FOOD PRODUCTION (GENERAL)

1st Semester

TRADE THEORY

SECTOR: Travel, Tourism & Hospitality

DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

MINISTRY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT & ENTREPRENEURSHIP
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Post Box No. 3142, CTI Campus, Guindy, Chennai - 600 032
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Sector : Travel, Tourism & Hospitality
Duration : 1 - Years
Trade : Food Production (General) - Trade Theory

Copyright © 2014 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai

First Edition : October 2014, Copies : 1000
First Reprint : November 2016 Copies: 1000

Rs. 75 /-

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication can be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the National
Instructional Media Institute, Chennai.

Published by:
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA INSTITUTE
P. B. No.3142, CTI Campus, Guindy Industrial Estate,
Guindy, Chennai - 600 032.
Phone: 044 - 2250 0248, 2250 0657, 2250 2421
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Website: www.nimi.gov.in
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 FOREWORD

The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) is an autonomous body under the Directorate General of
Employment and Training (DGE&T) Ministry of Labour and Employment has been developing, producing
and disseminating Instructional Media Packages (IMPs are extensively used in the Industrial Training
Institutes/Training centres in Industries to impart practical training and develop work-skills for the trainees
and the trainers

The Ministry of Labour & Employment constituted Mentor Councils (MCs) to revampcourses run / to be
run under National Council of Vocational Training (NCVT) in 25 sectors. The MCs have representatives
from thought leaders among various stakeholders viz. one of the top ten industries in the sector innovative
entrepreneurs who have proved to be game-changers, academic/professional institutions (IITs etc.), experts
from field institutes of DGE &T, champion ITIs for each of the sectors and experts in delivering education
and training through modern methods like through use of IT, distance education etc. The technical support
to the MCs is provided by Central Staff Training and Research Institute (CSTARI), Kolkata and National
Instructional Media Institute (NIMI), Chennai. Some of the MCs are also supported by sector-wise Core
Groups which were created internally in the Ministry (in 11 sectors).

A Steering Committee to provide overall coordination and guidance to Mentor Councils has also been
constituted and has representation from the MCs, Chair positions to be endowed by the Ministry, trade
unions, and experts on distance education and training. The MCs are mandated to work towards revamping/
suggesting new courses, improving assessment systems, overall learning etc. for subjects under the
purview of the NCVT.

Accordingly NIMI with the support and assistance of MC has developed Food Production (General)
Trade Theory 1st Semester in Travel, Tourism & Hospitality sector to enhance the employability of ITI
trainees across the country and also to meet the industry requirement.

I have no doubt that the trainees and trainers of ITIs & Training centres in industries will derive maximum
benefit from these books and that NIMI’s effort will go a long way in improvement of Vocational Training.

I complement Director, Mentor Council members, Media Development Committee (MDC) members and
staff of NIMI for their dedicated and invaluable contribution in bringing out this publication.

ALOK KUMAR, I.A.S.,

Director General of Employment &
Training/ Joint Secretary
Ministry of Labour and Employment
Government of India

New Delhi - 110 001

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 PREFACE
This National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) was set up at Chennai by the Directorate General of
Employment and Training (DGE&T) Ministry of Labour and Employment, Government of India with technical
assistance from the Govt. of the Federal Republic of Germany. The prime objective of this institute is to
develop and disseminate instructional materials for various trades as per the prescribed syllabi under the
Craftsmen and Apprenticeship Training Schemes.

The instructional materials are developed and produced in the form of Instructional Media Packages (IMPs).
An IMP consists of Trade Theory book, Trade Practical book, Test and Assignment book, Instructor guide,
Wall Charts and Transparencies.

Hon'ble Union Minister of Finance during the budget speech 2014-2015 mentioned about developing Skill
India and made the following announcement

"A national multi-skill programme called Skill India is proposed to be launched. It would skill the youth with
an emphasis on employability and entrepreneur skills. It will also provide training and support for traditional
professions like welders, carpenters, cobblers, masons, blacksmiths, weavers etc. Convergence of various
schemes to attain this objective is also proposed."

The Ministry of Labour & Employment constituted Mentor Councils (MCs) to revamp courses run / to be run
under National Council of Vocational Training (NCVT) in 25 sectors which will give a sustained skill based
employability to the ITI trainees as the main objective of Vocational training. The ultimate approach of NIMI
is to prepare the validated IMPs based on the exercises to be done during the course of study. As the skill
development is progressive the theoretical content on a particular topic is limited to the requirement in
every stage. Hence the reader will find a topic spread over a number of units. The test and assignment will
enable the instructor to give assignments and evaluate the performance of a trainee. If a trainee possesses
the same it helps the trainee to do assignment on his own and also to evaluate himself. The wall charts and
transparencies are unique, as they not only help the instructor to effectively present a topic but also helps
the trainees to grasp the technical topic quickly. The instructor guide enables the instructor to plan his
schedule of instruction, plan the raw material requirement ,

Thus the availability of a complete Instructional Media Package in an institute helps the trainer and
management to impart an effective training. Hence it is strongly recommended that the Training Institutes/
Establishments should provide at least one IMP per unit. This will be small, one time investment but the
benefits will be long lasting.

The Food Production (General) Trade Theory 1st Semester in Travel, Tourism & Hospitality sector
is one of the book develop by the core group members of the Mentor Councils (MCs). The 1st semester
book includes Module 1 - Personal Hygeine & Safety in the Kitchen, Module 2 - Introduction to Food
Production, equipments & ingredients, Module 3 - Knife handling techniques and pre preparation
of food, Module 4 - Methods of Cooking, Module 5 - Preparation of different receipes.

The Food Production (General) Trade Theory 1st Semester is the outcome of the collective efforts of
Members of Mentor Council which includes academic/professional institutions (IITs etc.) , experts from field
institutes of DGE&T, champion ITIs for each of the sectors, and also Media Development Committee (MDC)
members and staff of NIMI.

NIMI wishes that the above material (Trade Practical & Trade Theory) will fulfil to satisfy the long needs of
the Trainees and Instructor and helps the trainees for their employability in vocational training.

NIMI would like to take this opportunity to convey sincere thanks to all the Mentor Council members and
Media Development Committee (MDC) members.

A. MAHENDIRAN
Chennai - 600 032 Director, NIMI

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) sincerely acknowledges with thanks for the co-operation and
contribution extended by the following Media Developers and their sponsoring organisation to bring out this IMP
(Trade Theory) for the trade of Food Production (General) under Travel, Tourism & Hospitality Sector for
Craftsman Training Scheme. This Book is prepared as per Revised Syllabus.

MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Shri. Girish Shankar - Additional Secretary,

Ministry of Tourism
Chairman, Mentor council

Shri. Virender Kumar Shukla - Joint Director of Training,

DGE&T, New Delhi
Mentor, Mentor council.

Shri. Sandeep Kalia - Training Officer,

RDAT, Faridabad.
Member, Mentor council.

Shri. Vinod Kumar - Training Officer,

RDAT, Faridabad.
Member, Mentor council.

Shri. S. Gowri Shankar - Teaching Associate,

IHM, Tharamani, CIT Campus Chennai.
Member, Mentor council.

Shri. Meena - Training Officer,

NVTI Noida.
Member, Mentor council.

Shri. Ashish Chakraborty - Training Officer,

CSTARI, Kolkata
Co-ordinator, Mentor council.

Shri. N. Ashfaq Ahmed - Training Officer,

NIMI, Chennai - 32
Co-ordinator, NIMI, Chennai.

Shri. V. Gopalakrishnan - Training Officer,

NIMI, Chennai - 32
Co-ordinator, NIMI, Chennai.

NIMI records its appreciation of the Data Entry, CAD, DTP operators for their excellent and devoted services in the
process of development of this instructional material.

NIMI also acknowledges with thanks, the invaluable efforts rendered by all other staff who have contributed for the
development of this Instructional material.

NIMI is also grateful to all others who have directly or indirectly helped in developing this IMP.

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 INTRODUCTION
This manual of trade consists of practical and related theory exercises to be completed by the trainees during the
I semester as a part of one year course on food production -general trade - 1050 hours. The practical exercises are
designed to ensure that all the skills in the prescribed syllabus are covered. Related theory to be taught and explained
before starting a practical session. Attempts have been made to give a broad understanding about the kitchen and
its equipments, and general food production in a restaurant. The distribution of time for the practical and theory in the
five modules are given below.

Module 1 Personal Hygeine & Safety in the Kitchen 40 hours

Module 2 Introduction to Food Production, equipments & ingredients 40 hours
Module 3 Knife handling techniques and pre preparation of food 40 hours
Module 4 Methods of Cooking 150 hours

Module 5 Preparation of different receipes 255 hours

The exercises in all the five modules are arranged in proper sequence so that the trainee can learn the skills from easy
to difficult, simple to complex, basic to advanced.
Each exercise starts with Exercise title and the skills objectives to be achieved at the end of the exercise.
If a particular skill is explained in the earlier exercises, the same skill may not have been repeated again.
Wherever possible photos and diagrams are given in addition to explanation for easy understanding.
Cooking time specified in this booklet is not standard and varies depending the the type of ingredients and mode
of heat transfer. Trainees need to take additional care during cooking to ensure safety and to get a final product of
desired consistency.
training faculty for improving this manual.

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 CONTENTS
THEORY

Ex. No. Title of the Lesson Page No.

Module 1 : Personal Hygeine & Safety in the Kitchen

1.1.01 Personal Hygiene & Safety 1

Module 2 : Introduction to Food Production, equipments & ingredients

1.2.01 Kitchen Design & Layout 5

1.2.02 Usage of Equipment 11

1.2.03 - 1.2.05 Ingredients Used in Cooking 14

Module 3 : Knife handling techniques and pre preparation of food

1.3.01 Knife handling techniques 24

1.3.02 Cuts of vegetables/meats/fish 27

1.3.03 French culinary terms 36

Module 4 : Methods of Cooking

1.4.01 - 1.4.08 Methods of cooking and its effects 38

Module 5 : Preparation of different receipes

1.5.01 - 1.5.06 Menu Planning 43

1.5.07 Stocks 50

1.5.08 Sauces 55

1.5.09 - 1.5.10 Soups 63

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Travel, Tourism & Hospitality Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.01
Food Production - Personal Hygiene & Safety in the Kitchen
Personal hygiene & safety
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define cookery
• explain personal hygeine and handling of food.
• hygiene in handling food
• kitchen uniform & protective clothing
• safety procedure in handling equipment

Introduction to Food Production Department

Cookery
Cookery is defined as a chemical process involving the – Train and instruct workers.
application and withdraws of heat; proper mixing of ingre-
dients decision-making and technical knowledge and skill – Control quality.
but with the changing definition cooking is defined as both • Technically: The cooks are the backbone of the
an art as well as technology. In French the word ‘cuisine’ kitchen. These workers carry out the actual food
means the art of cooking and preparing dishes and the production. They must have knowledge of and experi-
place kitchen where they are prepared. The art of cooking ence in cooking techniques. They must be able to
is ancient and generally originated when by chance a function well with their fellow workers and co-ordinate
chunk of meat fell into fire and came out to be more tasty with other departments. Food production is a team
and tender and it was from this point only that cooking has activity.
evolved to reach the present level of sophistication.
• Entry level: This level of workers usually requires no
There are 3 classes of professional cookery associated
particular skills & experience. The jobs assigned to
with the craftsmen and they are graded according to the
them are stewarding or basic pre-preparation of vegeta-
quality of material used
bles. As their knowledge, skill & experience increases,
Cuisine Simple/Plain Cookery they may be given more complex task which will
eventually make them skilled chefs. Many ex-chefs
Here the basic necessities are used and the craftsmen
begin their career as pot washers. Beginning in an
prepare the dishes of highest standard with the minimum
entry level position and working one’s way up has been
materials.
the traditional way of advancing in a food service
Cuisine Bourgeoise career. Today however, who are a graduate from hotel
This is a type of cookery, which provides better raw management start at entry level already possessing a
materials to produce the dishes of better quality. general knowledge of food production practices, which
would give them a head start over other beginners who
Haute Cuisine/Highclass cookery have no knowledge.
In this cookery the best possible raw materials are used C. Personal Hygiene
and the best quality dishes are prepared.
A hygienic appearance of professional is indicated by high
A. Level of Skills & Experiences standards of personal cleanliness and is shown by clean-
Skills may be grouped into three general categories. liness of hair, hands, face, clothing and shoes.Good
personal hygiene helps prevent food borne disease; there-
• Supervisor: The head of the food service, whether fore these points must be put into practice.
called Executive chef or head chef or kitchen director,
must have management and supervisory skills as well • Shower or bath daily
as through knowledge of food production. • Wear clean clothes and uniform.
He should be able to: • Do not work if suffering from a communicable disease.
– Organize and motivate people under him. • Handle food as little as possible.
– Planning menus and production procedures. • Wash hands before and during work and after using the
toilet.
– Controlling costs and managing budgets.
• Keep hair clean and do not handle.
– Purchasing food supplies & equipment.
• Keep fingernails clean & shorter.
– Must be an experienced chef in order to schedule
food production. • Do not touch nose & mouth with hands.

1
• Do not cough or sneeze over food, use a tissue. • Also brings neatness to uniform.
• Do not wear rings, earrings, jewellery & watches. Chef Coat
• Do not smoke in food areas. • Protect the chest from heat (double press, cotton).
• Taste food with a clean spoon.
• White colour ( shows when dirty, less heat absorber)
• Do not sit on a work surface.
Apron
• Footwear should be clean and safe.
• Protect chef coat & trouser.
• Chef cap should always be worn when handling food.
• Open cuts, burns etc. must be covered with waterproof
• Not used to wipe hands.
dressing. Trouser
• Persons suffering from diarrhea, sore throat, vomiting, • Generally black or black & white check.
cold etc. must not handle food.
Shoes
If a person becomes aware that they are suffering from or
are carrier of typhoid, paratyphoid, salmonella or staphylo- • Ankle high shoes.
coccal infection, the parson responsible for the premises
must be informed, who then must inform the Medical • Low heal
Officer of Health.
• Leather with rubber or wooden sole.
Hygiene in Handling Food
• Always wear black socks.
• Dry food storage: Avoid moisture, air tight container,
avoid insect & rodent. E. Safety Procedure in Handling Equipment
• Freezer storage: Well packed food with label store at • Do not wash equipment unless you understand the
-18º C, follow FIFO & thaw properly before use. operation.
• Cold Storage: Cooked items away from raw item. Store • Use all guards & safety devices on equipment.
everything in container. Chill food before refrigeration.
Keep temperature under 7º C. • Do not touch or remove food, from any kind of equip-
ment, while it is running.
• Hot food storage: Do not reheat in Bain Marie. Cover all
the food. Keep food above 65º C. • Remove particles of food with cloth, palette knife,
Food Handling needle or brush from cutting machine.

• Work with fresh & safe food • Un-plug electrical equipment before disassembling or
cleaning.
• Use clean equipment & work table.
• Make sure the switch is off before plugging in equip-
• Wash & wipe tools (knives, chopping board etc.) after
ment.
every use.
• Wash ingredients. • Do not touch or handle electrical equipment including
switches, if your hands are wet or if you are standing
• Re-boil stocks, sauces, soups, milk before re use. in water.
• Do not mix batches of cooked food.
• Test that it is properly assembled, plug in and switch
• Use separate tools for vegetables & meats. on.
• Use separate tools for raw & cooked food. • Wear properly fitting clothing and tuck in apron string
• Quickly chill all high risk food for cold storage. to avoid getting caught in machinery.
• Keep work area clean. • Use equipment only for the purpose intended.
D. Kitchen Uniforms & Food Handling • Stack pots, pans and other equipment properly on
Chef Cap racks so that they are stable and not likely to fall.

• Should cover the hair. Aims of Cooking

• Retain sweat on the face. • Sterilization: It is the process of killing pathogenic
Scarf bacteria and worms present in the food. Boiling and
freezing are two popular methods of sterilization.
• Retaining sweat around the neck.
• Preservation: Cooking also helps to preserve the food
• Decreases risk of catching cold when going inside a for a longer time with the help of spices, oils and sugar
walk in.

2 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise : 1.1.01
 syrups, etc., mixed with it while being processed. THE ROMAN EMPIRE
• Digestibility: Cooking also helps in digestibility of North from the Greek colonies in south Italy the conditions
certain vegetables and raw food which cannot be did not change, people continued their more primitive
digested if taken uncooked. existence, providing food for themselves, providing shelter
• Appetizing: Cooking gives an appearance to the food and protecting from attack. They realized that defence was
which makes it presentable and also appetizing. On an important consideration and they built village on hills.
application of heat, the red colouring matter such as One of these villages grows to be a great heart of a Empire
haemoglobin in meat decomposes and changes the called Rome by thousands. Then Rome built up strong
red colour to brown. Flavours are developed, which armies to defend them, any attack of aggression were
stimulate the digestive juices. The colours of vegetable crushed and the lands owned by the soldiers annexed and
are brightened. added to the Empire, thus expanding the Roman Empire.

• Enhancement of nutritive value: Though cooking may The average Roman citizen was not rich, they were
destroy certain vitamins it usually enhances its nutri- shepherds in farms. Meals were of fruits, vegetable, por-
tive value by breaking up heavy materials like fat into ridge, and wine. They eat pork and meat. The number of
digestible particles. meals varied depending upon religious customs. But the
pleasure of food and dining played an important role in the
• Variety: Cooking produces variety from the same life of Roman elite’s who were very rich and could afford the
ingredients. Several type of preparation can be made very best from any where in the world. They had staffs able
from one raw ingredient. to produce the most exquisite of dishes.
Objectives of Cooking: These people were quick to sample foods from other places
and were in fact so intent on the discovery of new tastes and
• Retaining nutritive value of the food.
sensations that they even set expeditions to far concerns
• Retaining the original colour of the food. of the world in search of such things. They found some of
• Prevent clash of flavours. the culinary inspiration in Asia Minor they came back with
appetite for oriental food. It was then that meals began to
• No under cooking or over cooking. demand more preparation and expense. The Romans
Cooking is the application of heat to food for the purpose of captured the Greek colonies in the south and were very
making it more digestible, safer to eat, more palatable and impressed with food prepared by magieros who they sent
to change its appearance. In the cooking processes heat to Rome as slaves to work as cooks in the houses of
breaks down the cellulose in plant foods, softens some of wealthy citizens. And when Rome captured Greece, some
the connective tissues of meat, breaks down and gels more magieros were sent back to Rome.
starches present, changes and blends flavors within the The captured magieros accepted their fate and went about
food, destroys bacteria and makes food more acceptable teaching the Roman about the artistry of food. In due time
to humans and human digestion. they received great an acclaim for accomplishments and
Cooking may include a process of extraction, leaching and some were freed by grateful masters. It was during this year
steeping by which soluble materials are removed from a that the duties of the kitchen were 1st separated and
food for use as flavouring medium. When bones are departmentalized and in 25 AD man called Apicus who
simmered to produce stock for e.g. the soluble compounds wrote the first cook book. The Roman were great meat
in the bones are extracted and passed into simmering eaters and birds were highly popular, they loved to use all
water. Stock can then be used in soup and sauce making. sorts of condiments, they had no cane or beet sugar so
they used grapes syrup and honey.
While the application of heat to food materials is the
principal action taking place in cooking, other things are To meet the new demands made by changed tastes Rome
done to enhance the flavour, and spices, seasoning and developed a sophisticated system of food production,
sauces are added. The food may be marinated before importing and marketing. So it set up a centralized market
cooking; it may be cooked in wine. Fat may be added of brick where all kinds of foodstuffs were sold. The Roman
before, during or after cooking. Flavours and colours may Empire, top heavy with power & luxury and corruption was
be added. Different foods are blended together to produce deteriorating and by a 76 AD it collapsed.
new flavours and appearances. Some foods such as raw All over Europe darkness fell, people returned to a life in
fish are made palatable by marinating in lime juice. The small rural villages and led a simple life eating simple food.
acid in the juice breaks down the connective tissues of the The 1400 years period of decline and recovery is known as
fish and inhibits bacteria. Dark or Medieval period. The Dark Age was a period of
The baking of pies, cakes, cookies and various doughs is decline and subsequent recovery for the fortunes of food
also cooking in the sense that heat is applied to food and dinging customs. Like everything else they sank to a
material. In most baking the leavening action takes place. very low point before recovery got underway.
Air, steam or carbon dioxide stretches the gluten in the The culinary achievements of Greece and Rome were
dough to expand it. stored in written words to be discovered later. The basic
social system at this time was Aendalism where someone

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.1.01 3
who declared themselves as kings and this in turn to be night, and restaurant chains number among the nation’s
subdivided and given to lords who in return paid tax and largest corporations. The chef, once considered a domes-
loyalty to the king owned large areas. The lords’ in turn tic servant, has become respected as an artist and skilled
again assigned lands to tenants or serfs who tilled the land, craftsperson.
grew crops, raised animals. Half or more of the produce
The growth of the food service industry creates a demand
went to the Lord who in turn gave some to the king and kept
for thousands of skilled people every year. But it is not
some for himself. This way the lords and kings lived
simply the opportunity of finding a job that attracts so many
comfortably at the costs of the serfs. This Aendalism
people. A food service career is challenging and exciting,
produced 2 levels in society with each one with distinctive
and, above all, provides the chance to find real satisfaction
habits. The serfs existed on a diet of salt, pork, black
in doing a job well.
beans, turnips and cabbage. While the Lords and kings
stuffed themselves with a minimum of 30 dishes a meal. Unfortunately, many people see only the glamorous side of
food service and fail to understand that this is a tiny part of
A Short History of Modern Food Service the picture. The public does not fail to understand that this
This is an exciting time to be starting a career in food is a tiny part of the picture. The public does not often see
service. It is a time interest in dining and curiosity about the years of training, the long hours, and the tremendous
new foods is increasing rapidly. There are more new pressures that lie behind every success.
restaurants every year. Many restaurants are busy every

4 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise : 1.1.01
Travel, Tourism & Hospitality Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.01
Food Production - Introduction to Food Production, equipments & ingredents
Kitchen Design & Layout
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain
– kitchen layout & design
– concepts of layout
– layout configuration
– functioning area space allocated
– three primary kitchen work stations
– kitchen layout & specifications
– planning of various supports in kitchen
– receiving & storing & planning of areas

Kitchen Layout & Design

After developing the work places, determining the specific • Raw materials used should require minimum no. of
equipment to use, and finalising the space requirements, processing steps.
the food facility consultant is ready to accomplish the
layout phase of the planning process. Some of the equip-
• The layout should protect the material from detrimental
ment layouts for certain functions may already have been factors such as moisture, dust, vibration and tempera-
completed during the design of the work places. Now the ture changes.
designer will formalize them, first as rough sketches and • To provide flexible layout to handle change with product
ultimately in the form of blue prints.
• Material storage area should facilitate taking inventory.
The layout process may be described as two separate
• Provide facilities for storing waste and scrap materials.
stages that occur at the same time. One stage deals with
arrangements of individual pieces of equipment, work 2. Machines and Equipments.
tables, and sinks with a unit which comprise a functional • The equipment provided in the layout should be united
area or a functional department i.e. one particular area may to the required processes.
be developed for the function of Indian and Tandoor prepa-
rations, (or) salad and sandwich preparation, as a single
• Maximum use of the equipment’s should be planned.
unit. • Layout should provide for each operations of the
equipment.
The second stage of layout process involves arranging the
functional areas into a total facility. For e.g. the receiving, • Layout should facilitate movement of mobile equip-
storing, prepreparation, production, pot washing areas, ment’s.
and non-production areas such a rest rooms, offices are • Sufficient access space for equipment maintenance
brought together to form the basic floor plan for the facility.
should be provided.
There may be some doubt as to whether these 2 stages of • Proper ventilation and exhausting of equipment to be
layout are done at the same time. Even though the designer
provided.
may be working on one stage or another at any given time,
layout design must be considered in term of both stages. 3. Workers:
In essence, the layout of the total facility must be consid- • Layout should safeguard the workers by eliminating
ered when laying out the component areas and vice versa. hazards.
Concepts of Layout: • Adequate light should be provided.
There are 4 concepts of layout for a kitchen plan, they are • Proper exhaust system for fresh air should be provided.
1. Materials or products • Layout should be free of distracting activities.
2. Machines and equipment’s • Design of work place should correspond to the height
of the workers.
3. Workers
• Layout should provide adequate work space.
4. Movement.
4. Movement:
1. Materials or products
• Layout should provide for easy movement of material
• The products should be designed for ease of produc- and workers.
tion.

5
• Provide for smooth flow into and out of work place • Cooking 12
• Layout should prevent back tracking • Baking 10
• Delays in movement of material should be minimised. • Pot wash - KSD 5
Layout configuration • Traffic aisles 16
The arrangement of equipment and work places for func- • Garbage – wet/dry 5
tional areas is usually is the form of a straight line or in • Employee facilities 5
combination and modifications of straight line configura-
tions. The basic patterns that may be used include; • Miscellaneous 2

• Single straight line arrangement: This is the simplest If you understand the basic principles of kitchen layout will
of designs, but it is limited in the number of pieces of help take much of the mystery out of the design process.
equipment or work places that can be arranged. The The most basic layout principle is the work triangle. The
straight line arrangement may be placed along a wall work triangle is the line drawn from each of the three
or take the form of an island. primary work stations in the kitchen - the food storage,
cooktop, and sink. By drawing these lines, you can see the
• ‘L’ Shaped arrangement: This is a modification of the distance you’ll walk to move to and from each area.
straight line arrangement to accommodate more The sum of the ideal triangle is supposed to be between 15
equipments and work places, it is sometimes used and 22 feet, putting each of the three appliances within two
where linear space is limited. The ‘L’ shaped configu- or three steps of one another.
ration is suitable for seperating two major groups of
equipment. One group of equipment would be placed The three primary kitchen work stations which create the
on one leg of the ‘L’, the other group forming the second work triangle are:
leg.
• Food storage- Your refrigerator and pantry are the
• ‘U’ shaped arrangement: ‘U’ shaped configuration is major items here. Cabinetry like lazy Susan or swing-
ideal for small areas where only one or two employees out pantry units adds function and convenience. Op-
are working. One disadvantage of this configuration is tions like wine racks, spice racks, and roll-out trays
that straight line flow through the area is not possible. help to organize your groceries.

• Paralell, back to back arrangement: This configuration • The preparation/cooking station - Your range, oven,
is an arrangement of two parallel lines where the backs microwave, and smaller appliances are found in this
of the equipment and/or work places on each line are area. Counter space is important in this section.
adjacent to each other. This arrangement centralizes Conserve space by moving appliances off the counter
the utility lines required for the equipment. Sometime with appliance garage cabinets and space-saving ideas
a short wall is constructed between the two rows of like towel rods and pot lid racks.
equipment, in which case provision for cleaning and • The clean-up station - Everyone’s least favorite activity
maintenance should be provided. is one of the kitchen’s most important - clean-up. This
area is home to the sink, waste disposal, and dish-
• Parallel face to face arrangement: This arrangement
washer. Cabinetry for this station is designed to
utilises two straight lines of equipment and work organize with the trash bin cabinet and roll-out tray
places where the front face each other and are sepa- baskets for storage convenience.
rated by an aisle space. This is very common configu-
ration that can be used in many areas of facility. This Your kitchen is probably more than just a place to cook and
configuration requires two separate utility lines for eat. You may choose to include a breakfast bar, desk,
equipment as compared to the single utility line used bookshelves, computer station, a TV or whatever in your
in the parallel back to back arrangement. kitchen.

