Study of magneto-resistance

GENERAL SAFETY SUMMARY

To use the Instrument correctly and safely, read and follow the precautions in Table 1 and
follow all safety instructions or warnings given throughout this manual that relate to specific
measurement functions. In addition, follow all generally accepted safety practices and
procedures required when working with and around electricity.

SYMBOLS
Table 1 lists safety and electrical symbols that appear on the Instrument or in this manual.
Table 1. Safety and Electrical Symbols

Symbols Description Symbols Description

Risk of danger. Important

Earth ground
information. See Manual.

Hazardous voltage. Voltage

>30Vdc or ac peak might be Potentially hazardous voltage
present.
Do not dispose of this product as
Static awareness. Static unsorted municipal waste.
discharge can damage parts. Contact SES or a qualified
recycle for disposal.
Table 2. Safety Information
• Use the Instrument only as specified in this manual, or the protection provided by
the Instrument might be impaired.
• Do not use the Instrument in wet environments
• Inspect the Instrument before using it. Do not use the Instrument if it appears
damaged.
• Inspect the connecting lead before use. Do not use them if insulation is damaged or
metal is exposed. Check the connecting leads for continuity. Replace damaged
connecting leads before using the Instrument.
• Whenever it is likely that safety protection has been impaired, make the
• Instrument inoperative and secure it against any unintended operation.
• Never remove the cover or open the case of the Instrument before without first
removing it from the main power source.
• Never operate the Instrument with the cover removed or the case open.
• Use only the replacement fuses specified by the manual.
• Do not operate the Instrument around explosive gas, vapor or dust.
• The equipment can remain Switched on continuously for five hours
• The equipment must remain Switched off for at least fifteen minutes before being
switched on again.
• The equipment is only for the intended use
 CONSTANT CURRENT SOURCE
Model : CCS - 01
DIGITAL GAUSSMETER
GAUSS Model : DGM-102
mA

RANGE
CURRENT X1 X10
ON
20mA 200mA
OUTPUT ON

Current Range On-off

Switch Zero Adj. Range On-off
Output Switch
Knob Switch Switch

DIGITAL MICROVOLTMETER
Model : DMV-001 Display Panel
Hall Probe
Range InAs
Magnetising Current
1 mV
Selector 10 mV
Switch RANGE 100 mV CONSTANT CURRENT POWER SUPPLY
ZERO ADJ Current Display
1V Model : DPS-175M
10 V Selector Switch Fuse
ON
A
Up Down

Offset Zero On-off

Voltage
Adj. Knob Switch Current Control
Input

COIL1 COIL2

COIL1 COIL2
ON
Magnetoresistance
Probe
Bismuth Mains ON/
Sample Black OFF Switch
Red
Red
Black

Fig.1: Panel Diagram of the magneto-resistance set up

Hall Probe Stand
OBJECTIVES:

(I) To determine magneto-resistance of n-Ge

(II) To study magneto-resistance of Bi

INTRODUCTION

It is noticed that the resistance of a sample changes when the magnetic field is turned
on. The Magneto-resistance is the property of a material to change the value of its electrical
resistance when an external magnetic field is applied to it. The effect was first discovered by
William Thomson (more commonly known as Lord Kelvin) in 1856. The magnitude of the
effect is quite low only about 1% at room temperature, but goes to about 50% at low
temperatures in giant magneto resistive multilayer structures. More recently effects of more
than 95% change in resistivity have been discovered in some perovskite systems.
Magneto-resistance, is due to the fact that the drift velocity of all the carriers is not
same. With the magnetic field on; the Hall voltage V = E y t = v x H compensates exactly the
Lorentz force for carriers with average velocity; slower carriers will be over compensated and
faster ones undercompensated, resulting in trajectories that are not along the applied field.
This results in an effective decrease of the mean free path and hence an increase in resistivity.
Here the above referred symbols are defined as: v = drift velocity; E = applied electric field; t
= thickness of the crystal; H = Magnetic field
The change in resistivity, Δρ, is positive for both magnetic field parallel (Δρll) and
transverse (ΔρT) to the current direction with ρT> ρll. There are three distinct cases of ordinary
magnetoresistance, depending on the structure of the electron orbitals at the Fermi surface:
1. In metals with closed Fermi surfaces, the electrons are constrained to their orbit in k-
space and the effect of the magnetic field is to increase the cyclotron frequency of the
electron in its closed orbit.
2. For metals with equal numbers of electrons and holes, the magnetoresistance increases
with H up to the highest fields measured and is independent of crystallographic
orientation. Bismuth falls in this class.
3. Metals that contain Fermi surfaces with open orbits in some crystallographic directions
will exhibit large magnetoresistance for fields applied in those directions, whereas the
resistance will saturate in other directions, where the orbits are closed.

