Transducers and Instrumentation

EC 322 Fundamentals of Sensors

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Transducers/ Sensors

ü Variety of Sensors/ Transducers – Digital or Analog

For example:
• Temperature Sensor
• Humidity Sensor
• Radiation Sensor
• Ultrasonic Sensor
• Infrared Sensor
• Vibration Sensor
• Global Positioning System (GPS)
• Global System for Mobile Module (GSM)
• Optical/ Hyper spectral Camera etc.

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Sensing process

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 Definition of a transducer

Transducer is any device that converts energy in one form

to another energy. The majority either convert electrical
energy to mechanical displacement or convert some
non-electrical physical quantity, such as temperature,
sound or light to an electrical signal.

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 Functions of transducer
1. To sense the presence, magnitude, change in, and frequency
of some measurand.

2. To provide an electrical output that, when appropriately

processed and applied to readout device, gives accurate
quantitative data about the measurand

Measurand
Transducer Electrical
output

Excitation

Measurand – refers to the quantity, property or condition which the

transducer translates to an electrical signal.

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 Classification of transducers
Transducer can be classified according to their application,
based primarily on the physical quantity, property, or
condition that is measured.
The transducer can be categories into:
A) Passive transducer:
- requires an external power
- output is a measure of some variation, such resistance and
capacitance. E.g. : condenser microphone

B) Self generating transducer:

- not require an external power, and they produce analog
voltage or current when stimulated by some physical form of
energy. E.g. : Thermocouple
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 Transducer types
Quantity
Input Device Output Device
being
(Sensor) (Actuator)
Measured
Light Dependant Resistor (LDR), Lights & Lamps, LED's &
Light Level
Photodiode, Phototransistor, Solar Cell Displays, Fiber Optics
Thermocouple, Thermistor,
Heater, Fan, Peltier
Temperature Thermostat, Resistive temperature
Elements
detectors (RTD)
Force/Pressure Strain Gauge, Pressure Switch, Load Lifts & Jacks,
Cells Electromagnetic, Vibration
Potentiometer, Encoders, Motor, Solenoid, Panel
Position
Reflective/Slotted Opto-switch, LVDT Meters
Tacho-generator, Reflective/Slotted AC and DC Motors, Stepper
Speed
Opto-coupler, Doppler Effect Sensors Motor, Brake
Carbon Microphone, Piezo-electric
Sound Bell, Buzzer, Loudspeaker
Crystal
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 Selecting a transducers
1. Operating range
2. Sensitivity
3. Frequency response and resonant frequency
4. Environmental compatibility -
5. Minimum sensitivity measurand.
6. Accuracy
7. Usage and ruggedness
8. Electrical parameter

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 Transducers to be covered
• Temperature transducers
• Resistive Position Transducer
• Capacitive Transducer
• Inductive Transducer
• Strain Gauge
• LVDT
• Photoelectric etc.

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 Temperature Transducers

Temperature transducers can be divided into

four main categories:

1. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

2. Thermocouples

3. Thermistor

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1) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Detectors of wire resistance temperature common employ platinum,
nickel or resistance wire elements, whose resistance variation with
temperature has high intrinsic accuracy. They are available in many
configurations and size and as shielded or open units for both
immersion and surface applications.
The relationship between temperature and resistance of conductors can
be calculated from the equation:

R = R 0 (1+ a DT )
where
R = the resistance of the conductor at temperature t (0C)
R0 = the resistance at the reference temperature, usually
200C
α = the temperature coefficient of resistance
ΔT = the difference between the operating and the
reference temperature
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 2) Thermocouple

It consists of two wires of different metals are joined together

at one end, a temperature difference between this end and the
other end of wires produces a voltage between the wires. The
magnitude of this voltage depends on the materials used for the
wires and the amount of temperature difference between the
joined ends and the other ends.

