United

MI OPEN BOOK PROJECT

Reconstruction to Today

States
History

Kimberly Eikenberry, Troy Kilgus, Adam Lincoln, Kim

Noga, LaRissa Paras, Mark Radcliffe, Dustin Webb,
Heather Wolf
 The text of this book is licensed under a Creative Commons
NonCommercial-ShareAlike (CC-BY-NC-SA) license as part of
Michigan’s participation in the national #GoOpen movement.

This is version 1.4 of this resource, released in August of 2018

Information on the latest version and updates are available on the project
homepage: http://textbooks.wmisd.org/dashboard.html

ii

Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike CC BY-NC-SA
 The Michigan Open Book About the Authors - United States History - Reconstruction - Today
Project Kimberly Eikenberry
Grand Haven High School
Grand Haven Area Public Schools
Kim has a B.A. in History and Social Studies and a M.A. in Educational Leadership, both from
Project Manager: Dave Johnson, Wexford-
Western Michigan University. She has served in many roles during her thirteen years as an
Missaukee Intermediate School District
educator, including department chair, curriculum director, and administrator. Kim currently
teaches World History and Economics at Grand Haven High School.
HS US Team Editor: Rebecca Bush, Ottawa
Area Intermediate School District

Authors
Troy Kilgus
Kimberly Eikenberry, Grand Haven Public Standish-Sterling Central High School
Schools Standish-Sterling Community Schools
Troy Kilgus serves as the high school social studies chair at Standish-Sterling Central High
Troy Kilgus, Standish-Sterling Schools School. In his eight years of teaching, he has taught various social studies courses includ-
ing AP US History and multiple levels of French. Mr. Kilgus earned his undergraduate de-
Adam Lincoln, Ithaca Schools gree in French Education and his Masters in Teaching from Saginaw Valley State Univer-
sity.
Kim Noga, Ionia Public Schools

LaRissa Paras, Greenville Public Schools

Mike Radcliffe, Greenville Public Schools Adam Lincoln

Ithaca Jr/Sr High School
Dustin Webb, Lake City Area Schools Ithaca Schools
Adam began his teaching career at Cadillac High School in Cadillac, Michigan where he taught
Heather Wolf, Shepherd Public Schools US History, Global Studies, and AP World History. After 7 years, he moved back home to central
Michigan to teach at Ithaca Public Schools. While his main charge has been teaching World
History and starting the AP World History program, Adam also teaches 8th Grade History, US
History, History in Popular Culture and all sorts of computer science classes. Adam coaches
Model United Nations, and runs the Jumbotron at Ithaca Community Stadium during events.
Adam has served as a member of the Michigan Council for the Social Studies for over a decade
and has worked to unite his twin passions of Social Studies and effectively integrating
technology into the classroom. Outside of school, Adam has served on the Content Advisory
Committee, as a Social Studies item writer for the Department of Education, and worked for the
PASST project. Adam teaches History and Social Studies methods classes at Alma College as
adjunct faculty. Apart from the world of education, Adam enjoys spending time with his family
especially traveling on new adventures.
 Kim Noga
Ionia Public Schools
Ionia High School
Kim has a B.A. in History/ Social Studies and an M.A. in Curriculum and Teaching, both
from Michigan State University. For the past 14 years she has been employed at Ionia
High School where she teaches Economics, U.S. History, and Humanitarian Studies. Her
hobbies include reading and traveling the world.

LaRissa Paras
Greenville High School
Greenville Public Schools
LaRissa is an alumni of Central Michigan University and the State University of New York.
She is a tenured teacher in New York and now in Michigan where she works and resides
with her husband and two rambunctious boys. Currently she is teaching World History and
Current Issues at Greenville High School. She and her husband founded LP Inspire, LLC
to encourage young people to grow into their best selves. She is also the proud creator of
The Lotus Project, a successful mentoring program to help young women become empow-
ered and rise above adversity in a positive way. In her spare time she enjoys reading,
yoga, and being outdoors.

Mike Radcliffe
Greenville High School
Greenville Public Schools
Mike Radcliffe is a native of South Lyon, Michigan. He received his Bachelor of Arts
degree in history from Colorado State University, followed by a Masters of Arts degree
in American Studies from the University of Colorado. Over his 23 years of teaching stu-
dents in Colorado and Michigan, he has taught Advanced Placement United States
History, American Popular Culture, World History, World Geography, Sociology, and
Economics. He currently serves as the department chair for the social studies depart-
ment at Greenville High School, where he has taught the past 15 years. His previous
textbook projects include serving as a teacher consultant for textbooks in US History
and World Geography for Teachers Curriculum Institute. His interests include his wife
of twenty-five years, three amazing children, mountain biking, and really bad puns.
The Michigan Open Book Project Team would
like to thank the following individuals for their Dustin Webb
help in reviewing some content in the book and Lake City High School
guiding the development process. Lake City Area Schools
Biography Coming Soon!

Eric Hemenway - Director of Repatriation, Ar-

chives and Records, Little Traverse Bay Bands of
Odawa Indians

Jim Cameron, Michigan Department of Educa-

tion

Melissa Kieswetter, Michigan Department of

Heather Wolf
Shepherd Public Schools
Shepherd High School
Heather has taught Social Studies at Shepherd High School for 16 years. She currently
teaches American History and Law, but has also taught Modern American History, Civics,
Current Events, and History of American Wars in the past. Heather is a graduate of Central
Michigan University, where she earned both her undergraduate degree, as well as a Master
of Arts in History. She also teaches Social Studies Methods and Pre-Student Teaching
courses at CMU. Heather also is the chair of the Social Studies Department at Shepherd
High School and is involved in many other facets of the school and community. Heather
was named 2009 High School Educator of the Year by the Michigan Council for the Social
Studies. She enjoys reading, traveling and spending time with her family.

Rebecca Bush
Instructional Consultant
Ottawa Area Intermediate School District
Rebecca Bush is currently the Social Studies Consultant at the Ottawa Area Intermediate
School District (OAISD), where she assists K-12 social studies teachers in developing cur-
riculum, modeling instructional strategies in social studies literacy, and designing district-
level formative and summative assessments. Additionally, as Project Director, she has writ-
ten and received multiple Teaching American History grants, working with teachers through-
out an eight-county radius. She has presented at various national conferences on multiple
topics surrounding social studies instruction as well as innovative techniques and topics in
formative and summative assessment design. Currently she is Co-Project Director of The
Performance Assessments of Social Studies Thinking (PASST) Project and assists with the
professional development of teacher writers for the MI Open Book Project where she serves
as an editor of several of the project’s texts. Rebecca currently leads the Michigan Social
Chapter 1

Did the Economic

Benefits of the
Industrial Revolution
Outweigh the Social and
Environmental Costs?

• How did physical geography impact industrial growth?

• How did tycoons influence the growth of corporations?

• How did inventions impact demands for labor?

• How did the government interact with big business?

• How did urban development change the landscape of America?

• How did race, gender and social status affect American politics?
 Section 1

The Industrial Revolution

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

1. How did physical geography impact The Industrial Revolution

industrial growth?
In 1870, the United States was primarily an agricultural nation. Most Americans
2. How did tycoons influence the growth of
made a living from farming. Flash forward fifty years, the United States underwent
corporations?
a major transformation as more Americans left farming in search of industrial jobs
3. How did inventions impact demands for in cities. With the discovery and usage of raw materials, creation of new
labor?
inventions, and expansion of big business; the Industrial Revolution transformed
4. How did the government interact with big the American economy and the lives of millions of Americans.
business?

5. How did urban development change the

landscape of America?

6. How did race, gender and social status

affect American politics?

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Bessemer process bessemer process
Thomas Alva Edison vertical integration
Christopher Sholes John D. Rockefeller
Alexander Graham Bell horizontal integration
transcontinental railroad trusts
Crédit Mobilier social darwinism
The Grange Sherman Antitrust Act
Wabash Case
Henry Ford
Interstate Commerce Act 7
assembly line
Andrew Carnegie
Source: http://resourcesforhistoryteachers.wikispaces.com/USII.2
Natural Resources
Gallery 1.1 The United States in Maps
In the early Industrial Revolution, factories and modes of
transportation greatly relied on the steam engine as their main
power source. As a result, factories grew up along natural water
sources for easy access to the natural resource. The
Northeastern portion of the United States served as the leading
industrial area as water sources were in abundance.

Native Americans have long known and used oil sources in the
U.S. It was not until 1859 when oil was first successfully drilled
commercially. George Bissell and Edwin L. Drake made the first
outside of Titusville, Pennsylvania. The United States proved to
have a vast amount of natural resources to fuel the Industrial
Revolution. Natural gas, petroleum, and coal were extracted from
below the earth’s surface and used to power factories and
production. Iron ore would be used to create steel to urbanize Map of Coal Mining in the U.S. (1906) Source: http://etc.usf.edu/maps/galleries/us/minerals/index.php?
pageNum_Recordset1=1
the United States.

How do the maps above demonstrate that the United States

was geographically ready for the Industrial Revolution?

8
Early Inventions

As natural resources were fueling industrial growth, American

inventors sought to create inventions or perfect previous
creations. Thomas Alva Edison was one such inventor who
transformed American lives. With his perfection of the electric
lightbulb in 1879, the night now could easily become day. Edison
would patent electric currents and create the country’s first
power company which serviced New York City. With that,
factories could run longer production hours as they were not
limited to sunlight. Along with the economic impact, Americans
on average would sleep approximately two hours less per night.

Along with invention of the light bulb, communication inventions

greatly transformed American lives. Christopher Sholes, a
newspaper publisher from Wisconsin, sought ways to increase
word typing productivity. In 1867, Sholes was able to perfect the
typewriter which allowed for a faster and neater means to scribe
messages which included the standard QWERTY keyboard.
Alexander Graham Bell, a Scottish born inventor, would
successfully complete the first telephone call in 1875 which
enabled communication to be faster than ever before. Women
Woman with Underwood Typewriter (1918). Image via https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
greatly benefited from these inventions as they would become commons/c/ca/Woman_with_Underwood_typewriter.jpg

staples in offices. Clerical jobs opened up an entire job market

to women.

9
 Railroads Americans and explosions, it was a treacherous task. On May
10th, 1869, the first transcontinental railroad was sealed with a
Prior to the Civil War, the United States government was
golden spike at Promontory, Utah. The United States was
providing land grants and low interest loans to railroad companies
efficiently connected from coast to coast. By 1890, roughly
to develop the nation’s railway network. Railways allowed for an
180,000 miles of railroads crisscrossed the nation which well
increase of commercial activity and development of the West. The
exceeded the amount of network prior to the Civil War.
Central Pacific and the Union Pacific Railroads were tasked with
completing the first connected railroad from the west coast to the There were numerous effects after the completion and expansion
east coast. Thousands of immigrants including Chinese for the of the national railway network. New towns such as Seattle,
Union Pacific and Civil War veterans jumped on the task. With Washington and Denver, Colorado sprung up as materials were
dangerous conditions such as fearing attacks from Native needed to complete the railroads. As communities were
connected, railroads faced handling irregular time
zones. In 1870, Charles F. Dowd proposed four
standard time zones which two years later would be
revised to be based off
of Greenwich-Median
Interactive 1.1 The Growth
time. The new time of Railroads
zones would make
interstate business
easier to conduct as
the United States
would adopt them.

Click to watch the growth of

railroads video: https://
www.youtube.com/watch?
v=a8lX5A2q-Eo
Route of the First Continental Railroad from Sacramento, California to Council Bluffs, Iowa. Courtesy of https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
First_Transcontinental_Railroad 10
Government Interaction with Railroads regulatory agency in which future agencies would be modeled
after. In the transition from state to federal power, the railroad
With the numerous positive effects of the railroad industry, there
monopolies greatly benefited from ICC rulings within the first ten
also were numerous negative effects which brought the
years. The commission lacked the power to support the needs of
government into play. During construction of the first
farmers which enabled the railroad companies to return to their
transcontinental railroad, Crédit Mobilier, a construction
company created by railroad executives, overpriced the cost of
laying down track by two to three times. Their investors kept the
profits for themselves and paid off government officials to keep
quiet. In the end, government officials were left merely
untouched and the executives maintained their profits.

