. (1994).
United Nations, Divided World: The UN's Roles in
International Relations (https://archive.org/detail
s/unitednationsdiv00adam) (2nd ed.). Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0198279266.

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