The final arrangement for most facilities is usually com- Triangle reloaded
posed of a combination of configuration of equipment and The work triangle, however is experiencing a remodel of its
work places. Only the smallest of operations would use a own. The work triangle was designed for an age when there
single configuration of the layout facilities. was only one cook, and only three appliances (fridge,
After arriving at the total area requirement for the main stove, sink).
kitchen, the following is the estimated percentage of Here are a few top tips:
production/space for functional areas:-
• No leg of the triangle is supposed to be less than 4 feet
• Functioning area Space allotted % or more than 9 feet.
• Receiving 5 • There should be no human (well, or non-human, of
course) traffic flow cutting through the triangle.
• Food storage 20
• Place the microwave near the refrigerator for conven-
• Pre-preparation 20
ience

6 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise : 1.2.01
• Walk space should be 42? wide to account for traffic The L-shape kitchen
flow and clearance of large appliance doors or large This is a very popular kitchen layout - ideal for a family
relatives kitchen, or for entertaining guests, since it can easily
• Counter space on either side of the range or cooktop accommodate table and chairs in the same room. Using
should be a minimum of 15 inches two adjacent walls, the kitchen also benefits from the lack
of through traffic. The sink, range and fridge should be
• An 18-inch counter should be adjacent to the fridge on
separated by a preparation area.
the same side as the handle
• The food prep area (minimum counter space 36 inches) • Very flexible layout design
is ideally located between the fridge and the sink; If the • Major appliances can be placed in a variety of areas
food prep area is between the sink and the range or
cooktop, it will involve more travel. • Work areas are close to each other
• A lower surface is best for food prep (measure 7 to 8 • Can easily convert to a U-Shape with a cabinet leg
inches below your elbow height) addition
• In two-cook kitchens, the fridge and range/cooktop are The U-shape kitchen
usually shared.
The use of three full walls in a room offers the perfect
• Two triangles can share a leg, but shouldn’t overlap working kitchen. The fridge, range and sink can be spaced
• An island with a second sink creates at least one more out for maximum efficiency and convenience. This is great
triangle, and adapts to many uses: wet bar location, news for those who take your cooking seriously, as it
flower cutting and arranging, homework station etc. provides the best workflows with the shortest distances
around the kitchen. This shape also allows for large
Kitchen Layouts amounts of countertop and storage space.
The single line (or Pullman) kitchen
• Perfect for families who use their kitchens a great deal
This is a smart and simple solution for narrow rooms,
ideally with one wall over 10 feet long, without windows or • Provides plenty of counter space
doors. However, this layout causes the longest journey • Efficient work triangle
distances since you often have to walk from one end of the
room to the other. Therefore, it’s a good idea to place the • Can convert one cabinet leg into a breakfast bar
sink in the middle of the line, with adequate space
The island kitchen
separating it from the range.
A very popular kitchen type, the island layout is perfect if
• Ideal for apartments and smaller homes
you plan to entertain but requires more floor space. An
• Works well with the open designs found in many independent island unit can face a dining or living area,
contemporary homes allowing the cook to socialise while preparing. A sink here
provides the optimal arrangement in terms of the kitchen’s
• Small moveable table can provide eating space
working triangle. Otherwise, a cooktop with a canopy over
• Can be enhanced with the addition of an island the island can form a stunning focal point to the kitchen.
The galley kitchen The G-Shaped Kitchen
This shape offers the most efficient use of space, making Built very much like the U-Shaped with the addition of an
it the choice of many professional chefs. The two rows elongated partial wall, the G-Shaped kitchen offers a great
allow room for lots of preparation space, and moving deal of space. Ideal for larger families needing extra storage
between activity areas can be as easy as turning around. space Plenty of counter and cabinet space Multiple cooks
However, this shape is not ideal if the corridor is open at can function well in this layout Can convert one cabinet leg
both ends, since it can cause traffic congestion. into a breakfast bar or entertaining area
Make sure there is enough room for opposite drawers to be Planning of various supportive services
open at the same time (at least 48?). Another important
Pot and Pan Washing:
consideration is to keep the cleaning and cooking areas on
the same side in order to minimize the risk of accidents The pot and pan washing function is also preferably done
while moving hot pans between the sink and range. in a separate area instead of combining it with other areas
as some small operations may be inclined to do. The basic
• Great for smaller kitchens pot and pan washing function can be handled with a 3
• Appliances are close to one another compartment sink and drain boards, sufficient space for
storing the soil utensils have to be provided.
• Easy for one cook to maneuver
In some operations, a large storage area for soiled utensils
• Can easily convert to a U-Shape by closing off one end
may be required because they are not washed as soon as

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.01 7
they are received. This occurs when the same personnel • Forwarding the products.
who wash dish, also wash the pots and pans. Pot washing
machine are considered for large food facility if they can be The main factors that determine the layout of a kitchen are:
economically justified. • Whether the hotel is primarily for guests or if there is
A pot wash area is suppressed by 6” than the regular floor a busy chance trade.
level of the kitchen, to avoid the water flowing into the main • The locality.
kitchen area. Heavy jet washers with water at a tempera-
ture of 88 degrees is used to wash pots because they • The type of customer.
easily remove the dirt and fat and make cleaning easy. • The type of menu/service.
Since the pot wash area becomes very messy with waste
food and fat, anti-skid tiles are recommended for the floor
• Seasonal pressure of trade.
and white glazed tiles on the three side walls up to 8’ feet • Possibility of expansion.
height. A minimum area of 10’ x 10’ is required. Among current trends in cooking, kitchen organization and
Wet Grinding Area: food service, the following are readily noticeable.
In India wet grinding area is considered to be one of the • Greater mechanization
supporting services to the main kitchen. There will be a • Simpler operations
minimum of two wet grinders in any small hotels, so that
there is a stand by in case of breakdown. Wet grinders are • Increased use of convenience foods
tailor made and are of different capacities. The ideal The information that will be required before beginning
functional area required for a wet grinding is 10’ x 4’. The kitchen planning will be:
area has to have anti-skid tiles for the floor and glaze tiles • What type of meal is offered?
on the wall to maintain hygienic conditions.
• How many persons will he served?
Chef’s Cabin:
• Meal timings and how many sittings.
The chef’s cabin has to be ideally located, so that, he has
a clear view of the entire kitchen. In some organizations and • What type of service?
some hotels the Chef cabin is being utilized to store the • Will convenience foods be used?
imported stock of ingredients like, spices, wine etc. Ideally
10’ x 10’ is required for the chefs cabins.
• Is allowance to be made for special functions/sea-
sons?
Chef’s Larder Area Requirements: It is possible that kitchen space will be
This is a substore which is located within the kitchen, in the reduced to provide more seating capacity in the restaurant.
control of the chef. The quantities of material drawn for the However cramped, inadequate kitchens will lead to delays
day from the main food store is stored in the chefs larder, and faults in service. This will invariably affect the turnover.
since there is no space to store this in the individual Inadequate facilities will also affect staff morale. Kitchen
kitchen, the drawn material is stored in a place with the areas will depend on the type of service. Normally a kitchen
kitchen, which is called as chefs larder. Chefs larder is will occupy between 25%-33% of the space allotted to the
convenient for the cooks, because they can draw material restaurant. Whereas 10-12 sq. ft. per cover is the norm in
at any given time of the day even after the main food store the restaurant, the kitchen space is generally 2½–4 sq. per
is closed for the day in the evening. Large quantities of food cover. In smaller establishments this will go up to 6-9 sq.
material should not be stored in a chef larder because it ft. per cover. Generally ¼th the kitchen area is set aside for
blocks the capital of the hotel. storage. The remaining is divided between food pre-prepa-
ration, cooking and service.
Kitchen layout
Receiving,Preparation & Storage areas
The plan or layout of a kitchen will be determined by the
catering policy of the establishment. The plan is often Receiving area: The receiving area should be large and
limited by space availability. The production area is divided convenient enough to receive the volume and type of goods
into 3 very distinctive areas. delivered. The receiving clerk must inspect all items before
acceptance. The receiving area should be located near the
• Receiving, Preparation & Storage. entrance to the storage area so that once checked, goods
• Cooking. can be stored quickly.
Delivery Quay: The delivery quay will be situated near the
• Service (Dispatching) and wash-up. store and will consist of a platform of lorry level for easy
As in any other industrial production unit, the kitchen has unloading. It should be well lit, and fitted with anti-pest fans
three functions: and an air curtain at the door. A water connection with
hosepipe will ensure easy regular cleaning. Trolleys must
• Receiving raw materials be kept for easy unloading and cartage.
• Transforming them into finished goods

8 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise : 1.2.01
Gas Bank: If cylinders are used, these must, be kept - Pastry/Confectionery - Bakeshop
outside. Incase of a gas tank the distance from the building - Short order kitchen - Pantry
must be at least 150 yards. A daily check of gas shelters
- Hot Kitchen - Main Kitchen
and tank is necessary as a safety measure.
The Bake Shop- The control of costs and quality of
Garbage Disposal: Wet and dry garbage must be stored desserts and breads sold in hotels is very important for
separately. Wet garbage is stored in containers in a cool successful operation. In a small hotel, this will be a corner
area to prevent fermentation and smell. Dry garbage can be of the main kitchen whereas in big hotels, this will be a
incinerated. Disposal of garbage must be on a daily basis. separate fully equipped department. There are two sec-
Garbage areas must be cleaned daily, then disinfected and tions
deodorized.
Hot: equipped mainly with ovens (single, double decker or
Central stores: Dry stores must be maintained at 70ºF (21º triple tier) (convection or conventional), racks, dough mixer,
C). Lightweight items could be stored on top of shelves and food processor and will provide all bread, cakes and
heavy weight items at the bottom. Cases/Cartons can be gateaux.
stored either on shelves or pallets. Nothing should be
stored on the floor. 8” height above the floor will ensure easy Cold: is equipped with refrigerated marbles, laminators,
cleaning. Shelves should not touch the wall. A 2” space ice-cream machines, and food processors. It is usually air-
must be maintained. conditioned, and provides all the desserts.

The Cold Room: Many foodstuffs will have to be maintained The Pantry- As the name suggests all the short orders are
at refrigerated temperatures. There are two types of cold executed from here. These will include sandwiches,
rooms: icecreams and beverages. Quick service equipment, such
as toasters, juicers and shakers will be provided.
• Negative cold room (freezer) with an ideal temperature
The Main Kitchen- Known as the heart of the kitchen. The
of -18ºC.
area is divided into work islands where various jobs will be
• Positive cold room (walk-in) with a temperature of 3ºC- performed.
5ºC. A) Roasting and Baking
Recommended temperatures for various food stuffs: B) Grilling
• Meat 0–1ºC C) Frying
• Fish 2–3ºC The equipment must be placed so as to avoid unnecessary
movement. Bain Maries must be located near the gas
• Dairy 4–5ºC
ranges. Exhaust fans are essential. Good lighting, non-slip
• Veg. & Fruits 6–7ºC floors, and easy-to-clean walls are necessary.
Vegetable Pre–preparation Area: The work here consists In a classical organization the main kitchen is divided
of: according to partie system. But in India it is divided
• Washing and Cleaning. according to the cuisine. E.g. Continental, Chinese, In-
dian.
• Paring and Trimming
Service & Wash-up area
• Cutting, Chopping etc.
The Service Area is situated between the kitchen and the
Use of frozen vegetables will determine the area required
restaurant and has the following functions.
here. This room is sometimes air-conditioned, and in small
establishments will be combined with the Butchery. • Cleans dirty equipment corning from the restaurant or
The Butchery: It is an air-conditioned room for meat pre- floors.
preparation. Bone saws, weighing scales and butchers • Supplies clean equipment to the restaurant and kitchen.
blocks will be provided. The butchery must be situated
• Calling point for food orders.
close to the freezer. Non slip flooring is essential and
flycatchers must be installed. • Delivery of food.
The Larder: The larder must be situated near to but • Cashiering.
separate from the kitchen. It must be air-conditioned, well Issuing meals to the restaurant is carried out in this area.
lit and well equipped. A kitchen clerk called the Aboyeur is stationed at the
Cooking area survey counter throughout the meal period. On receipt of
the waiter’s check (KOT) he announces in a loud and clear
In this area, raw materials and pre-prepared goods are
voice the order with special instructions. The section must
turned into finished products. This area can range from a
acknowledge the order in return. Most orders are executed
simple kitchen to a more complex group or sections or even
in parts (en suite.)
satellites.

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.01 9
The Cashier prepares the bills and gives it to the waiter for c) Unloading – The clean equipment is kept on racks,
presentation. The paid check and cash is returned to the picked by waiters or delivered by stewards.
cashier who will stamp it with a PAID stamp. A dispense
Pre-rinsing calls for water of a warm temperature. 120º F
bar is also situated in this area for drinks in the restaurant
will melt fat but not cook foods firmly onto the surfaces.
and in rooms
The washing temperature must be 140º F hot enough for
The Wash-up Area: Dish washing has a high rate of
effective cleaning action. Sanitizing calls for a temperature
importance because of its significance in sanitation and
of 180º F for 10 seconds. In small hotels, dish washing is
hygiene. The wash-up area consists of three parts, manned
done manually, but the process is the same. Ideally
by the kitchen steward.
separate workers should be provided for handling dirty and
a) Loading – dirty equipment is pre-washed and loaded on clean dishes. To ensure effective dish washing water
baskets/trays for machine or hand washing. temperatures must be maintained, detergent concentra-
b) Washing – consists of cleaning, rinsing and sanitizing. tion should be effective and correct handling procedures
followed

10 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise : 1.2.01
Travel, Tourism & Hospitality Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.02
Food Production - Introduction to Food Production, equipments & ingredents
Usage of Equipment
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain kitchen equipment & their uses
• explain maintenance of kitchen equipment & their cost

Hand Tool & Small Equipment – Balloon whips or piano wire whips have mainly
flexible wire. Used for whipping eggs, cream, and
• Ball cutter, melon ball scoop, or parisienne knife – hollandaise, and for mixing thinner liquid.
Blade is a small, cup shaped half sphere. Used for
cutting fruits and vegetables into small balls. • China cap – Cone shaped strainer. Used for straining
stock, soups, sauces and other liquids.
• Cook’s fork – heavy, two-pronged fork with a long
Pointed shaped allows the cook to drain liquids thor-
handle. Some for lifting and turning meats and other
ough a relatively small opening.
items. Must be strong enough to hold heavy loads.
Fine china cap or chinois (shee-nwah) China cap with
• Straight spatula or palette knife – A long flexible blade very fine mesh. Used when great clarity or smoothness
with a rounded end. Used mostly for spreading icing on is required in a liquid.
cakes and for mixing and bowl scraping.
• Strainer Round-bottomed, cup-shaped strainer made
• Sandwich spreader – A short, stubby spatula. Used for of screen-type mesh or of perforated metal. Used for
spreading fillings and spreads on sandwiches. straining pasta, vegetables, and so on.
• Offset spatula – broad blade, bent to keep hand off hot • Sieve Screen-type mesh supported in a round metal
surfaces. Used for turning and lifting eggs, pancakes, frame. Used for sifting flour and other dry ingredients.
and meats on griddles, grills, sheet pans, and so on.
Also used as scraper to clean bench or griddle. • Colander Large perforated bowl made of stainless steel
or aluminum. Used to drain washed or cooked vegeta-
• Rubber spatula or scraper – Broad, flexible rubber or bles, salad greens, pasta, and other foods.
plastic tips on long handle. Used to scrape bowls and
pans. Also used for folding in egg foams or whipped • Food mill A tool with a hand-turned blade that forces
cream. foods through a perforated disk. Interchangeable disks
have different coarseness or fineness. Used for puréeing
• Pie server – A wedge shaped offset spatula. Used for foods.
lifting pie wedges from pan.
• Grater A four-sided metal box with different sized grids.
• Bench scraper or dough knife – A broad, stiff piece of Used for shredding and grating vegetables, cheese,
metal with a wooden handle on one edge. Used to cut citrus rinds, and other foods.
pieces of dough and to scrape workbenches.
• Zester Small hand tool used for removing the colored
• Pastry wheels or wheel knife – A round, rotating blade part of citrus peels in thin strips.
on a handle. Used for cutting rolled –out dough and
pastry and baked pizza. • Channel knife Small hand tool used mostly in decora-
tive work.
• Spoons: solid, slotted, and perforated – Large stain-
less steel spoons, holding about 3 ounces. Used for • Pastry bag and tubes Cone-shaped cloth or plastic bag
stirring, mixing, and serving. Slotted and perforated with open end that can be fitted with metal tubes or tips
spoons are used when liquid must be drained from of various shapes and sizes. Used for shaping and
solids. decorating with items such as cake icing, whipped
cream, duchesse potatoes, and soft dough.
• Skimmer – Perforated disc, slightly supped, on along
handle. Used for skimming forth from liquids and for • Pastry brush Used to brush items with egg wash,
removing soled pieces from soups, stocks and other glaze, etc.
liquid. • Can opener Heavy-duty food service type can openers
• Tongs – spring type or scissors type tools used to pick are mounted on the edge of the workbench. They must
up and handle foods. be carefully cleaned and sanitized every day to prevent
contamination of foods. Replace worn blades, which
• Wire whip – Loops of stainless steel wire fastened to can leave metal shavings in food.
a handle. There are two kinds of whips :
Care & Maintenance of the equipment
– Heavy whips are straight, stiff, and have relatively
few wires. Used for general mixing, stirring, and • All equipment large or small, heavy or light, requires
beating, especially heavy liquids. care in handling, use and storage on order to extend its

11
 life to the maximum, minimize depreciation and main- instruction card for every equipment carrying the manu-
tain it in a reasonably attractive and efficient condition facturer’s instruction in as simple a form as will be
while in use. In small catering establishment the care understood by the operators of the equipment. This
and maintenance is generally entrusted to those who card could be kept near each major piece of equip-
operate the equipment as the types invested on are ment.
generally small or medium duty pieces. In larger
establishments where heavy-duty equipment predomi- • All electrical inputs to the equipment should be checked
nates, a maintenance department performs this func- periodically to ensure that proper electrical load is
tion. available for efficient functioning.

• In the case of small pieces like cutlery, some metals • Insulations, plumbing, and other connections need
need less care than others do. Stainless steel is the periodic checks to keep equipment at optimum effi-
most non-corrosive and easy to-care for material, while ciency.
plated cutlery tends to get scratched easily and with • Make full use of warranty periods to help train organi-
time requires replating. zation staff to learn regular maintenance procedures
• With kitchen tools like the chef’s knives, choppers, from the manufacture’s engineers.
etc. care is limited to preventing the blades from rusting • Assign the care of each machine to one responsible
in the case of iron blades, by keeping them dry and person.
covered. It is also common practice to rub them with a Money, time and effort spent on care helps to maintain
little cooking oil to protect them from rusting through equipment in continuous working order, while that spent on
contact with air. With whisks and beaters it is the repair can mean interruption in work causing unnecessary
rotating parts or the wiry ends which need special strain on staff, in addition to extra costs.
attention. It is good practice to prevent food materials
from on drying on the rotatory parts and posing a It is beneficial to keep records of all amounts spent on care
cleaning problem. and maintenance of every large equipment. This helps to
estimate the depreciation every year. Excessive costs
• With heavier and larger pieces of equipment general shown through records for a particular year can help to draw
cleanliness of the item and its environment is the attention to high maintenance costs, which weighed against
guiding principle. The schedule below is a guide to the the cost of the equipment may result in a decision to
general care of most equipment. change the model for a more efficient one. Records can
Schedule for the care of equipment also help to detect inefficient in operation, or defects in
design or manufacture.
• Keep all equipment clean.
Thus, if equipment is cared for systematically and proper
• Wash all removable parts of equipment with suitable procedures followed, maintenance follows on its own to
detergent and hot water after each use. In tropical prolong the life and optimum usage of the equipment. The
summers this is not necessary, as the water in the cleaning schedules for some commonly used equipment in
taps is usually warm to hot, depending on the environ- small food service establishments are given under their
mental temperature. After washing wipe equipment respective heads:
completely dry before replacing. Cooking Equipment: (Hot plates, gas stoves or ranges)
• All small equipment like cutlery, ladles, chopping • Wipe the top daily while still warm, using wet cloth or
boards, kitchen tools, etc. should be washed after use sponge.
in (2) and replaced in drawers and racks built for the • Any foods spilled and burnt while cooking may require
purpose and covered to prevent them from dust or dirt the use of mild detergent or scouring pad.
during storage.
• For open burners, a weekly boil in warm soapy water
• Check that all pieces are in working order. Close will help remove any food particles that may have been
supervision at work is necessary to ensure a careful the cause of blockade leading.
handling and to detect any deviations from effective • Wipe dry with slightly oiled cloth.
operation, like an unusual sound, or fusing of warning
lights, or ineffective thermostatic controls. Ovens

• Repairs must be attended to without delay to prevent • Wash, rinse and outer surfaces daily, after every meal.
the equipment from giving way and disrupting work for • Use liquid wax for enamel finished parts.
any period of time.
• Brush the inside to remove any sediments due to food
• A weekly, fortnightly or monthly programme for oiling particles charred during cooking. Any sticky areas
or servicing the equipment to maintain movable parts may be wiped with a wet cloth after washing the oven
or machinery in order is important. The service instruc- and then switching it off.
tions provided by the manufacturer along with the
• Clean all plastic knobs with cloth and wipe dry.
equipment are a good guide to the service procedure
that should be followed. It is useful to prepare an

12 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.02
Refrigerators Note: In general, it is good policy to follow manufacture’s
instructions for care and maintenance of any equipment.
• The outside surfaces should be cleaned as for oven
daily. Maintenance Costs

• A weekly cleaning of the insides of a refrigerator is The cost of maintaining any equipment should be deter-
sufficient especially if the establishment is small. For mined on the basis of the following factors:
this the machine should be disconnected, doors opened (a) Cost savings in terms of fuel consumption, as com-
and the shelves removed and washed in warm water pared with the fuel bill prior to the installation of the
according to manufacturer’s instructions. piece.
Preparation of the Equipment (b) Cost of servicing and regular cleaning which would
involve the cost of cleaning materials and detergents.
• All parts, which are removable, should be cleaned after
every use with light detergent. (c) Rate of depreciation calculated over the expected life
of the equipment.
• Sharp edges should be carefully handled for cleaning,
drying and replacing immediately for use. (d) Any savings that the installation would have resulted
in, in terms of better utilization of raw materials and
Coffee Urn prevention of waste.
• Urns should be emptied after each meal and the (e) Any savings brought about due to elimination of daily
insides cleaned with hard brush using a solution of wage workers, as in the case of people being employed
sodium bicarbonate. seasonally for peeling of vegetables for establishments
which function for a limited period in the year, as for
• Outer surfaces as for any other equipment. school meals, college canteens, and the like.

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.02 13
Travel, Tourism & Hospitality Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.03
Food Production - Introduction to Food Production, equipments & ingredents
Ingredients Used in Cooking
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain about Indian spices
• explain cooking with Indian spices
• state about aroma of Indian spices
• describe wet spices
• describe Indian cooking technique

INDIAN SPICES • Ginger

Spices are referred as the strongly flavored or the aromatic • Kokum
substance with vegetable origin, obtained from tropical
plants. They are the dried seeds, fruits, roots, barks or • Mint leaves
vegetative substances used in nutritionally insignificant • Mustard
quantities as food additives for the purpose of flavoring.
• Nutmeg
They provide taste to the food. They are also good for health
as they supply calcium, iron, vitamin B, vitamin C, carotene • Parsley
and other antioxidants. • Pepper
In medieval period, spices were in great demand and were • Poppy
as precious as gold. India being the land of spices plays a
significant role in the global spice market. No country in the • Saffron
world produces the range of quality spices India offers with • Tamarind
all of its states growing at least one spice in abundance.
• Tea
Commonly Used Spices in Indian Cooking
• Turmeric
• Aniseed Tamarind
• Asafetida Tamarind is an indispensable spice in south Indian kitch-
• Basil ens. Being the only producer of tamarind on a commercial
scale, India exports tamarind to West Asia, Europe and
• Bay Leaves
America.
• Bishop Weeds
Referred as date of India, this spice also comes in the forms
• Cardamoms of pulp and juice concentrates which mainly go into the
• Cashew preparation of cool drinks, sea foods and a range of
sophisticated cuisine.
• Cassia
Tamarind trees are very common in South India, particu-
• Cinnamon larly in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
• Celery Medicinally, tamarind is used as an Ayurvedic Medicine for
gastric and/or digestion problems.
• Chilies
The extracts of tamarind fruits and leaves are used in body
• Cloves lotions, henna-based red hair dyes, face masks, lip balms,
• Coffee body butters and soaps. Tamarind seed oil is used in
making paints and varnishes.
• Coriander
Poppy
• Cumin
Poppy is the dried seed of an annual herb and is the earliest
• Curry leaf
plant to be cultivated by men. In olden days, poppy was
• Dill valued for the oil obtained from its seeds.
• Fennel Today, poppy oil is an unusual specialty and is produced
• Fenugreek only in small quantities. Even though poppy seeds are not
narcotic, they are cultivated for culinary purposes and for
• Galanga the production of opium.
• Garlic

14
Opium is obtained from the latex of the mature fruits by Roasted coffee is the most preferred state of coffee and the
making incisions on them. In Mughal cooking style, ground roasting process involves a considerable degree of influ-
poppy seeds are used as common thickening agents to ence on the taste of the final product. It requires lot of
obtain sweet, mild, nutty flavor and aroma. processing and human labour. Coffee berries must be
picked, defruited, dried, sorted, and aged.
Poppy is grown in India in states of Uttar Pradesh and
Punjab. The raw coffee beans have coffee acids, protein, and
caffeine but none of its taste. It requires heat to spark the
Cashew
chemical reactions that turn carbohydrates and fats into
The Cashew is grown in a tree in the flowering plant family aromatic oils, burn off moisture and carbon dioxide, and
Anacardiaceae. This plant is basically native to northeast- alternately break down and build up acids, unlocking the
ern Brazil where it is referred as caju. It is now cultivated in characteristic coffee flavor.
all regions with sufficiently warm and humid climate. The
Being the most popular drink, coffee can be presented in
tree has fruits which are oval or pear-shaped accessory
many ways with sugar, with milk or cream, and hot or cold.
fruits developed from the receptacle of the cashew flower.
Even instant coffee is available and it has been dried into
The fruits are often referred as cashew apples. The true fruit soluble powder or freeze dried into granules, which can be
of the cashew tree is a kidney or boxing-glove shaped drupe quickly dissolved in hot water for consumption. There is
which grows at the end of the pseudofruit. Actually, the also canned coffee which is a beverage that has been
drupe develops first on the tree, and then the peduncle popular in Asian countries for many years, particularly in
expands into the pseudofruit. Within the true fruit is a single Japan and South Korea.
seed, the cashew nut. The seed is surrounded by a double
Many vending machines typically sell a number of varieties
shell containing a caustic phenolic resin, urushiol, a potent
of canned coffee, available both hot and cold. Liquid coffee
skin irritant toxin and some people are allergic to cashews,
concentrate is used in large institutional situations where
but cashews are a less frequent allergen than some other
coffee needs to be produced for thousands of people at the
nuts.
same time.
The urushiol will be removed from the dark green nut shells
Curry leaf
before the seed inside is processed for consumption. In
India urushiol is traditionally used to control tamed el- Most Indian cuisine cannot do without the subtle flavouring
ephants by its rider or keeper. of a highly aromatic leafy spice called curry leaf.
The cashew apple is mainly used for its juicy but acidic The curry leaves are from a small deciduous tree which
pulp, which can be eaten raw or used in the production of grows profusely throughout mainland. It is commonly found
jam, chutney, or various beverages. At some places, its in forests as gregarious undergrowth along the foot of the
juice is also processed and distilled into liquor or con- Himalayas, from the Ravi to Sikkim and Assam, besides
sumed diluted and sugared as a refreshing drink, Cajuína. Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kerala, Karnataka,
The cashew apple is the source of juicy pulp used to Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.
prepare fenny which is the local popular distilled liquor in
The trees are also now maintained in homestead gardens,
Goa.
as in Kerala, or on leaf farms as in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
The cashew apple has tannin and is very perishable. Nadu, Karnataka and Orissa.
Hence, in most of the places, the false fruit is simply
The curry leaves are mainly used in seasoning in Indian
discarded after removal of the cashew nut. The cashews
cooking. They are particularly used in South India cooking
have high oil content and can be used not only for cashew
to provide a flavouring for curries, vegetable, fish and meat
butters, but also for some other nut butters to add extra oil.
dishes, soups (rasams), pickles, butter milk preparations,
The liquid contained within the shell casing of the cashew,
chutneys, scrambled eggs and curry powder blends.
known as Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL) which has a
variety of industrial uses. In fresh form, they have short shell life, but in dried form it
has be preserved for a long time.
India is one of the largest producers of cashew kernels.
Kollam or Quilon in Kerala, South India produces one of the Fenugreek
finest varieties of cashews. The major trading centers of Fenugreek is the small, three- cornered flower. It is an
cashew in India are Palasa, Kollam or Quilon Mangalore ancient spice used in Middle East, Northern- Eastern
and Kochi. Africa and India, especially for pickles. Dry roasting en-
Coffee hances the flavor and reduces the bitterness of this spice.
Coffee is one of the commercial spices of India even though Fenugreek has a strong, pleasant and a peculiar odor. It
Brazil is the top exporter of coffee globally. A mineral-rich grows best in well-drained soils with a low rainfall into
volcanic soil, suitable altitudes, good rainfall and tempera- brownish-yellow rhombic shape seeds. It is often cultivated
ture variations make for the growth of best coffee cherry as a cover crop in citrus-fruit groves to take advantage of
which is richer in taste and higher in sugar content. their leguminous nature.