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 Cont’d
The emf of the thermocouple :
E = c(T1 – T2) + k(T 2 – T 2)
1 2

Where
c and k = constant of the thermocouple
materials
T1 = The temperature of the “hot”
junction
T2 = The temperature of the “cold” or
“reference” junction

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 Thermocouples
• Two dissimilar metals induce voltage difference (few mV
per 10K) – electro-thermal or Seebeck effect

• Use op-amp to process/amplify the voltage

• Absolute accuracy of 1K is difficult

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 3) Thermistor

A thermistor is a semiconductor made by sintering

mixtures of metallic oxide, such as oxides of manganese,
nickel, cobalt, copper and uranium.
Termistors have negative temperature coefficient (NTC).
That is, their resistance decreases as their temperature
rises.

Types of thermistor Resistance

Disc 1 to 1MΩ
Washer 1 to 50kΩ
Rod high resistance

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 This figure shows
resistance versus
temperature for a
family thermistor.
The resistance value
marked at the bottom
end of each curve is a
value at 250C

Note!
The resistance
decreases as their
temperature rises-NTC

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 Advantages of thermistor
• Small size and low cost

• Fast response over narrow temperature range

• Good sensitivity in Negative Temperature Coefficient

(NTC) region

• Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence

of resistance on absolute temperature.

• Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered due

to large resistance

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 Limitations of thermistor

• Non linearity in resistance vs temperature

characteristics
• Unsuitable for wide temperature range
• Very low excitation current to avoids self heating
• Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc due to high
resistance

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 Temperature Sensors
• Bimetallic switch (electro-mechanical) – used in
thermostats. Can be “creep” or “snap” action.
Creep-action: coil or spiral that unwinds or coils with changing
temperature

• Thermistors (thermally sensitive resistors); Platinum

Resistance Thermometer (PRT), very high accuracy.

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 Resistive Position Transducer

The principle of the resistance transducer is that the physical

variable under measurement causes a resistance change in the
sensing element.
A common requirement in industrial measurement and control work is
to be able to sense the position of an object or distance it has moved.

R =
rL Potentiometer
.
A

R: resistance change
r: density
L: Length
A: area
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Cont’d

FIG 1 (a) FIG 1 (b)

Figure shows the construction of a displacement transducer uses a

resistance element with a sliding contact or wiper linked to the object
being monitored.

The resistance between the slider and one end of the resistance element
depends on the position of the object. The output voltage depends on the
wiper position and therefore is a function of the shaft position

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Consider Fig 1 (b), if the circuit is unloaded, the output voltage V0 is a certain
fraction of VT, depending on the position of the wiper:

V0 R2
=
VT R1 + R2
This equation shows that the output voltage is directly proportional to
the position of the wiper, if the resistance of the transducer is distributed
uniformly along the length of travel of the wiper

EXAMPLE 1

A displacement transducer with a shaft stroke of 4 in. is used in the

circuit of figure 1 (b). R1 +R2 is 1000 Ω and VT = 4 V.
The wiper is 1.5 in from B. Find V0?

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 Positional Sensors: potentiometer
Can be Linear or Rotational

Processing circuit

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 Positional Sensors: Rotary Encoders
• Incremental and absolute types
• Incremental encoder needs a counter, loses absolute
position between power glitches, must be re-homed
• Absolute encoders common in CD/DVD drives

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 Capacitive Transducer
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

kA e 0
C = (Farads)
d

where
k = dielectric constant
A = the area of the plate, in m2
εo = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
d = the plate placing in m

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 Cont’d
Forms of Capacitance Transducers

Rectilinear Capacitance
Rotary plate capacitor Transducer

Thin diaphragm

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 Cont’d

Rotary plate capacitor:

The capacitance of this unit proportional to the

amount of the fixed plate that is covered, that
shaded by moving plate. This type of transducer will
give sign proportional to curvilinear displacement or
angular velocity.

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 Cont’d

Rectilinear capacitance
transducer:

It consists of a fixed cylinder and a

moving cylinder. These pieces
are configured so the moving
piece fits inside the fixed piece
but insulated from it.