As the railroads helped move people west, they also clashed with
the same people that they took west, the farmers. Railroads
would often sell the best lands to businesses, charge higher
shipping rates on local routes as they had a monopoly, and
charge different individuals different rates. Upset, the farmers
organized into The Grange as an attempt to voice their concerns.
They elected many officials at local and state levels who passed
laws known as the “Granger Laws” that did protect farmers’
interests. In Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Company v. Illinois,
the Supreme Court overturned state legislation and noted that it
was the federal government who maintained the right to regulate
railroads. However, a year later in 1887, Congress passed the
Interstate Commerce Act which gave federal regulation over
railroads via the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) . The
ICC was unique as it was the first independent governmental

Promotional Poster that offers a gift from the Grangers, 1873. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/ 11
wiki/National_Grange_of_the_Order_of_Patrons_of_Husbandry
practices. The Interstate Commerce Commision would obtain
power in the future via new acts and court rulings to regulate
railroads.

Rise of Big Business

As railroads served as the big business in the West, the steel and
oil industries began to take off in the East. Andrew Carnegie, a
Scottish immigrant who came to the United States when he was
twelve, worked his way up through the Pennsylvania Railroad
Company as messenger. On a trip to England, he observed the
Bessemer Process which blew cold air over hot iron which rid of
impurities and made steel stronger and cheaper to produce. He
brought this practice back to Pittsburg and founded the Carnegie
Steel Factory. By 1900, Carnegie dominated the United States’
steel market and produced more steel than all of Great Britain.
Carnegie was able to do so because he practiced vertical
integration in which he bought out all of the suppliers including
the mines, freighters, and railroads. Carnegie was able to cut
costs by owning all factors of production and ensure a quality
product. Carnegie would later sell the Carnegie Steel Factory to
J. P. Morgan who created the United States Steel Corporation,
the largest corporation in the world. Steel practice of vertical integration. http://images.slideplayer.com/1/217708/slides/slide_4.jpg

12
American industrialist John D. Rockefeller took a different to support learning. Rockefeller also donated $500 million dollars
approach when he entered the oil industry. In 1870, Rockefeller’s which helped set up the University of Chicago.
corporation Standard Oil Company owned roughly three percent
of the nation’s oil. Rockefeller practiced horizontal integration by
merging with other oil companies or driving his competition out of
the market by underpricing his product and paying his employees
cheaply. Rockefeller would create trusts, a larger company that
controls similar smaller companies, to helped him dominate the
oil industry. He would raise oil prices to incredibly higher prices
once he controlled the market.

Economic Policies of Government and Big Business

The Carnegie Steel Company and the Standard Oil Company

perfectly represent big business practices. They rose to the top
by cutting costs, raising profits, paying low wages, and
dominating their markets. The idea that businesses will survive,
Source | "Forty-Millionaire Carnegie in his Great Double Role," The Saturday Globe, 9 July 1892; from David P.
thrive, or die without government intervention is known as social Demarest, ed. "The River Ran Red": Homestead 1892 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992), 189.

darwinism. This concept, evolved from Charles Darwin’s theory

of biological evolution, was well practiced in this era as the United
States’ government kept a hands off approach and allowed the
markets to dictate how big business would operate.

To counteract the harshness of social darwinism, Andrew

Carnegie wrote “The Gospel of Wealth.” His view was that it was
the job of the elite to help enrich society. With his own money he
donated millions to create public libraries, encourage scientific
research, and left ninety percent of his fortune behind after death
13
 Interactive 1.2 Gospel of Act did little to improve conditions as big business’ lawyers were
Wealth
able to find legal loopholes in the legislation. It was not until the
Progressive Era when the act was strengthened and impacted big
business.

Auto Industry

Just as the railroads revolutionized transportation in the 1800s, a

new invention transformed the need for railroads. Henry Ford
Excerpt from “Gospel of Wealth” created his first car, the “ Ford Quardricycle” in 1896. This first
Read here: http://
historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5766/ model ran on ethanol fuel and used bicycle tires for wheels.
Seven years later, Henry Ford found the Ford Motor Company in
Detroit, Michigan. In 1908, the Ford Motor Company produced
1) How does Andrew Carnegie view the role of the wealthy? the famous Model-T which served as the basis for autos in the

2) How does Andrew Carnegie view charity?

future.

3) What part of the American identity does Carnegie

emphasize in this document?

4) How does this document reflect the "Forty-Millionaire Carnegie in his

Great Double Role" political cartoon?

With the growing power of big business, Americans were growing

worrisome of monopolies and their power on markets. The
United States government reacted when Congress passed the
Sherman Anti-Trust Act in 1890. This act targeted trusts that
interfered with the free market including and interstate commerce.
Despite the intentions of the government, the Sherman Anti-Trust
14
Model T, 1910. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Model_T
 Just as revolutionary as the automobile itself, Henry Ford was demands of the growing auto field. By 1914, Ford was able to
able to produce them at reasonable costs so all Americans could offer $5 a week to his laborers. Along with Ford; Chrysler, Dodge,
afford them. He is credited with perfecting the assembly line and General Motors brought in workers. Factory workers were
which allowed for mass production. The assembly line allowed able to purchase single family houses, typically in the
for factory workers to complete the same task repeatedly so the neighborhood of the factory they worked. However, two distinct
automobile could be produced in record time. As production cities emerged as white Americans and African Americans lived in
efficiency increased, the price fell. As assembly line jobs were neighborhoods. Ford would also attract skilled workers such as
unskilled, they attracted millions of laborers to Detroit to fill the engineers and supervisors who brought a middle class to
neighborhoods further away from the plant.

Detroit Population 1900 to 2010. Source: http://www.netpursual.com/index.php?page=search/

images&search=detroit+population+history+graph&type=images

How does the population growth in Detroit reflect the

growth of the Auto Industry?

Ford Assembly Line (1913). Source

15
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Model_T
 Interactive 1.3 Crash
Course - The Industrial
Economy

Review the growth of the United

States Industrial Economy in this
video from John Green.

Video Question:

1. How did labor change and stay the same from pre-
Industrial Revolution to during the Industrial Revolution?

2. What inventions greatly changed how Americans

work?

3. To what extent did labor benefit from the Industrial

Revolution?

4. To what extent did government interact with the

economy?

16
 Section 2

Labor
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY
Industry and Labor
1. How did physical geography impact
industrial growth?
Just as the Industrial Revolution impacted the economy of the United States, it
2. How did tycoons influence the growth of also had an enormous impact on the lives of millions of Americans. Early industrial
corporations? inventions such as the McCormick reaper and the Cyrus plow lessened the
3. How did inventions impact demands for demand for farm labor which drove rural populations to urban industrial jobs. As
labor? farmers looked to expand their land to make profits, they oppositely found
4. How did the government interact with big themselves in debt as eastern banks and the railroad industry exploited their
business? opportunities. Likewise, urban factory workers faced terrible conditions while
5. How did urban development change the working for large industries that demanded long hours, unsafe conditions, and low
landscape of America? wages. Efforts to combat unfair conditions were created in both rural and urban
6. How did race, gender and social status settings to make life better for the ordinary American.
affect American politics?
Early Farming Organizations
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
Grange American Federation of Labor As industry helped farmers increase production, technology also impacted the
Farmers’ Alliances closed shop farming sector. As farmers competed to make profits, technological advances led
Eugene V. Debs to overproduction. With a high supply, prices dropped as the demand did not
Populism
Industrial Workers of the World increase as rapidly with the increase of supply. Along with overproduction, the
gold standard
Mary Harris Jones banking sector charged high interest rates on loans. The railroad industry charged
Knights of Labor
Pullman Strike
higher rates on short hauls as they maintained a monopoly on local markets and
Haymarket Square Homestead Strike
Samuel Gompers

17
charged different rates to different individuals. As the farmers
grew increasingly in debt, they organized to improve their
situation.

The Grange became the first major farmers group to address

the issues. This organization gained momentum in the midwest
by establishing cooperatives and battling the railroad sector at
the state level. However, the federal government overturned the
states’ control on railroads with the Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific
Railroad Company v. Illinois case which noted the federal
government had the final say with railroads as they are part of
interstate commerce in 1886. The Grange would drop in
membership but began the farmers’ crusade to improve their
conditions.

In the south and west, the Farmers Alliance set out to educate
farmers on topics including low interest rates and government
influence on railroads and banking. Lecturers went from town to Image of Farmers Alliance Banner from 1878. Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f5/Farmers-

town to promote concepts to improve the conditions of most Alliance-Banner.jpg

farmers. It grew up to nearly 4 million members at its peak.

However, the Farmers Alliance ignored tenant farmers and
African Americans. As they made up a high percentage of
farmers, the alliance weakened itself by not including large
subgroups of farmers.

18
Populist Party

The education provided by the Farmers Alliance eventually led to

political action. The Populist Party formed in the 1890s and
focused on the plights of the farmers and working class. Their
platform included a graduated income tax, single terms for
president, eight hour workday, direct election of U. S. Senators,
and loan programs that would balance the costs of food. Lastly,
they called for unlimited coinage of silver which would help put
more wealth in the hands of farmers and the working class.

The Populist Party had great success in the 1892 election by

securing five U.S. senate seats, sending representatives to the U.
S. House of Representatives, and winning seats at numerous
state level Congresses. In the 1896 presidential election, the
debate heavily focused on the gold standard which used only
gold to back up the currency. The Populists greatly supported William Jennings Bryan delivering a speech during the 1896 presidential election campaign.

Democratic candidate William Jennings Bryan who delivered his Source: http://stealthflation.org/2015/03/01/the-end-of-honest-money/
infamous cross of Gold Speech. In this speech, Jennings Bryan
noted that the weight of gold will crush the country. In the end, Interactive 1.4 The Cross
William Jennings Bryan lost to William McKinley and the U.S. of Gold Speech 1) What grievances does William

would remain on the gold standard. The Populists failed to Jennings Bryan address in this
speech?
secure enough urban votes. As the nation’s population became
more urban for the first time in history, the Populists would lose 2) How does he compare farmers
their voice as they could not connect to that setting. to those on the Atlantic Coast?

3) How does this speech represent

the goals of the Populist Party?

Check out an excerpt of the

“Cross of Gold Speech” here! 19
 Interactive 1.5 Gold Bugs
and Silverites

Test your knowledge with this

drag-and-drop quiz.

Depiction of William Jennings Bryan’s Cross of Gold Speech. Source:

https://historymartinez.files.wordpress.com/2015/05/cross-of-gold.jpg

Election Map of 1892. Source: http://www.rense.com/general90/1892.JPG

20
Big Business Affects Laborers forwent an education which greatly hindered their chances of
obtaining a skilled job as an adult. Reforms would come in the
Unskilled workers flocked to the factories during the Industrial
early 1900s to rid the United States of the grim conditions of child
Revolution. These unskilled workers included working class men,
labor and placed emphasis on students minimally earning a
women, and children. The working class was continuously filled
primary school education.
as new immigrants flocked to the United States for a better life.
As labor was quite easy to replace, factory owners were able to
maintain low wages. Even with low wages, factory workers faced
highly unsafe conditions.