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.03 15
In India, it is grown in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar tions and asthmatic condition
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. It is exported in its whole and
Turmeric
powdered forms and as oil to Saudi Arabia, Japan, Malay-
sia, USA, The UK, Singapore and Sri Lanka. Turmeric is the dried rhizome of an herbaceous plant and
is also referred as Indian saffron. It has several unique
Galangal
properties which make it an ideal choice as a food flavour,
Galangal is a special spice having ginger like rootstock an effective ingredient in medicines and cosmetics, and as
built from the cylindrical sub units whose pale-reddish a natural colourant.
surface is characteristically cross-striped by reddish-
It has rich curcumin content, which gives the distinctive
brown, small rings.
yellow colour. India is the largest exporter of turmeric to
The interior has about the same color as the skin and is Middle East, the UK, USA and Japan. The popular varieties
hard and woody in texture. Even though, galanga leaves are the Alleppey Finger and the Erode turmeric from Tamil
and seeds are aromatic they are not used very often for Nadu, the Rajapore and the Sangli turmeric from
flavoring purposes. But its volatile oil attracts more interna- Maharashtra and the Nizamabad Bulb from Andhra Pradesh.
tional interest because of its high medicinal value.
Turmeric is used in canned beverages, baked products,
Galanga is cultivated in Indochina, Thailand, Malaysia, dairy products, ice cream, yogurts, yellow cakes, biscuits,
Cambodia, Vietnam and Indonesia. In India, it is grown in popcorn-color, sweets, cake icings, cereals, sauces,
the eastern Himalayas and South- West India. gelatines, direct compression tablets, cheeses, dry mixes,
salad dressings, winter butter and margarine. Cosmeti-
Kokum
cally, turmeric is used as a Sun-guard for skin protection.
Kokam is an Indian versatile spice specialty, with an
Medicinally, turmeric is used in treatment for pancreatic
agreeable flavor and sweet, acidic taste.
cancer, multiple myeloma, Alzheimer's, and colorectal
Its oils, seeds, fruits, bark and leaves have extensive cancer.
culinary and therapeutic value. Its fruit is cholagogue,
Aniseed
cooling, demulcent, emollient and antiseptic.
Being one of the oldest spices, the aniseed is the
Its bark and leaves are astringent and its oil is emollient and
schizocarpic fruit of the annual anise plant of the parsley
soothing. In India, kokam is grown in Konkan, Malabar and
family (Umbelliferae) and consists of two half-fruits which
Kanara regions of Western India.
are separable only with difficulty.
It is exported to several countries like USA, UK, Canada,
The aniseed is widely used for flavouring curries, bread,
Australia, Hong Kong and Middle East.
soups, baked goods, dried figs, deserts, cream cheese,
Pepper pickles, egg dishes, non-alcoholic and alcoholic bever-
Known as King of Spices, Pepper is indigenous to India and ages. The spice has essential oils and other ingredients
is one of the oldest and best-known spices in the world. which have a strong seasoning action.

India has always reigned supreme in its production and It is ground grey to grayish brown in color. The oil ducts are
export. The exotic and most sought-after Indian pepper has almost always present embedded in the fruit wall beneath
made a profound influence on the European economy of the the ridges.
Middle Ages. In India, it is grown to a small extent as a culinary herb or
Indian pepper is grown in the monsoon forests along the as a garden plant. The major products are anis oil and
Malabar coast in South India. The celebrated trade varie- oleoresin anis. Basically, the aniseed is anti-bacterial,
ties of Indian black pepper are the Malabar Garbled and the anti-fungal, anti-oxidant, stimulant, carminative and ex-
Tellichery Extra Bold. Even green pepper in several proc- pectorant.
essed forms - frozen, dehydrated, freeze-dried and packed Basil
in brine are available.
The basil is a small, erect, glabrous, profusely branched
Pepper is an important spice in the Indian classic garam herb indigenous to India. It has an intensive pungent smell.
masala. It is used as flavour ingredient in most major food
The word basil is derived from the Greek word basileús
products including non alcoholic beverages, candies, baked
which means king due to the royal fragrance of this herb.
foods, meat and meat products, cheese, condiments and
relishes. Medicinally, it is used in aromatherapy, mas- In India, basil is also considered to be sacred and is mainly
sages and to treat sports injuries. used in the worship of Lord Vishnu.
Its steam inhalation combined with eucalyptus is good for The basil has rich aroma and excellent blending properties.
treatments of colds and flu. Its fruits are acrid, bitter, It is used in the preparation of French liquors, sophisticated
carminative, aphrodisiac, diuretic, digestive and stimulant perfumes and gourmet class culinary seasonings.
and are useful for arthritis, asthma, fever, cough, dysen-
Basil oil is also popular for its unique blending nature with
tery, dyspepsia and flatulence. Peppers boiled in water
other ingredients.
along with basil leaves, are said to relieve chest conges-

16 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.03
The growth of basil requires warm temperature climates. one thick layer. Cassia tastes slightly bitter and it lacks the
Among all the spices, basil is the only one spice which liveliness of cinnamon. It is often used as a less costly
offers highest yields per acre. substitute to true cinnamon.
Bay Leaves Chilies
The Bay leaves are known for their versatile and irresistible Being the universal spice of India, chili is a nature's wonder.
aroma and taste. They are the leaves of an evergreen tree Its fruit has different sizes, shapes and colour. Only in
called the Sweet bay or the Bay laurel or the Noble laurel India, many rich varieties of chilies with different qualities
or the True laurel. are found.
In India the Bay laurel tree originates in the South slopes There are two important commercial qualities of chilies.
of the Himalayas. The bay leaves have essential oil from the Red color chilies having the pigment capsanthin and green
leaves containing cinnamic aldehyde and traces of eugenol color chilies known for biting pungency attributed by
as its main constituents. capsaicin. The chilies are the most essential ingredient in
curries of south India.
Even though the bay leaves are native to the Mediterra-
nean, they have given wondrous flavor and scent to the In curries, they are used as in variety of forms such as
Indian cuisine. Indian bay leaves belong to a tree which is paste, powder, broken split or whole form. The fruit is either
related to cinnamon. They are tough three- veined leaves cooked or consumed raw for its fiery hot flavour which is
and are very popular in Northern India, but are little known concentrated along the top of the pod.
in other parts of the country.
The stem end of the pod has glands which produce the
The reason for the popularity of bay leaves in Northern India capsaicin, which then flows down through the pod. The
is that Mughals influenced North Indian cuisine which heat of the pod can be reduced by removing the seeds and
adopted this flavour. In the Imperial Mughal cuisine, the bay inner membranes.
leaves were used frequently in biryanis and kormas. Thus
Chili powder is a spice made of the dried ground chilies,
they formed the essential part of the mostly used blend of
along with portions of pepper, cumin, coriander, fenugreek
spices.
seeds and many other spices.
Today, bay leaves are one of the most sought- after culinary
Coriander
spices for flavoring soups, casseroles, stews, fish, fish
sauces, meat, poultry, pudding and marinades. The coriander has long history with its cultivation dating
back to ancient species in the Mediterranean region. It has
Cassia
been mentioned in holy bible and is said to be known since
Cassia is the dried husk or bark of a small, bushy evergreen the middle age.
tree and is considered inferior to cinnamon. Its quill has a
Coriander leaves are very popular in India as they are used
single ½ mm thickness layer.
in variety of dishes for garnishing. Apart from the use of
It is used as a flavoring agent in many products such as leaves for decorating dishes, coriander is also used in the
candies, desserts, baked goods, and meat. It is also used form of dried ripe fruit.
in beverages, perfumery, toiletries and cosmetics, while
The aroma is warm, nutty and spicy while the leaves have
the oil of cassia finds extensive application in liquors and
a strong odor. It is not only a fragrant spice, but also has
beauty products.
medicinal properties. It is used extensively in several kinds
Cassia contains 4% essential oil of which 75 to 90% has of foods, beverages, liquors and perfumes. It requires full
cinnamic aldehyde and there are traces of eugenol along exposure to sunlight but with less heat and medium-to-
with small amounts of coumarin. It is the spice mentioned heavy loamy soil, good drainage and well-distributed mois-
in the bible and hence is regarded as the first cinnamon ture.
species that was known and used centuries ago.
In India Coriander is an essential constitute of curry powder
In India, cassia is grown in the North-Eastern states and in and Indian masalas. To enhance its flavor, the normal
the evergreen tracts along the high ranges of the Western practice is to fry or roast coriander. It is grown in the states
Ghats. There are different varieties of cassia, obtained from of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and
different species of Cinnamomum and originating from Madhya Pradesh.
different sources.
India exports coriander leaves, powder and oil to USA, UK,
Sometimes, Cassia is assumed as cinnamon, due to Malaysia, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Middle East.
certain similarities, mainly their origin being the bark of
Dill
bushy evergreen tree. But there are differences between
the two. Cassia is a much thicker, coarser product than Dill is a strongly smelling spice which is mainly popular as
cinnamon. the Old Norse dilla used to relieve babies from stomach
pain due to its anti flatulent power. It is an annual winter
Cassia is sold as pieces of bark or as neat quills or sticks.
crop which requires well-drained sandy soil and complete
Its sticks are extremely hard and are usually made up of
sunlight for proper growth.

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.03 17
It belongs to the parsley family and grown in the sub tropical plaints. Besides, it is used in perfumery, soaps and
and temperate regions of India especially the northern shampoos.
parts.
Nutmeg and mace have similar taste qualities. But nutmeg
It is popular all over Europe, Western, Central and Southern has a slightly sweeter and mace a more delicate flavor.
Asia due to its sweet taste. It is mainly used for cooking
Mace is used in light-coloured dishes for the bright orange,
bread, vegetable, vinegar, pickles and fish. It is the national
saffron-like colour it imparts. In Indian cuisine, nutmeg is
spice in the Scandinavian countries and the fish dishes are
used almost exclusively in sweets and in small quantities
usually either directly flavored with dill or served together
in garam masala.
with sauces containing dill.
Saffron
In India, however, dill is used to flavor for lentils and bean
dishes. It is used extensively in foods, beverages and Saffron is the slender, dried, reddish-brown, flattened
medicines and its essential oil constitutes an important stigma of a small crocus of the iris family and is the most
flavoring for the pickles industry. India exports dill to USA, expensive spice in the world.
the UK, Canada and Japan. Its aroma is unique and there is no substitute for it. In India,
Garlic saffron is grown in Kashmir.
Being a hardy bulbous annual crop, Garlic has pungent and Saffron is water-soluble and when added to the dish, gives
acid flavour with high medicinal values. Entire bulb has no a pure and homogeneous color. In high dosage, saffron
odor, but when crushed or cut, it produces intense odor. exhibits toxic qualities.
It is originated in central Asia and is one of the famous Saffron is used in dished of Central Asia and Northern India
spices of the world. It is also mentioned in the Bible and in apart from the North Indian biryanis. It is also used in many
the ancient Egyptian times when they were fed to the Indian sweets like, kheer, ras malai, Indian yogurt drink,
pyramid builders daily and as food for the Hebrews during butter lassi, badam shake etc.
their sojourn in Egypt.
Vanilla
Garlic is used in pickles and vinegars. It is also used in
The Vanilla is a climbing orchid cultivated for its pleasant
vegetable, meat and poultry dishes, especially in casse-
flavour and is one of the few contributions of the western
role, stew and marinade.
hemisphere to the world of spices. It has over 50 species
Even readymade spices, mixes, pharmaceuticals and but only three important species form the sources of
disinfectants have garlic. It is cultivated in India in the natural vanillin. They are
states of Poona, Nasik, Madurai and Jamnagar.
• Vanilla planifollia Andrews
Mint Leaves
• Vanilla pompona Shiede
Mint is an erect plant with dark green leaves of pleasant
flavour. The various species of mint are peppermint, spear- • Vanilla tahitensis J.W. Moore
mint, apple mint and corn mint.
Of these, Vanilla planifollia is the most preferred and
Peppermint and spearmint are commercially popular and commercially cultivated vanilla. There are three main
significant. Peppermint is used in mint tea. Mint oil and commercial preparations of natural vanilla. They are
menthol are used as flavouring agents in mouthwashes,
toothpastes and chewing gums. • whole bean

Mint leaves are used in few dishes like mint-coriander

• powder (pure ground beans or blended with sugar,
chutney, rasam, sambar, meat, fish, poultry items and starch or other ingredients)
biryanis. In India, mint is grown in Jammu and Kashmir, • extract (in alcoholic solution)
Punjab, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh.
Pods or beans of Vanilla are subjected to curing process
Nutmeg to produce the characteristic aroma and the substance
Nutmeg is the hard kernel of the seed of an evergreen tree chiefly responsible for the unique fragrance and flavour of
which is native to Moluccas. the vanilla bean is vanillin (C8 H8 03).

Mace is the lacy growth known as the aril, surrounds the Vanilla has a prime position among the food flavors. Its
seed. This spice became popular in the kitchen when the essence finds large use in foods in the preparation of ice
Portuguese developed trade in Spice Island, in 16th cen- creams, chocolates, bakery products, puddings, pharma-
tury. ceuticals, liquors and perfumes. It is the second most
expensive spice traded in the world market.
Nutmeg is used in both savory and sweet dishes as it has
a warm flavor and affinity for rich foods. The vanilla flavor used in creams, cakes and other foodstuff
is achieved by adding some vanilla extract or by cooking
In India it is used mainly in Moghul dishes. Medicinally, it vanilla beans in the liquid preparation. If the beans are split
is used to relieve bronchial disorders, rheumatism and into two, stronger aroma can be obtained.
flatulence as treatment for digestive, liver and skin com-

18 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.03
The natural vanilla gives a brownish to yellowish colour to Cardamoms
the preparations, depending on the concentration. A good The Cardamom or the Elettaria Cardamomum Maton is
quality vanilla has a strong aromatic flavour. But there are called as the Queen of Spices as it is one of the most exotic
many artificially synthesized vanilla substitutes and food- and highly prized spices.
stuffs with small amounts of low quality vanilla or artificial
vanilla-like flavorings are more common, since true vanilla It is grown mainly in Kerala, Tamilnadu and Karnataka, on
is very expensive. the shady slopes of the western Ghats. The Indian carda-
mom gets its unique aroma, flavor, size and color due to the
Vanilla’s popular use is in ice creams and hence most warm humid climate, the loamy soil rich in organic matter,
people consider it to be the default flavor. the distributed rainfall and the special cultivation and
Asafoetida processing methods.
The asafetida or the asafoetida is dried latex extracted from The various grades of Indian cardamom offered at the
the living rhizome, rootstock or taproot of an umbelliferous international markets are the Alleppey Green Extra Bold
plant of varied species. (AGEB), the Alleppey Green Bold (AGB) and the Alleppey
Green Superior (AGS).
It has a unique blend of finest ingredients and Indian
asafetida from Kashmir has an exalted position in the The cardamom oil is the most precious ingredient in food
international market. Indian asafetida has three forms preparations, perfumery, health foods, medicines, and
based on quality. They are as follows. beverages.

• Tears The cardamom seed has strong, unique taste, with an

intensely aromatic fragrance. It is often included in Indian
• Mass sweet dishes, drinks and festive recipes. It is also used in
• Paste pickles, punches and mulled wines, occasionally with
There is another classification based on the place of origin, meat, poultry and shellfish.
flavor and color as follows. In traditional medicine, cardamom is used to treat infec-
• Hing tions in teeth and gums, throat troubles, congestion of the
lungs and pulmonary tuberculosis, inflammation of eyelids
• Hingra and also digestive disorders. It is also reportedly used as
The asafetida is highly popular spice as people who do not an antidote for both snake and scorpion venom.
prefer to eat onion and garlic can make this as an essential Celery
ingredient of their cuisine. It acts as an alternative for onion
and garlic in most of the vegetable dishes. Celery is a popular herb and vegetable with its roots and
leaves being used for garnishing purposes as well as can
It is used in very small quantities in dishes and a pea-sized be cooked for eating as a vegetable.
amount is considered to be large or sufficient to add the
asafetida flavor to a large pot of food. The powdered It has its origin in Mediterranean region of Europe. It is the
asafetida is less intense and can be used even without spice mentioned in Greek epics. It was also considered as
frying. a holy plant in Greece. Romans believed that the celery
would bring bad fortune under certain circumstances.
The aroma of this spice is also less when used in powdered
form but the resin has a non-perishable fragrance. The resin In India, celery is mainly produced in Punjab and Uttar
has strong flavor and must be fried shortly in hot oil. Pradesh. The Indian celery dominates the world market
with several commercial grades of celery besides its
Bishop Weeds essential oils being exported to USA, Singapore, France,
The Bishop weeds also referred as the ajwain have origi- Japan and UK.
nated in Eastern Mediterranean, but the usage in cuisine Cloves
and as an ayurvedic remedy is confined to Central Asia and
Northern India. Cloves are small, reddish-brown flower buds of the tropical
evergreen tree Syzygium aromaticum of the family
The most utilized part of Bishop's Weed is the small, Myrtaceae. They were important in the earliest spice trade
caraway like fruits which have the essential oil being and are indigenous to the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, of
dominated by thymol a- pinene, p- cymene, limonene and Indonesia. The island of Zanzibar, which is part of Tanza-
terpinene as its main constituents. nia, is the world's largest producer of cloves.
The Bishop weeds are the aromatic spices with wondrous Cloves have strong aroma with hot and pungent taste. They
flavor. In India they are grown mainly in Rajasthan and are used to flavour many foods, mainly meats and bakery
Gujarat. products. They are used either as whole or in a ground form,
Roasting or frying in combination with potatoes or fish but as they are extremely strong they are used sparingly.
enhances the strong aroma of Bishop's Weed. They are Whole cloves are frequently used to flavour cooking liquids
also used in ayurvedic medicine to cure diseases related for simmering fish, poultry, game and meat. Both north and
to the digestive tract. south Indian cuisine contain cloves.

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.03 19
In the north Indian cuisine, it is used in almost every sauce • In India, ginger is grown all over, but the finest quality
or side dish in grounded form. They form a key ingredient ginger is grown in Kerala. Indian dry ginger is known in
in the preparation of tea along with green cardamoms. In the world market as 'Cochin Ginger' (NUGC) and
the south Indian cuisine, it is extensively used in the biryani 'Calicut Ginger' (NUGK). Ginger comes in variety of
dishes to enhance the presentation and flavor of the rice. forms such as garbled or ungarbled, bleached or
They also form one of the ingredients in many classic spice unbleached and powder forms. Young ginger roots
mixtures. have juicy and fleshy mild taste. They are used in
They contain 14 to 20 percent essential oil with the pickles, vinegars, ginger tea, seafood, mutton, candy,
principal component of the aromatic oil eugenol. Their cookies, cake, and non-alcoholic beverage.
pungent smell is due to the presence of eugenol. The clove • Medicinally, ginger is used in the treatment for nausea.
oil is used to prepare microscopic slides for viewing and is It is used as "stomach settler" for generations in many
also a local anesthetic for toothaches. It is also used in countries. It is a powerful antioxidant and is used to
germicides, aromathereapy, perfumes, and mouthwashes, relieve headache and inflammation.
in the synthesis of vanillin, and as a sweetener or intensi-
fier. Mustard
Cumin Mustard is the spice popularly used in seasoning of foods.
Being an efficient digestive food flavor for ceremonial It is an erect, multi-branched herbaceous plant, cultivated
feasting of the Biblical times, Cumin is the dried fruit of a in most temperate climates and normally grown in certain
small herbaceous plant. tropical and sub-tropical regions as a cold-weather crop.
It was used in ancient India and also in Roman Empire. Mustard is used in variety of forms like seed, paste or
Today, it is one of the popular spices used throughout the powdered form. It is believed that spreading mustard seeds
world. around the exterior of the home will keep out evil spirits.
Cumin is fried or roasted before usage. It also forms an In India, mustard is grown in the states of Rajasthan, Uttar
essential part of the curry powder and of the Bengali spice Pradesh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab.
mixture, panch phoron, apart from being used in Northern Parsley
Indian tandoori dishes.
Parsley is the dried aromatic leaf from a low-growing
Indian cumin is used worldwide in foods, beverages, biennial herb having dense foliage and white flowers.
liquors, medicines, toiletries and perfumery. The basic
requirements to grow this soil are rich, well- drained, It is one of the best known and most frequently used
sandy, loamy soil and the sun. culinary spices. It is very expensive but rich in nutritive
value.
It grows abundantly in the mild, equable climate of Gujarat,
Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. India exports cumin to USA, It contains several vitamins like A, B and C and many other
Singapore, Japan, UK and North Africa. essential nutrients. It is also very attractive with bright
greenish foliage and so it is used as a decorative item in
Fennel various dishes.
Fennel from Foeniculum is a traditional spice of India It is often referred as the universal garnish as it can be
normally referred as saunf. It is the dried aromatic ripe fruit added to soups, all types of salads, sauces, eggs and
of herbaceous plant and grows well in mild climates. several vegetable dishes.
In ancient India it was used as a condiment and culinary Tea
spice. Today, in India it is used to give special flavor to meat
dishes, fishes, and pickles. It is also used in medicine, The tea is a drink which is made from the young and flavorful
liquor and perfume. leaves and buds of tea plant. It is the most important non-
alcoholic beverage in the world. In India, the state of Assam
In India, it is grown in sunny, limey, well-drained soil of has over 800 tea estates and is one of the major tea
Gujarat, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. India exports sub- producers.
stantial quantities of fennel to USA, Singapore, UK, UAE,
Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia and Japan. The estates of Darjeeling produce Darjeeling Teas which
are also called as the Champagne Teas with aroma
Ginger resembling Muskat grapes and taste varying from malty or
• Ginger is a fresh, dried or powdered rhizome of a complex to bright or simple. The teas are grown in high
slender, perennial herb. Being one of the earliest altitudes with clouds comforting the tea plant and moistur-
Oriental spices known in Europe, it has been cultivated izing its leaves.
in India both as a fresh vegetable and marketed as a The tea has three basic types such as the black tea, the
dried spice since time immemorial. It has a character- green tea and the oolong tea. Black tea is fully oxidized or
istic taste, flavor and texture. fermented and yields a hearty flavored, amber brew. It is

20 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.03
very popular in US and over 90% of the tea consumed is Masala is a word that is often used in an Indian kitchen. It
black tea. means a 'blend of several spices.' Garam (hot) masala is
Green tea skips the oxidizing step and has a more delicate the most important blend masala and an absolute essen-
taste with light green/golden in color. Being a staple in the tial to north Indian preparations, added just before serving
Orient, it is said to reduce cancer risks. Oolong tea is partly the dish to enhance its flavor. The Garam masala is a blend
oxidized and is a cross between black and green tea in of cardamom, cinnamon, cloves and black pepper. Masala
color and taste. may be in dry, roasted ground or paste form. Each State
in India has its own particular blend, and furthermore, each
It is popular mainly in China. There are also herbal teas family is partial to their own blend, as well as each cook is
which contain no true tea leaves and are created from the partial to his blend.
flowers, berries, peels, seeds, leaves and roots of many
different plants. Cooking with Indian Spices

As tea contains caffeine, medicinally it is used as a There is an art to using Indian spices. Indians spice their
stimulant, or as an astringent lotion which may be used as dishes in layers harmoniously blending subtle spices with
a gargle or injection. An infusion of tea is used for some aromatic ones and layering it with herbs, ginger, garlic and
digestive problems and to reduce sweating in fevers. At lime juice or tamarind. For practical purposes Indian spices
some places, tea leaves have been used homoeopathically could be divided into 3 stages.
for mania, paralysis, nervousness, neuralgia and sleep- The dance of spicing is as follows.
lessness.
1. BASIC OR ESSENTIAL SPICES
INDIAN SPICES
There are certain basic spices which go into most dishes
Indian Spices in food are used subtly and although Indian - We heat a pot - add ghee in it then we add cumin seeds
food is not bland, most Indian dishes are delicately spiced or mustard seeds and asafetida till they sizzle.
to enhance the flavor of the main cooking ingredient. Curry
Then we add red chili powder, coriander seed powder and
powder is the definition of fine spices roasted, combined
turmeric powder. We also add our minced ginger at this
and ground dry. Fresh ground spices are the order of the
time. We then add our vegetables, salt and steam the dish.
day in an Indian home and will be chosen according to the
nature of the dish, season, and family. Asafetida (hing, heeng), is used mainly for its strong taste
on the same lines of garlic.
The role of spices and herbs goes beyond just cooking.
Ancient Ayurvedic texts prescribe the herbs and spices for Cumin Seeds - is a basic spice used in most dishes in
curative and therapeutic functions. Ayurvedic scripts dat- North India. It has a strong but pleasing flavor. Cumin may
ing back to 3000 years, list the preventive and curative be fried whole in oil, or ground, or roasted and ground, or
properties of various spices. ground and then roasted, all with very different results.
Curative Properties: Most spices used in Indian cooking
are very healthy, and make the digestion process much
Turmeric (haldi)is also a basic Indian spice and is virtually
easier. The typical Indian cook has learnt to use this
used in most Indian savory dishes. It has no real taste and
knowledge and weave them into everyday dishes. Ginger
is mainly for its medicinal properties and the lovely color
prevents dyspepsia, garlic reduces cholesterol and hyper-
that it gives to the dishes.
tension, and fenugreek is a good resistance builder.
Pepper is often served as antihistamines, turmeric is used Coriander seeds (dhaniya)is the third basic spice in Indian
for stomach ulcers and for glow of the skin. cooking and is mainly for its fresh, cooling and soothing
taste.
Preserving Foods: Spices have been used to make the food
last longer in the days when refrigerators were not avaialable. Chili Powder - is used mainly for its special pungent and
fiery taste.
Aiding Digestion: In the Western part of the world, after
dinner mints are usually given at a restaurant. Indian Mustard seeds is mainly in south and west India. Used for
restaurants serve fragrant spices such as fennel, carda- its strong but very pleasing flavor.
mom or cloves. Not only are they great mouth fresheners,
At the time we add cumin or mustard seeds as specified
but they aid digestion, prevent heartburn and curb nausea.
above we could also add fennel seeds, nigella seeds (for
Others such as asafetida and ginger root, have been known
root veggies we may add ajwain seeds.
to counteract flatulence and colic, and are added to lentils,
a must with every Indian meal. Other Indian spices (to complement the above)that are
basic spices but not eaasential spices are:
Balancing Tastes and Properties of Food: Each spice has
a property-not just a taste property, but a warm or cooling Fennel seeds (sounf)- is used mainly in North India. Used
property to it, along with many others. The cook generally for its strong but very pleasing flavor. Fennel may be fried
understands these properties and cooking is elevated to whole in oil, or ground, or roasted and ground, or ground and
yet another level by using this knowledge of spices into the then roasted, all with different results.
cooking.