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 Cont’d
Thin diaphragm:
A transducer that varies the
spacing between surfaces. The
dielectric is either air or vacuum.
Often used as Capacitance
microphones.

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 Cont’d
Advantages:
1. Has excellent frequency response
2. Can measure both static and dynamic phenomena.

Disadvantages:
1. Sensitivity to temperature variations
2. the possibility of erratic or distortion signals owing to
long lead length

Applications:
1. As frequency modulator in RF oscillator
2. In capacitance microphone
3. Use the capacitance transducer in an ac bridge circuit

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 Inductive Transducer
Inductive transducers may be either of the self generating or
passive type. The self generating type utilises the basic
electrical generator principle, i.e, a motion between a
conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the
conductor (generator action). This relative motion between
the field and the conductor is supplied by changes in the
measurand.

An inductive electromechanical transducer is a device that

converts physical motion (position change) into a change in
inductance. Transducers of variable inductance type work
upon one of the following principles:
1. Variation of self inductance
2. Variation of mutual inductance
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 Cont..

Inductive transducers are mainly used for the measurement of

displacement. The displacement to be measured is
arranged to cause variation in any of three variables:

1. Number of turns
2. Geometric configuration
3. Permeability of the magnetic material or magnetic circuits

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Positional Sensors: Inductive Proximity Switch
• Detects the presence of metallic objects (non-contact) via
changing inductance
• Sensor has 4 main parts: field producing Oscillator via a
Coil; Detection Circuit which detects change in the field;
and Output Circuit generating a signal (NO or NC)
Used in traffic lights (inductive loop buried under the road). Sense
objects in dirty environment.
Does not work for non-metallic objects. Omni-directional.

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 Strain Gauge
The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that
uses electric resistance variation in wires to sense the strain
produced by a force on wires. It is a very versatile detector
and transducer for measuring weight, pressure, mechanical
force, or displacement.
The construction of a bonded strain
gauge (see figure) shows a fine wire
element looped back and forth on a
mounting plate, which is usually
cemented to the member undergoing
stress. A tensile stress tends to
elongate the wire and thereby
increase its length and decrease its
cross-sectional area.
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 The combined effect is an increase in resistance:

R=
rL
Where,
A
ρ: the specific resistance of the conductor material in ohm meters
L : length of conductor (meters)
A : area of conductor (m2)

As consequence of strain, 2 physical qualities are particular interest:

1) The change in gauge resistance

2) The change in length

The relationship between these two variables called gauge factor,

K, is expressed mathematically as

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 K= DR / R
DL /L
Where

K= the gauge factor

R=the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)
∆R= the change in initial resistance inohms
L= the initial length in meters (without strain)
∆L=the change in initial length in meters

∆L/L same unit with G,therefore

DR / R
K=
G
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From Hooke theory, stress, S, is defined as internal force/area.

F
S=
A
Where
S= the stress in kilograms per square meter
F= the force in kilograms
A= area in square meters

Then the modulus of elasticity of material Eor called Young’s modulus(Hooke’s

Law) is written as:

S Where,
E= E= Young modules in kg per square meter
S= the stress in kilograms per square meter
G G= the strain (no units)

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v Metallic strain gauge – formed from thin resistance
wire or etched from thin sheets of metal foil.

vWire gauge (small) – to minimum leakage – for high T

applications

vSemiconductor strain gauge – high output transducers

as load cells

v Strain gauge is generally used as one arm of bridge

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 Positional Sensors: LVDT
Linear Variable
Differential
Transformer

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LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER (LVDT)

It consists basically of a primary winding and

two secondary windings, wound over a hollow
tube and positioned so the primary winding is
between two secondaries. In figure shows the
construction of the LVDT.

An iron core slides within the tube and therefore affects the magnet
coupling between the primary and the two secondaries. When the core is in
the centre, voltage induced in the two secondaries is equal. When the core
is moved in one direction from centre, the voltage induced in one winding
is increased and that in the other is decreased. Movement in the opposite
direction reverses this effect
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 Cont..

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 Cont..

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