The average working class American male made approximately

$453 a year which equivalates to $13,000 today. Women were
roughly paid half of a male’s salary and children were expected to
earn roughly one third of the salary. Factory workers typically
worked from ten to fourteen hour days to earn that pay. Along
with low pay, factory conditions were deplorable. Factories
lacked guardrails, proper ventilation, and proper safety
techniques. In 1900, there was reportedly 35,000 deaths in
factories with approximately 1 million injuries. Without health
insurance or factory accountability, workers were left to deal with
death and injuries on their own. Child Labor, Coal Mines c. 1912

Working class children were often needed to take jobs to help Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Childlabourcoal.jpg

support their families. By 1900, roughly 18% of children under the

age of 16 were employed in industrial work. These children were
often employed with tasks of cleaning dangerous machines, coal
mining, and working in the textile industry. They were often paid
lower wages and were easily replaceable. Working children

21
 Source: http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/dl/free/
0809222299/45391/USChart2.jpg
Two young children work in a textile mill.

Source: Library of Congress

http://mentalfloss.com/article/30248/depressing-stories-behind-20-vintage-child-labor-pictures 1) What does this graph tell you about how Americans lived
and worked?

2) What can you infer about the rise of union membership

Labor Unions

To combat long hours, low pay, and unsafe working conditions;

multiple labor unions form. The Knights of Labor began as a
secret society in 1869 and would not become more public until
1881. The Knights championed both skilled and unskilled
22
laborers and included women and African Americans. Their main Interactive 1.6 The Labor
Movement
goal was to set a standard eight hour workday and improve
safety conditions at factories. The Knights also pushed for the
abolition of child labor and equal pay for equal work. The Knights’
membership piqued in 1886 after a successful strike against Jay
Gould’s Wabash Railroad in 1885. The Knights of Labor faced an
untimely setback when they were linked to anarchist bombs at
the Haymarket Square protest in Chicago in 1886. The public
backlashed against the alleged connection to the incident and the Test your knowledge of the labor
movement with this drag-and-
Knights of Labor plummeted to approximately 100,000 members drop interactive.
by 1889. The other downfall for the union was that there were
many tensions between skilled workers and unskilled workers Samuel Gompers
which led to internal disputes and resentment.
While the AFL championed skilled laborers, radical union ideas
emerged throughout the United States. Eugene V. Debs
championed the idea of a union including all laborers. Debs’
As the Knights of Labor were on the downfall, another union
American Railway Union won a strike in 1894 which increased its
began to rise. Samuel Gompers, a cigar maker, founded the
membership by the thousands. However, his union was short
American Federation of Labor (AFL). The AFL consisted of
lived as membership dwindled only after a successful strike. The
groups of unions, usually skilled, instead of one large union. The
Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), a socialist union, formed
main goals of the AFL were to increase wages and have shorter
in Chicago in 1905. By including African Americans and being
work weeks. Samuel Gompers also pushed for a closed shop in
too radical, its numbers rarely exceeded 100,000. While both
which a factory would only employ union members. The union
unions had few successes, they contributed to the idea that
used strikes as a main tactic to achieve its goals. The AFL had
members should unite for the betterment of their lives and
numerous successes in establishing 8 hour workdays and
working conditions.
increasing pay for its members. By 1914, the AFL topped 2
million members.

23
Mary Harris Jones, commonly known as Mother Jones, proved
an exceptional leader for the rights of miners and children. She
helped organize the United Mine Workers of America and was
faced numerous death threats. In 1903, she led children onto the
White House lawn and demonstrated the harshness of child labor
to President Roosevelt which inspired child labor laws. By
committing to the need of miners and children, Jones continued
to push for better conditions for the working class until her death.

American Federation of Labor Label: Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/AFL-

label.jpg

Failed Strikes

While unions had some successes, they often faced numerous

setbacks when strikes proved unsuccessful in achieving their
goals. The Pullman Town, established in 1880, was based on the
the Pullman factory that created luxury railroad cars. The owner,

Mother Jones demonstrating the conditions of child labor.

24
Source: http://urban-monk.org/mary-harris-jones-a-k-a-mother-jones/
George Pullman, owned all parts of the town so his employees
bought goods from his stores and paid rent as his tenants. This
practice by a business owner became known as a company
town. Soon, company towns sprang up all over major industrial
cities as an unregulated way for wealthy business owners to
increase their already exorbitant profits.During the panic of 1893,
Pullman cut wages but did not lower the cost of rent or goods
from his town. The Pullman Strike occurred in 1894 as Eugene V.
Debs led the way to aid the workers. Federal troops were sent in
and the strike was exterminated. Most of the workers lost their
jobs and were placed on blacklists that prevented them from Source: http://laborweb.aflcio.org/article_images/
382CABFB-5056-A174-19D4FB548B279D27_mid.gif
obtaining employment at other factories.

In 1892, Andrew Carnegie’s Homestead Steel Mill cut the wages Even though unions faced setbacks, they created a unity among
of its workers. Roughly 750 belonged to the Amalgamated workers. Unions would grow in numbers through the 1900s and
Association of Iron and Steel Workers Union out of 3,000. gain further rights most notably during the Progressive Era and
Determined to break the union, Carnegie gave manager Henry Franklin Roosevelt administration.
Frick full support to crush the union and bargain with employees
separately. The Homestead Strike began workers striked and the
factory was walled off as union workers vowed to prevent anyone
from entering. The police were first sworn to help protect the
factory and were chased off by strikers. Frick hired private
guards to have strike breakers and new labor come in to keep the
factory operating. After four months of striking, support for the
union plummeted and the workers gave into the factory’s
conditions.

25
Section 3

Urbanization

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY An Influx of Immigrants

1. How did physical geography impact
As the United States increased its industrial output, the need for workers
industrial growth?
increased. This, along with other factors, drew more people into the US globally.
2. How did tycoons influence the growth of
Immigration into the United States grew immensely between 1860-1910 and
corporations?
peaked in 1907. People then, as well as today, migrated for many reasons. The
3. How did inventions impact demands for reasons that people move are
labor?
categorized as push and pull
4. How did the government interact with big factors.
business?

5. How did urban development change the Welcome to America

landscape of America?
When immigrants entered the
6. How did race, gender and social status
US, they did through two
affect American politics?
major entry points: Angel
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
Island in California and Ellis
Immigration
Island in New York. The
push and pull factors
majority of European
Urbanization
immigrants arrived in New
Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882
York and Asian immigrants
“paper sons” Immigrants Waiting:
arrived in California.
steerage In this undated photo, immigrants stand outside of a building on Ellis Island at the Port of New
York. Between 1892 and 1924, an estimated 20 million individuals began their new lives in Ame
at the Immigration Processing Station, Ellis Island. Photo courtesy of The National Archives)

26
 brought by second and third Interactive 1.7 Immigration
generation children to claim their Clickable Map
constitutional right to citizenship by
birth. Angel Island’s main goal was to
control the flow of Chinese people into
the United States. At Angel Island men
and women were housed separately
and spent most of their time waiting in
the barracks during their detention Learn more about who moved
between interview interrogations. where with this clickable map.

During this process immigrants would

have been detained on Angel Island for weeks or months - some
even years- before entering the the US or being deported.
Interrogation questions were purposefully challenging and even
Create your own comic strip describing what would cause your included obscure questions about Chinese villages and family
character to move. Try using Bit Strips! genealogies that would have been difficult for immigrants to

Think Geography! Why would more Asian immigrants enter

Angel Island in San Francisco Bay processed hundreds of
through California, while more European immigrants came in
thousands of immigrants from 1910-1940. Most of these through New York?
immigrants arrived from China. After the passage of the
Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882, the Chinese were not welcomed
answer correctly. many of the people arriving on Angel
in the US, not easily anyway. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882
Island were not allowed entry into the United States.
banned the immigration of Chinese laborers into the US and
prohibited the Chinese from becoming natural citizens. This act
remained in effect for 60 years. Years later, court cases were

27
 (“The Chinese Invasion” Composite of nine cartoons, each separately captioned, on Chinese immigrants in
the United States, including New York City and San Francisco. Artist: Joseph Ferdinand Keppler. Published in
1880. Courtesy of the Library of Congress)
"I have been stayed in the wooden house for couple of days due
to some writing product issues. Unfortunately my skills and
abilities can't be used at the right place. From now on, I will leave
this building. Everyone seems very happy. The design of this
building is more western- looks very pretty but I think it's more
After the earthquake and fire that ravaged San Francisco in 1906,
like a cage.
many government records were destroyed, leading to the
practice of “paper sons”. When new citizenship papers were
(Poetic verse carved into the wall of the detention barracks at
obtained after the fire, people were able to pass on citizenship
Angel Island. Image courtesy of the Library of Congress.)
rights to their children. Many claimed that their Chinese born
offspring were really born in the US. Sometimes one would report
the birth of a son when in reality the “slot” would be sold or given
to a relative. Sons who entered the US this way were known as
“paper sons.” This deception was in reaction to the Chinese
Exclusion Act of 1882.

28
 In New York, Ellis Island opened up its doors to immigrants in
1892 and it processed over 12 million people in the 62 years it
was open. The immigrants that arrived in America having
purchased a first or second class ticket were able to avoid the
Ellis Island inspection by having a cursory one done aboard the
ship. The idea behind this was that if a person was wealthy
enough to afford a high class ticket that they were less likely to
contribute negatively to the general public either due to medical
or legal reasons. The federal government felt that more affluent
immigrants were less likely to end up in state institutions or
hospitals and become financial burdens to the state.

The story looks different for third class Interactive 1.8 Ellis Island
passengers, also known as “steerage” Virtual Tour
passengers. These people traveled to
America in tight, unsanitary quarters
near the belly of the ship. Passengers
from steerage would undergo a
physical and legal inspection that took
about 3-5 hours if one was in good
(Application for Readmission of a Native Born Son of Chinese Parents by Rock health. Approximately 2% of
Hang Regarding Rock Fee
Take a virtual tour of Ellis Island by
immigrants arriving at Ellis Island were visiting this website.
8/9/1906 not allowed to enter the United States.
Records of the Immigration and Naturalization Service A person would have been deported back to their country of

National Archives) 29
origin if a doctor diagnosed him or her with a contagious disease class saw an increase in leisure activities like stadium sports,
that risked the health of the public or if a legal inspector thought amusement parks, theaters, and department store shopping.
he or she would have ended up living at the expense of the Cities were setting trends in art, music, and fashion. Large
government. department stores like Macy’s in New York and Marshall Fields in
Chicago attracted urban middle class shoppers and provided
Urbanization
jobs for the working class--even young women.
America was a land of farmers for much of its early life as a
Living in a city proved to be much different than living in a rural
nation. In 1820, Barely 5% of the nation’s population lived in
area. Living on a farm, not much went to waste. Table scraps
cities of over 10 thousand or more. Decade by decade after that
went to pigs, families mended clothing instead of tossing it out,
the numbers in cities grew. By 1900, 30% of Americans lived in
a city and the architecture shifted to accommodate them. The
first skyscrapers were built.

Factories were built at a rapid rate; therefore, people were

settling to be near work. Skyscrapers were introduced and
started reaching into the clouds while tenements were
overflowing with people. Imperial looking banks and mansions
of the uber wealthy emerged while the slums teeming with rats
and lice were available to the lower working class. Middle
class white collar workers also emerged and added to the
success of cities. Cities were not just places to make a living
but also became cultural centers, too.

While people in rural areas were still successful in the

agriculture field, city dwellers were working in factories,
manufacturing, shipyards and transportation systems. Jobs in
the entertainment field were also on the rise as the middle
(Bowery at Night, William Louis Sonntag Jr., 1895. Image courtesy of the Museum of the City of New York)
30
 household products were bought in bulk at the general store and
most things weren’t wrapped. Cities were different. Cities had
electricity, indoor plumbing, and the latest in technology such as
the telephone. Packaging such as boxes, bottles, cans and bags
were disposable. Apartments didn’t have pig pens for scraps.
Ready-to-wear clothes “off the rack” were cheap and as fashion
trends changed quickly old garments ended up in the trash piles.
Urban problem solving such as what to do with massive
amounts of waste became a new issue in cities. The increase in
consumerism and its subsequent waste was not the only issue in
cities. Hygiene and safe living were also concerns. Lice was

Tenement Backyard, New York Tenement House Department, New York Public Library, Digital Resources

rampant in the slums, and

most of the water was
unsafe for drinking, cooking
and bathing. This along with
animal waste, uncollected
garbage and unwashed
people also contributed to
the health and safety of
urban city dwellers.