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.03 21
Fenugreek (methi)seeds - is valued for its bitter taste and in Garam masala - It is best to use the blades whole and
health qualities. If it is burnt it gets very bitter and should remove them after cooking - Used to flavor curries, masala
be thrown away. chai and certain vegetables and Indian desserts available
whole or ground
Nigella Seeds or Kalonji is used mainly in North India. Used
for its strong but very pleasing flavor. Small black seed, Garam masala - powdered blend of spices that may include
sometimes called onion seeds, although they are not really cloves, cardamom, cinnamon, black peppercorns, nut-
seeds from onions. It is often sprinkled on naan (bread) meg, mace. - garam means "hot", but not chili hot, hot in
the sense that these spices are said to increase body
Carom (ajowain)is mainly used in North India to flavor
temperature. Interestingly, many of these spices are used
breads and root vegetables.
in deserts in western cooking (i.e. cloves, cinnamon,
AROMATIC or SECONDARY INDIAN SPICES nutmeg, and mace) - different regions use different mix-
tures (masalas) and proportions. Garam masala will also
Also called garam masala to enhance the above 2 sections
vary from household to household. - powdered garam
- we may or may not add these to our dishes - we add them
masala is often added at the end of cooking in small
for tomato curries and thick onion curries. To the above
quantities whole garam masala is used in north Indian
spices we would add chopped onions, tomatoes and herbs
cooking, especially meat dishes. - A whole garam masala
and any of the following secondary spices. Then add
could include whole cinnamon sticks, bay leaves, cloves,
potatoes, meat, cauliflower or ingredient for your curry and
cardamom (black or green), whole mace, and black pep-
steam with a bit of water.
percorns. - Often these are fried in hot oil before other wet
Dried Ginger powder(adrak, or sont)is again a basic but not ingredients such as meat, onions, garlic, and/or ginger are
essential Indian spice. Used mainly in North India. added. Cooking with these spices release a wonderful
botanical odor that fills your house and neighborhood.
Green cardamom pods (eliachi) - A secondary and not
essential Indian spice. Used throughout India - both in WET SPICES- Wet spices are fresh herbs and ingredients
North and South Cooking. Used for its strong but very that are ground with some water and added to the spice
pleasing flavor. - One of the spices in Garam masala - It is base and include coconuts, mint leaves, cilantro leaves,
best to grind small quantities at home using a coffee mill. fresh ginger root and garlic.
Cardamom loses its natural oils quickly, it also loses its INDIAN SWEETNERS- Try out Indian jaggery or Gur to
flavor. Cardamom is an expensive spice. - Used to flavor sweeten vegetables like squash and zucchini and lentil
curries, masala chai and certain vegetables and Indian dishes.
desserts
INDIAN SOURING AGENTS- Dried mango(amchoor, Tama-
Black cardamom (kala eliachi) - A secondary and not rind (imli), tart yogurt and Lime Juice is used to add a tart
essential Indian spice. Used in North Indian Cooking. Used taste to Indian dishes
for its mellow and warm flavor. - This larger dark brown
variety is used flavoring meat, poultry and rice dishes. The THICKENING AGENTS - poppy seeds, sesame seeds,
inner seeds are often used for making Garam masala. cashews and almonds are used to thicken gravies.

Cinnamon (dalchini) - A secondary and not essential Indian SPECIAL SPICES

spice. Used throughout India - both in North and South Saffron (kesar or zafran)to color and flavor rice and des-
Cooking. Used for its sweet and pleasing flavor. It is the serts, by soaking its threads in hot milk for about 15
bark of the cinnamon tree - One of the spices in Garam minutes before using to bring out the color in fancy Mughal
masala - Used to flavor curries, masala chai and certain dishes, not usually in everyday cooking.
vegetables and Indian desserts
Black salt is used in pickles and Chat Masala (a northern
Cloves (lavang or laung) - A secondary and not essential Indian spice mix sprinkled over fresh fruit)
Indian spice. Used throughout India - both in North and
South Cooking. Used for its pleasing flavor. - One of the Indian Cooking Techniques:
spices in Garam masala - It is best to grind small quantities Baghar/Tadka/Chonk (Instant seasonings/Tempering)-
at home using a coffee mill. It easily loses its flavor. - Used
to flavor curries, masala chai and certain vegetables The goal of this technique is to add flavor to a dish very
quickly. Spices and herbs are added to hot oil/ghee. Hot oil
Nutmeg - A secondary and not essential Indian spice. extracts and retains the aroma, essence and flavor of the
Used throughout India - both in North and South Cooking. spices and herbs. This tempering is done in two ways.
Used for its warm and pleasing flavor. - One of the spices
in Garam masala - It is best to grind small quantities at
• As the first step in the cooking process, before adding
home using a coffee mill. It easily loses its flavor. - Used to the rice, vegetables or lentils.
flavor curries, masala chai, coffee and certain vegetables • Pouring the tempered oil over dal. Spices and herbs
and Indian desserts cooked this way retain and enhance their flavors.
Mace (jaivitri) - A secondary and not essential Indian spice. A common recipe for baghar is to add either cumin or
Used throughout India - both in North and South Cooking. mustard seeds in hot oil and let them sizzle for a few
Used for its warm and pleasing flavor. - One of the spices seconds then add a pinch of asafetida and red chili powder.

22 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.03
Uses - Pour over cooked lentils that has already been in seasoned moist flavorings are its special attributes. The
boiled with ginger and turmeric, over steamed vegetables cooking is done in a thick bottom pan, so the food doesn't
and over yogurt raitas and rice. stick or burn; the lid helps retain the aroma and flavor. Both
Balchao (Pickling) bhunao and dum are aspects of Handi cooking.
A Goan specialty influenced by the Portuguese, where Kadhai (Round bottomed pan):
vegetables like eggplant or seafood like prawns are "pick-
This is a wok in which the food is cooked. It is placed
led" in sugar, vinegar and spices for a day or two before
directly on the table, where everyone eats out of it. Kadhai
eating.
cooking is quick, water is not used. The main ingredients
Bhunao (Curry): cook with the natural juices released by the tomatoes and
This is Indian curry cooking. Oil is added to a wok or pan, meat in the dish, which is constantly stirred until cooked.
and to this, chopped onion and cumin are added. After the The main aspect of this cooking, is for the sides to become
onions are browned then the desired herbs and spices are seared and this wonderful flavor is scraped and added to the
added (tomatoes may also be added). Small quantities of taste of the dish.
water, yogurt, and stock are introduced to the pan if and
Talna (Frying):
when the ingredients start to stick. After the oil separates
from the mixture, the main ingredient (meat or vegetable) Frying Indian food is usually done in a wok or kadhai. The
is added and cooked. round bottom uses less oil and cooks the food evenly.
Dhuanaar (Smoke Seasoning): Many times ghee is used as this fat can be used over and
over again and does not go rancid due to its high smoke
Glowing charcoal is placed in a small pot, which is ten put
point. Another good frying oil is peanut oil.
in a bigger pot. Cooked meats are placed around this. Dry
spices and ghee are poured on top of the coals and a lid is Tandoori
quickly placed over the larger pot. This meats imbibe the Tandoori cooking is one of the highlights of Indian cuisine.
fresh smoke taste of ghee and cumin. Very popular in the The Indian tandoor is a clay oven that can reach tempera-
cold months of North India, especially in the dessert areas. tures as high as 550F. It looks like a rounded bee-hive.
Do-Piaza (Cooking with Onions): Tandoori is a hotter and quicker form of cooking than the
western barbecue. It is used to make naan breads, kebabs,
There are two theories for the origin of this method.
tandoori meats and stuffed rotis and paranthas.
• Akbar the Great - India's great Mughal ruler liked to
A traditional tandoori oven must be seasoned. A paste is
surround himself with the most talented people. He
made of spinach and applied to the inner surface and left
called them his 9 Gems. Mullah Do-Piaza, the legen-
to dry. Paste of mustard oil, buttermilk, jaggery and salt is
dary cook was one of them. He created a style of his
applied over the spinach. A small fire is lit and the
own and items cooked in this style are called Do
temperature allowed to rise gradually until the emulsion
Piazza.
peels away from the walls of the tandoor. Repeat for a few
• The other is cooking with 2 (Do) Onions (piaz). times.
Potatoes and meats are cooked generally with 2 onions, A brine solution is sprinkled on the inner walls to facilitate
yogurt and spices. Tomatoes usually are not added in this the sticking of breads like naans to the sides. To know if the
type of cooking. oven temperature is optimum, try and stick a naan to the
Dum (Steaming): sides, if it falls off, the oven is not hot enough. Meats and
Paneer are marinated, the kebabs are seasoned with herbs
This process reflects the ingenuity of the Indian chefs. They and spices. They are also basted with ghee to withstand
virtually created a baking oven and a pressure cooker with the drying of meats which happens at such high tempera-
very simple ideas. Food was partially cooked before hand. tures. Meats, Kebabs and Naan come out perfect in a
They then put this in a pot and sealed the cover with atta Tandoor.
(dough) to capture the moisture within the food as it cooked
tenderly and slowly over a charcoal fire. Coals was also Tawa:
placed on the lid to ensure even cooking. A tawa is a round, thick iron griddle, slightly concave in the
They then added their main ingredients like rice or vegeta- center. It is used when very high temperatures are needed
bles or meats or all three with spices, herbs, seasonings, and is mostly used for Indian unleavened breads called
saffron, tomato and let the food continue to cook in its own chappati or rotis. It is also used for cooking some unique
steam. The entire dish retained all its flavor and aroma and dishes which require fast cooking, with the outer rim used
the slow cooking created perfect foods fit for their emperors to keep the dish warm. Popular in street food, especially
and kings and rajahas. Pau-Bhaji is a typical tawa dish and needs to be constantly
stirred to avoid burning, and is served straight out of the
Handi: tawa and eaten immediately on sour dough bread.
Handi is an Indian pot that has a bottom like a wok and then
has a narrow opening on the top. Slow cooking in steam or

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.2.03 23
Travel, Tourism & Hospitality Related Theory for Exercise 1.3.01
Food Production - Knife handling techniques and pre preparation of food
Knife handling techniques
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the different types of knives
• explain handling and storage of knives.

Types
The curve of the blade offers greater control when making
Wavy (Serrated) Edge - especially useful for cutting soft precise cuts.
products with a hard crust (bread) or tough skin (sausages
Use a narrow boning knife on ribs and chops to cut easily
and tomatoes). The teeth of a wavy edge knife allow greater
through bone and cartilage.
pressure to be exerted on the object being cut and are
generally thinner than a plain edge blade. Use a wide boning knife for chicken and pork.
Straight Edge - recommended for cutting raw meat, slicing Use a curved boning knife for a better working angle when
salmon and chopping vegetables. A straight edge can be cutting close to and around the bone.
sharpened using a sharpening steel. A straight edge is
Chef's Knives
useful for making very precise or clean cuts and should be
razor sharp to get the best performance. The Chef's knife is one of the most used kitchen knives and
can be used for everything from chopping to slicing fruits
Granton Edge - or "kullenschiff" edge, has hollowed out
and vegetables. Most chef's knives have a broad blade that
grooves on the sides of the blade. These grooves fill with the
curves upward towards the tip to allow to rock for fine
fat and juices of the product being sliced, which allows for
mincing. The spine of the blade is thick to add weight and
thin, even cuts without tearing or shredding the meat. The
strength. Many chef's knives with have a bolster, or metal
grooves also help shed the material being cut fom the blade
collar, between the blade and handle. The bolster helps
helping to reduce sticking.
prevent the knife from slipping.
Paring Knives
Chef's knives come in blade lengths of 6, 8, 10, and 12
The paring knife is a vital part of any set of kitchen knives. inches. Longer blades can be more difficult to control, but
A paring will usually have a thin 3 to 4 inch blade that make for faster cuts. Shorter blades allow for greater
usually tapers to a point. Paring knives are used for control, and are generally suited to chefs with small hands.
intricate work and allow for a greater amount of control than
Carving and Slicing Knives
a larger knife. In general, all paring knives (with the
exception of the bird's beak) can be used for basic utility Carving and slicing knives are generally used for slicing
work in the kitchen. meats. These knives usually have long blades that allow for
cleaner cuts, and pointed tips. One exception is the roast
Paring knives come in various styles, each with a particular
beef slicer that has a round tip. Slicing and carving knives
function:
can be 8 to 14 inches long, and have thinner blades than
Bird's Beak - for peeling any round fruit or vegetable such chef's knives. The thinner blade means chopping with a
as an apple or orange. The bird's beak parer is also good carver or slicer can damage the knife; a sawing motion is
for intricate work like fluting or other precise carving. ideal for cutting with one of these knives. A long blade
allows large pieces of meat to be cut into clean, even
Chef's - use as a miniature cook's knife.
slices. Some slicing and carving knives will also have a
Sheep's Foot - this unique parer has a straight cutting granton edge.
blade. Works well for peeling and paring food.
Bread Knives
Wavy Edge - use to cut a crust or skin with a soft inside.
The bread knife is thick-bladed knife used for cutting loaves
Perfect for tomatoes.
of bread. Bread knives generally have 8 to 9 inch blades
Clip Point (Granny) - use to perform tasks like removing with serrated edges for cutting through thick, hard crust.
eyes from potatoes or pits from olives. Also good for peeling The serrations on a bread knife are very deep, and are too
fruit and vegetables. large to cut fruits and vegetables effectively.
Paring/Boning - use to remove meat from bones and other Santoku Knives
detailed cutting jobs.
The Santoku knife is the Japanese version of the chef's
Boning Knives knife. The santoku is excellent for chopping vegetables and
the wide blade works well for scooping sliced food off a
The boning knife is an ideal kitchen knife for removing meat
cutting board. The santoku can also be used to slice meat,
from bones and cutting fish or poultry. Boning knives can
and has a narrow spine for making thin cuts. The wide blade
have different widths of blades as well as varying stiffness.

24
can be used to scoop diced vegetables or other ingredients Dish Washer - None of these knives regardless of type
into a pot or bowl and is also good for crushing garlic. The should be washed in a dish washer! A dish washer uses
curved blade helps the rocking motion used for chopping extremely hot water and caustic detergent, the wash cycle
food, and a santoku can be used on most ingredients such vibrates the edges against other silver ware, dishes and the
as fruit, vegetables, and even meat. Some santoku knives baskets of the washer dulling fine edges, and the drying
will also feature a granton edge. cycle uses very hot circulating heat and air. This combina-
tion can and will cause handle rivets to pop, edges to dull,
Cleavers
and de-lamination of all wood and most synthetic laminate
The cleaver knife is wide-bladed, thick-spined knife that handles. The high extremes of heat and chemicals will spot
can be used to cut through meat or poultry bones. The stainless steel and destroy any edges. It is too violent an
cleaver uses its weight to cut through tough food with a environment for your fine cutlery.
chopping motion. The thick, heavy blade on a cleaver is not
Maintenance of edges
meant for slicing, but its width makes it ideal for pulverizing
meat, or crushing seeds or garlic. is a subset of the blade
Chinese Cleavers 1. Sharpening, for sharpening see our page on sharpening
knives
The Chinese cleaver knife is wide-bladed, narrow-spined
knife that can be used to chop through meat and vegeta- 2. Cutting surface, see our page on cutting boards
bles. It can also be used to remove meat from bones, and
3. What you cut
like the santoku is good for scooping ingredients into
cookware. Chinese cleavers are good for tenderizing meat What you cut, is as important as where and what you cut
and crushing garlic, and other tasks that involve slicing. A with. I shouldn't have to mention these simple facts but I
Chinese cleaver should not be used to split bones since the have seen enough messed up kitchen knives that I guess
blade is thinner. it must be mentioned. Kitchen knives are thin, precision
instruments designed to cut fruit, vegetables, and meat.
Utility Knives
They do not work well for prying can lids, prying frozen
Utility knives are mid-sized knives used for miscellaneous foods apart, cutting cardboard, whittling wood, digging
cutting. The blade is anywhere from 4 to 7 inches, larger weed from the yard, etc, etc, etc. They were designed to
than a paring knife but not as larger as a chef's knife. The cut food and that is the only thing they should be used to
utility knife is good for cutting larger vegetables and cut.
sandwich meats that are not large enough for a chef's knife.
Maintenance of handles
These knives can come in plain and serrated edges, and
are sometimes referred to as "sandwich knives". Handles are generally made of three materials
Tomato Knives and usually have one of three constructions.
The tomato knife is similar to the bread knife except it is Materials
smaller and the serrations are finer. The blade will have a 1. wood
serrated edge for easily cutting through tough skin and a
forked tip for picking up slices of food. 2. metal
Maintenance of blades 3. synthetic
Blades are generally four types of materials: Wood handles requires the most work. Wood handles are
absolutely beautiful when new and absolutely horrible a few
1. carbon steel, months later if not maintained properly. Wood falls in to two
2. stainless steel categories, natural whole wood handles and laminated
handles. Whole wood handles are slabs of wood straight off
3. titanium alloy or titanium composite
the tree cut and fit to
4. ceramic
tang. Laminated wood handles are thin strips of wood that
Carbon steel blades will require the most maintenance of are glued together much like plywood. Whole wood han-
all of the blade types. Because carbon steel blades have dles if not maintained will split, crack, shrink, dry out, pop
a low chromium content the blades will tarnish. rivets, and produce splinters. They are easy to maintain
with a few simple steps. Do not soak wood handles, clean
Stainless steel. Stainless steel as in a kitchen sink will not
and scrub with hot water, do not under any circumstance
rust but it will also not take or hold an edge, stainless steels
put them in the dish washer and every month or so
that will harden and hold an edge are more likely to spot
depending on use, re-oil the handles with a light mineral oil,
with water, bleach, and caustic detergents. If they are
or oil that is designed for use on wood that comes into
cleaned and dried properly and promptly, they should not
contract with food. Laminated handles are much tougher
need to be oiled as would carbon steel knives and will not
than whole wood but they too can be ruined by long soaks
generally spot with rust. Stainless steel kitchen knives
in water or subjected to the extremes of a dishwasher.
should not be put in a dish washer regardless of what the
Laminated wood handles are generally fine if washed, not
manufacture direction recommend.
soaked, dried, and kept out of the dishwasher.

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.3.01 25
Metal handles should be treated much the same as What kind of cutting boards are available?
stainless steel blades, wash dry, keep out of the dish
The most common and popular cutting boards fall into two
washer, dry on the drain board. They are almost trouble free
groups;
except for spotting that can occur if they are soaked or put
in the dish washer. If they look dingy, a scrubbing with 1. Plastic
metal polish will re-shine shiny areas. 2. Wood
Synthetic handles are almost trouble free. As with every- What are the advantages and disadvantages of the different
thing else, keep them out of the dish washer, synthetic type boards?
handles with melt if they get close enough to the dish
washer drying element or the stove burner. Most of the new 1. Plastic boards are; lightweight, inexpensive, and not
high tech plastics are pretty tough, I recommend fully quite as prone to staining as wood. Disadvantages are,
enclosed handles as they seem to stand up better than the they easily cut and nick, they will soon destroy your knife's
riveted styles on some of the cheaper mass merchant sharp edge, and can readily harbor bacteria once nicked
brands. and scuffed.
Storage can be considered a maintenance item 2. Wood - very edge friendly, will not unduly dull your knife's
sharp edge. Wood has a porous structure with a unique
Storage how you keep your knives when not in use can be wicking action that will actually kill surface bacteria by
considered a maintenance item. Knives that are crowded removing the moisture from the surface. Disadvantages are
in a kitchen drawer can be nicked and chipped from they require more maintenance, should not be put in the
impacting on other knives and reaching to get them may dishwasher nor soaked in water, they are heavier, and more
especially be hazardous if edges or points are in the wrong expensive than plastic.
orientation. Storage in a drawer is ok if you keep blade
protectors or savers on the knife edges. Protective covers, Which to use, Wood or Plastic?
cover and protect the knife edges from impacting other Cutting Boards have been the subject of much debate when
knives and from impacting your hand and fingers. it comes to cleanliness and infection prevention. We have
Knife storage in wooden block can also be satisfactory, researched several articles on the relative safety of wood
however if you have young children keep the block well versus plastic boards. The one conclusion that we see over
away from the counter edge so small fry can not reach up and over (in current research) is that they are both safe if
and pull a full block of razor sharp knives on to their heads. cleaned regularly and properly. If they are both safe and you
Also knife blocks that have the blades facing down may dull the user take the time to clean and properly disinfect the
your edges as you pull the knife out and its edge drags board, then it is our opinion to opt for the wood boards
along the block holding slot. Some blocks orient the edges because they do not destroy the edge of your knives like
horizontally and reduce some of the risk of dulling your many hard plastic boards will very quickly do.
sharp edges. One last thing to consider, never put dirty Also it is a very good idea to have more than one board, one
soiled knives back in the block until they are thoroughly exclusively for vegetables and one specifically for meats.
cleaned, bacteria may set up a presence in the resulting Two boards help prevent cross contamination of the raw
dirty slots meat preparation with the vegetables and salad. Two
CUTTING BOARD cutting boards is one more way to keep the meal safe from
bacterial contamination.
1. Cutting boards protect your expensive counter top from
damage resulting from the sharp edge of the kitchen knife. How does one sanitize cutting boards?
2. They also protect the edge of The one universally agreed upon method of cleaning and
sanitizing both wood and plastic boards is as follows. First
the knife a thorough scrubbing with warm soapy water - be sure to
from damage from the counter top (at least in the example remove all food particles, oils, grease, and residue. Sec-
of a wood cutting board). ondly a mixture of water and bleach solution (one table-
spoon of liquid chlorine bleach in one gallon of water) to
3. They can be used to handily move the chopped or cut
completely disinfect the surface area all around. Thirdly
food to a skillet or pot, keeping most of the mess in a small
and importantly let the board completely dry.
easy to clean area.
4. They can be easily cleaned and disinfected in the
kitchen sink.

26 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.3.01
Travel, Tourism & Hospitality Related Theory for Exercise 1.3.02
Food Production - Knife handling techniques and pre preparation of food
Cuts of vegetables/meats/fish
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain the cuts of vegetables
• describe the various cuts and folds of fish
• explain the cuts of chicken.

Cuts of vegetables Cuts and Folds of Fish

Here are the traditional cuts and whilst these definitions Fillet
may vary slightly, these are the accepted generalisations.
A fillet is a boneless cut such as a side of salmon or a fillet
Brunoise of sole
This is a very small diced cube, sized between 1 - 3 mm
square. It is often used as a garnish for consommé. Typical
vegetables used are carrot, onion, turnip and celery.
Chiffonade
Finely sliced or shredded green leafy vegetables, usually
lettuce or spinach, which is used as a base, garnish or in
soups.
Jardinière
A long thin baton, about 2 cm long and approximately 3 mm
wide and 3 mm thick. In more recent times these are often
slightly larger, but this depends on end use. Suprême
Julienne A supreme is a slice cut off a fillet, sometimes cut at a
slant. This cut is now commonly called a pavé which
Long thin match-stick shaped pieces about 4 cm in length.
means 'a slab or block' and usually applied to cake or
Macedoine dessert - but now is fashionably applied to fish!
This is diced cube, 0.5 cm (5 mm) square, which is larger
than the brunoise cut. Typical vegetables used are carrot,
onion, turnip, beans and celery.
Matignon
Roughly cut vegetables, normally including carrot, onion
and celery, which are cooked in butter with ham, thyme and
bay leaf. Cooking is finished by deglazing the pan with
Madeira. Matignon vegetables are used to add flavour when
cooking large pieces of meat. Thin even slices of vegeta-
bles used as a base to place the meat on when roasting. Darne
Mirepoix is a cut of steak of round fish cut on the bone
A mixture of roughly chopped vegetables which are used as
the base of sauces or to enhance the flavour of meat, fish
and shellfish dishes. Normally onion, celery and carrot are
used and these are slowly cooked in butter until they are
very tender. Thyme and bay leaves are often added.
Paysanne
This cut may be either squares, triangles, circles or half
rounds. In order to cut economically, the shape of the
vegetable will decide which shape to choose. All are cut
thinly, about 1 - 2 mm thick.

27
Goujon Délice
a strip of fillet usually pané (floured, eggwashed and is a neatly folded fillet
breadcrumbed)

Tronçon Colbert
is a cut of steak of flatfish cut on the bone The backbone and bones are removed leaving the fillets
attached to the head usually either Sole or Whiting.

Colère
Paupiette
the fish is skinned, eyes, gills and fins removed, it is
is a stuffed roll of fillet panéed and the tail bent around into the mouth this is
usually associated with whiting

En Lorgette
Cravatte the cleaned and skinned fish is filleted leaving the fillets
is a fillet tied in a knot attached to head and then each fillet is rolled towards the
head - again usually associated with whiting

28 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.3.02
En tresse What is an "eight piece cut"?
Plait of three different types of fish The whole bird is cut into two breast halves with ribs and
back portion, two wings, two thighs with the back portion,
and two drumsticks. They can also be sold as "whole cut
chicken." These are usually sold without giblets.
One cooking method that works for just about any part of
the eight piece cut of chicken is braising. This slow-
cooking method not only maximizes the flavor of chicken,
but keeps it nice and moist, too.

Cuts of chicken
The location of the cut of chicken determines texture and
flavor; this can make the difference between whether it's
suitable for grilling, braising, using as an ingredient in
chicken salad, or serving with velouté (or other mother
sauces).
To get you better acquainted with the cuts and their best Half chicken
uses and to heighten your food and cooking prowess, What it is:
here's a primer on the different cuts of chicken.
The whole chicken is split from front to back through the
backbone and keel, resulting in two basically mirror-image
halves.
How to cook it:
Like a whole chicken, this is a great cut for roasting, but be
careful to not let it dry out. Unlike a whole chicken, it's more
manageable size makes it well suited for other cooking
methods, such as grilling, too.

Whole chicken
What it is:
Just what it sounds like: the whole bird. Well, usually
minus the head. Whole chickens can be purchased fresh
or frozen.
How to cook it: Breast quarters
Roasted chicken is an absolute classic, and there are What it is:
many variations, from rotisserie-style to bacon-wrapped. A cut that includes a portion of the back, the breast and the
Another popular method of cooking whole chicken is in a wing.
slow cooker. A whole chicken can also be broken down into
the other cuts listed, in which case, the cooking methods How to cook it:
are virtually unlimited, including grilling, braising, frying, Your favorite method of cooking a chicken breast will work
baking and broiling. with the breast quarter. Roast it, grill it, bake it. But don't

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.3.02 29
overdo it. Because it is all white meat, watch for methods
that may dry out the chicken ,such as baking. It can be
done, but you may consider basting to add moisture.

Wing mid section

What it is:
Also referred to as the "wing flat" or "mid-joint," this is the
Split breast: section between the elbow and the tip.

A breast quarter with the wing removed, which may come How to cook it:
with or without a portion of the back. Probably its most famous use? Buffalo wings. This cut is
Boneless, skinless chicken breast: very versatile though: it can also be broiled, baked or grilled.