APPARATUS

1. Four probe arrangement

2. Samples: n-Ge, Bismuth
3. Constant Current Source, CCS-01
4. Digital Microvoltmeter, DMV-001
5. Electromagnet, Model EMU-75
6. Constant Current Power Supply, DPS-175
7. Digital Gaussmeter, DGM-102
8. Hall Probe Stand
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS

(1) Four Probe arrangement

It consists of 4 collinear, equally spaced (2mm) and individually spring loaded gold
plated rounded probes mounted on a PCB strip. Two outer probes are for supplying the
constant current to the sample and two inner probes for measuring the voltage developed
across these probes. This eliminates the error due to contact resistance which is
particularly serious in semiconductors. A platform is also provided for placing the
sample and mounting the four probes on it.

(2) Sample
Bismuth dimensions : 10 x 10 x 1.2mm.

(3) Constant Current Source, Model : CCS-01

It is an IC regulated current generator to provide a constant current to the outer
probes irrespective of the changing resistance of the sample due to change in
temperatures. The basic scheme is to use the feedback principle to limit the load
current of the supply to preset maximum value. Variations in the current are
achieved by a potentiometer included for that purpose. The supply is a highly
regulated and practically ripples free d.c. source. The constant current source is
suitable for the resistivity measurement of thin films of metals/ alloys and
semiconductors like germanium.
SPECIFICATIONS
Range : 0 - 200.0 mV
Resolution : 100 µV
Accuracy : ±0.1% of reading ±1 digit
Impedance : 1 ohm
Special Features : Auto Zero & polarity indicator
Special Features : Auto Zero & polarity indicator
Overload Indicator : Sign of 1 on the left & blanking of other digits.

Controls
(1) Range Switch – The current meter can be switched between 20mA and 200mA
range using this switch. Keep the range switch at the desired range and set the
desired current using the current control knob. In case the meter shows over ranging
(sign of 1 on the left and all other digits goes blank) range switch maybe shifted to
higher range.
(2) Panel Meter – Display the current in mA.
(3) Current Control – This is to feed the desired current in the Sample.
(4) Current Output – Connect suitable connector from Four probe Arrangement in this
connector. This will enable the unit to feed desired current in the sample
(5) ON-OFF switch – To power the unit ON/ OFF
 Quinck's Tube Hall Probe Holder
Poistioning Arm
Holder (Fixed on Hall
Probe mount)

InAs Probe Holder

Positioning Nut Quinck's Tube Holder

Main Arm
Holding Nut

Tightning Nut

Base

Tips to use Multipurpose Stand

1. Set approximate position of the positioning arm and lock the same using Positioning Nut.
2. To measure the magnetic field of the electromagnet take out the Hall Probe (InAs) from the jacket/
compartment of Gaussmeter and push back the SS cover.
3. Push the SS tube part of the InAs probe in InAs holder of multipurpose stand.
4. Position the sensor tip of the Hall Probe in center of Pole Peices and lock the positioning arm using
positioning nut.
5. After taking the reading replace the InAs probe in its jacket/ compartment.
6. To fix the Quinck's Tube holder, screw the Quinck's Tube holder in the holding nut kepping the tightning nut
loose.
7. Once the holding nut can be turned no more, tighten the tightning nut to lock position of Quinck's Tube
holder.
8. Similarly if any other Hall Probe is to be used in place of Quinck's Tube holder, tighten the Hall Probe Holder
as per step 6 & 7.

Fig. 2: Multipurpose stand

1. D.C. Microvoltmeter, Model DMV-001
Digital Microvoltmeter, DMV-001 is a very versatile multipurpose instrument for the
measurement of low dc voltage. It has 5 decade ranges from 1mV to 10V with 100%
over-ranging. For better accuracy and convenience, readings are directly obtained on 3½
digit DPM.
This instrument uses a very well designed chopper stabilized IC amplifier. This amplifier
offers exceptionally low offset voltage and input bias parameters, combined with
excellent speed characteristics.
Filter circuit is provided to reduce the line pickups of 50 Hz. All internal power supplies
are IC regulated.
SPECIFICATIONS
Range : 1mV, 10mV, 100mV, 1V & 10V with 100% over ranging
Resolution : 1µ V
Accuracy : ± 0.2%
Stability : Within ± 1 digit
Input Impedance : >1000MΩ (10MΩ on 10V range)
Display : 3½ digit, 7 segment LED with auto polarity and decimal
indication
Controls
(1) Range Switch – The voltmeter can be switched between 1mV, 10mV, 100mV,
1V & 10V range using this switch. Keep the range switch at lowest range for better
accuracy. In case the meter shows over ranging (sign of 1 on the left and all other
digits goes blank) range switch maybe shifted to higher range.
(2) Panel Meter – Display the Voltage in mV/ V (as per setting of Range Switch)
(3) Zero Adj. Knob – This is to adjust Zero of Microvoltmeter before starting the
experiment.
(4) Voltage Input – Connect suitable connector from Four probe Arrangement in this
connector. This will enable the unit to measure the voltage output of the sample
(5) ON-OFF switch – To power the unit ON/ OFF.