The worst of all places in the

cities were the slums. In
1879, tenement style
Mulberry Street, New York City, Detroit Publishing Co., 1900, Library of Congress
Bedroom of Italian family in a rear tenement of New
York, Lewis Hine, New York Public Library, digital
31
archives
housing was perfected. In these multi level buildings people lived home while tending to the children, or putting them to work as
in a tight barracks’ like situation with extended families in small well. Lice and rats were frequent guests of the residents in the
rooms with a shared community bathroom on each floor. People
also worked out of their homes in many cases to help raise
money for the family. This also allowed for women to work at

The Rush of Refugees through the Potter's Field toward Lincoln Park, 1871 (Harper's Weekly, from a sketch by
Theodore R. Davis)

tenements and sickness spread quickly, as did fire on occasion.

Chicago, 1871, Library of Congress

32
One of the worst fires happened to the city of Chicago in 1871.
Like all major cities of the time, most city dwellings were made of
wood and built tightly together. The use of candles and kerosene
in such tight quarters made city fires much more catastrophic
and deadly than in rural settings. The fire in Chicago started on
October 8 and raged for two full days. When the inferno ceased,
the city was left with 100,000 people who had lost their homes
and over 300 dead. There was $200 million in lost and damaged
property and the entire central business district was completely
destroyed.

John R. Chapin was an illustrator for Harper’s Weekly and was

staying at the Sheridan House hotel when he was awoken by the
commotion from the fire. He reported the following:

In the presence of such a fearful calamity, surrounded by such Chicago in Flames, 1871, Chapin sketch for Harper’s Weekly
scenes of misery and woe, having within a brief hour barely escaped
with my life from the burning hotel, knowing that under my eye
human life was being destroyed, wealth swept away, and misery
entailed upon untold thousands of my fellow-men, nothing but the Although the loss was tragic, it did bring about new building
importance of preserving a record of the scene induced me to force requirements. Brick (and eventually steel) structures replaced the
my nervous system into a state sufficiently calm to jot down the traditional wooden ones that acted like fuel to the fires of cities.
scenes passing before me. . . . Niagara sinks into insignificance
before that towering wall of whirling, seething, roaring flame, which
swept on, on—devouring the most stately and massive stone
buildings as though they had been the cardboard playthings of a
child. . .

33
 too. Eastern European Jews and Roman Catholics from all over
Europe made their way to the shores of America.

In a metropolis like New York City came the freedom of chosen anonymity. In the
shtetl, the Jew was marked as such by clothing, language and association. In New
York, a Jewish man could shave off his beard. A married Orthodox Jewish woman
could discard her required wig. They could buy some American style clothes. Walk
out of the ghetto. And be seen and treated as any other person just walking down the
street. With the skills in English, the possible transformation was complete. 1910 was
the high tide of Jewish immigration to America. At that time the greater Lower East
Side housed more than 500,000 people in two square miles. It was then that the
Lower East Side came to be known as the Jewish Ghetto. The adjoining communities
of Little Italy and Chinatown were minuscule in comparison to the Jewish community.
The Lower East Side was always crowded. As the 20th Century began, Jewish
immigrants, having crossed the Atlantic in steerage. Having endured the processing
and the fear of rejection at Ellis Island. And having been dropped on the tip of
”Home-work (crochet) in East Side Tenement home. Grandmother peeling potatoes.” Lewis Hine, New York City,
Manhattan in the shadow of a forest of unbelievably high buildings. Now walked into
1912, Library of Congress
a virtual cauldron of people. A maze of streets strewn with offal from slaughtered
animals and garbage and horse manure. Just the horse and wagon, period, for
As many people moved from rural farm lives and transitioned to transportation. There's a lot of horse doo in the city, which is collected regularly. Put
life in the cities, cities swelled from the influx of new residents. As on carts. Taken to the East River. And dumped there in the river where the boys were
swimming. Life seemed to gush out of the suffocating flats and shops into an ever-
immigrants were moving into the American cities they carried with flowing stream of shouting men. Babbling women. Shrieking children from early
them customs and experiences from their homelands. Often dawn to midnight. So many of these new arrivals had come from small towns. And
now in the two square mile sea of five, six and seven-story tenements, they had to
times, when settling in new neighborhoods, people with a
locate relatives or countrymen. Find housing. Obtain work. Learn anew language,
common culture, language, religion and history would form their et cetera. Amazed by the people flooded streets, journalists of the time described the
own ethnic communities. In this era of urbanization, cities see Lower East Side as having a population density greater than Bombay or Calcutta. The
incredible scene was, of course, most daunting to the immigrants and their children.
“little China”, “little Italy” and “little Poland” (to name a few)
(The Tenement Saga, webcast, Sanford Sternlicht, 5/19/2014, Library of Congress)
emerged. With these new immigrants to America, new
newspapers, shops, celebrations and eating emerge as well. The
growth religions other than the majority protestant christian grow,

34
 Was this positive in the development of America's
"melting pot"? Or did it lend itself to stereotyping
and eventual prejudice? How could you compare
urbanization from this era to today?

The Political Machine

Politics in major cities also suffered challenges from urbanization. Interactive 1.9 An Honest
Graft?
Nothing was quite as scandalous during the Gilded Age as the
political machine of Tammany Hall in New York City. The term
“political machine” is basically an organization that works to get
its member(s) elected into political positions, thus holding political
power. In New York City, this was Tammany Hall and its leader
was William “Boss” Tweed.

In the 1860s and 1870s the men of Tammany Hall used graft
Is there such a thing as an honest
bribery and rigged elections to extort over $200 million from the graft? Click here to read an
city of New York. Some money went towards helping immigrants excerpt from NY politician George
Plunkitt in Plunkitt of Tammany
and creating public buildings that helped create jobs. The trouble Hall: A Series of Very Plain Talks
on Very Practical Politics,
was that anyone doing business in their city - especially Delivered by Ex-Senator George
suppliers and contractors - had to give “kickbacks” (money) to Washington Plunkitt, the Tammany
Philosopher, from his Rostrum—
the bosses in order to stay in business. “Boss” Tweed and other the New York County Courthouse
machine bosses grew large fortunes as a result of these Bootblack Stand

kickbacks and bribes.

35
Section 4

Growth and Change

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Prior to the 1880s, the United States

1. How did physical geography impact government policies toward Native
industrial growth? Americans was dominated by the

2. How did tycoons influence the growth of

idea to remove the people from their
corporations? land, acquire land (via treaties), wage
war and civilize and assimilate tribal
3. How did inventions impact demands for
labor? communities into American society.
For tribal communities, the entire
4. How did the government interact with big
business? 19th century is defined by their loss
of land, either through treaties or
5. How did urban development change the
forced removal, which translates into
landscape of America?
loss of their culture and way life. By
6. How did race, gender and social status
1900, tribes in Michigan had lost
affect American politics?
99% of their ancestral land base.
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
What lands tribes did reserve for
reservations
themselves under treaties were
assimilation
called reservations. On average,
these reservations were the
equivalent to the size of a county.
But reservation lands would be
alienated from tribes as well. (Image of Dawes Act, ourdocuments.gov)

36
Certain federal measures, such as the Homestead Act of 1862, The change from owning land communally to individual
the Indian Homestead Act of 1875 and the Dawes Act of 1887, ownership was a radical change in belief. Often children that
would help break up reservation lands and open them to public inherited land became severed from the land because they had
purchase.On February 8, 1887 Congress passed the Dawes Act, been sent away to boarding schools. (See more on this below.)
named after Massachusetts senator, Henry Dawes. Dawes once Allotment selection did not extend to future generations, thus only
expressed that to be civilized was to "wear civilized one group of tribal members got to make a selection, making
clothes...cultivate the ground, live in houses, ride in Studebaker their children and grandchildren ineligible to make a allotment
wagons, send children to school, drink whiskey [and] own selection under treaty provisions.
property." The Dawes Act focused on breaking up reservation Tribal reservations became overrun Interactive 1.10 Schedule
land by granting land parcels to individual Native Americans. The with land speculators and white of Indian Land
mentality of the government was that if native individuals owned squatters during the 1800s,
their own land and farmed their own land like their white leaving the Odawa, Potawatomi
neighbors they would lose their “Indian-ness” and become and Ojibway with the hardship of
assimilated. staying on their homelands. As
white American settlers expanded
Unfortunately the theories did not come to pass as reality. Natives
their presence into Michigan, the
holding individual patents to their allotments were often swindled
indigenous peoples’ presence
out of their lands by greedy land speculators. Unethical Charles C. Royce compiled The
shrank. Schedule of Indian Land Cessions
government officials were also a problem, as they sold Indian and 67 maps outlining those land
cessions as the second part of the
patents of tribal lands to non-natives. Tribal land (reservations) Treaties two-part Eighteenth Annual
was valuable for different reasons. Some lands had rich timber Report of the Bureau of American
If you ask somebody what the Ethnology to the Secretary of the
resources, others good for farms. Some lands were valuable for Smithsonian Institution,
most important document for them 1896-1897. Part two was also
the growing railways across the country. But the fact America’s
as a U.S. citizen is, many would printed as House Document No.
population was exploding and white settlers needed land was the 736 of the U.S. Serial Set, 56th
answer “the Constitution”. But for Congress, 1st Session. These two
most prominent reason tribal people became alienated from their
maps of Michigan show how the
indigenous people, many would
homelands. treaties effected land ownership of
answer “the treaties”. Treaties native tribes in 1795 and then
again in 1854.

37
Library of Congress
directly impacted tribal communities with regard to economics, the legal means of acquiring millions of acres. The civilization
land use, right to self government and natural resource use. The policy of natives would go beyond treaties and onto the children
United States engaged in over 600 treaties with tribes across the as well.
United States, from 1778-1883. Not all tribes were party to
The Civilization Policies
treaties and some tribes were involved in multiple treaties, with
multiple tribes. Treaties reserved land, resources, rights and As the United States grew in the 19th century, so did its handling
created a trust relationship between the tribes and federal of tribes. As land bases shrunk for tribes, their subjection to
government. But treaties were many times not honored by the American rule became more prevalent. Tribes would continue to
United States and created problems for tribal communities. Some fight American expansion west of the Mississippi River after the
treaties did end wars between tribes and the United States but War of 1812 but with each losing battle to the United States, the
the vast majority were land acquisitions from tribes. The majority force of American law was inescapable. A large part of this law
of treaties were made during the 1800s. In Michigan, the Odawa, was the civilization policies for tribes. The prevailing thought
Ojibway and Potawatomi signed multiple treaties, in order to among American officials during the 1800s was that tribes were
avoid forced removal from their lands, to retain access to natural “uncivilized” “barbaric” and “heathen” in nature. Thus, it was the
resources and reserve lands for themselves. duty of the American society to “enlighten” the tribes and bring
them into a civilized state. This “civilized” state was that of the
Michigan tribes made treaties between 1795-1864. Chiefs from
Americans, which had a huge emphasis on individual land
individual villages would represent their communities with these
ownership, western education, Christianity, American
negotiations with the United States. Sometimes tribes did not
appearance, English as the primary language, capitalism and
always see eye to eye on the terms spelled out in the treaty. Many
farming. Thus it became illegal for tribes to practice their
treaties were made under extreme pressure as well. If a tribe did
traditional religions and access to sacred areas became forbidden
not sign the treaty, it was very possible the U.S. army would
under private land ownership. Private land ownership also
remove them by force. Or the tribe would lose out on securing a
drastically altered the traditional use of land in hunting and
land base for future generations and monies, if they did not sign.
fishing. Natives began to mirror the appearance of Americans, in
Treaties were part of a federal policy to civilize natives. The U.S.
order to assimilate into society. Hair was cut, tattooing ceased,
government thought that if natives owned small tracts of lands,
piercings taken out, body painting stopped and American clothes
they would become farmers; not hunters. Also, treaties provided