A split breast which has been deboned and skinned. It can Variation:
be grilled, pan-fried or baked. Sliced, it's great for sand- You can also purchase the "wing mid section with tip,"
wiches - fancy them up by putting them on homemade which includes the flat center portion and the tip of the wing.
artisan bread. Since it is white meat and doesn't have the
fat from the skin to contain juices, watch any cooking The tip itself typically is discarded; it's not a common cut
method to prevent the chicken from drying out. to ask for alone.
Whole chicken leg
What it is:
The combination of both drumstick and thigh in one unit.
How is it different from the leg quarter? It doesn't include a
portion of the back. The whole chicken leg is available
bone-in and with skin, or boneless and skinless.
How to cook it:
With the thigh and the leg, these are great braised or grilled.
Given their balance of fat and flavor, they are also particu-
larly delicious when fried.
Whole chicken wing The boneless, skinless version is best cooked with mois-
ture, as it can dry out without the added fat and protection
What it is:
of the skin. Marinate and grill or bake, or braise it for tasty
An all-white meat portion of the chicken, with three sec- results.
tions: the drumette, mid-section and tip.
How to cook it:
This is a versatile cut, but keep in mind that since it is all
white meat, it contains lower fat, so it is more prone to
drying out. So be sure not to overcook.
Wing Drummettes
What it is:
The portion of the wing between the shoulder and the elbow.
How to cook it:
Another common cut they can be grilled, braised, baked or
broiled among many other things.

30 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.3.02
Thighs Croquettes
What it is: A mixture of potato with ground cooked meat, fish or poultry
formed into balls, patties or other shapes and coated with
The portion of the leg cut above the joint of the knee.
a breading before frying.
Typically available bone-in with skin, or boneless and
skinless. Croustade
How to cook it: Bread piece dipped in butter and baked until it is crisp.
Being a more "worked" muscle, the thighs are well suited Croûte
for braising, which softens the chicken and maximizes the
Crust. Sometimes refers to a pastry crust, sometimes to
thighs' rich flavor. Grilling is another popular method of
toasted or fried bread.
cooking chicken thighs. They can be baked, but with care:
especially the boneless and skinless variety can dry out if Croûtons
cooked too long. Shoot for an interior temperature of 165
Small cubes of fried, or recooked bread used as a garnish
degrees F.
in salads and soups.
Drumsticks
Dariole
What it is:
A small cylindrical mold used for the creation of baked
The lower portion of the leg quarter - between the joint of the desserts.
knee and the hock. Déglacer
How to cook it: To deglaze, or loosen the browned juices and fats from the
Drumsticks can be prepared in a variety of ways. They are bottom of a frying pan or saucepan by adding liquid, then
well suited to braising, grilling or even baking bringing to a boil and stirring. The liquid is usually water,
wine or stock.
Dégorger
To extract juices from meat, fish or vegetables, usually by
salting them, then soaking or washing. It is usually done to
remove a strong taste.
Dépouiller
To skim off the skin that accumulates at the top of a stock
or sauce.
Duxelles
Finely chopped raw mushrooms, used as a stuffing.
Sometimes combined with chopped ham or scallops.
En croute
Wrapped in pastry and then baked in an oven.
Entrecôte
Giblets Sirloin steak.
What it is: Entrée
Want the offal truth? "Giblets" refer to the edible offal of the The term used to refer to something served before the main
chicken, including the heart, gizzards, liver. Often, the course but is used now to refer to the actual main course.
neck is included. If you buy a whole bird from a butcher,
they will frequently include the giblets in a sealed bag right Entremet
in the bird, similarly to how Thanksgiving turkeys are sold. A dessert or sweet - but does not include pastries.
How to cook it: Escalope
The giblets aren't so much eaten straight except by very A thin, boneless slice of meat.
adventurous eaters, but are a valuable ingredient in many
recipes. Giblets add rich flavor to stuffings, stocks and Farce
sauces, notably giblet gravy. There's even a French stew Stuffing.
called alicot in which giblets are a key ingredient.

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.3.02 31
Flamber or Flambé Mise en place
To set an alcohol - usually brandy - on fire. Mise en place is translates as "putting in place", as in
getting all your preparation in place - tasks like washing
Frappé
mussels, peeling and preparing vegetables or weighing out
Something that is iced, or set on or in a bed of ice. some of the ingredients in advance.
Fricassé Moulè-â-manqué
A stew made from poultry, meat or rabbit that has a white A cake tin that is wider at the base than at the top and only
sauce. about 2cm or 1inch in depth.
Glace de Viande Napper
Reduced brown stock used to add color and flavour to To coat, mask or cover with something.
sauces.
Noisette
Gratiner or Au Gratin
The word literally means " hazelnuts ", but can also refer
To sprinkle the surface of a cooked food with breadcrumbs to something being nut brown in colour. For example,
and butter, and sometimes cheese and left brown under beurre noisette is butter browned over heat until it becomes
heat. The finished food is referred to as au gratin as in au a nut brown color. It can also refer to boneless rack of lamb
gratin potatoes. that is rolled, tied and cut into rounds.
Hors d'Oeuvre Nouvelle Cuisine
The first course or appetiser. A term that refers to the style of cooking that features
Jardiniere lighter dishes with lighter sauces and very fresh ingredi-
ents.
Vegetables cut into batons - similar to julienne but thicker.
Panade
Julienne
A very thick mixture usually made from a combination of
A standard Julienne cut is 4mm x 4mm x 5cm, or ? x ? x flour, butter, and milk that is used as a base for dishes such
2 inches. ?th of an inch is approx. 3mm, but these sizes as soufflés and fish cakes.
do vary.
Papillote
Jus or Jus de Viande
A wrapping of parchment paper around fish or meat used
A French word loosely translated into "juice", but has a for cooking. The paper is used to retain moisture.
more specific meaning than the translation. In French
cookery it is primarily a sauce made by diluting the pan Parisienne
juices of a roast with liquid then boiling it in the roasting pan Refers to potatoes molded into balls with a melon scoop,
until all of the sediment has absorbed into the stock. Also and fried or roasted.
used to describe thickened or clear brown stock, espe-
Pâte
cially veal. The juices squeezed from raw vegetables or
fruits are also referred to as "jus." A basic mixture or paste - often refers to uncooked dough,
or pastry.
Jus Lié
Pâté
Thickened gravy.
A paste made of liver, pork or game.
Liaison
Paysanne
Ingredients used for thickening sauces, soups or other
liquids. Vegetables cut into thin slices.
Macédoine Pâtisserie
A salad of small pieces of mixed vegetables or fruit. A sweet or pastry, it also refers to a cake shop.
Marmite Piquer
French word for a covered earthenware container for soup. To insert fat, such as bacon into meat or poultry.
The soup is both cooked and served in it. Not to be
Portefeuille
confused with the product Marmite!
A French term describing dishes in which the food is
Mirepoix
stuffed, folded, or placed in layers. Common preparations
A mixture of braising vegetables, usually celery, carrots of this type are omelets, gratins, or stuffed chicken breast.
and onions.

32 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.3.02
Poussin of poultry and other domestic animals. Fish provides
vitamins and protein, and were easy to catch and prepare
A young chicken.
– it is even likely that a large proportion was eaten raw. In
Quenelle Egypt, fish was abundant and cheap, cheaper than even
Quenelle is a minced fish or meat mixture that is formed bread! Even in early history, people of the Iberian peninsula
into small shapes and then poached. It also refers to the were catching fish like anchovies and sardines and export-
shape that the minced mixture is made into. ing them to as far away as Asia Minor. In Europe, pike
provided both sport and food and in 17th Century Scotland,
Ragoût salmon was so common that it was forbidden by law for
A stew employers to give their workers salmon more than three
times a week. Carp, a fish that was often reared in ponds
Réchauffée and lakes in Europe, the Middle East, China and Japan
Reheated food. often provided inspiration for cooks and poets alike! The
most valuable fish of all time is the herring, which still
Repere constitutes 1/3rd of the worlds catch, approx. 20 million
Flour mixed with water or egg white and used to seal pans tons. Cod, mackerel and tuna follow close behind.
when cooking food slowly. Often used when cooking a The introduction of refrigerated air transport in the 1960’s
ragoût. precipitated a revolutionary change in the fish industry.
Revenir This made fresh fish available anywhere a jet could fly.
Another revolutionary change in the fish industry is aqua-
To quickly fry meats or vegetables in hot fat to warm them culture. Although it has been practiced in limited forms for
through. centuries, it has expanded widely only in the last few years.
Rocher Fish is still regarded as an important source of food for man.
One cubic acre of ocean can produce 3,000 pounds of
A rocher, or one-handed quenelle, is a way to give a edible product, which far exceeds the capacity of an acre
beautiful oval shape to a homogenous mass of food - like of tillable soil. Trout, salmon, shrimps and prawns are now
ice cream, sorbet or even beef tartare. The shape is formed being widely cultivated. Consistency of flavor and texture is
by scooping with one spoon and smoothing it with the other a benefit of farmed fish.
(usually the spoons are warm if its a cold mass).
Roux Composition & structure

Melted butter to which flour has been added - used as a The edible flesh of fish, like that of meat and poultry,
thickener for sauces or soups. consists of water, protein, fats, small amounts of vitamins
and minerals. The differences are however more important
Rouille than the similarities. Fish has very little connective tissue.
A garlic and oil emulsion used as flavouring. Therefore:

Sautoir 1. Fish cooks very quickly.

A deep frying pan with a lid - used for recipes that require 2. Fish is naturally tender.
fast frying then slow cooking. 3. Cooked and uncooked fish must be handled very
Terrine carefully or it will fall apart.

A Pâté or similar mixture of minced ingredients is baked or Classification of fish

steamed in a loaf shaped container. Fish and seafood may be grouped into categories by their
Timbale structure. Depending upon the structure, the method of
cooking the various categories of fish will also vary. There
A dish cooked in a mold that is higher than it is wide and are hundreds of varieties of fish all over the world but only
has sloping sides. a few are acceptable for human consumption.
Velouté
How to select fish
A type of sauce made from butter, flour, cream and stock.
The following points must be borne in mind while buying
Vol-au-vent fish:
A large pastry case made of puff pastry that is usually used • There should be no unpleasant fishy odor.
as a container for creamed dishes, such as creamed
chicken. • The fish should look fresh and shiny.
• The gills under the dorsal fin should be red, not gray in
Understanding fishes
color.
Marine and fresh water fish were an important part of mans
• The tail should be stiff (you should be able to hold small
diet long before the cultivation of vegetables or the rearing
fish upright!).

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.3.02 33
• The flesh should be firm and not flabby. • Supreme
• No impressions should be left when touching the flesh. • Goujons
• The scales if any should be plentiful. • Delice
• The eyes of the fish should be bright and shiny and not • Paupiette
sunken. • Roulade
• If a piece of a large fish is involved, it should not be
• En tresse & En lorgnette
falling off the bone.
Nutritive value of fish
• The flesh of a large piece of fish should not be
discolored and yellowish. Doctors suggests that fish, instead of meat, should be
used as the protein source several times a week because
In the case of Shell fish:
of the possible benefits of fish oils for coronary artery
• They should preferably be bought alive. diseases.
• If not, they should be heavy for their size. Fish is a high-quality protein. Fish and shell-fish contain
about 19% protein that is similar in amino acid composition
• The eyes of crustaceans must be bright and protrud-
to that found in muscle meats. The content varies from 1 to
ing. 20% depending upon the species and the season of the
• The tail of prawns, shrimp and lobster should be year. This is a substantially lower fat content than beef.
springy and not limp. Fish contains protein of high biological value, essential
• Bi valves such as oysters and clams should be tightly minerals, vitamins and fats. Shellfish and salt-water fish
shut. are rich in iodine and fluorine, in addition to appreciable
traces of cobalt, and for that reason make a valuable
Storage of fish contribution the diet.
Ideally, fish should be consumed as fresh as possible to Fish is also a satisfactory source of magnesium, phospho-
retain its flavor and texture. However, most fish can be rus, iron and copper. Shellfish generally have a higher
frozen for later use but only after C?cleaning it of all internal calcium and iodine content that fish. Herring and oysters
organs. Freezing must take place at 0 F) and must never are exceptionally high in zinc.
be re frozen after defrosting. For very short?(-18 C.?time A serving of fatty fish such salmon, mackerel and sardine
storage, fish must be stored at refrigerated temperatures will supply about 10% of the daily allowance of Vitamin D.
of 3-5 Fish should be cooked soon after cleaning and The natural oil found in canned fish should be used, since
marinating. Certain fish such as clams need special it too is valuable source of these vitamins. An average
storage (in salt water). Proper attention must be paid to the serving of either fatty or lean fish will supply about 10% of
storage of fish, as it tends to deteriorate and spoil very thiamin, 15% riboflavin and 50% of the niacin required daily.
quickly. When storing fish in the refrigerator, take care that
Fish and shellfish have high levels of poly-unsaturated fatty
other foods such as milk do not absorb the fishy odors!
acids (PUFA), especially Omega-3 fatty acids, which tend
Cooking of fish to lower blood cholesterol by depressing low density
lipoprotein (LDL) concentration Omega-3 fatty acids ap-
Boiling:
pear to also reduce levels of plasma triglyceride, in particu-
Can be done to obtain a court bouillon or when the fish lar very low density lipoprotein (VLDL). The mechanism by
needs to be flakes for a salad or for cutlets. which PUFA in diet lowers plasma lipid, especially choles-
Steaming: terol, is unclear.
Is ideal for large fish and to retain nutritive value. Fish and shellfish are excellent source of easily digestible
protein of high nutritional value. Tests have shown that 85%
Grilling: to 95% of the protein is assimilable.
Usually oily fish is good for grilling, as it possesses natural Based on these facts, it is recommended that fish should
fats. be used as the protein source, instead of meat, several
Frying: times a week because of the possible benefits of fish oils
White fish and be pan, shallow or deep fried normally with for coronary artery disease. Studies have indicated that by
a coating. consuming more fish and oils (such as salmon or mack-
erel), cardiac mortality can be reduced and possible
Baking: underlying coronary atherosclerosis improved. Fish also
Is suitable for medium and large fish and can be stuffed. contains important vitamins and minerals
The cuts of fish Fish is an excellent source of the B vitamin niacin (Niacin
• Fillet assists in the functioning of the digestive system, skin, and
nerves. It is also important for the conversion of food to
• Darne energy) and B12 (Vitamin B12 is critical to building DNA
• Troncon and RNA, the maintenance of the nervous system, fatty

34 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.3.02
acid synthesis, homocysteine metabolism and energy At the present time, there is no cure for food allergy.
production), and in general is a better source of Vitamins Avoidance is the only way to prevent an reaction.
D and A than beef, pork or chicken. The Vitamin D is vital Allergic reactions to fish and shellfish are commonly
for the formation of bones. Fish can also contribute reported in both adults and children. It is generally recom-
appreciable amounts of dietary calcium, home iron and mended that individuals who have had an allergic reaction
zinc, nutrients that tend to be low in people's diets. Fish is to one species of fish or positive skin tests to fish avoid all
among the best sources of dietary selenium. fish. The same rule applies to shellfish. If you have a fish
Fish and allergies allergy but would like to have fish in your diet, speak with
your allergist about the possibility of being challenged with
A food allergy is an immune system response to a food that
various types of fish.
the body mistakenly believes is harmful. Once the immune
system decides that a particular food is harmful, it creates Fish-allergic individuals should be cautious when eating
specific antibodies to it. away from home. They should avoid fish and seafood
restaurants because of the risk of contamination in the
The next time the individual eats that food, the immune
food-preparation area of their "non-fish" meal from a coun-
system releases massive amounts of chemicals, including
ter, spatula, cooking oil, fryer, or grill exposed to fish.
histamine, in order to protect the body. These chemicals
trigger a cascade of allergic symptoms that can affect the
respiratory system, gastrointestinal tract, skin, or cardio-
vascular system.

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.3.02 35
Travel, Tourism & Hospitality Related Theory for Exercise 1.3.03
Food Production - Knife handling techniques and pre preparation of food
French culinary terms
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• understand and explain the French words most commonly used in cookery.

Allumette Bouquet Garni

The allumette measures approximately ? in/2 mm by ? in/ A mixture of fresh herbs tied together with string and used
2 mm by 2½ in/6 cm inches. It's also the starting point for to flavour stews, soups etc. It refers to a mix of parsley, bay
the brunoise. leaf, thyme (and sometimes celery stalk). The bouquet is
Bain-marie removed before serving.

A roasting pan or baking dish partially filled with water to Brule

allow food to cook more slowly and be protected from direct To burn a food to caramelize the sugar on a foods surface.
high heat. Used for custards and terrines.
Brunoise
Batonnet
Vegetables cut into very small diced pieces, based on a
Batonnet translates to "little stick". The batonnet meas- julienne cut, but just turned 90° and diced.
ures approximately ¼in/5 mm by ¼in/½ mm x 2½-3 inches
Canapé
or about 8cm. It is also the starting point for the small dice.
An appetizer consisting of a small bread or biscuit base
Bavarois
covered with a flavoured topping such as Pâté.
A creamy pudding made with cream and eggs, then set
Cartouche
using gelatin.
Cartouche is a French term which basically means "scroll"
Beignets
or "packet." It's a paper lid that is used to slow down the
Small dollops of dough that are fried - very much like fritters. reduction of moisture in cooking. A lid only lets a little
Beurre Manié moisture escape, whereas using no lid lets lots of moisture
escape.
Butter and flour mixed together in equal parts and used to
thicken stews, soups, and casseroles. Chapelux

Beurre Noisette Browned breadcrumbs.

Browned butter. Chaud-froid

Bisque A French term describing a dish that is first cooked and

then chilled for service.
A smooth, creamy soup made from a base of shellfish
stock. Chiffonade

Blanch Rolling up herbs, or leafy greens like spinach and cutting

them into very fine shreds.
To place fruit or vegetables in boiling water so the skin can
be removed more easily. Chine

Blanquette To remove the backbone from a rack of ribs.

A stew made from meat that has not been browned or fried. Choux
Usually refers to stews made of lamb, chicken or veal. Choux Pastry, or Pâte à Choux, is a light pastry dough
Bouchées made from butter, water, flour, and eggs. Instead of a
raising agent its high moisture content creates steam
Small puff pastry cases with a savoury filling, usually during cooking to puff the pastry. Amongst others, choux
served as an Hors d'Oeuvre. pastry is used make profiteroles, croquembouches, and
Bouillon éclairs.

A broth or stock, usually a meat, some vegetables and a Compote

bouquet garni boiled in water. A dessert consisting of fruit stewed in a sugar syrup,
originates from the 17th century.

36
Concassé Coulis
A French term for rough chopping ingredients - usually A thick sauce usually made from one main ingredient, such
referring to tomatoes. as raspberry coulis.
Consommé Court Bouillon
A richly flavoured, clear soup. To achieve this, egg whites Flavoured liquid used for cooking fish.
are added and the soup is simmered to allow the inpurities
Crêpes
to be skimmed off.
Very thin pancakes.

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.3.03 37
Travel, Tourism & Hospitality Related Theory for Exercise 1.4.01 - 1.4.08
Food Production - Method of cooking

Methods of cooking and its effects

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• describe transfer of heat to food
• explain effect of heat on food
• describe ways to cooking food
• describe dry ways of cooking
• explain medium of fat
• describe roasting
• describe paper bag cooking

Methods of cooking
Transference of heat to food MOIST HEAT causes sugar to dissolve in water-more
All methods of cooking depend on one or more of the rapidly in hot water than in cold. On heating it becomes
following principles. syrup; on further heating it colours, than caramelizes and
will eventually turn to carbon and ash.
Radiation
DRY HEAT causes sugar to caramelize quickly and burn.
Heat passes from its source in direct rays until it falls on
an object in its path such as in grilling. Fats
Conduction They melt to oils when heated. Water is given off with a
bubbling noise as heating continues when all the water has
This is the transferring of heat through a solid object by been driven off a faint blue haze appears; further heating will
contact. Some materials for example metal used for pans, result in smoking and burning. The unpleasant smell of
transfer heat more quickly than wood used for wooden burning fat is caused by the presence of fatty acids.
spoon. Conduction is the principle involved in the solid
electric ranges. Vitamins
Convection VITAMIN A and CAROTENE are insoluble in water so they
are not lost by moist methods of cooking, such s boiling
This is the movement of heated particles of gases or liquid. and steaming, or by soaking. Therefore boiled vegetables
On heating, the particles expand, become less dense and contain same amount of carotene as raw vegetables.
rise. The colder particles sink to take their place, thus
causing convection currents which distribute heat, this VITAMIN D is not destroyed by heat or lost by solubility.
principle is used in heating a gas oven and in the heating THIAMINE (VITAMIN B1) is very soluble in water and about
of the liquids. 50% will dissolve in the cooking liquid. High temperatures
The effect of heat on food e.g. pressure cooking, destroy VITAMIN B1 and alkali
(Baking powder) will cause some destruction.
Protein
RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN B2) is soluble in water and will
It coagulates in heating. Over heating makes it tough, dissolve out in the cooking liquid; some is lost in normal
unpalatable and shrunken. For example when heat is cooking but more losses occur in pressure cooking.
applied to egg white, it thickens, becomes opaque and
then firm. This characteristic coagulation of protein when NICOTINIC ACID (NIACIN) is soluble in water and dissolves
heated is employed in its use as a coating for deep and to some extent in the cooking liquid. It is stable in the
shallow fried foods and in the development of crust in bread presence of heat but is easily oxidized, which means that
formed by the protein gluten in wheat. the chemical process of the products is adversely affected
by taking in oxygen.
Carbohydrates
VITAMIN C is lost or destroyed very easily in cooking. It is
MOIST HEAT on starch causes the starch grains to soften soluble in water. Vitamin C oxidizes to form a substance
and swell. Near boiling point the cellulose framework which is useless to the body; to minimize oxidation cook
bursts, releasing the starch which thickens the liquid. with a lid on. Food containing Vitamin C should be cooked
DRY HEAT causes the starch to change color from creamy for short periods and must be used as fersha s possible.
white to brown and after prolonged heat will carbonize and Methods of cooking
burn. Water is given off during heating and the starch on the
surface is changed to dextrin, a form of sugar, as in toast. Moist (Medium of liquids)

38
1. Boiling Effects of poaching
Definition Poaching helps to tenderize the fibrous structure of food,
and the raw texture of the food becomes edible by chemical
It is the cooking of prepared foods in a liquid at boiling point.
action.
This could be water, court- bouillon, milk or stock.
Temperature & time control
Purpose
Shallow poaching is just below simmering point (and may
The purpose of boiling is to cook food so that it is:
be carried out in an oven);
• Pleasant to eat with as agreeable flavor Deep poaching is just below gentle simmering.
• Of a suitable texture, tender or slightly firm according 3. Stewing
to the food.
Purpose
• Easy to digest and safe to eat.
Because stewing is both economical and nutritional,
Effects of boiling cheaper cuts of meat and poultry, which would be unsuit-
able for roasting and grilling, can be made tender and
Gentle boiling helps to break down the tough fibrous
palatable. Stewing also produces an acceptable flavour,
structure of certain foods which would be less tender if
texture and eating quality.
cooked by other methods .Cooking must be slow in order
to give time for the connective tissue in tough meat to be Effects of stewing
changed into soluble gelatine., so releasing the fibres and In the slow process of cooking in gentle heat the, the
making the meat tender .Gentle heat will ensure coagula- connective tissue in meat and poultry is converted into a
tion of the protein without hardening. gelatinous substance so that the fibres fall apart easily and
Advanteges of boiling become digestible. The protein is coagulated without being
toughened unlike boiling, less liquid is used and the
• Older, tougher, cheaper joints of meat and poultry can cooking temperature is approximately 5 degree Celsius
be made palatable and digestible. lower.
• It is appropriate for large scale cookery and is eco- Temperature & time control
nomic on fuel.
The ideal cooking temperature for stewing on top of the
• Nutritious, well- flavoured stock can be produced. stove is approximately 82 degree Celsius.
• Labour saving, as boiling needs little attention.
4. Steaming
• slowly in cold liquid brought to the boil and allowed to
Methods of steaming
boil gently:
Atmospheric and low pressure steaming?
• Helps to tenderize the fibrous structure(meat), ex-
tracts starch(vegetable soups) and flavour from certain • Direct: in a steamer or in a pan boiling water(steak and
foods(stocks) kidney pudding);
• Can avoid damage to foods which would lose their • Indirect: between two plates over a pan of boiling water
shape if added to boiling liquid e.g whole fish.
Advantages of steaming
b) Adding food to boiling liquid:
These include:
• Seals in the natural juices as with meat.
• High-pressure steaming enables food to be cooked or
2. Poaching reheated quickly because steamed is forced through
Methods the food, thus cooking it rapidly;
There are two ways of poaching: shallow and deep. • Labour saving and suitable for large scale cookery.
• Shallow poaching. Foods to be cooked by this method, • High speed steamers used for batch cooking enable
such as cuts offish and chicken, are cooked in the the frequent cooking of small quantities of vegetables
minimum of the liquid, that is, water, stock milk or throughout the service, keeping vegetables freshly
wine. To prevent the liquid boiling, bring to the boil on cooked retaining colour, flavour and nutritive value;
top of the stove and complete the cooking in a moder-
ate hot oven, approximately • With steamed fish, the natural juices can be retained
by serving with fish making the accompanying sauce;
• Deep poaching: Eggs are cooked in approximately
8cm of gently simmering water. Whole fish, e.g salmon: • Steaming is economical on fuel as a low heat is needed
slices of fish on the bone e.g turbot, grilled cod, salmon and multitiered steamer can be used.
and whole chicken may be deep poached.