5. Electromagnet, EMU-75
Field intensity : 11,000 ± 5% gauss in an air-gap of 10 mm. Air-gap is
continuously variable upto 100 mm with two way
knobbed wheel screw adjusting system.
Pole pieces : 75 mm diameter. Normally flat faced pole pieces are
supplied with the magnet
Energising coils : Two. Each coil is wound on non-magnetic formers and
has a resistance of 12 ohms approx.
Yoke material : Mild steel
Power requirement : 0 - 100 V @ 3.5 A if connected in series.
0 - 50 V @ 7.0 A if connected in parallel
 Top View Top View

Red
Red

Fig. 3(a): Placing of Gaussmeter Fig. 3(b): Placing of Magneto-resistance

Hall probe in electromagnet sample probe in electromagnet

Fig. 4: Complete experimental set up

6. Constant Current Power Supply, DPS-175

The present constant current power supply was designed to be used with the
electromagnet, Model EMU-75. The current requirement of 3.5 amp/coil, i.e. a total
of 7 Amp was met by connecting six closely matched constant current sources in
parallel. In this arrangement the first unit works as the 'master' with current
adjustment control. All others are 'slave' units, generating exactly the same current
as the master. All the six constant current sources are individually IC controlled and
hence result in the highest quality of performance. The supply is protected against
transients caused by the load inductance.
SPECIFICATIONS

Current : Smoothly adjustable from 0 to 3.5 A. per coil, i.e. 7A

Regulation (line) : ± 0.1% for 10% mains variation.
Regulation (load) : + 0.1% for load resistance variation from 0 to full load
Open circuit voltage : 50 volt
Metering : 3½ digit, 7 segment panel meter.
7. Digital Gaussmeter, Model DGM-102
The Gaussmeter operates on the principle of Hall Effect in semiconductors. A
semiconductor material carrying current develops an electro-motive force, when
placed in a magnetic field, in a direction perpendicular to the direction of both
electric current and magnetic field. The magnitude of this e.m.f. is proportional to
the field intensity if the current is kept constant, this e.m.f. is called the Hall
Voltage. This small Hall Voltage is amplified through a high stability amplifier so
that a millivoltmeter connected at the output of the amplifier can be calibrated
directly in magnetic field unit (gauss).
SPECIFICATIONS

Range : 0 - 2 K gauss & 0 - 20 K gauss

Resolution : 1 gauss at 0 - 2 K gauss range
Accuracy : ± 0.5%
Display : : 3½ digit, 7 segment LED
Detector : Hall probe with an Imported Hall Element
Power : 220V, 50 Hz
Special : Indicates the direction of the magnetic field.

7. Multipurpose Hall Probe Stand

Details Usage as given in Fig. 2.

PROCEDURE
(I) Calibration of applied magnetic field H:
1. Set the pole piece distance of the Electromagnet to nearly 19mm.
2. Now place the Hall probe of Gaussmeter in the magnetic field as shown in Fig.
3(a). Switch on the power supply for electromagnet and set it to maximum (3A).
Rotate the Hall probe till it become perpendicular to magnetic field. Magnetic
field reading on the Gaussmeter will be maximum in this adjustment.
3. Now lower the current from the power supply to minimum. Record the magnetic
field reading on Gaussmeter by slowly varying the current.
4. Switch of the supply once you are done.
5. Plot a graph for calibration.
(II) Data for magneto resistance of n-Ge and Bi:
6. Next unscrew the screws given at the top of magneto-resistance probe to lower
the base plate. Put n-Ge sample on the base plate of the four probe arrangement.
Slowly screw both screws evenly to apply a very gentle pressure on the four
spring probes. Check the continuity between the probes for proper electrical
contacts.
CAUTION: The sample is quite brittle. Therefore, use only the minimum
pressure required for proper electrical contacts.
7. Place the magneto-resistance probe in the magnetic field as shown in Fig. 3b.
 8. Connect the outer pair of probes to the CCS-01 terminals and the inner pair of the
probes to DMV-001 terminals.
9. Switch on the mains supply of both CCS-01 and DMV-001. Adjust the current to
a desired value (Say 190mA for Bi).
10. Now the DMV-001 would be reading the voltage between the probes. Adjust the
range knob as required.
11. Calculate the resistance (R) of the sample in absence of magnetic field.
12. Now switch on the electromagnet power supply and set it to maximum (3A).
Rotate the magneto-resistance probe till it become perpendicular to magnetic
field. Voltage will be maximum in this adjustment.
13. Vary the magnetic field by varying the current of DPS-175 step by step and
record the corresponding voltage reading. Determine the resistance (Rm) in
presence of magnetic field and calculate ΔR (= Rm-R)
14. Plot a graph for (ΔR/R) ~ H or log(ΔR/R)~ log H for each sample.

OBSERVATIONS

(I) Calibration of applied magnetic field at air-gap ≅ 19 mm

Table 1

S.No. Current (A) Magnetic Field (kG)

(II) Data for magneto resistance of n-Ge and Bi:

Probe current I = …..

Log (ΔR/R)
S.No Current (A) Mag. Field Voltage Rm (Ω) ΔR/R Log (H)

H (kG) Vm (mV)
Graphs:
12.0
11.0
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
Magnetic Field (KG)

4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
Current (A)

Fig. 5: Sample graph for calibration of magnetic field

240
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
160
150
∆ R/R x 10-3

140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
Magnetic Field (KG)

Fig. 6: Sample graph for magneto-resistance of Bi

Reference: User manual from SES