38
became the norm. By the 1880s, the government deemed that Three assimilation schools were established in Michigan:
the natives were still not “civilized”, even though many were Baraga, Mt. Pleasant and Harbor Springs. Some children were
farmers, worked the same jobs as whites and attended church. taken away from their families by government officials, others
The government argued that as long as family units stayed were sent away by parents that felt it was their only choice as
together, kids were still learning traditions at the home, speaking regular public schools wouldn’t allow their children to attend with
their native language and thus, not fully becoming civilized. The white children.
answer, according to the federal government, was to take the
According to the Library of Congress, “To make Indian children
children directly out of the home and place them in institutions
patriotic and productive citizens, government-run boarding
where it was forbidden to practice anything native. These
schools, reservation boarding schools and day schools were
institutions were boarding schools.
introduced. These schools strictly adhered to the speaking of only
Boarding Schools the English language. They were conducted with military-like
schedules and discipline, and emphasized farming and other
The US government established boarding schools in the late 19th
manual skills. The daily schedule was split between academics
century with the goal of assimilating native youth into while
and vocational training. By 1893, such education for Indian
culture by stripping them of their own culture, tradition and ways
children was mandatory. The Bureau of Indian Affairs ceased to
of worship. Roughly 100 schools were established in the US.
support this form of education in the 1920s. Complaints about
The largest and most infamous was the school established by
costs, substandard living conditions, poor medical care, and poor
Richard Pratt in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. His sentiments below
teaching practices contributed to the demise of this strict,
were widely followed by many Americans at the time.
mandatory program.”

The schools trained the children to become laborers. They were

"A great general has said that the only good Indian is a dead
one," Pratt said. "In a sense, I agree with the sentiment, but only taught to become domestic and manual laborers and were not
in this: that all the Indian there is in the race should be dead. Kill given the option of becoming professionals like lawyers, teachers
the Indian in him, and save the man." or doctors. They were not taught to become leaders.

39
Indian Training School in Chemawa, Oregon. Boarding school students learned skills that the American teachers believed
would benefit the students in an Americanized way of life. (www.edb.utexas.edu)

Primary Source Activity

The Library of Congress has many documents to explore the

education and assimilation of Native peoples in America from the
late 1800s-1920s. Students can explore… Before and After: Tom Torino, Navajo youth who entered the Carlisle Boarding School in
Pennsylvania.
• legal government documents

• annual reports
• photographs Discussion Questions for Classrooms
• short film clips
• What does it mean to be civilized? How are civilized persons different from uncivilized persons?
• first hand accounts
•Who decides who is civilized and who is not?
• a musical performance and battle demonstration • From what you know about the Indians living in North America before the Europeans arrived, were they
civilized? By whose standards?
Use these sources to compare and contrast the mixed messages • Look at the "before and after" photo of Tom Torino (above). Tom was a Navajo youth who entered Carlisle
that are in these materials.
Boarding School. Ask the students if you think Tom is more civilized in the "after" photo. Why or why not?

40
 American Indian Boarding Schools Haunt Many

The civilization polices carried on well in to the 20th century for Native American Names for National Parks
native people in the United States. The last boarding school to
Native American boarding schools have nearly killed Michigan’s
close its doors in the United States was the Holy Childhood of
native language
Jesus Indian School, Harbor Springs, Mi. This institution ceased
operation in 1983. Other civilization policies that went well into Our Spirits Don’t Speak English
the late 1900s were the inability for tribal people to practice their
religion. This was reversed in 1978 with the Indian Religious White Bison Website

Freedom act. Even further into the 20th century is the Native
American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990. This
law enabled tribes to reclaim ancestral human remains and
sacred items.

Tribes would advocate for their civil rights throughout the 20th
century, which in turn reversed many of the archaic civilization
policies of the 19th century. As women, African-American and
other minority groups advocated for their personal freedoms, so
did the tribes of the United States. But the civilization policies had
devastating effects on tribes, particularly when it comes to land
loss and loss of culture, religion and heritage. Many tribes are
working diligently to recover language, ceremonies and sacred
areas today.

Additional Links and Resources

41
Chapter 2

How effective was the

Progressive Movement
at solving America’s
problems?

What challenges did American society face?

How did Americans respond to these challenges?

What were the goals of reformers?

Section 1

Introduction to Progressive Society

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY During the end of the

1. What challenges did American society 1800s, society had
face? changed dramatically

2. How did Americans respond to these

as a result of the
challenges? Industrial Revolution.
Cities had grown and
3. What were the goals of reformers?
the demographics of
Terms, Places, People
the American
Muckraker population had
The Progressive Era become increasingly
diverse. Although the
Triangle Shirtwaist Company
economic gains were
The Jungle
substantial, this came
Jacob Riis at a significant social
Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/
Jane Addams cost. The nation Mulberry_Street,_New_York_City_(LOC_det.4a08193).jpg

began to struggle with

Hull House
issues of unemployment, dangerous working conditions, and political corruption.
The Meat Inspection Act
Although private citizens had long been making attempts to reform these issues,
The Food and Drug Administration many began to feel that an increased role of government would be necessary to
effectively address the nation’s problems.

43
 Gallery 2.1 Muckraking
Muckrakers

Many Americans that

shared concerns
about society began
to focus on initiating
change. Individuals
began to investigate
the problems
Image source: http://historyofjournalism.onmason.com/files/2009/12/
trtoonmuck1-300x200.jpg plaguing the nation
and to publicize
those results to draw attention to issues such as working and Image source: http://www.muson.info/images/5780pbx39ff18o.jpg

living conditions. Many hoped that by drawing attention to the

horrors they had witnessed, citizens would feel compelled to act
and pressure their legislators for change. Journalists during this How are the articles in the gallery above
period were well known for their attempts to alert the public to the examples of Muckraking?
wrongdoings occurring within society. President Theodore
Roosevelt called these writers muckrakers. He took the term Interactive 2.1 The
from a story called Pilgrim’s Progress in which the character was Muckrakers
so busy raking filth on earth that he never lifted his eyes to
heaven. The nickname was earned largely because these
journalists uncovered the nation’s problems and wrote about
them. Americans read startling accounts from the muckrakers,
and many began to feel inspired to take action by joining reform
organizations. Because numerous groups sought to bring
positive change and progress in society, this period of American Review the following quotes from
history from 1890 to 1920 is known as the Progressive Era. Muckrakers and determine if the
issues they are exposing are
social, political, economic, or 44
cultural challenges.
 Poor Living and Working Conditions tragedy of the Triangle Shirtwaist Interactive 2.4 The Triangle
Company is just one example. On Shirtwaist Factory
Interactive 2.2 Crash The United States became an
March 25, 1911, a fire started on the
Course - The Progressive increasingly urban nation as jobs
Era eighth floor of the Triangle Shirtwaist
attracted migrants to cities.
Company in New York City. Because
Industrialization brought many
many of the exit doors were locked
changes to American life such as
to prevent employee theft, 146
advances in technology,
people were dead within eighteen
communication, transportation, and
minutes. Firefighter’s ladders were Watch a video describing the
economic growth. It also brought Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire.
several stories too short to perform a
new challenges to those individuals
rescue and the water from their hoses
Learn more about the Progressive seeking opportunities, with many
could not reach the top floors, forcing many to choose to jump to
Era in this video from Crash urban laborers living in poverty and
Course their deaths rather than to burn alive. This tragedy highlighted the
working in grueling conditions.
inhuman working conditions to which many industrial workers
As factories began to increase production, many of the jobs that were subjected. Many
were available to urban citizens were unskilled manufacturing What potential problems can you
identify in the Triangle Shirtwaist Interactive 2.3 The Triangle
positions. Factory work was often repetitive and straining.
Factory that may have contributed to Shirtwaist Factory
According to one worker, “Life in a factory where any textile the death of so many workers?
industry is carried on is perhaps, with the exception of prison life,
the most monotonous life a human being can live.” Factory work
Search the website and locate two
could also often be dangerous. In an attempt to maximize profits, sources that corroborate your findings
employers were often willing to cut corners on safety. Working above. Discuss how your sources
support your conclusions.
conditions were often hazardous and negatively impacted the
health and safety of employees. Many urban workers labored
What recommendations would you Use this website to answer the
with dangerous machinery, breathed in harmful chemicals and make to the state of New York in order questions in the blue box.
dust, or worked in buildings with no codes for fire safety. The to ensure worker safety in the future?

45
employees were also forced to work long hours (14-16 hours social groups with other people from their homeland. It was a
daily) at low wages, and the right to unionize to advocate for safe place for immigrants where they felt comfortable, especially
worker rights and safety were often restricted. in the face of threats from whites. How well immigrants adjusted
depended upon their ability to learn English, adapt to American
Poor workers in the cities had difficulty obtaining housing and
ways of life, and marketable work skills. If they were deficient in
often had to cram many families into one apartment in order to
any of these areas, it became even more important to settle
get by. These cramped living spaces were often rundown, and
among other members of their own group where they could get
illness would spread quickly. These buildings were called
help.
tenements and often housed poor immigrants. Jacob Riis
described a typical tenement as “one or two dark closets, used
as bedrooms, with a living room twelve feet by ten.” Not only
were the tenements crowded, but the buildings themselves were
crammed together. As these neighborhoods became rundown
and developed into areas of poverty, they became known as
slums. These areas were densely populated and housing was
often dirty, unsanitary, and crowded. Lack of fire protection
posed a serious danger, and many of the buildings lacked indoor
plumbing so that waste often ended up in the streets. Because of
the poor sanitation and crowded conditions, diseases such as
tuberculosis and pneumonia often spread quickly through the
tenements and slums. Some urban neighborhoods became
ghettos, or areas where a particular ethnic or racial group
dominated. Immigrants often moved to the cities where they Image source: https://yom11.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/tenements.jpg

could find jobs, which usually meant lower wages and poor
Increased production often meant that more goods were
working conditions. Usually they would settle in neighborhoods
available, but it did not necessarily ensure that these products
with members of their ethnic group (i.e. Little Italy in New York
were safe. Quality was not regulated and consumers often did
City). There they could speak their native language and form
not know what was in the products they were buying. In the 1906
46
novel, The Jungle, Upton Sinclair revealed the unsanitary many people faced was shocking Interactive 2.5 Jacob Riis
conditions of the meatpacking industry: to a lot of Americans. He hoped
that by exposing these conditions,
“There would be meat stored in great piles in rooms; and the
he could generate public support
water from leaky roofs would drip over it, and thousands of rats
for change. Riis used
would race about on it. It was too dark in these storage places to
photographs to show the
see well, but a man could run his hand over these piles of meat
conditions of tenements and, as a
and sweep off handfuls of the dried dung of rats. These rats were
result of his work, New York
nuisances, and the packers would put poisoned bread out for Learn more about the work of
passed some of the nation’s first Jacob Riis.
them; they would die, and then rats, bread, and meat would go
laws to improve tenements.
into the hoppers together.”
Urban churches also became interested in providing services and
Not only did toxic chemicals contaminate many processed foods,
assistance to those in poverty. The reform movement that
but even common medicines were unregulated. Substances
developed within religious institutions became known as the
such as morphine and opium were not prohibited, though their
social gospel movement. Religious organizations sought to apply
risks would eventually become apparent. Many consumers
Christian ethics to society and focused on the ideals of charity
believed these medicines would cure their illnesses, only to find
and justice. In many cases this was applied to labor reform, such
that instead they would grapple with drug addiction.
as trying to improve the living conditions for all workers and

Reforms address the problem of income inequality. Many put the social
gospel into practice in a new program called the settlement
Some reformers worked to improve the lives of those living in movement. Young reformers would move into the middle of poor
urban poverty. Jacob Riis, a native of Denmark, personally neighborhoods and offer social services. The concept behind this
experienced the terrible conditions under which many Americans movement was that only through living near those in need and
lived. He began writing about his experiences while investigating witnessing the effects of poverty firsthand, could reformers begin
tenement slums filled with immigrant families. He eventually to understand and address the problem.
completed a book about what he had seen called How the Other
Half Lives. His coverage and exposure of the abject poverty that

47
 One famous settlement house was established by Jane Addams. and legal aid, and provided a health-care clinic. Settlement
She established the settlement house in a poor neighborhood in houses like Hull House sprang up across the United States. Most
Chicago in 1889, and soon Hull House became an inspiration to of these homes were funded by donations and run by
other settlement houses across the country. Jane Addams missionaries or volunteers who would work for low wages. Many
believed that the way to understand poverty was to be immersed were women college graduates who have been excluded from
in it. She offered help when needed to individuals and tried to other professions. The women running these homes would
anticipate and respond to the needs of the whole community. provide services such as medical care, recreation programs,
Hull House had cultural events, classes, exhibits, childcare, English classes, and hot lunches for factory workers. Women
playgrounds, clubs, summer camps, assisted with employment were instrumental in these homes since work outside of charity
was frowned upon for women.