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.4.01 - 1.4.08 39
Temperature & time control bed in grill pan with a well regulated draught this bed of the
charcoal varies in depth according to the size and kind of
For high pressure steaming, foods should be placed in the
meat to be grilled. Nowadays there are also gas and
steamer when the pressure gauge indicates the required
electric grills, both of which are very good and extremely
degree of pressure. This will ensure that the necessary
practical.
cooking temperature has been reached.
The grill must be scrupulously clean and heated before the
Cooking times will vary according to the equipment used
meat is laid upon it or under it. The food to be grilled must
and the type, size and quality of food to be steamed.
be basted with clarified butter, oil, or fat, and seasoned.
Manufacturers’ instructions are an essential guide to
Meat should be gently flattened and trimmed before cook-
successful steaming.
ing.
5. Braising
Fish should scored with a knife, well coated with butter and
A method of cooking food in a closed vessel with very little oil and seasoned .fish which is rather dry has a tendency
liquid at a low temperature and for a long time .braising is to stick to the bar of the grill, and should therefore be floured
used mostly for tougher cuts of meat, certain vegetables before being coated with butter or oil .this will form a
(cabbage, chicory (endive), artichoke and lettuce) and covering which will enable the fish to cook without becom-
large poultry. ing to dry .turn grilling meat or fish over once or twice during
Braising is also a method of cooking certain firm fleshed cooking, and baste frequently with the butter or oil, using
fish (monkfish, carp, and salmon): the fish is poached in the a brush.
oven, in a small amount of liquid containing herbs, and Grilled food is ready when it resists pressure if lightly
basted during cooking. touched with the finger tip .tiny pinkish droplets appearing
When cooking was carried out directly on the hearth, on the browned surface are another indication that the fish
braising meant cooking slowly in hot embers. The cooking is properly cooked .grilled white meat should be less
container had a lid with the rim on which embers. The browned than red meat and a less intense heat should be
cooking container had a lid with a rim on which embers used .grill fish at a moderate heat, and baste frequently.
could be placed, so that heat came from both above and Grill poultry fish if it is to be cooked in breadcrumbs. When
below. three-parts cooked, cover with butter or oil and roll in the
breadcrumbs.
Dry heat methods
Medium of Fat
1. Baking
1. Grilling
Methods
Baking with heat modifications: placing food in a container Barbecuing
of water ( bain-marie),such as baked egg custard , modifies This is grilling on preheated, greased bars over a fierce heat
the heat so that the food cooks more slowly, does not over (gas, charcoal or wood).
heat and lessens the possibility egg mixture overcooking.
Effects of grilling
Effects of baking
Because of the speed of cooking there is maximum
Chemical action caused by the effect of heat on certain retention of nutrients and flavour. Grilling is only suitable for
ingredients, such yeast and baking powder, changes the certain cuts of best quality meat; inferior meat would be
raw structure of many foods to an edible texture. tough and inedible. The effect of fierce heat on the surface
Advantages of baking of the meat rapidly coagulates and seals the surface
protein, thus helping to retain the meat juices. Grilled
• A wide variety of sweet and savoury foods can be meats lose less of their juices than meat cooked by any
produced other method provided they are not pierced with a fork while
cooking.
• Bakery products yields appetizing goods eye-appeal
and mouth-watering aromas. General rules for effective grilling
Temperature & time control • Smaller, thinner items require cooking quickly.
Accurate timing and temperature control are essential to • Seal and colour food on the hot part of the grill then
baking. The required oven temperature must reached move to a cooler part to complete cooking.
before each additional batch of goods is placed in the oven.
• Basting of food and oiling of bars prevents dryness.
This is known as recovery time.
2. Deep frying
2. Broiling
Methods
A method of cooking by intense heat, the nourishing juice
being sealed into the meat by the crust form on the surface • Protect the surface of food from intense heat;
.the fuel traditionally used for grilling in France is small
charcoal, when thoroughly alight, is spread out to form a • Prevent the escape of moisture and nutrients;

40 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.4.01 - 1.4.08
• Modify the rapid penetration of the intense heat. for discarding and the food being damp can result in the
fat boiling over. If it is freestanding friture on the stove
• Partial deep frying is known as blanching.
then there is a risk of fire.
Effects of deep frying
• Move free-standing fryers with great care so as not to
Deep frying of items coated with milk or egg seals the jar them spill fat on the stove.
surface by coagulation of protein, with minimum absorption
of fat. • Ensure that correct fire prevention equipment is to
hand and that you are familiar with the fire drill proce-
Advantages dure.
• Blanching or partial cooking, enable certain foods to be • Keep sleeves rolled down at all times when handling
held for cooking later, which helps during busy service fryers.
and saves time.
• Use clean, dry, thick, sound cloths when handling
• Coating foods enables a wide variety to be cooked by fritures.
this method.
• Allow fat to cool before straining.
• Foods can be cooked quickly and easily handled for
service. 2. Roasting

• Coated foods are quickly sealed, thus preventing the Cooking meat, poultry, game or fish by exposing it to the
heat of a naked flame or exposing it to the heat of a naked
enclosed food becoming greasy.
flame or grill (spit-roasting) or to the radiant heat of the oven
Temperature and time control (oven roasting).
Timing is important: if thicker pieces of food are being Spit roasting is considered best, but it is more difficult.
cooked, the temperature must be lowered to allow for Some cooks consider that oven-roasted meat is spoiled
sufficient cooking time otherwise the food will be overcoloured because it is subjected to humidity it is a mistake to add
and undercooked. The reverse is also true: the smaller the water to roasting pan, because when this evaporate it tends
pieces of food the hotter the frying temperature and shorter to give a boiled taste to the meat .to ensure that the roast
the cooking time. does not dry out or get to brown, particularly when it is to
General rules be cooked for a long time, it may be barded .the other
preliminary processes are interlarding and larding. Many
• Never overfill fryers with fat or oil or food to be cooked. joints can also be stuffed before roasting.
• When using free standing fryers without a thermometer Whichever method is used, the meat is first exposed to a
never allow smoke to rise from the fat; this will give a high heat, which produces a surface crust and concen-
disagreeable taste and smell to food being fried. trates the juice inside the meat, conserving al its flavour
• Reduce frying temperatures during slack periods to .the meat should not be pierced while it is cooking or the
juice will run out. The cooking temperature will depend on
conserve fuel
the type and the size of the joint.
• Restrict holding time to a minimum – fried food soon
Spit roasting
lose their crispness.
• Oil and fat should be strained after use, otherwise The intensity of heat must always be proportionate to the
remaining food particles will burn when the fat is next type of meat to be cooked : red meat , full of juices, should
heated thus spoiling the appearance and flavour of the first be seized and then cooked at a steady heat to make
food. sure that it is cooked right through .for white meat and
poultry ,the heat must be regulated so that the inside is
• Always cover oil or fat when not in use to prevent
cooked without outside getting to brown .the meat should
oxidation.
be basted frequently with the fat which collects in the dip
Safety tray ,but not with meat juices underneath the fat cooked in
this way ,the meat will be tender and a good colour.
• Always only half –fill fryers with fat or oil.
Tandoor
• Never overload fryers with food.
Method
• Dry foods, such as potatoes, thoroughly before frying,
otherwise they will splutter and cause burns. Meat(small cuts small joints), poultry(small cuts and
• Always place food carefully in the fryer away you. If it whole chickens) and fish, such as prawns usually placed
vertically in the oven. No fat or oil is used. The food is
is added towards you, hot fat could splash and burn.
cooked quickly and the flavour is similar to that of barbe-
• Always have a frying basket and spider to hand in case cued food.The distinctive flavour of tandoori- cooked food
food is required to be lifted out of the fryer quickly. A comes from both the marinade and the cooking process.
combination of the fats being too hot, fat almost ready

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.4.01 - 1.4.08 41
Over roasting Pot
The meat should be put into a very hot oven to seal the Pot roasting is cooking on a bed of root vegetables in a
surface .it should rest on a rack ,to keep it out of its own covered pan. Known also as poele, this method retains
fat and juices ,and should be basted as for spit-roast meat. maximum flavour of all ingredients. When pot roasting,
place the food on a bed of root vegetables and herbs, coat
If roast beef, mutton, and game are to be served rare, a few
generously with butter or oil, cover with a lid and cook in an
drops of deep pink blood should be basted as for spit –roast
oven. Cheaper cuts of meat are usually pot roasted.
meat.
Advantages
If roast beef ,mutton and game are to be served rare ,a few
drops of deep pink blood should be emitted when the • Maximum flavour retained
surface is lightly pricked :for a medium-rare roast ,the blood
should be pale pink .with veal young lamb and pork ,the • Retains nutrients
juices should run clear .poultry should be lifted from the pan
• Cheaper cuts of meat can be used
tilted over a plate :it is done when the juice runs out clear:
if there are still traces of pink ,the bird is not sufficiently • Vegetables used in pot roating can be served as an
cook . accompaniment
As a rule, a roast should be served, with its strings and Disadvantages
barding removed, as soon as it is taken out of the oven or
off the spit: in the case of red meat however, it is better to • Slow method of cooking
leave the roast to rest for a few minutes in a warm place Paper bag cooking
before serving .the meat then easier to cut.
Known as papillotte, this is method of cookery in which
The accompanying gravy is made by pouring into the food is tightly sealed in oiled grease proof paper or foil so
roasting pan either a little water or a light stock and that no steam escapes during cooking and maximum
scrapping and mixing in all the juices and bits adhering to natural flavour and nutritive value is retained.
the pan. Some of the fat is poured of f the gravy is then
served separately in a sauce boat with a special spout
which retains the remaining fat when the Gravy is poured.

42 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.4.01 - 1.4.08
Travel, Tourism & Hospitality Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.01 - 1.5.06
Food Production - Preparation of different recipes
Menu Planning
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• describe about menu planning
• describe about different types of menus
• describe about types of establishment

Menu Planning Table D’hôte Table of the Host

Menu planning means to compose a series of dishes for a A fixed menu planned for a complete meal at a fixed price.
meal. Composing a good menu is an art and it needs It is a meal of three or four courses with a limited choice of
careful selection of dishes for the different courses. So that dishes, and it is cooked in advance. It is changed daily or
each dish harmonies with the other. may be used in rotation. It is set in the classical sequence
starting with hors d’oeuvres or soups and so on. Leftover
The planning of meals in commercial catering establish-
food items could be used for this type of menu as it helps
ment is based more on economic considerations and
to economize.
reputation than on the desire to provide nutritionally “bal-
anced diets”. The dishes produced are intended to please Carte De Jour Daily Card
the eye and the palate. The planning of menu for school
feeding, industrial canteens, hostels, etc. has a different There is sometimes an insert in a à la Carte menu, which
aspect and nutritious and well-balanced foods are com- comprises a few special dishes of the day to vary the la
piled. Carte menu for regular customers. Some establishments
have a set pattern for their Carte de jour, e.g.
There are some rules in the gastronomic laws which must
be observed if one is to obtain success. As a badly Roast Chicken Monday
compiled menu will spoil the complete meal. Menu should Fish and Chips Tuesday
provide nutritious food, tempt the appetite, and satisfy the
guests. Curry and Rice Wednesday

It is essential to have knowledge about the sequence of A La Carte by the Card

courses in Western menus, because for Indians menus all To your choice
the dishes are served at one time in a thali. The modern
trend is to give about 4 to 6 courses and a list of various A la Carte means the presentation of a long sequence of
courses has been given. This is to enable one to choose dishes and courses. Each dish is individually priced.
from the sequence. Dishes are cooked to order and the portions are larger than
a table d’hôte menu. The customer has a wide choice and
Sequence of Courses should be prepared to wait for this service.
1. Hors d’oeuvres Many dishes and sauces are prepared in advance except
2. Soups –thick or clear for the final finishing touches and cooking.
3. Fish This type of menu is normally permanent, until either prices
or change of management makes it out of date.
4. Entrée
5. Releves Banquet

6. Sorbet Usually the menu is composed for a number of people and

it is necessary to know the reason for the banquet. It is
7. Roasts/Grills usually a formal affair and dishes should be compiled to suit
8. Vegetables /Salads the occasion. The dishes chosen should be such that will
not require last minute dressing. The menu is elaborate and
9. Sweet of a high-class quality. It is fixed menu with no choice. It is
10. Savoury not usual to include farinaceous or eggs and stews. The
service as a rule is faster and takes the following form:
11. Dessert (fresh fruits, nuts)
First Course Fruit cocktails, smoked salmon, hors d’
Coffee (Not a course) oeuvres, or soups.
There are different types of menus: Table d’hôte, Carte de Second Course Fish-Fish Bonne Femme, Fish Duglure,
jour, A la Carte, special party menu for banquets, buffets, etc. but without the complicated garnishes.
parties formal and informal.

43
Third Course Entrée (excluding stews and rechauffe dishes) English --- It is on a larger scale and comprises fruit – fresh
roasts grills or cold meats with vegetables and potatoes or or stewed, cereals, bacon and eggs to order, or fish,
salads. preserve, breads and beverages.
Fourth Course Sweet dishes with emphasis on the hot Indian --- Popular breakfast comprises stuffed parathas
variety, or Bombes. and curd or potato bhajee and poories, or besan cheelas
Fifth Course Cheese and biscuits. curd or dosas and chutney and pickles, and beverages like
tea, coffee, lassi or milk.
Coffee Always served.
Luncheon Menus
Buffets
Menus are usually shorter than dinner with fewer courses
There are two main types of buffets, e.g. the Light Buffet and simpler dishes but more choice within each course.
and the Fork Buffet (lunch and supper). This buffet table is The emphasis is placed on stews, roast joints, grilled
attractively displayed. The food served is colourful and meats, cold buffets, and steamed puddings. Luncheon is
attractive, tastefully decorated. A large variety of dishes are a quick affair and dinner taken more leisurely. A six-course
offered for everyone to choose. sequence of dishes is given:
Light Buffets are given for various reasons to augment a Sequence of Dishes
long function i.e. late in the evening, also could be given for
tea dances and supper dances.etc. • First Course - Appetizer – Fruit or Shellfish cocktails,
delicacies such as caviar, oysters, etc. Smoked fish or
The Fork Buffet will also provide a variety of dishes and the
hors d’oeuvres.
food item can be easily eaten with a spoon or fork, while
standing. The popular dishes chosen are chicken mousse, • Second Course - Soup – Thin or Thick soups.
balloting, terrines, salads, etc. A list of dishes that can be
offered for buffets are – savoury finger toasts, cold or hot • Third Course - Fish – Without complicated garnishes.
canapés, chipolata, sausages, cheese, game chips, pat- The fish could be steamed, grilled or fried.
ties, sandwiches, smoked salmon, eggs, ham, trifles,
jellies, fruit salads, ice-cream, pastries, gateaux, etc.
• Fourth Course - Meat/Chicken – Stews, Blanquettes,
fricassees, goulash, cutlets, rechauffe dishes, braised
Coffee, tea or punch.
or roasted meat. Served with vegetables and potatoes.
The modern trend is buffet lunches or dinners. The elabo- Salads can also be served.
rate well-decorated dishes are displayed. The price is
fixed. Western and Indian dishes are displayed together • Vegetables – A choice of vegetable dishes is given for
and the guests can take both or either. The dishes vegetarians such as augratin, cutlets, vegetable, bombe,
displayed are – Kiev’s, etc.

Salads, soups, roasts, fish fried, vegetables, ragouts, • Fifth Course - Sweet – Hot puddings, pancakes, pies,
fricassees, potato dishes and puddings of different kinds. flans, milk puddings, ice-cream, fruit salads, bavarois,
The Indian dishes are pulaos, biryanis, kormas, roghanjosh, cold soufflés, etc.
jhalfareze, bhajees, bhurtas, raitas, papads, pickles, sal-
ads, nans, bhaturas, cholc, tandoori chicken, seekh kababs,
• Sixth Course - Dessert – Fresh fruit, nuts, etc.
etc. • Coffee
Cocktail Dinner Menu
The main ingredients are actually drinks. Very tiny savoury Dinner menus comprise highly garnished, classical dishes.
snacks are served such as stuffed olives, gherkins, wal- Here one has a scope of showing one’s skill of compiling
nuts, gamechips (wafers) salted almonds, chipolata, sau- menus with a choice of the most esteemed and rarest and
sages, bacon rolls, cheese fritters, cheese straws, canapés exotic of dishes. Large joints could be carved in the
bouchees, shami kababs (small), mini seekh kababs, aloo restaurant in front of the customers or flambé dishes could
ki tikkis, chiwdas, sev, etc. be served. Balance must be perfected throughout the long
Points to Consider When Planning Menus complicated number of dishes.

1. Type of meal Dinner Menu Courses

The different types are – Breakfast, luncheon, dinner, • First Course - Appetizer –Cocktail, caviare, oysters,
supper, tea, etc. snails, etc. Smoked salmon, foie gras, hot hors
d’oeuvres.
Breakfast
• Second Course -Soups – Consommé, cream soups,
There are three types – Continental, English, and Indian.
bisques, bortsch, etc.
Continental --- It is a light breakfasts, comprises brioche,
bread, croissants or French loaf, jam, jelly or marmalade
and coffee or tea.

44 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.01 - 1.5.06
• Third Course - Fish – Deep poached salmon, trout with 2. Type of Establishment
sauce and garnishes. Coquilles St. Jacques (shellfish Menus will vary according to the type of establishment:
cooked with sauce served in a shell), grilled lobster,
lobster thermidore. Fish meuniere with garnish for sole 1) Hotels
turbot, trout, salmon, and Fried whitebait. Cold fish 2) Restaurant
always in aspic.
3) Hostels
• Fourth Course - Entrees/Releves – Tournedos, noisette,
4) Hospitals
vol au vents, large joints, chicken poele, grilled beef
fillet, chicken en casserole, encocotte, served with 5) Industrial canteens
vegetables and potatoes.
The menus for restaurants and hotels will be A la Carte,
• Fifth Course - Sorbet – In a long menu, diners refresh Buffet, Banquet, or Table d’hôte. The dishes will please the
their appetite with a light sherbet, flavoured with cham- eye and palate and will be determined by the customers’
pagne or liqueur. appetite and pocket. On the other hand the hostels,
hospitals, and canteens will have a set pattern and will offer
• Sixth Course - Roast – Roast game and poultry served meals to provide nutritionally balanced diets within a
with a salad. limited budget. As there will be no choice and food will be
eaten daily, a variety given will minimize the monotony and
• Seventh Course - Sweet – Cold or hot – soufflés,
food preference must be seen.
pancakes, crepe suzettes, Melba ice cream, baked
Alaska. 3. Type of Customer
• Eighth Course - Dessert – Fresh fruit and nuts. Customers can affect the type of food served because of
the following factors: age, sex, and occupation. The young
• Coffee boys will need substantial meals whereas the young girls
would prefer dainty and small-portioned dishes. A group of
Indian Menu
farmers, who are used to eating well, will need a good
There is no difference between lunch and dinner menus. All quantity of food, and the emphasis will be on palatability
the courses are served together on a thali. A list of Indian and wholesome food.
dishes is given to make the planning of menus easier:
4. Season of the Year and Availability of Ingredients
Meat - Chicken Jhalfraizie, chicken badam, pasanda
chicken, tandoori, gosht kaliya, korma, roganjosh, keema Season is important in the choice of food. Cool, crisp and
matar, mutton koftas, pork vindaloo, mutton baffat. fresh foods are ideal in summer. For the cold weather,
heavier, richer foods high in calorific value are welcomed.
Fish Dishes - Fish patiala, patiya, masala machi, machi Although in these days of cold storage foods are available
jhal, Goan fish curry. all year round, foods in season should be included in
Vegetarian - Malai kofta curry, aloo dum Bhojpuri, paneer menus, as they are fresh, plentiful, and the colour and
jhalfraizie, flavour are good. They are available at a reasonable price.
Foods selected should be easy to obtain locally.
Dishes paneer pasanda, paneer matar.
Lentil dishes - Rajma shahi, sabut urad dal, makhana, 5. Occasion
khatte chole, Peshawari chole, besan kadhi, sambhar, Special dishes for certain days or time of the year should
amti. be considered. For example, roast turkey at Christmas,
Sukhi sabzi - Aloo matar, bhindi masala, karela stuffed, special eggs for Easter, halwa for Baishaki, sweet rice for
brinjal, Patiala, aloo and tomato, beans foogath. Basant, sheer kurma for Id, are the seasonal and occa-
sional expectation.
Raitas - Mint, potato, tomato and onions, boondi, bhallas
and gunjia. 6. Capabilities of Kitchen Staff
Rice dishes - Tomato and coconut pulao, zer biriyani, The kitchen staff’s capabilities have to be seen, whether
Kashmiri pulao, keema pulao, lime rice, curd rice, aloo ki they will be able to cope with the high class cookery,
tahari, pea pulao, etc. whether they are experienced and have skill and the
knowledge. If the staff is not capable, it will be difficult to
Indian bread - Nans, parathas, roomali roti, tandoori roti, produce good meals. Equally important is the serving staff,
bhaturas, kulchas, etc. if they are efficient, the well-dressed and garnished dishes
Supper could be served in a neat and presentable manner. If the
waiters are untrained, the selection of dishes should be
A full buffet is given for supper. All the dishes are very well
given if the waiter is highly skilled.
decorated, giving a good display.

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.01 - 1.5.06 45
7. Equipment of the Kitchen e) Texture of the Courses: Some food should be soft
whilst other food should require thorough chewing.
While planning the menu, it is important to see that the
Avoid menus with same texture. Offer food with varied
kitchen is well equipped as to be able to cope up with the
texture. E.g.
preparation of various dishes. Care should be taken to see
that the method of cooking is not repeated otherwise – Cream of tomato soup
certain equipment’s would be overloaded. – Roast chicken
8. Price of Menu – Buttered peas, game chips
Always give value for money. The food cost should not – Baked Apple Flan
exceed 40% of the selling price at an average, e.g. if the
food cost per head were Rs. 2/- then the suggested selling f) Seasoning: Do not over season the food. If strong herbs
price would be – are used in one dish, never repeat them in another dish
in the same meal
5 X 100 = Rs. 5/-
g) Garnishes: Must be correct. Garnish attractively and
Cost of food X 100 = Selling price of dish from 100 = food simply.
percentage
h) Food Value: Special attention should be paid to the
Gross profit subtracted different requirements of different groups of people. The
The proposed charge per head is obviously an important manual worker requires more substantial food than an
factor to consider for selecting food for any menu. If the office worker. Meals served to children, old people,
price of the meal is Rs. 10/-, expensive items cannot be invalids, adolescents, and expectant mothers should
considered. If asked to produce meals for a good price, say be nutritionally balanced.
over Rs. 30/- per head, then good value for the price i) Colour: Sensible use of colour in dishes will give them
charged, should be given. an “eye appeal”. Deep vivid colours should be avoided.
Drab looking dishes can be improved by an attractive,
9. The Balance of Menus
colourful garnish.
This is particularly important, when compiling menus and
j) Wording of Menus: When compiling menus, the follow-
special menus, the following points should be considered.
ing points must be considered:
a) Repetition of Ingredients: The basic ingredient on the
1) Select language, which the customer can understand.
menu should never be repeated, as it becomes mo-
notonous. For example, if the soup is of tomatoes, then 2) If the menu is in French, give English translation.
the tomatoes should not reappear in any other course 3) Never use a mixture of languages for the courses of a
on the same menu. When using classical garnish in menu
any other course on the same menu, see that any
vegetable, which is included in the garnish, is not 4) Spelling of the words should be correct.
repeated as a vegetable. In the past few decades, people ate in restaurants occa-
b) Repetition of colours: Wherever it is possible, this should sionally to celebrate a special event such as an anniver-
be avoided to make the menu exciting. If the menu sary, a birthday, or an achievement. It was an outing to look
consist of celery soup, fricassee of chicken, turnips forward to, and if one indulged, it did not matter as these
and creamed potatoes, vanilla ice-cream, which is all outings were rare.
white, is bound to look dull. Today, the scenario is different. Eating out has become a
c) Repetition of Words: Avoid the repetition of the same way of life. Education and employment has taken many of
word on the menu as it seems the planner has a limited us away from home, and the mother’s role now has an
knowledge and makes the menu less interesting, e.g. added responsibility of contributing to the family income.
Modern day compulsions have made eating out a neces-
– Cream de tomate sity. No longer does one find time for the traditional fare of
– Fried fillet of sole yesteryears and depends on the caterer for the following:
– Grilled fillet steak 1. Food for festivals and celebrations
– Creamed potatoes 2. Meals at the work place
– Fraisse à la crème 3. Ready-to-eat meals picked up on the way home from
work
d) Avoid Overbalance of Menus: If many courses are
served, then care must be taken to ensure that they are 4. Snacks and sweetmeats for daily consumption
neither too light nor too heavy.

46 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.01 - 1.5.06
5. Preserves, pickles, papads, etc. Institutional menus Hospital menus, boarding school menus,
and Industrial canteen menus.
6. All meals served in institutions such as hospitals,
school/college cafeteria, mess or dining hall, and Menu may be cyclic which means they are compiled to
boarding schools. cover a specified period of time. The length of the cycle may
vary and is decided upon by the management. A number
The number of reported cases of diabetes, hypertension,
of menus are set up and repeated. They are often modified
obesity, heart attacks, etc. is on the rise and so is the
to take into account variations, which may arise for a
number of meals consumed away from home. This is not
number of reasons.
surprising because if one indulges practically every day, it
is bound to result in ill-health because of malnutrition. The FACTORS INFLUENCING MEAL PLANNING
caterer’s role has become more significant as the respon-
sibility now lies with the caterer for planning nutritionally Many factors influence the acceptability of a meal. Cus-
adequate meals. Menu planning is the key to overcoming tomers select what appeals most to them from a menu card
this problem. based on individual likes and dislikes, budget, popularity of
items, etc. However, while planning meals the following
DEFINITION factors need to be considered.
Menu planning is defined as a simple process which • Nutritional Adequacy
involves application of the knowledge of food, nutrients,
food habits, and likes and dislikes to plan wholesome and The most important consideration in menu planning is
attractive meals. to ensure that the meal fulfils the nutrient needs of the
individual consuming the meal. For example, if the
The caterer who is responsible for providing meals has to meal is planned for an Indus trial worker, it must meet
decide on various aspects such as: the RDAs for that age group. Foods from all basic food
1. Menu groups should be included in each meal so that the
meal is balanced and nutritionally adequate. Nutrient
2. Serving size needs may be modified for hospital diets (therapeutic
3. Food cost diets).

4. Suppliers and quantities to be purchased • Economic Considerations

5. Standardized recipes to be followed The spending power of the clientele has to be kept in
mind and meals have to be planned within the budget.
6. Type of service
Low cost nutritious substitutes should be included in
7. Meal timings the menu to keep the costs low. The food cost should
be maintained, if the organization has to run profitably.
8. Clientele
The aim of menu planning is to: • Food Service

1. Meet the nutritional needs of the individuals who will be Menus should be planned in relation to the type of food
consuming the food service, whether it is cafeteria, seated service, buffet,
etc.
2. Plan meals within the food cost
• Equipment and Work Space
3. Simplify purchase, preparation, and storage of meals
The menu should be planned keeping the available
4. Provide attractive, appetizing meals with no monotony
equipment and workspace in mind. Deep freezers,
5. Save time and money refrigerators, grinders, dough kneaders, deep fat fry-
ers, boilers, etc. should be adequate.
6. Minimize overhead expenditure, i.e., fuel, electricity,
water, labour. Leftover Food
Menu planning is the most important aspect of planning An effective manager should consider as to how leftovers
and organization in the food industry. It is an advance plan could be rotated to obtain maximum profit. Adequate
of a dietary pattern over a given period of time. storage space and hygienic standards should be ensured
Menus are of the following types: to minimize the risk of contamination and spoilage of food.

Table d’hôte or fixed price menu It includes two or three Food Habits
courses at a set price. Each course may offer a choice of
Food habits of the customer is another important criteria
dishes.
which needs to be considered as food served has to be
A la carte On this menu, dishes are individually priced and acceptable to the customer. Special attention should be
the customers can compile their own menu which may be paid when a particular type of community is catered to.
one, two or more courses. Religious considerations should be known to the meal
planner.
Banquet menus These are special menus for banquets or
functions.

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.01 - 1.5.06 47
Availability The three main functions performed by food are:
Some fruits and vegetables are seasonal. During the 1. Providing energy
season the cost is reasonable and quality is better. Today,
2. Body building and maintenance
practically all fruits and vegetables are available throughout
the year because of advanced preservation technology. 3. Regulation of body processes and protection against
However, seasonal fruits and vegetables should be given infection.
preference. Regional availability influences menu planning. On the basis of functions performed, food is classified into
For example, fish and sea food is fresh and cheaper in the following three groups.
coastal areas.
1. Protective/regulatory foods
Meal Frequency and Pattern
2. Body building foods
The meal timings and number of meals consumed in a day,
whether meals are packed or served at the table, also 3. Energy giving foods
influences the selection of food items on the menu. The Protective/Regulatory Foods
age, activity level, physiological state, work schedule, and
economic factors need to be known before planning meals All fruits and vegetables – green leafy and other vegetables
for institutional catering. and all fruits are included.

Variety Green leafy vegetables, Rich in carotene and

This is one of the most important considerations while Orange, yellow and red ascorbic acid. Also
planning meals. A variety of foods from the different food Fruits and vegetables, contain minerals, fibre,
groups should be included. The term variety means
Citrus fruits. And carbohydrates.
1. Variety in food ingredients
Body Building Foods
2. Variety in recipe
3. Method of cooking Foods rich in protein are included in this group. Nuts and
oilseeds also provide fats.
4. Colour, texture and flavour
5. Variety in presentation and garnish. All animal proteins Protein, vitamin and mineral

A meal should look attractive and be appetizing. A judi- Pulses, nuts and oilseeds Protein, vitamin, mineral,
cious blend of flavours, attractive colour combinations and fibre,oils.
different textures make food enjoyable and interesting. The
Energy Giving Foods
method of cooking used for different items on the menu
should vary. This group provides mainly carbohydrates and fats, along
with proteins, some vitamins and minerals, and essential
For example, two deep fried items would make the meal
fatty acids. Foods included in this group are :
heavy. Simple processes such as fermentation and sprout-
ing not only contribute to improved flavour and digestibility, 1. Cereals and millets, Carbohydrate rich roots and
but also enhance the nutritive value of the meal. tubers. with other nutrients.
A well planned meal which is nutritionally adequate would 2. Sugars and jaggery Only carbohydrates.
have a good satiety value and prevent the occurrence of 3. Fats and oils Mainly fats.
hunger-pangs before it is time for the next meal. The
nutritional adequacy of a meal in an a la carte service While planning meals one should ensure that foods from all
depends on the food choices made by the customer. It is three groups is included in each meal. This classification
the duty of the caterer to offer adequate, nutrient dense is simple and easy to use for menu planning.
foods to the clients, to choose from.
STEPS IN PLANNING BALANCED MEALS
PLANNING BALANCED MEALS 1. Collect information regarding the customer with re-
Meal planning involves proper selection of food to ensure spect to
balanced meals. In Chapter 20 on balanced diets we have
• Age
studied how food is classified into five basic food groups to
help us plan balanced diets. We have also read that food • Gender
can be classified on the basis of its source, the nutrients • Activity level
present in it, or on the basis of its functions into 3 – 11
groups. These food groups help us in planning balanced • Religion
meals which supply all essential nutrients. In this chapter • Socio-economic background
we will study the three basic food groups classified on the
basis of functions performed by nutrients as this is the • Food habits
simplest way to ensure adequate nourishment to the body.