In response to Upton Sinclair’s report about the meatpacking

industry, government began to adopt legislation to address
concerns about sanitation and safety of consumer products.
The Meat Inspection Act was passed in 1906 and brought
reforms to the processing of animals destined for human
consumption. All animals were required to pass inspection prior
to slaughter and cleanliness standards were established to
prevent poor quality livestock and products from being sold as
food. This law helped to ensure that meat products were
slaughtered and processed under sanitary conditions. The Pure
Food and Drug Act was also passed in 1906 and created the
Food and Drug Administration, which was entrusted with the
responsibility of testing foods and drugs destined for human
consumption. The law also required prescriptions be written by
licensed physicians before a patient could purchase certain
drugs, and that label warnings should be included on habit-
Jane Addams at Hull House Image source: http://nedstuckeyfrench.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/Jane_Addams.jpg
48
forming drugs. Challenges for Women and Children

Because families struggled economically, many children were

Interactive 2.6 Pure Food
and Drug Act and the Food forced to work in order to help the family get by. This meant that
and Drug Administration young children were often working instead of attending school.
Children often worked long hours in factories, mines, and
sweatshops. According to John Spargo, “I could not do that
work and live, but there were boys of ten and twelve years of age
doing it for fifty and sixty cents a day. Some of them had never
been inside of a school; few of them could read a child’s primer.”
Employers had no issue taking on extremely young children who
could work for low wages.
How has the Food and Drug
Administration evolved since its
creation? Look at the items The role of women began to change during the Progressive Era,
regulated under the Pure Food
with a growing number of women beginning to work outside the
and Drug Act versus what the
Food and Drug Administration home. Some of these workers were women that provided
regulates today.
unskilled factory labor. Others with some education might find
skilled work as nurses or teachers. Many of these women were
exploited and found it difficult to make ends meet. For those
women that had lost their husbands or been abandoned, it was
especially difficult to be the sole income responsible for caring for
their children. Other women experienced abuse at the hands of
their husbands, who might drink the family income away or act
violently towards their wives. Women had limited rights and
opportunities, and in many cases were forced to accept their
situation. However, many would begin to take on the role of
reformer in order to improve their lives and the nation as a whole.

49
 led to physical abuse and sickness. Employers believed that
it hurt worker efficiency while political reformers viewed
saloons as placed that could breed corruption. Largely, it was
women that led the crusade and sought to reduce the
consumption of alcohol. The Women’s Christian
Temperance Union became a strong force in lobbying for
laws to restrict alcohol and educating citizens about the
social ills associated with alcoholic consumption. Eventually
their temperance movement would yield results with the
passage of the 18th amendment, which established
prohibition, or a ban on the manufacture and sale of alcoholic
beverages.

With more women entering the workforce and becoming

Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division
involved in reform activities, a cultural shift began to occur as
well as the expectations of women evolved. Many women
Many people saw alcohol as a problem within family life and began to support the spread of information about birth control, a
society as a whole. Some began to call for a moderation in campaign led by Margaret Sanger. She supported giving women
drinking habits, and the temperance movement (an organized more control over pregnancies, especially those in poverty that
campaign against alcoholic consumption) began to grow. While could not afford to care for more children. Sanger believed that
some wanted restraint in the consumption of alcohol, others women, to gain more equal footing in society and have healthier
wanted to ban alcohol altogether. Part of this was due to the fact lives, needed to be able to have more information about
that many men spent their time in saloons, partly because it was reproduction and control of it. She argued that the standard of
an opportunity to socialize but also because it was a source of living could be improved if families were able to limit the number
job information. The fear was that this behavior could greatly of children in the family unit. These ideas were shocking to more
undermine morals and that it caused many problems in American traditional Americans, and Sanger was arrested for distributing
life: scarce wages were spent on alcohol, and drinking sometimes information about contraception.
50
Since women and children were workers, labor issues were very
Interactive 2.7 Progressive
important to progressive women. Florence Kelley was a strong Reforms
voice for labor reform that championed government regulation to
help protect women and children in the workplace. She went on
to investigate sweatshops and became the first female factory
inspector, largely because many other public officials wouldn’t
enter the sweatshops for fear of contracting disease that infected
the tenements. She successfully lobbied for laws in Illinois
prohibiting child labor, limiting working hours for women, and
Match the images in this widget
regulating conditions of sweatshops - and was placed in charge with the problems of the
of enforcing them. When she became frustrated by the district Progressive Era. Determine on a
separate sheet of paper which
attorney’s failure to prosecute cases, she went on to earn a law were short term solutions and
which were long term solutions.
degree so that she could effectively enforce these laws by taking Be prepared to discuss the
action herself. Florence Kelley also fought to protect women and rationale for your choice.

children through the National Consumers League. This

organization was formed to unite local consumers’ leagues,
where women investigated the conditions under which products
were made and sold. They encouraged people to purchase
goods only from businesses that did not use child labor and
insisted that factories follow inspection laws. Kelley also
spearheaded an effort to create a federal children’s bureau that
would support legislation to benefit children in the workplace. In
1912, Congress created the Children’s Bureau and appointed
Julia Lathrop as the head - the first woman to head a federal
agency.

51
Section 2

Women’s Suffrage

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Winning suffrage--the right to vote, had been a major focus of women reformers
1. What challenges did American society since 1848 at the Women’s Rights Convention at Seneca Falls. There Elizabeth
face? Cady Stanton read the “Declaration of Sentiments” which was patterned after

2. How did Americans respond to these the Declaration of Independence. It declared that all men and women are created
challenges? equal and demanded suffrage, or the right to vote, for women. While the
movement had been strong and well-organized, the passage of the 14th and 15th
3. What were the goals of reformers?
amendments that granted the right to vote to African-American men, actually split
Terms, Places, People
the women’s movement. While many suffragists supported efforts to gain suffrage
suffrage for African-American men, others did not because
Declaration of Sentiments women hadn’t been included in the push for Interactive 2.8 The
suffrage. In the meantime, adult women were still Declaration of Sentiments
Lucretia Mott
treated much the same way as children had been.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
They could not vote, they could be beaten by their
Susan B. Anthony husbands, and they could not own property in their
own names. A “cult of domesticity” emerged in
which women’s special sphere was the home. Her
main focus was to maintain an orderly home and
raise children. By 1890, female reformers, mostly
Read the Declaration of
white and upper class, began to challenge the social Sentiments here at this website
from NPS.GOV
and political structure. Early reformers, such as
Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan

52
 Susan B. Anthony was featured B. Anthony worked to further the territory. Other western states soon followed. By 1890, most
on a dollar coin minted from 1979 cause of women’s civil rights. states had even recognized the right of woman to own and
to 1981 and then again briefly in Other feminists, such as Dr. control property after marriage.
1999. The coins were not very
Elizabeth Blackwell, Sarah and
popular with the public due in Women gained valuable experience working on other social
Angelina Grimké, Lucy Stone,
large part to their similarity in movements, such as temperance (anti-drinking), that they could
and Amelia Bloomer, challenged
size and composition to the use to help them in their fight for suffrage. Notably, however,
quarter. Anthony was known as the gender roles they felt were
NAWSA and other women’s organizations of the time period
a fearless crusader for women’s forced on them by society.
mostly excluded black women. They felt that taking on issues of
rights, including illegally voting in
an 1872 senatorial election. She The National American Woman race would handicap their efforts. So black woman created their
was tried and convicted, but she Suffrage Association (NAWSA) own associations. Ida B. Wells-Barnett launched an anti-lynching
ultimately never paid the $100 was formed in 1890 by women’s campaign and pushed for what eventually became the National
fine. rights pioneers such as Stanton Association of Colored Women in 1896.
and Anthony. However, by 1900
a new generation of women had
Interactive 2.9 Women’s
taken over the fight. Most Suffrage
notably, Carrie Chapman Catt
changed from making
arguments emphasizing the
equality of men and women to
making arguments emphasizing that the vote would allow women
to better fulfill their traditional role as caretakers for their families
by having a voice in debates over issues such as public health
Learn more about when Suffrage
and education. This new strategy of linking suffrage to traditional was enacted in several states
gender roles lead to some gains for the movement, particularly in through this interactive widget.

the West. Wyoming, which became known as “the Equality

State,” granted full voting rights to women in 1869 while still a

53
Despite all of the efforts of women’s suffrage groups, only four did not approve of their tactics, they were still outraged that these
states had granted women the right to vote by 1900. Between women were being abused and force-fed in jail.
1910 and 1912, women in Washington, California, Oregon,
The efforts of the NWP served to make groups like NAWSA look
Kansas, and Arizona gained the ballot, while women in Michigan,
reasonable by comparison. It was a combination of the different
Ohio, and Wisconsin were thwarted in their cause. This led some
efforts of groups, such as NAWSA and NWP, and the efforts of
suffragettes, most prominently Alice Paul and Lucy Burns, to
patriotic women who worked tirelessly to support the war effort
advocate for the use of more daring tactics. After witnessing
that finally gained passage of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1919
firsthand the radical tactics used by British suffragettes, they
originally worked with NAWSA, but felt that its state-by-state
approach and insistence on ladylike behavior was limiting the
pace of the movement. Paul had formed the Congressional
Union within NAWSA to aid the work of NAWSA’s Congressional
Committee, which Paul was in charge of. When a rift developed
between the Congressional Union and NAWSA leadership over
tactics and use of funds raised by the group, they parted ways in
1913.

In 1916, Paul and Burns formed the National Woman’s Party

(NWP) as a single issue party, and that issue was women’s
suffrage. They focused their efforts in Washington, DC pushing
for a national amendment. Early on, it was decided that the NWP
http://0.tqn.com/d/womenshistory/1/S/m/h/2/awakening_cartoon_1a.jpg
would not endorse any candidate, but they were very critical of
the Democrats as they were currently the party in power. Unlike
their British counterparts, they decided not to put their
According to the cartoon, where did women experience
campaign on hold in order to support the World War I effort.
early success in gaining suffrage? (the right to vote)
They picketed the White House and, when they were arrested
for it, they attempted a hunger strike. While many Americans

54
and its ratification in August 1920. In November 1920 women Interactive 2.10
across the United States, including Carrie Chapman Catt and Comparing Women
Alice Paul, cast their first ballots for the first time in a presidential
election.

Can you tell these two suffragists

apart?

Interactive 2.11 Crash

Course Women’s Suffrage

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Handicapped!
Want to learn more? John Green
_Women%27s_suffrage_poster,_1910s.jpg
has you covered!

What argument does this cartoon make about why

women should have the right to vote?

55
Section 3

Discrimination in Progressive Society

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY African Americans Face Discrimination

1. What challenges did American society
As former slaves entered the job market, they competed for scarce jobs which
face?
drew hostility. African Americans faced both discrimination and violence. The
2. How did Americans respond to these
Great Migration brought many to northern cities in search of new opportunities,
challenges?
but no matter where African Americans lived they would continue to face the
3. What were the goals of reformers? challenge of inequality.
Terms, Places, People

Booker T. Washington

Grandfather Clause

Jim Crow
Interactive 2.12 The Great
Literacy Test
Migration
Lynching

NAACP

Niagara Movement

Poll Tax

Tuskegee Institute

W.E.B. DuBois
For more information about the
Great Migration, look here!

https://tedu556.wikispaces.com/file/view/1910.gif/32096225/1910.gif 56
After the end of Reconstruction, African Americans began to see Many states also adopted a system of legal segregation called
many of their new freedoms disappear. Southerners were Jim Crow. Although this system of separation was used in the
concerned African Americans would gain too much political north, it was more prevalent in the south and more firmly
power by voting and began using tactics to deny them the vote. established. The laws required the separation of races in all
One strategy was requiring voters to own property and pay a poll aspects of life including schools, public buildings, parks,
tax, or a special fee that had to be paid before voting. Because hospitals, transportation, and water fountains. Facilities for
this was often beyond the financial reach of African Americans, it African Americans were almost always inferior. This policy of
effectively kept them from the polls. Voters were also required to separation was cemented by the United States Supreme Court,
pass a literacy test, in which they had to demonstrate a who established the principle of separate but equal in the case of
minimum standard of knowledge. These tests were designed to Plessy v. Ferguson. This was one of the greatest setbacks to
keep African Americans from voting, and often they were given American equality by ruling that the Fourteenth Amendment,
more difficult tests than white voters. To ensure that the literacy which contains the equal protection clause, was “not intended to
tests did not keep too many whites from voting, many states give Negroes social equality but only political and civil equality.”
adopted grandfather clauses. A grandfather clause exempts a
group of people from obeying
a law provided they met Interactive 2.13 Literacy
certain conditions before the Tests
law was passed. In the case
of voting in the south, these
clauses would exempt men
from voting restrictions if they
had previously voted or their
ancestors had, prior to black
suffrage. Therefore, African
Would YOU be able to pass a
Americans would not be literacy test? Find out here!
exempt from the literacy tests.

http://www.teachingushistory.org/images/JimCrowPic3.jpg
57
The facts of the case involved Homer Plessy, an African African Americans not only experienced discrimination in their
American that was arrested for sitting in the “white” car on a daily lives, but violence as well. One of the worst crimes was
railroad despite segregation laws stating that African Americans lynching, when a mob illegally seizes and executes a person.
must ride in a separate car. Plessy argued that the equal Sometimes victims were suspected criminals, but often they
protection of laws was violated by the Louisiana law that required were innocent people in the wrong place at the wrong time.
separate seating on public railroads. When the court ruled Sometimes lynchings would include a mock trial, torture, or even
against Plessy, they established the concept that segregation (or mutilation before the victim was hanged and shot. Those that
separation of the races) was legal as long as the separate committed these crimes were rarely pursued or caught, and it
facilities for whites and blacks were equal. was even more rare for individuals to be punished.

Interactive 2.14 The Rise

and Fall of Jim Crow Interactive 2.15 Jim Crow
(PBS.ORG) Narratives

Use the interactive map to identify Listen to personal narratives from

examples of Jim Crow laws. individuals that experienced Jim
Crow firsthand. What challenges
did these individuals face?

1. What laws most disturbed you? Why?

2.What law surprised you the most? Why?

3. Why types of laws seemed most common? Why do

you think so?
58
Many African Americans began to move north, both to escape Confronting Inequality
discrimination and to seek out job opportunities in the cities.
As African Americans struggled with the challenges of
Although legal segregation was not prevalent in the north, de
discrimination, leaders emerged to offer different approaches to
facto discrimination was. This meant that people were separated
address the problems of inequality. One strong leader that
“by fact” rather than by law. Schools, neighborhoods, and
employment were segregated even though law did not mandate emerged was W.E.B. DuBois. He argued for political and social

it. As African Americans began to compete with whites for equality for African Americans. He believed in educating Africans

employment, and white fears of racial equality grew, this could Americans so they could become leaders of thought. Dubois

sometimes erupt into race riots. For example, the Springfield Riot wrote “I insist that the object of all true education is not to make

in Illinois began when the authorities refused to release a black men carpenters, it is to make carpenters men; there are two

prisoner charged with rape to a mob of white citizens. means of making the carpenter a man … The Talented Tenth of

Thousands of whites attacked, looted, and burned black the Negro race must be made leaders of thought and

businesses and homes throughout the city. The militia was called missionaries of culture among their people.” He emphasized

in to get the mob under control and establish order once again. pride for both African and American heritage and sought
brotherhood with whites. In 1905 he established the Niagara
Movement, which called for full civil liberties, an end to
Interactive 2.16 The Rise
discrimination, and a recognition of brotherhood. Eventually
Review the interactive map: and Fall of Jim Crow
(PBS.ORG) W.E.B. DuBois would go on to work as a publications director for
What trends can you discover
the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.
in terms of causes of the riots?
The NAACP worked primarily through the courts to strive for the
equal rights of African Americans and achieve an end to
segregation. In addition to their legal work, they would protest
lynching and other violence against African Americans. This
organization would remain an essential force in achieving civil
rights for African American citizens in the following decades.
Use the interactive map to identify
examples of Jim Crow laws.

59
Another African American leader Interactive 2.17 NAACP Progressivism and African Americans
that emerged was Booker T.
Washington, an African Many African Americans felt ignored by the Progressives. Only
American educator. He founded the small group of Progressives that helped start the NAACP
the Tuskegee Institute, which was made addressing deteriorating race relations in the United States
a vocational school for African a priority. Limited action was taken by government to address
Americans in the south. He problems of racial inequality and discrimination in the United
believed that African Americans States. As a result, African Americans would continue to struggle
Explore the NAACP website and with segregation, discrimination, violence, and limited voting
should gain respect and status by identify the issues they are
working their way up in society. addressing today. How are these rights for years to come.
challenges similar to and different
Washington taught his students from those faced during the
Progressive Era?
skills that he felt would help them
Interactive 2.18 You
to be successful. His focus was on Decide: Booker T.
the economic condition, and he believed that political and social Washington or W.E.B.
DuBois?
equality would follow. Washington said in a speech, “Cast down
your bucket where you are’ – cast it down … in agriculture,
mechanics, in commerce, in domestic service, and in the
professions. No race can prosper till it learns that there is as
much dignity in tilling a field as in writing a poem. In all things
that are purely social we can be as separate as the fingers, yet
one as the hand in all things essential to mutual progress.”
Because Booker T. Washington advocated for patience over
more radical solutions, he relieved many whites that worried that
educated African Americans would seek more equality. His
strategy is sometimes called accommodation because he called
on African Americans to adapt themselves to the limits imposed
by white society.
60
Section 4

Progressives Push for Political Reform

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Many Progressives believed that the government would need to take on a larger
1. What challenges did American society role to help combat the nation’s problems, whether this be in regulating economic
face? activity or an increasing responsibility for human welfare. Many Progressives

2. How did Americans respond to these

hoped to see government develop more social welfare programs to ensure a basic
challenges? standard of living for Americans. As reformers looked to government for action
and support, their demands for change led to much legislation and reforms at all
3. What were the goals of reformers?
levels of government.
Terms, Places, People

16th Amendment Local Government

17th Amendment Political Corruption. During the Progressive Era, corrupt political machines ran
18th Amendment many local governments and bribery to obtain votes was commonplace. A
political machine is an informal political group designed to gain and keep power
Direct Primary
and led by a powerful party “boss”. Party bosses would often provide necessities
Federal Reserve System
such as jobs, housing, food, heat, and police protection to citizens in exchange for
Initiative votes. Tammany Hall was a well-known political machine in New York led by
Political machine William Marcy Tweed. “Boss” Tweed would often use bribes to obtain votes,
though he was eventually arrested for corruption and sent to prison. In other
Progressive Tax
instances of corruption, politicians were often paid to look the other way
Recall
concerning certain business practices. Many wealthy entrepreneurs used their
Referendum economic advantages to obtain political ones. Businessmen dominating important
Tammany Hall

61
 industries often used their power and influence to bribe politicians Reform began at the local or city level because it was easier to
to pass laws that would benefit them. implement than at the vast state or national level. Progressives
focused on electing mayors that would support and implement
their reforms. Municipal reformers were opposed to the influence
of political bosses and argued that public service jobs should be
filled based on merit instead of favors. Reformers hoped to
weaken the control of political machines, which were seen as
corrupt and often aligned themselves with the interests of big
business. Because urban corruption from political machines
was a major focus, reformers began the process of reorganizing
local government using the commissioner and city-manager
styles of governance. A city commissioner was an expert in a
particular field charged with running a single aspect of city
government (i.e. sanitation commissioner in charge of garbage
and sewage removal). A city manager was a professional hired
(based on merit rather than favors) to run each department of
http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/art/common/image/Ga_cartoon_38_00392.htm the city and report directly to the city council. Cities also began
to work to end monopolies by taking control of utilities (water,
Political Cartoon Analysis
gas, electricity) so they could ensure more affordable services.
1. Describe the objects or people in the cartoon. Some cities even began to support welfare services such as
work relief, parks, and schools.
2. What symbols can you identify? What do they represent?
What issue is this political cartoon about? State Government

3. What is the cartoonist’s opinion or message on this issue? Reform of the electoral process, which increasingly had become
controlled by political machines, was another priority of the
Progressive agenda. Progressives sought to promote wider

62
citizen participation in the electoral process. This would include progressive taxation, which would place Interactive 2.19
forms of direct democracy that would give citizens more power. the burden of taxes on the wealthy. LaFollette’s Views
One example was the direct primary, an election where voters “Battling Bob” would also stand up to
cast ballots to select nominees for upcoming elections, which the railroads by forming a commission to
ensured that voters could pick candidates for office rather than regulate their rates and increasing taxes
party bosses. Progressive reformers also successfully lobbied for on the railroads. State reformers also
the direct election of United States senators, achieving this goal worked to implement laws for improved
through the 17th amendment. This replaced the former system worker conditions and safety, such as an
in which members of the U.S. Senate were chosen by each eight-hour workday and increased fire
Some of LaFollette’s views are still
legislature. Many states passed laws allowing the initiative, where safety regulations. debates occurring today. Where
do you fall on these issues?
citizens could propose new laws by getting a percentage of
National Government
voters’ signatures on a petition. Their proposed law would be
place on a ballot and put before voters in the next election. The The efforts of the Progressives extended far beyond the local and
referendum process also allowed for more citizen participation by state levels, and into the national level where the result was
letting citizens demand via petition that a law passed by the legislative and even constitutional changes. The social problems
legislature be sent to voters for their approval. Reformers in of the era seemed so complex that many Progressives believed
many states also pushed through systems to allow for the recall only the federal government was large enough to respond
(or removal) of elected officials. All of these changes were effectively. Trusts and monopolies were regulated under
implemented to provide people a greater and more direct legislation such as the Sherman and Clayton Acts. Consumer
connection with their government. safety was guaranteed under laws such as the Meat Inspection
Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act. A new Labor Department
Progressive governors such as Theodore Roosevelt of New York
was created to investigate and pursue labor abuses of women
and Robert LaFollette of Wisconsin helped get reforms passed in
and children. Lands were set aside for preservation and
their respective states. As governor, LaFollette championed state
conservation through the National Reclamation Act and creation
level changes such as a worker’s compensation system. This
of the National Park Service. Finally, reformers wanted
would make it easier for workers to collect payment for workplace
government to stabilize the banking system. The Federal Reserve
accidents. LaFollette also pushed for a minimum wage and

63
Act created the Federal Reserve System, or central bank of the
United States. The “Fed” would offer a safety net to private
banks, set policies concerning the amount of money in
circulation, and control lending by setting interest rates.