48 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.01 - 1.5.06
2. Check the RDAs for energy and proteins 1. Basic information
3. Prepare a food plan, i.e., list number of servings from Age : 16 – 18 years
each food group to meet the RDA.
Gender : Male
4. Decide on number of meals.
Activity : Moderate
5. Distribute servings for each meal.
Religion : Hindu
6. Select foods within each group and state their amount.
Background : Urban, middle income families
7. Plan a menu.
Food habits : Cosmopolitan
8. Cross check to ensure that all food groups are included
2. Recommended Dietary Allowance for
in requisite amounts.
Calories : 2640
Using the above steps, plan a balanced diet for a day.
Protein : 78g
Example : planning balanced meals for college students
residing in a hostel.

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.01 - 1.5.06 49
Travel, Tourism & Hospitality Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.07
Food Production - Preparation of different recipes
Stocks
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain stock & its classification
• explain about preparation of stock
• describe about types of stocks
• describe about storage of stocks

Stock, broth or bouillon is used as the basis for most

soups, and in many dishes as a flavouring or base (e.g. 4. Some of these will dissolve (like salt), for others it's best
risotto). Stock is made by cooking ingredients such as to create a little 'bag' - for example by wrapping the
meat, poultry, fish or vegetables in water to flavor the water. herbs in a leek-leaf with a bit of string - so you can easily
The ingredients are removed at the end. Because the fish them out later. Such a bag is called a 'bouquet
flavour of the ingredients is the only thing that matters, garni'.
stock is often made with left over-ingredients and by- 5. Some good herbs to use are:
products such as bones, that couldn't be used elsewhere.
• bay leaf (about 3 per liter of stock)
Stock can be made with a stock cube or extract, but for
best results, make your own. If you cannot, a jar of fond • black peppercorns (about 6 per liter of stock)
(condensed stock) is the next best thing.
• salt (a pinch, you can add salt to taste later, this is
Vegetable Stock essential for most stocks)
Most non-vegetarian stocks will use some amount of
• rosemary
vegetables as well, to add depth to the flavor, Home-made
vegetable stock will have a relatively weak flavor, but a • thyme
strong aroma.
Preparing stock is as simple as putting the ingredients in
The basic ingredients for a vegetable stock are onion, a pot (preferably large and thick, like a Dutch oven). Pouring
carrot, leek, and celery. It is perfectly possible to make a over cold water (it needs to be cold). Bringing the water to
good stock without any of these, but they are the classic a simmer and waiting anywhere from 30 minutes to an hour,
'backbone' of making stock and almost all vegetable depending on how much stock you're making, and how
stocks will contain at least two. Other ideas for vegetables strong you want it to be. Do not let vegetables simmer for
are: more than an hour or the flavour will become wilted and
• tomato sour. Some additional notes:

• bell pepper • Do not chop your ingredients too finely. Just halve or
quarter them, so the water can reach the inside of the
• fennel. Be careful, fennel can easily overpower a stock. vegetable as well as the outside.

• broccoli • Put the peels of onion and garlic in the stock as well.
This will help with the color of the stock.
• any kind of mushroom will greatly enhance the aroma
and flavor. • It's a very good idea, especially with vegetable stock, to
caramelize your ingredients first. This can be done by
• garlic pan frying them lightly in oil or butter, until they turn
brown, but the oil will coat the ingredients, which will
• pepper
keep the water out and you'll have to defat the stock
Keep the following in mind when choosing ingredi- later to get the fat out again (if you want a perfect stock).
ents: The best way to caramelize your ingredients is to put
them in the oven, on a tray, until they start to brown.
1. Do not use beet roots, because they will turn your stock
black. The stock should be tasted to see if it's ready. When it is,
pass it through a sieve to get rid of the large ingredients. If
2. About 750 grams/26 ounces of vegetables per liter of
the sieved stock isn't clear yet, put a wet tea towel in the
stock should suffice.
sieve (or a cheesecloth if you have one) and pass the stock
3. To 'round off' the flavour of the stock some herbs and through it again. Instructions for clarifying the stock further
spices are usually added. and getting rid of the fat are given below.

50
Fish Defatting and Clarifying
Fish stock should generally be made using "white" fish To get most of the fat out of a stock, you can simply chill
bones like haddock, flounder, cod or snapper, although it. The fat will harden and float on top of the stock where it
some Japanese recipes use tuna or similar species for a can be scooped off easily. One can also use a fat
highly flavored specialized stock. Shellfish stock is gener- separator, which is like a big measuring cup with a siphon
ally made the same way as fish stock. Combine fish bones from the bottom, which allows you to pour the stock out
or shellfish shells with cold water to cover and add some while trapping the fat.
diced mirepoix (carrots, celery and onion). Bring to a
To completely clarify stock, use the following method:
simmer, skimming as necessary and simmer for 40
minutes. Strain the stock and cool it. There are many • Beat egg whites to soft peaks, one for each quart/liter
options: of stock.
• Sweat (cook in hot oil and/or butter without browning, • Crumple the eggs-shells and mix them through the egg
often covered) the bones or shells and mirepoix before whites.
adding the cold water. This is called fish "fumet". • Stir the mixture in to the stock and bring it to a simmer,
• Replace part of the water with dry white wine or vintage do not let it boil. The egg-whites will coagulate, rise, and
dry cider. take any particles and cloudiness out of the stock.
• Keep a close eye on the simmer (push the coagulated
• Use white mirepoix (no carrots, add white part of leeks,
egg-whites to the side a bit to see) and let it simmer for
mushroom trimmings and, optionally, parsnips)
about ten minutes.
• Add aromatics such as herbs and spices (thyme, bay • Remove the pot from the heat and let it sit for another
leaf, peppercorn, parsley stems). These may be added ten minutes.
directly to the stock or tied in a cheesecloth (known as
sachet d'épices). Add any other aromatics to impart a
• Finally, sieve the stock again through a tea towel.
particular flavor. Fond and Consommé
• Salt is usually necessary, add toward or at the end, to A fond is made by reducing a stock down (gently, stocks
taste shouldn't boil) to about half of its original volume. Fonds can
be used as a basis for sauces, or simply to facilitate
Poultry
storage, and turned in to stock again by adding water.
Place the chicken carcass in a pressure cooker or a large
A consommé is made by flavouring stock again with more
saucepan, and add enough cold water to cover. Add some
ingredients and condensing it greatly. Consommé is al-
fresh herbs, roughly chopped onion, a carrot and a stick of
most always made with meat. It will usually become
celery, and bring to the boil. Pan drippings are very good to
gelatinous in substance, because of the collagen in the
add, as long as they are not too burned.
meat.
If you use a pressure cooker cook at pressure for 30-40
Storage
minutes, in a saucepan let the stock simmer very gently for
at least three hours (but no longer than four lest the bones Stock will keep for about a week in the refrigerator. Frozen
cloud the stock and overpower the flavour). Drain the liquid stock will keep for around six months.
through a sieve into another pan. You can use the stock Curry Chicken and Rice
immediately, or cool it as quickly as possible (stand the
pan in a bowl of cold water) and refrigerate or freeze it. 3 lb. skinless chicken, cut up medium portions
Meat 2 lg. potatoes, peeled and quartered or smaller
1 tbsp. curry powder
Beef, mutton and pork broths are made by slowly simmer-
ing meat (do not remove gristle - it contains collagen) with 3 stalks chives, diced and put aside for garnish
vegetables and flavourings. Do not add salt at this stage, 1 lg. garlic, crushed and diced
it should only be added when the stock is being used in a 1/2 tsp. coriander - Italian seasoning
recipe. Use cold water and warm slowly - this prevents the Salt to taste
meat from sealing.
1 c. chicken consomme
If bones are used in stock they may be roasted and cracked 1 pt. plain yogurt or light sour cream
before simmering.
1 tsp curry powder
In a pressure cooker broth takes 45-60 minutes, stock with Season chicken and potatoes with 1 tablespoon curry
bones 75-120 minutes. If an open pan is used the liquid powder, garlic, coriander and salt; mix well. In medium
should barely be moving, and certainly not boiling fast, and sized Dutch oven, saute chicken and potatoes in light oil
times of several hours for broth and 7-10 hours for bone or butter until done and golden color. Drain excess fat. In
stock are not excessive. large bowl combine consomme, yogurt and 1 teaspoon

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.07 51
curry powder for sauce; mix well and pour over cooked • Consommé: - Clarified clear stock or broth is known as
chicken. Simmer until meat is tender and sauce thickens. consommé. Clarification takes place by adding egg
Serve over rice and garnish with chives. Use a Mango whites and minced meat to the simmering stock or
Chutney as condiment. Serves 6. broth.
Stock is a flavored liquid, which forms the basis of many • Aspic: - When a consommé is reduced by 30%, this
dishes, particularly soups and sauces. Stock is prepared reduction effectively increases its gelatin content and
by simmering particular vegetables or meats along with flavor. Combined with a wine such as Madeira, Port or
herbs in water, to extract flavor. Sherry, consommé gets converted to Aspic. Aspic is
used to coat individually served foods such as pate,
Classification
poached eggs, cold cuts etc.
• Fond de Cuisine (Kitchen Stock); Fond means ‘bot- • Glazes (Fr. Glaces): - When a consommé is reduced
tom’ or ‘foundation’. by 90% to such a consistency that it coats a wooden
• Fond de vegetal or Fond de Legumes (Vegetable spoon evenly when dipped in the reduced consommé,
Stock). Also known as Neutral stock or Fond maigre; the final product obtained is known as a Glaze.
simmered for 30-40 minutes. • Essences: - An essence is made by simmering a liquid
• Fond Blanc (White Stock) made from chicken, beef or with the addition of an aromatic ingredient. Typically
veal bones; simmered for 3 hours. essences are created using celery, garlic, mush-
rooms, tarragon and truffle. Liquid + aromat are re-
• Fond Blanc de Mouton : - White Mutton Stock
duced by 75% and the essence is used to impart
• Fond Blanc de Volaille: - White Chicken Stock finishing touches to the particular dish.
• Fond Blanc de Veau: - White Veal Stock E.g. Celery essence is used to finish cream of celery
soup.
• Fond Brun or Estouffade(Brown Stock) made from
chicken, beef or veal bones; simmered for 6 hours • Remouillage: - ray – moo – yay; A second stock
preparation, prepared using the same ingredients of
• Fond de Poisson or Fumet (Fish Stock) made from non the first stock. This results in a weak stock but is
oily fish bones ; simmered for 30-40 minutes flavorful than water. It can be used to cook products
• Fond de Champignon (Mushroom Stock) made from which require a mild flavor.
roughly chopped mushrooms ; simmered for 30-40 Principle Steps During Preparation of Stock
minutes
Although the ingredients are simple and the method
• Fond de Gibier: - Game Stock simplistic, you must use great care. This is a base from
Culinary Terms Associated With Stock: which you will create a wide variety of dishes, so the stock
must be right. As with any other preparation, you must start
• Bouquet garni / Faggot: - A bundle of herbs and with quality stock are:
aromatics tied within sections of leek with cooking
twine and simmered in stock to add flavor and aroma. The four principle steps in producing stock are:
Can also add celery, fresh thyme, parsley stems and 1. Start with cold liquid.
bay leaves. 2. Allow natural clarification to occur.
• Sachet de Epices: - A small cheesecloth sack con-
3. Skim carefully.
taining herbs and spices used to flavor stocks, trans-
lates literally to “a bag of spices”. 4. Simmer, do not boil.
• Mirepoix: - Roughly cut vegetables like onions, carrots Cold liquid to start
and celery in the ratio of 50:25:25 respectively.
Beginning with a cold liquid prevents the sealing of the
• Depouiller: - day – poo – yay; This term signifies the items. This makes it possible to release the flavours of the
process of skimming a stock for the first time while it food, enhancing the liquid. This is a form of cooking by
is simmering. interchange. The flavours of meat, bones, poultry, etc. are
• De-glazing: - A technique by which liquid is poured transferred to the liquid surrounding them.
into the pan and heated, stirred with a wooden spoon This interchange occurs whether the bones and vegetables
to remove the caramelized residue after roasting the are browned or not. However, when they are browned an
meats and vegetables, and then adding the floating additional flavour is added. This is caused by the
residue to the simmering stock. caramelization of the natural sugars, which occurs during
• Broth / Bouillon: - When any meat, poultry, game or browning. It adds a richness of flavour and colour, not
achieved otherwise.
fish stock is simmered with a fresh round of nutritional
and aromatic ingredients, the result is an ultra clear,
highly flavored broth.

52 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.07
Natural Classification The heavy rolling action of a high boil will break up the scum
and fat. This makes it difficult to skim the stock. The fast
A high quality stock has a clear clean appearance. This
rolling action also does not allow the albumin to gather the
requires that it be clarified. Pouring the cooked stock
fine particles. Improper placement of the pot on the fire can
through a fine sieve is not the kind of clarification that we
limit the simmering action and make it difficult to skim the
mean here. It is the removal of the many minute particles,
stock.
which form, in the cooking process. Albumin is a protein
complex found in muscles, blood, milk, egg white, and Glaze Uses
many vegetable tissues, such as leeks. It is soluble only
in cold water. Albumin is valued for its property of clarifica- Glazes serve four basic purposes in cooking. In most
tion by coagulation (forming a mass) when exposed to cases, there are advantages to be gained from using a
heat. The slower the application of heat, the better the glaze instead of an essence.
removal of cloudiness from liquid. Bringing stock slowly to 1. Glazes give a brilliant shine and moist coating to a
a boil gives the albumin time to pass into the solution. As finished dish.
its proteins coagulate, they attract particles in the liquid.
2. They reinforce the quality and tone of sauces.
The action is similar to that of a magnet. However, as with
the magnet, when disturbed they will drop the particles. 3. Glazes strengthen the flavour and body of preparation
Cloudiness normally is the result of stock being boiled for made from weak stock.
too long and fast over high heat. This extended boiling 4. Glazes can act as sauces when used properly buttered
breaks down the texture of the bone fibers. When this or creamed to match the dish they are to be used with.
happens, the particles become blended and suspended in
the liquid. This makes it difficult, if not impossible, to clarify. Court Bouillon
A slight amount of cloudiness is normal in stock. The lack Court bouillon is not actually a stock preparation. However,
of blood in the bones used in stock creates a lack of it is used in a similar manner. It is a flavorful poaching liquid
albumin. There is not sufficient protein to all the particles. used for fish and shellfish and some other items, such as
Skimming sweetbreads. A court bouillon is made up of these ele-
ments: Aromatics and spices; salt, and liquid. The mixture
As the stock cooks and the albumin coagulates, fat and is not complete in nutritional elements. The flavor of the
scum will rise to the top of the pot. It is important to remove bouillon is created when fish are poached in it, it is then
all of it. This removal is called skimming, carefully lifting fat reduced and added to the sauce or possibly kept for future
and scum from the surface. The mirepoix of vegetables is poaching.
finely cut for the best flavour extraction. This and the
aromatics float on the top of the pot. This can make it The 7 principles of stock making:
difficult to skim properly. To make it easier to skim, add the 1. Cold water: Cover the ingredients with clean, cold
mirepoix and the aromatics after about ¼ of the cooking water. Starting in this manner allows the blood and
time has lapsed. The largest accumulation of fat and scum proteins to dissolve. As the temperature rises, the
will occur in the early cooking of the stock. Once the proteins coagulate (solidify) and float to the surface
mirepoix and aromatics are added, do not skim unless where they can be skimmed off. If they were started in
necessary. Let the stock cook undisturbed. hot water, the proteins would solidify, stick to the
Simmering bones and then disperse into the stock making it
cloudy and "muddy tasting".
This very simple operation is often misunderstood. Im-
proper application of it generates most of the burned stocks 2. Simmer, never boil: A stock should be brought to a boil
and sauces. Simmering is when liquid is hot enough to form and then immediately reduced to a simmer. (approxi-
small bubbles that rise from bottom of the pan. The bubbles mately 185 f) at a simmer, the ingredients release the
break, just below the top surface of the liquid. As they rise maximum flavor without breaking down into particulate
and break a slight turbulence occurs. When the tempera- matter. If a stock boils for even a few minutes, the fat
ture is too high, this turbulence is too great. If the tempera- will emulsify into the stock and the stock will become
ture is too low, there is little or no movement in the liquid. cloudy, making for a poor performance, a "muddy
taste" and a "greasy" finish. This type of texture will
Simmering, when correct, creates a slight roll in the liquid. spoil soups and sauces.
Simmering is important in the cooking of sauces, when the
slight roll of the simmer is not present, the coarser particles 3. Skim frequently: Skimming the coagulated masses off
and sediments will settle on the bottom of the pan. This the surface of the stock throughout the cooking proc-
creates an insulating layer between the heat and the stock, ess, decreases the likelihood of "clouding" the stock.
which will burn. When it burns, it imparts an unwanted burnt 4. Strain carefully: This involves a china cap set inside of
flavour to the stock. Too much action in the liquid can harm a chinois. In order to use the stock, you must separate
stock. the solids from the liquid. While doing so it is important
not to disturb the solids in the bottom of the pot.

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.07 53
Use the following procedure: • Vegetable stock
A. Skim the fat from the surface • Chicken stock
B. Remove the stock from the heat and carefully ladle
the stock out of the pot without stirring the stock.
• Fish stock

C. Pour the stock through a china cap set inside of a Storage of Stocks
chinois, into a sanitized metal container. When cooked stocks must be strained and cooled within
5. Cool quickly: It is of the utmost importance that 90 minutes and stored in a fridge, stocks can be frozen.
stocks are cooled quickly and with a minimum amount All stocks must be re-boiled after storage prior to being
of agitation. used.
6. Store properly:
Tips on stocks
Store in a plastic storage container and label the
container indicating the contents, date and the session • Never season a stock.
that started the stock. (Ex: 1 dec. /intro am /vegetable • Never boil a stock.
barley soup)
Store in the container in the refrigerator. (as the stock
• Never add potatoes, swede, turnip etc.
chills the remaining fat will rise and solidify, forming the • Always re-boil stocks.
fat cap. The fat cap provides an extra barrier against
contamination and aerobic bacterial growth.) Faults in stock production
7. Degrease: Before using the stock, carefully lift the fat Stock cloudy.?
cap off of the surface of the stock, scraping off all the
small bits of fat. It is always easier to degrease your • Incorrect ingredients, poorly prepared.
stock when it is chilled. All preparations depend on the
use of fat-free stocks!
• Incorrect cooking.

• Stock not skimmed.

Type of stocks
• White beef stock white stocks should have no color and
• Old stock.
sometimes use a white mirepoix where carrots are Stock lacks flavour.?
replaced by parsnips and leeks replace half the onions.
Blanching the bones is also common. Blanch by • Incorrect ratio of ingredients to liquid.
bringing bones and water just to the boil then skim the
surface and discard the water.
• Cooking time too short.

• Brown beef stockbrown stocks rely on good color. To

achieve this color the bones and mirepoix are caramel-
ized (caramelization is the browning of surface sugars
and occurs around 310° ) if the color is not right a onion
burlee, (burnt onion), is used to darken the stock.

54 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.07
Travel, Tourism & Hospitality Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.08
Food Production - Preparation of different recipes
Sauces
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• describe about sauces & their classification
• state about importance of sauces in food production
• describe about derivatives of basic sauces

Sauces 3. Contemporary Sauce

Sauces are liquids or semi-liquid mixtures. A keen sense These sauces are simple, less rich and easy to prepare.
of smell, delicate sense of taste, a light, strong hand for the These are more likely to be specifically tailored to be given
blending-all contributes to the perfect sauce. Long ago, food or techniques.
Grimande de la royere, philosopher and gastronomer • Beurre Blanc
wrote: “the sauce is to culinary art, what grammar is to
language.” A perfect sauce has a colourful appearance, is • Pesto Sauce
glowing in its rich smoothness, its texture is that of velvet, • Compound Butter
and it has a definite taste. It has a natural flavour and
Importance of Sauces In Food Production
complements the food it accompanies, rather than mask
its taste. It provides moisture, colour and shine to food. • It provides moisture, colour and shine to food.
Classification of Sauces • Enhances flavours, Sauce add flavour to the dish.
1. Mother Sauce • Some sauces help in digestion, e.g. Mint sauce, apple
sauce etc.
These are the main basic sauces from which all the other
sauces are derived. • Add colour to food.

• Béchamel ( classic white sauce) : Sauce consist of • Enhance nutritional value of the dish.
milk and thickened with white roux. Béchamel sauce • Sometimes gives the name to the dish.
is named after “ Marquis Louis de Béchamel”
• Served as an accompaniments, sometimes gives a
• Espagnole ( brown sauce): Espagnole meaning “Span- contrast taste to another food.
ish” in French was the original brown sauce and still is
• Dresses and complement food that needs some addi-
one the glories of the French kitchen.
tional quality and makes the food more palatable.
• Velouté( white stock sauce): It literally means velvet. Thickening Agents
It is a very light blond coloured sauce, made from
1. Roux
chicken, fish, or veal stock , thickened with a blond
roux. It is a cooked mixture of fat and flour, measured in equal
parts by weight (not volume).
• Tomato ( classic tomato sauce): The traditional French
The fats to use: Clarified Butter: The best fat. Makes the
tomato sauce is thickened with a roux.
"cleanest" sauce.
• Hollandaise ( butter sauce): A warm emulsified sauce
Margarine: Most commonly used in food service, not as
is based on egg yolk and clarified butter. Hollandaise good as clarified butter but less expensive with a "butter"
is French word meaning “ Dutch Style”. This sauce is taste.
a versatile sauce and is served as a topping on a dish
and gratinated to give colour. Animal Fat: Use what is appropriate for the dish. Duck fat,
however, is mild and can be used with other meats.
• Mayonnaise (cold sauce): It is a cold emulsified sauce
Shortening/Vegetable Oil: Leaves a "fuzzy" taste. The
based on egg yolk. If it is not handled carefully it will melting point is higher so these fats leave tiny particles of
separate giving a curdled appearance. "un-liquefied" fat in the sauce and are detectable on the
2. Proprietary Sauce tongue.
These sauces are industry made. There are three basic types of roux, each contain the same
• Soya sauce basic ingredients but differ in coloration which is a result of
• Worcestershire sauce the cooking process. The darker the roux the longer it has
been cooked
• H.P. Sauce
• White Roux
• Barbeque Sauce
• Blond Roux
• Ketchup
• Brown Roux

55
2. BEURRE MANIE to cook it over low heat so that it browns evenly without
• This is an equal mixture of Flour & Butter. scorching. Some chefs will even dry roast their flour in the
oven first before making it into roux.
• Kneaded together and then whisked into the liquid in
small quantities, thickening as it cooks out. A good brown roux will have a rich and nutty aroma, and is
great for thickening brown sauces and gravies. Just re-
• This is also known as a cold roux or pounded butter. member that a dark brown roux will have about a third of the
3. STARCHES thickening power of a blond or white roux.
Incorporating Roux Into a Sauce or Soup
• Cornflour, Arrowroot, Potato Flour, Rice Flour & Barley
Flour. Roux can be added to a sauce either warm or cold, but
• These are used as a thickening agent. never hot. A sizzling hot roux will separate and break when
it hits a cold sauce, causing lumps and the loss of the
• Arrowroot & cornflour are the most commonly used . roux's thickening power.
• The starch must be mixed with cold water before Once the roux is added into the liquid you wish to thicken,
adding to the hot liquid whisk vigorously to incorporate and bring sauce to a
simmer. Most roux thickened sauces are simmered for at
4. Egg yolks and Cream (LIAISON ) least 20 minutes to cook out any starchy taste created by
They are used differently in different recipes. the flour. During this simmering, it is a perfect time to skim
off any scum or fat that rises to the top.
• Breadcrumbs
The exact amount of butter and flour varies: the more roux
• Blood: jugged hare you make, the thicker your sauce. For a thin sauce or soup
• Agar agar: seaweed base, use one or two tablespoons of each for every one cup
of liquid you're planning to add. For a thicker base you can
• Gelatin bump it up to three tablespoons.
• Curd etc. Melt the butter first and then add the flour. It will be clumpy
at first, but keep stirring it into a smooth, thick paste.
Roux and its types
You only need to cook the roux for a minute or two--you're
Among all the classic French techniques, making a roux not actually going for color. Pour the liquid in slowly,
is not only the simplest, but also the most useful. It forms whisking constantly to avoid clumps and so the liquid is
the base for everything from a creamy mac n' cheese to absorbed evenly.
Cajun gumbo.
If you're adding veggies, saute them in the butter before
Broth or milk is then whisked in, the starch molecules in the adding the flour.
flour absorb the liquid, and the whole mixture thickens into
Keep in mind that the longer a roux is cooked, the more it
a sauce.
loses its ability to thicken.
Making Roux
Mother sauces and its derivatives
The process for making roux is extremely simple. Just
BECHAMEL SAUCE
place equal parts of flour and fat, (traditionally clarified
butter), in a sauce pan and cook over medium heat. There Sauce Bechamel is a milk based French Mother Sauce. It
are basically three types of roux which are differentiated by is used as a simple base to make popular secondary
the degree to which they are cooked. sauces such as Sauce Mornay, Cheddar Cheese Sauce,
or even a simple cream sauce.
White Roux
Standard Bechamel Recipe
White roux is really more of a yellow roux that you basically
cook for just a few minutes until the fat and flour are evenly • 4 oz/125 grams white roux
mixed together and start to froth. You want to cook out the • 1 qt/1 L milk (Any milk will use but whole milk is
raw taste of the flour, but stop cooking the roux before it preferred)
starts to turn color. White rouxs are used for white sauces
that are cream and milk based such as bechamel. • 1/4 white onion, skin peeled off

Blond Roux • 1 whole clove

Blond roux is cooked a little longer than a white roux, just • 1 whole bay leaf
until it starts to slightly turn color. Blond roux is used for • Salt, White Pepper and Nutmeg To Taste
white sauces that are stock based, such as veloutes.
• Start by making a white roux.
Brown Roux
• In a separate pot, heat up milk to a simmer.
Brown roux is traditionally used for brown sauces, which
are sauces based upon brown roasted stocks such as the
• Add roux to the milk, making sure that both the milk
and the roux are not too hot.
mother sauce Espagnole. The key to a good brown roux is

56 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.08
• Whisk the roux and milk together and bring to a Some Guidelines for Making Mayonnaise
simmer. • Use a blender, food processor or a stand-top mixer with
• Stick your bay leaf to your white onion with your whole a whisk attachment. Not only will it ensure that your
clove, and place in simmering milk. arm doesn't fall off from hand whisking, but the shearing
• Simmer for about 30 minutes, and thin with milk if power of these devices is capable of breaking the oil
necessary. into much smaller droplets, making a more stable
emulsion.
• Season with salt, white pepper and nutmeg to taste.
The nutmeg should not be prevalent, but instead • Have both your egg yolks and oil at room temperature
should add depth of flavor. before starting. It will make the emulsification process
much easier.
• Finish by straining through a chinois.
Bechamel Based Secondary Sauces • Use the freshest eggs possible, preferably organic
from a farmer's market. If cooking for children or the
Almost any milk or cream based sauce that you will make, elderly, pasteurized egg yolks are always recom-
will be based on classical Bechamel. Below are some mended.
popular secondary sauces that are based on this recipe.
Each recipe below is based on 1 qt/1 L of Bechamel sauces Standard Ratio for Mayonnaise
1.Standard Cream Sauce Mayonnaise is simply a neutral oil emulsified into egg
yolks. The ratio for a basic mayonnaise is:
• Add 4-8 oz of heavy cream, heated or tempered
• 1 yolk per 1 cup of neutral oil (canola, safflower, grape
• Season with salt, white pepper and lemon juice to taste seed).
• Add your favorite herbs and spices to taste Although many classical recipes call for the addition of
other ingredients, egg yolks and oil are all you need to
• Strain through a chinois to insure a smooth, creamy make a mayonnaise. Some additional ingredients that are
texture used to season mayonnaise are:
2.Mornay Sauce
• Vinegar
• Stir in 4 oz of Gruyere and 2 oz of Parmesan cheese,
• Salt
both grated
• Pepper (usually white)
• Turn off heat and swirl in 2 oz of raw butter
• Dry Mustard
• Adjust consistency with warm milk as necessary
3.Cheddar Cheese Sauce • Cayenne Pepper

• 8 oz cheddar cheese, grated • Lemon Juice

• 1/2 teaspoon dry mustard Standard Recipe For 1 liter of Mayonnaise

• 2 tablespoons Worcestershire sauce 1. 8 egg yolks
• Stir all ingredients into warm Bechamel until cheddar 2. 25 ml of vinegar
cheese is melted 3. 1/2 teaspoon salt
4.Simple Mustard Sauce
4. 1gm dry mustard
• Stir in 4-6 oz of good dijon mustard 5. Small Pinch cayenne
• Finish off the flame by swirling in 2-4 oz of raw butter 6. 1 lt Salad Oil (canola preferred)
• Strain through a chinois
7. 25ml Vinegar
Mayonnaise and its Derivatives 8. 1nos Lemon
Like many of the mother sauces, a well made mayonnaise 1. Put ingredients 1-5 into a blender, food processor with
is the base to an endless possibility of cold, emulsified a whisk attachment and mix well.
sauces. Although now days there are many good quality
commercial mayonnaise available, understanding how to 2. Very slowly at first, start streaming in your oil, a little at
make a mayonnaise is basic knowledge that every cook or a time until your emulsification starts to form.
chef should have. Not to mention, that with the selection 3. Use the 1 tablespoon of vinegar to thin the mayonnaise
and use of high quality products, fresh made mayonnaise if it starts to become too thick before the emulsification
can have a far superior flavor to that of its commercial is complete.
counterparts.

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.08 57
4.Once all the oil is incorporated into egg yolks and the Sauces, and is the classical precursor to modern day
mayonnaise is finished, it should be thick enough to be sauces such as Demi-Glace. It goes great with any sort of
turned upside down without the mayonnaise coming roasted red meat, and is the base for many popular classic
out of the mixing container. French Sauces including Sauce Robert and Sauce
Bordelaise,
5.Adjust the final seasoning with the lemon juice, salt and
pepper (white, cayenne or black pepper depending on Classical demi glace is one part Brown Sauce (Espagnole)
preference). and one part Brown Stock (Such as Roasted Veal Stock),
combined in a pot and reduced by half. However, modern
MAYONNAISE BASED SECONDARY SAUCES
day menus that list a "Demi-Glace" as their sauce are
1.Aioli usually referring to a stock that has been reduced by at
The difference between mayonnaise and aioli is the simple least half, or until it coats the back of a spoon. The gelatin
fact that aioli is made with extra virgin olive oil and has the contained in the stock itself is what thickens the sauce. No
addition of crushed garlic. So to make aioli, follow the other thickening agent such as roux is used.
standard recipe above, but instead, substitute the canola Modern chefs prefer "full reduction" sauces over a classical
oil for extra virgin olive oil and add 1 tablespoon of fresh demi-glace because they have a much more intense flavor,
minced garlic to the egg yolks during the blending/beating and the classical thickening agent of a roux makes the
process. sauce heavy and effects its taste.
The simplified ratio for Aioli is: Recipe For Classical Sauce Espagnole (Brown Sauce)
• 1 egg yolk + 1 cup extra virgin olive oil + 1 teaspoon of • Mirepoix: 4 oz/112g onions, 2 oz/56g celery, 2 oz/56g
crushed garlic = Aioli. carrots

• This ratio can be seasoned with lemon juice, salt and • 2 oz/56g butter
pepper to yield a simple and traditional Aioli. • 2 oz/56g flour
2. Remoulade • 2 oz/56g Tomato Puree
Another very traditional mayonnaise based sauce is
• Sachet Containing: 1/2 Bay Leaf, 2-3 Sprigs of Fresh
Remoulade which is traditionally served with fish. To
Thyme, 2-3 Sprigs Parsley
make a traditional remoulade you will need:
• 1.5-2 qts/1.5-2L Roasted Veal Stock
• 2 Cups of Mayonnaise
1 Start by roasting your mirepoix over medium heat, in
• About 1 tablespoon of good Dijon the bottom of a heavy bottom sauce pot with the butter,
• 1/4 cup finely chopped cornichons (Tiny, French, until the mirepoix turns a nice golden brown.
Sweet Pickles) 2 Once your mirepoix has browned, add in your tomato
• Tablespoon chopped capers puree and continue roasting for 2-3 more minutes.
3 Sprinkle in your flour, and cook until the flour is well
• 1 anchovy fillet, finely chopped
incorporated into the other ingredients (about 5 more
• 3 tablespoons chopped parsey minutes).
• 1 teaspoon chopped fresh chervil 4 Add your roasted veal stock and sachet.
5 Bring to a simmer, and gently simmer for about 2
• 1 teaspoon chopped fresh tarragon
hours, reducing the entire sauce down to 1qt/L. If
Mix all ingredients together and serve with fish. This is a necessary, add more stock if too much evaporates
great dipping sauce for fish and chips! during the cooking process. Skim sauce as needed.
3. Thousand Island Dressing: 2 cups of mayonnaise, 1/ 6 Tip: While simmering your sauce, pull it half way off the
2 cup chili sauce, 1/2 ounce minced onion, 1 ounce burner, so that all the scum will collect on one side of
finely chopped green pepper, 1 ounce drained pi- the pot, making it easier to skim.
miento.
7 Once your sauce is finished cooking, pass it through
4. Louis Dressing: same as Thousand Island with the a fine chinois a couple of times to insure a smooth,
addition of 1/2 cup heavy cream. consistent texture.
5. Russian Dressing: 1/2 cup chili sauce or catsup, 1 Secondary Sauces (Derivatives) Made From
ounce fresh horseradish, 1.2 ounce minced onion. Espagnole
Espagnole Sauce 1.Classical Demi-Glace
Espagnole is a classic brown sauce, typically made from • Combine Sauce Espagnole and Roasted Veal Stock
brown stock, mirepoix, and tomatoes, and thickened with at the Ratio of 1:1, and reduce by half.
roux. Sauce Epsagnole is one of the Five French Mother

58 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.08
• Strain through a fine mesh strainer (chinois). most classical version of hollandaise call for the addition of
a vinegar reduction to be cooked with the yolks.
2.Sauce Bordelaise
When making hollandaise, some chefs use whole butter
To yield 1 qt/L combine in a sauce pan: while others use clarified. Although it really comes down to
• 1 cup/236ml red wine personal preference, just remember that whole butter is
about 15% water whereas clarified butter is straight butter
• 2 oz/56g chopped shallots
fat. Because of its water content, more whole butter is
• Fresh cracked black pepper to taste needed to thicken a hollandaise then just straight clarified
• 2-3 sprigs fresh thyme butter.
Make sure your acid reduction is cool before the egg yolks
• 1/2 a bay leaf
are added or they may curdle.
Reduce these ingredients by half, and then stir in 1 qt of The fresher your egg yolks, the easier it is for you to make
demi-glace (see above) and simmer for about 15-20 min- your emulsion.
utes. Strain through a chinois and then finish by swirling in
2 oz of raw butter. Sauce Bordelaise was traditionally Use a stainless steel, round bottom bowl. The round
garnished with diced bone marrow that had been poached bottom will make it easier for you to beat the egg yolks
in salted water. evenly and the stainless steel will not react to the acid and
discolor your hollandaise.
3.Sauce Robert
When adding your butter to the egg yolks, make sure that
To yield 1 qt/L: it is warm (about 130°F/55°C) but not hot. If your clarified
butter is too hot it will instantly curdle your egg yolks.
• Sweat 4oz/112g of diced white onion with some butter
over medium low heat for 5-10 minutes, or until soft and Whenever making any type of emulsion, always add the fat
tender. or oil slowly at first, a couple drops at a time. Hollandaise
is no different. If you add the butter too fast, then it will give
• Deglaze with 1 cup/236ml of dry white wine, and the fat a chance to "coalesce," which will cause your sauce
reduce by two-thirds. to separate.
• Add in 1 qt/L of demi glace and simmer for about 10- Another common reason why hollandaise will break is the
15 minutes. addition of too much fat. The standard ratio is 6 egg yolks
• Strain sauce through a chinois and finish with 2 to 1lb of clarified butter.
teaspoons of dry mustard, a pinch of sugar, and If concerned about the consumption of raw egg yolks, heat
squeeze in the juice of half a lemon. yolks to at least 165°F/74°C or use pasteurized egg yolks
to make your hollandaise.
• Check seasoning for salt and pepper.
Hollandaise Mother Sauce Classical Hollandaise Recipe

Hollandaise is by far the most finicky of all the French To make 2 cups of hollandaise, you will need:
Mother Sauces. Hollandaise is an emulsified sauce in • 1 1/4 lbs of butter, clarified (you should end up with
which egg yolks not only serve as the emulsifier, but also about 1 lb of clarified butter)
as a thickening agent. The final viscosity of the sauce will
• 1/8 teaspoon Peppercorns, crushed
be determined by how much fat is emulsified in and to what
degree the egg yolks are cooked. The more the egg yolks • 1/8 teaspoon Salt, (kosher preferred)
cooks, the thicker the hollandaise will be. However, the • 1.5 oz White Wine Vinegar
more you cook your egg yolks, the more chance you have
of ending up with scrambled eggs instead of sauce. • 1 oz cold water

To prevent their eggs from scrambling, a lot of less • 6 Egg Yolks

experienced cooks will heat their egg yolks in a stainless • 1-2 tablespoons of lemon juice
steel bowl placed over a pot of gently simmering water (aka
double boiler). The gentle heat of the steam is much more
• Salt and Cayenne Pepper to taste
forgiving than a direct flame. Hollandaise Procedure
Guidelines for Making Hollandaise • Clarify your butter.

Eggs start to curdle at around 160-170°F/71-76°C. The • Place salt, vinegar and crushed peppercorns into a
trick is to heat your egg yolks enough to get them thick, but sauce pan and reduce by 2/3. Remove from heat and
stop right before they reach this temperature. add water.
Acid (usually in the form of lemon juice and/or vinegar) will • Transfer reduction to a stainless-steel mixing bowl.
help to keep your egg yolks from coagulating. If the PH in • Add egg yolks and beat over a simmering pot of water
you egg mixture is around 4.5, then the curdling tempera- until the egg yolks become thick and creamy. (If
ture of the yolks is raised to about 195°F/90°C. This is why unsure about the thickness, monitor with an instant

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.08 59
 read thermometer and make sure the eggs do not 2-3 oz (56-84 g) Flour, All Purpose
exceed 150°F/65°C).
5 lbs (2.25 Kilos) Raw, Good quality tomatoes, quartered
• Once the egg yolks have reached the desired thick-
1 qt (1 lt) White Veal Stock
ness, remove from heat. Using a ladle, slowly drizzle
in the warm clarified butter, starting with just a few 1 clove freshly crushed garlic
droplets first to get the emulsion going.
Salt and Pepper To taste
• Continue streaming in the clarified butter until it is Pinch of Sugar
completely incorporated. If the hollandaise becomes
to thick before all the butter is emulsified in, thin the 1. fry the salt pork in the butter until the pork is nearly
hollandaise with a couple drops of warm water. melted
2. To render out the salt pork properly, place the salt pork
• Finish by seasoning your hollandaise with salt, lemon
in a heavy bottom saucepan with a tablespoon of water,
juice and cayenne pepper to taste. Add just enough cover with a lid, and place over medium heat. Check in
cayenne to help cut through the fat of the hollandaise about 5 minutes. The steam from the water will allow
and to add depth of flavor; your hollandaise should not the fat to render out of the salt pork before it starts to
be spicy. brown or burn.
• Adjust final consistency with a little bit of warm water 3. After the salt pork is nice and rendered out, add in your
to both lighten the sauce and give it better flow. butter, carrots and onions, and sweat over medium
heat for about 5-10 minutes, or until they become nice
• Keep warm over a double boiler (ban-marie) until ready
and tender and start to release their aromatic aromas.
to serve. The best holding temperature is about 145°F/
63°C. This temperature both discourages the growth of 4. Sprinkle the flour over the carrots and onions and
bacteria and is hot enough to keep the fat in your continue to cook for another few minutes. You're
hollandaise from solidifying. For both food safety and essentially using the residual fat from the butter and
quality control, hollandaise should not be held any salt pork to make a blond roux.
longer than two hours. 5. Add in your raw tomatoes. Roast with other ingredients
How to Fix a Broken or Curdled Hollandaise until they start to soften and release some of their
liquid.
If your hollandaise breaks or curdles, it's not the end of the
6. Add in your white veal stock and a clove of crushed
world. Simply follow the steps below to salvage your sauce.
garlic.
• Pass through a chinois to strain out any curdled 7. Cover the pot with a lid, put it in a moderate oven, which
portions of the hollandaise. is about 350 degrees F or 175 C. If your sauce pot won't
• Make sure to keep the whole strained portion of the fit, you can always just simmer it on your stove top.
sauce warm. Bake in oven or simmer for 1.5-2 hours.

• Add 1 yolk plus 1 tablespoon of warm water to a new 8. Blend it in a blender, and then press it through a
chinois.
stainless-steel mixing bowl and whisk in your strained
hollandaise. 9. Once you have passed your sauce through the chinois,
finish by seasoning it with salt, pepper, and a pinch of
Sauce Tomato
sugar.
Sauce Tomat, better known as tomato sauce, is a French 10. Note on Sugar: The addition of sugar is used to
Mother Sauce based on tomatoes. This base can consist balance the natural acidity of the tomatoes. Your
of fresh tomatoes cooked down into a liquid, canned tomato sauce should not taste sweet, unless you
tomatoes, tomato puree or even tomato paste. "Sauce enjoy putting ketchup on your pasta.
Tomat" is an incredibly versatile base sauce that can have
any number of variations. Modern Variations on Escoffier's Sauce Tomat

Sauce Tomato Recipe The major difference between Escoffier's version of sauce
tomat and modern variations that are taught in culinary
This recipe will yield 2 quarts school are two fold. (1), The Roux is omitted and instead
2-3 oz (56-84 g) Salt Pork. Salt pork comes from the belly of using fresh tomatoes, canned tomatoes and tomato
portion of the pig, just like bacon. However, unlike bacon, puree are used in the respective ratio of 2:1 and, (2) Instead
salt pork is never smoked, and the fattier (more white), the of using white veal stock, modern recipes call for the
better. simmering of a roasted ham bone.

3 oz (84 g) Carrots, peeled and medium diced Other than that, the process is pretty much the same as
discussed above. Follow the same recipe and process,
3 oz (84 g) White or Yellow onion, medium diced except use 3lbs of canned tomatoes and 2lbs of tomato
2 oz (56 g) whole butter puree instead of the 5lbs of fresh tomatoes. Simmer for two
hours with the addition of a roasted ham bone and omit the

60 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.08
veal stock since the tomato puree and canned tomatoes stage, meaning the sauce should thinly coat the back
offer plenty liquid for simmering the sauce. of a spoon.
Another modern touch is the common use of aromatic fresh 7. Finish by straining through a chinois or a strainer lined
herbs including bay leaves, thyme, basil and oregano. Add with cheesecloth.
these at your own discretion, at the end of the cooking Do not season your Veloute. Veloute is always
process so that the flavor of the fresh herbs does not break used as a foundation for other secondary sauces
down. and small sauces, at which time you will sea-
1.Basic Light Tomato Sauce son the sauce as a whole.

If you're looking for a lighter version of tomato sauce to serve Sauce veloute and its derivatives
with a more delicate dish such as poached fish, use the 1.Sauce Vin Blanc (White Wine Sauce)
ratios and procedure below.
Sauce Vin Blanc is a variation of secondary sauce based
• 1 part mirepoix, (Onions, Carrot and Celery, at a 2:1:1 on fish Veloute. Not surprisingly, the White Wine Sauce
Ratio), small dice goes great with just about any type of fish or seafood dish.
• 4-5 parts fresh or canned tomatoes • 4 oz dry white wine
• Fresh Chopped Garlic and Herbs To Taste • 1 quart fish Veloute
• Olive Oil • 4 oz heavy cream
• Salt and Pepper To Taste • 1 oz butter
• Butter and Heavy Cream to finish (Optional) • Salt, White Pepper and Lemon Juice to taste.
1. Start by sweating your mirepoix over medium heat in 1. Reduce your white wine by half and then add your fish
a sauce pan with a little bit of olive oil. Veloute.
2. Once the mirepoix becomes nice and soft, and starts 2. Reduce your Veloute until it coats the back of a spoon.
to release its sweet aroma (about 5-10 minutes) add in This consistency is referd to as "napé."
your tomatoes and fresh chopped garlic.
3. Temper cream and stir into the Veloute.
3. Simmer for 1.5-2 hours. Season with salt, pepper, and
4. Right before serving, swirl in you butter and season
a pinch of sugar. Add fresh herbs to taste.
with salt, white pepper and a couple drops of lemon
4. At this point, if you desire a smooth texture, you can juice.
blend your sauce and then pass it through a chinois.
5. Strain through a chinois and serve.
5. Finish with swirling in some heavy cream and whole
2. Sauce Supreme
butter off the flame. This is optional, but if you're not
averse to butter and cream, it will add a nice flavor and Sauce supreme is a very simple variation based on
mouth feel. Chicken Veloute. Since this sauce is so simple, it's very
important to make sure that your chicken stock is made
Sauce Veloute and Its Derivatives
properly and of high quality. Use heavy whipping cream and
Sauce Veloute is a very simple member of the Five French European butter if you can find them. This sauce is
Mother Sauces that is used for a base to make many traditionally served with poached or steam chicken, or any
different secondary sauces and leading sauces. other type of poultry dish with delicate flavors.
Standard Ratio and Recipe for Sauce Veloute • 1 qt chicken Veloute
• 4 ounce blond roux (2 ounces clarified butter and 2 • 1 cup heavy cream, warm
ounces all purpose flour)
• 1 oz butter
• 1 1/4 quarts hot, White Stock (Veal, Chicken, or Fish)
• Salt, White Pepper and Lemon Juice to taste.
1. Heat up your white stock in a heavy bottom sauce pan.
1. Reduce Chicken Veloute by 1/4.
2. In a separate pan, cook roux to a blond stage.
2. Add in warm, heavy cream.
3. Allow roux to cool slightly before adding it to the gently
3. Swirl in butter
simmering stock.
4. Season with salt, white pepper and lemon juice to
4. Whisk stock and roux together and bring to a gentle
taste.
simmer.
5. Strain through a chinois and serve.
5. Allow to simmer for about 45 minutes to 1 hour.
3. Sauce Allemande
6. Adjust consistency by adding more hot stock if neces-
sary. Recipe should yield 1 qt of sauce at the "napé" Sauce Allemande is another simple sauce based on Veal

Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.08 61
Veloute. But with the richness of the Liason and the • Season with chopped parsley and lemon juice to taste.
brightness of the fresh lemon juice, this sauce is simply
amazing. This is a perfect sauce for Veal Scallopini. 6. Sauce Normandy

• 1 qt of Veal Veloute • Bring 1 quart of Fish Veloute to a simmer.

• 2 egg yolks (for liaison) • Add 4 ounces of mushrooms and 4 ounces of oyster
liquid or fish fumet.
• 4 ounce heavy cream (for liaison)
• Reduce by 1/3.
• 1 tablespoon lemon juice
• Finish with a liaison of 4 egg yolks and 1 cup heavy
• White Pepper and Salt to taste
cream.
4. Sauce Poulette
• Strain and swirl in 3 ounces of raw butter off the heat.
• Simmer 8 ounces of white, button mushrooms with
when making 1 quart of Veloute of your choice. Butter Sauces

• Use Veloute to make Sauce Allemande and then strain They are served melted, in a liquid form or as hard butter
out mushrooms. sauces. Butter is mixed with different ingredients, set and
cut in fancy shapes and served with food items. They are
• Finish with 2 tablespoons of chopped parsley and placed on the hot food items, just before serving and
lemon juice to taste. allowed to melt. It can be served separately, along with the
5. Sauce Bercy dish in a sauce-boat and crushed ice. The other name for
butter sauces is compound butter, e.g. anchovy, Colbert,
• Reduce by two-thirds: 2 ounces chopped shallots and brown butter, Garlic butter etc.
1/2 cup white wine.
Gravy is made from meat juices which congeal and
• Add 1 quart Fish Veloute and simmer for about 10-15 caramelize in the bottom of roasting pan. For red meat
minutes, reducing slightly. gravy should be dark brown and for poultry it should be a
• Turn of heat and finish sauce by swirling in 2 ounces golden colour.
raw butter.

62 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.08
Travel, Tourism & Hospitality Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.09 - 1.5.10
Food Production - Menu Planning
Soups
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain soups & their classification.

Soup Thick soups

Soup is a primarily liquid food, generally served warm (but Unlike clear soups, thick soups are opaque rather than
may be cool or cold), that is made by combining ingredi- transparent. They are thickened either by adding a thick-
ents such as meatand vegetables with stock, juice, water, ening agent, such as a roux, or by puréeing one or more of
or another liquid. Hot soups are additionally characterized their Ingredients to provide a heavier consistency.
by boiling solid ingredients in liquids in a pot until the flavors
are extracted, forming a broth. • Cream soups are soups that are thickened with roux,
beurre manié, liaison, or other added thickening agents,
Traditionally, soups are classified into two main groups: plus milk and/or cream. They are similar to velouté and
clear soups and thick soups. The established French béchamel sauces—in fact, they may be made by
classifications of clear soups are bouillon and consommé. diluting and flavoring either of these two leading sauces.
Thick soups are classified depending upon the type of Cream soups are usually named after their major
thickening agent used: purées are vegetable soups thick- ingredient, such as cream of Chicken or cream of
ened with starch; bisques are made from puréed shellfish asparagus.
or vegetables thickened with cream; cream soups may be
thickened with béchamel sauce; and veloutés are thick-
• Purées are soups that are naturally thickened by
ened with eggs, butter, and cream. Other ingredients puréeing one or more of their ingredients. They are not
commonly used to thicken soups and broths include egg, as smooth and creamy as cream soups. Purées are
rice, lentils, flour, and grains; many popular soups also normally based on starchy ingredients. They may be
include carrots and potatoes. made from dried legumes (such as split pea soup) or
from fresh vegetables with a starchy ingredient Such
Classification of Soups as potatoes or rice added. Purées may or may not
contain milk or Cream. E.g. Puree de lentils
Soups can be divided into three basic categories: clear or
un-thickened soups, thick Soups, and special soups that • Bisques are thickened soups made from shellfish.
don’t fit the first two categories. Most of these soups, no They are usually prepared like Cream soups and are
matter what their final ingredients may be, are based on almost always finished with cream. The term bisque is
Stock. thus, the quality of the soup depends on the stock- sometimes used on menus for a variety of vegetable
making skills soups. In these cases, it is really a marketing term
rather than a technical term, so it is impossible to give
Clear soups a definition that covers all uses.
Clear soups are all based on a clear, un-thickened broth or • Chowders are hearty soups made from fish, shellfish,
stock. They may be served Plain or garnished with a variety and/or vegetables. Although they are made in many
of vegetables and meats. ways; they usually contain milk and potatoes. E.g.
Calm Chowder
• Broth and bouillon are two terms used in many ways.
In general, they both refer to Simple, clear soups • Veloute is a thick soup, which is thickened with a blond
without solid ingredients. We have already defined roux, prepared in the same way as a veloute sauce and
broth as a flavorful liquid obtained from the simmering Liaison is added.
of meats and/or vegetables. E.g. Scotch Broth Specialty and national soups
• Vegetable soup is a clear, seasoned stock or broth This is a catch-all categories that includes soups that don’t
with the addition of one or more vegetables and, fit well into the main categories And soups that are native
sometimes, meat or poultry products and starches. to particular countries or regions.
• Consommé is a rich, flavorful stock or broth that has Minestrone : Italy
been clarified to make it perfectly Clear and transpar-
French Onion Soup : France
ent, a well-made consommé is one of the greatest of
all soups. Its sparkling clarity is a delight to the eye, Gazpacho : Spain
and its rich, full Flavor, strength, and body make it a Scotch Broth : Scotland
perfect starter for an elegant dinner.

63
Specialty soups are distinguished by unusual ingredients • Pastas noodles, spaghetti, other pasta products such
or methods, such as turtle Soup, gumbo, peanut soup, and as star letters, cornets, etc.
cold fruit soup.
• Vegetables cut in various sizes, shapes-juliennes,
Cold soups are sometimes considered specialty soups, round slices, dices of spring vegetables
and, in fact, some of them Are. But many other popular cold
soups, such as jellied consommé, cold cream of cucumber Consommé (basic)
Soup, and vichyssoise (vee shee swahz) are simply cold Consommé are clear soups made using beef, veal, poultry,
versions of basic clear And thick soups. and game or fish stocks. They are often made using a
combination of beef or veal and poultry. Having clarified the
Standard portion sizes soup (as below) the consommé should be fat free, crystal
Appetizer portion:6 to 8 oz (200 to 250 ml) clear, amber in colour with good flavour. To avoid producing
too dark a consommé a combination of white and brown
Main course portion:10 to 12 oz (300 to 350 ml)
stock may be used
Temperature Do not use vegetables such as cabbage, turnips, potatoes,
swedes or parsnips when producing and clarifying
Serve hot soups hot, in hot cups or bowls.
consommé, as they will spoil the clarity and flavour. To
Serve cold soups cold, in chilled bowls or even nested in a some extent they may be used a garnish items. During the
larger bowl of Crushed ice. preparation, cooking and final stages of making consommé
there are several faults, which may occur if proper care and
Commonly used garnishes for soups attention is not paid to the recipes and methods used.
• Croutons dices or other shapes made from bread, Consommé Variation :
toast, pastry. Name Ingredients / Garnish
• Profitroles prepared from chou paste. They are mini- • Consommé Royale Dices savory egg custard
ature cream puffs which may be filled or used plain.
• Consommé Julienne Julienne of vegetables
• Cereals rice or barley.
• Consommé Brunoise Brunoise of vegetables
• Cheese cheese balls, or grated parmesan served with
croutons on one side. • Consommé Celestine Julienne of thin pan cake
• Cream unsweetened whipped cream or sour cream. • Consommé Breton Juliennes of celery, onion and
leeks
• Meats usually small dices or juliennes.
• Consommé Dubbary Floweret’s of cauliflower
• Poultry same as meat.
• Consommé Florentine Juliennes of blanched spinach
• Seafood diced or flaked. Large enough pieces distin-
guishable. • Consommé St. Germain Fresh green peas
• Consommé Cereals Rice and barley

64 Travel, Tourism & Hospitality : Food Production (General) - Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.09-1.5.10