The nation passed the 16th amendment, which created a federal

income tax. Up until this point, the national government had
relied on tariffs (tax on imports) as their primary source of
revenue, which pushed up the prices of goods bought by the
working poor. The new federal tax on income would be a
progressive tax, which places a higher rate of taxation on those
with high incomes than those with low incomes.The 17th
amendment expanded democracy by allowing voters instead of
state legislators to elect U.S. Senators. Finally, the 18th
amendment would be the result of pressure from the temperance
movement which resulted in prohibition, or the ban on the sale
and manufacture of alcohol. Many thought this amendment
would protect society from the poverty and violence associated
with drinking, but it would prove to be very controversial.

64
Section 5

Progressive Era Presidents

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Roosevelt

1. What challenges did American society
Teddy Roosevelt was born into a wealthy New York family, but was often sick as a
face?
child. He got his start in politics in the New York State Assembly before becoming
2. How did Americans respond to these
police commissioner of New York City, then governor of New York, secretary of the
challenges?
Navy, Vice President of the United States, and eventually President upon the
3. What were the goals of reformers?
untimely death of President William McKinley.
Terms, Places, People
The political bosses in New York believed they could get rid of him by moving him
Tariff
up to the vice presidency. However, when McKinley died, Roosevelt suddenly
Teddy Roosevelt became the most powerful man in the country.
trust buster

Square Deal
Interactive 2.20 How did
William Howard Taft Teddy Bears Get Their
Names?
Woodrow Wilson

Clayton Antitrust Act

Find out here!

65
Roosevelt’s Square Deal

Just like Roosevelt’s other endeavors, he acted boldly. He saw Roosevelt also used his skills as a mediator to deal with the
the presidency as a “bully pulpit” from which he would be able to problem of trusts. While the president believed that some trusts
successfully influence the news media and shape legislation to were “good” because they had a conscience, there were many
benefit the common people. Roosevelt referred to his more that greedily abused the public. Under the Sherman
progressive reforms as a “Square Deal” to which all common Antitrust Act, in 1902, the President ordered the Justice
people deserved. The primary components of Roosevelt’s push Department to sue the Northern Securities Company which was
for reform included three C’s: control over corporations, able to secure a monopoly over Northwestern Railroads. By
consumer protections, and conservation. 1904, the Supreme Court ordered the dissolution of the company.
The Roosevelt administration filed 44 antitrust suits during his
Roosevelt’s first challenge to his assertion of federal power came
presidency and even though Roosevelt’s reputation as a
in 1902 when 140,000 coal miners went on strike over the
trustbuster had been secured, his real goal had been federal
demand for a 20% raise, a 9-hour work day, and the right to
regulation.
organize a union. After five months into the strike, with coal
reserves running low and no end in sight to an agreement Not only was President Roosevelt known as an extraordinary
between workers and owners, Roosevelt threatened to take over buster of trusts, he was even more successful in railroad
the mines. Both sides agreed to submit their differences to an regulation. In 1887, the Interstate Commerce Act established
arbitration commission which issued a compromise settlement. the Interstate Commerce Commission to enforce the new law
This was monumental in that Roosevelt’s actions demonstrated a prohibiting “pools” in which railroad owners were dividing their
new principle. From that point on, when a strike threatened the business in a given area and then shared profits. Prior to
public welfare, the federal government would now be expected to Roosevelt’s administration, railroad owners would bypass the ICC
intervene. Additionally, the progressive belief that disputes could through the appeal process to federal courts. Roosevelt was
be solved in an orderly way through the assistance of experts successful in urging Congress to put teeth into the original act by
became a widely accepted principle. passing the Elkins Act in 1903. Other Congressional Acts
followed resulting in a huge boost to the government’s power to
regulate the railroads.

66
 A Public Mandate

Having acceded to the Presidency in 1901 after the death of

President McKinley, it was important to Roosevelt to win election
as President in his own right in the 1904 election. He knew that
he would need the support of two major contingencies:
Congress and the American public. Roosevelt came to an
understanding with conservative Congressional Republicans,
gaining their support in exchange for holding back the more
progressive items on his domestic agenda. However, Roosevelt
knew he couldn’t refrain from breaking up monopolies if he
wanted backing by the American public. Therefore, Roosevelt
continued to bring suits against the beef trust, the oil trust, and
the tobacco trust. This increased his popularity with the
American public as he rode a huge wave of public support to

The “Trust Buster” http://americanhistoryadventures.weebly.com/teddy-roosevelt-and-the-bears.html

What does this cartoon suggest about Roosevelt’s

approach to trust busting?

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/1904_Electoral_Map.png 67
easily win the 1904 election--a public mandate unlike anything Prior to Roosevelt’s presidency, very little concern for the
the nation had ever seen. country’s natural resources existed at the federal level.
Meanwhile, many Americans had exploited the natural
Protections to Citizens and the Environment
environment. Forests had been leveled, prairies had been plowed
While President Roosevelt had continued to bust trusts and up, cattle were allowed to overgraze on the Great Plains, spoil
regulate the railroad industry, investigative reporters known as dumps from coal companies littered the land, and rivers had been
Muckrakers were busy investigating social, political, and polluted. Roosevelt condemned the attitude that America’s
economic corruption, calling for societal change for the natural resources were in endless supply. Persuaded by
improvement of the quality of life for most Americans. One such naturalist John Muir with whom Roosevelt had camped with in
Muckraker whose investigative work in the meatpacking industry California’s Yosemite National Park in 1903, the President set
helped bring about reform for the consumer was Upton Sinclair. aside 148 million acres of forest reserves. Additionally, Roosevelt
Upon reading Upton Sinclair’s description of conditions in the established more than 50 wildlife sanctuaries and several national
Chicago meat-packing industry in The Jungle, President parks. While Roosevelt and the head of the U.S. Forest Service,
Roosevelt reportedly spit out the sausage he was eating for Gifford Pinchot disagreed with Muir’s stance on conservation and
dinner. He appointed a commission of experts to investigate the permitted some wilderness areas to be developed for the
meatpacking industry and upon the commission’s scathing report common good, Roosevelt’s legacy as a wildlife advocate was
that reinforced Sinclair’s disgusting descriptions of the cemented.
meatpacking industry, Roosevelt pushed for the passing of the
The Push for Racial Equality Fails
Meat Inspection Act. The act created a program at the federal
level for the inspection of meat as well as strict requirements for As with most other progressives, President Roosevelt’s push for
cleanliness for meatpackers. Congress then took federal reform did not include civil rights for African Americans. While the
regulation a step further by passing the Pure Food and Drug Act president did support a few individual African Americans such as
in 1906, which put a stop to the sale of contaminated foods and Booker T. Washington who was head of an all-black training
medicines while also calling for truth in labeling. school, the Tuskegee Institute, the progressive movement mostly
focused on the needs of middle-class whites. Additionally, the
two presidents who followed Roosevelt--Taft and Wilson, also did

68
 little to advance the goal of reducing or eliminating racial Although Taft was physically a large man at six feet tall and 350
inequality. pounds, he did not have the same larger-than-life personality that
Roosevelt possessed. This was evidenced by the sheer number
Taft
of the 90 trusts he busted in his four year term compared to
As soon as Roosevelt won the election of 1904, he vowed not to Roosevelt’s 44 trusts over a seven year period. He was cautious
run again in 1908. Because of his immense popularity, however, in his pursuit of the progressive agenda eliminating Roosevelt’s
he was able to handpick a successor to carry out his agenda. He distinction between “good” trusts and “bad” trusts and hesitated
chose William Howard Taft, a close advisor and his Secretary of to take advantage of the presidential bully pulpit in the way that
War. For the third and final time, Democrats nominated William was Roosevelt’s trademark. He unsuccessfully tried to strike a
Jennings Bryan. Bryan committed a major blunder during the balance between the conservatives and progressives in his party
campaign by calling for government ownership of the railroads. which Roosevelt had managed to hold together through the sheer
Such a move was regarded as socialism even by those with force of his personality. Progressives were particularly angry with
strong progressive leanings and made Bryan look like a wild-eyed him over tariffs and conservation.
radical. Taft easily won the presidency in 1908.
Taft had campaigned on the promise to lower tariffs. This was a
fundamental issue for progressives because high tariffs benefited
businesses at the expense of consumers. All went according to
plan in the House of Representatives where they passed the
Payne bill which lowered tariffs on many manufactured goods.
Conservative Republicans in the Senate, however, eliminated
most of the cuts in their version. Progressives, including
Roosevelt, felt betrayed when President Taft signed the Payne-
Aldrich Tariff. He only made matters worse when he referred to it
as the “the best [tariff] bill the Republican party ever passed” in
his attempts to defend it.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Electoral_College_1908.svg/640px-
Electoral_College_1908.svg.png

69
Conservationists were the next group to become upset with Taft. took a million acres of land in Alaska out of federal control and
Taft had appointed Richard A. Ballinger, a wealthy Seattle lawyer sold it to Seattle business interests who, in turn, sold it to wealthy
who disapproved of the level of control the federal government New York bankers. When head of the US Forest Service, Gifford
had over western lands, as Secretary of the Interior. Ballinger Pinchot, joined a former Department of the Interior official in
publically criticizing Ballinger’s actions, he was fired. Pinchot had
been appointed to that position by Roosevelt who relied heavily
on his advice in crafting his conservation policies.

Election of 1912

After President Taft had been elected in 1908, President

Roosevelt decided to travel to Africa to hunt big game. Upon his
return in 1910, a hero’s welcome awaited him. Because President
Taft’s cautious nature made it impossible for him to keep the
Republican party unified and a majority of the American public
was disappointed with Taft’s inability to look out for the welfare of
the American people, Roosevelt decided to run for President in
1912. At the Republican convention, when Taft’s supporters
refused to unseat him as the incumbent, Roosevelt’s supporters
http://www.cartoonews.com/historical.htm
held their own convention a month later in August of 1912. The
Progressive Party became known as the Bull Moose Party after
1. What does this cartoon suggest about Taft’s Roosevelt had boasted that he was “as strong as a bull moose.”
administration? The split in the Republican party between Taft’s conservative
supporters and Roosevelt’s progressives split the Republican
2. What does Roosevelt’s response seem to be?
vote, thus handing the presidency to Woodrow Wilson--the first
Democratic president since the election of Grover Cleveland in
1892.

70
 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/1912_Electoral_Map.png/
http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/vote/thirdparties/
800px-1912_Electoral_Map.png
thirdparties_4.html

Wilson’s New Freedom

Like Taft’s predecessor Teddy Roosevelt, President Wilson

claimed to champion progressive ideals.As governor of New
Jersey in 1910, Wilson declared himself independent of the
political machine that had tapped him for the governor’s seat and
helped him get elected to the position. As governor, Wilson
sponsored legislation to promote progressive programs that
http://www.quia.com/jg/2183659list.html
included direct primaries, workmen’s compensation, and the
regulation of railroads and public utilities. As newly elected
President of the United States, Wilson outlined his program.
Titled, the “New Freedom,” Wilson’s plan was an attack of what
he called the triple wall of privilege: tariffs, trusts, and high
finance.

71
Although President Wilson had much more in common with Federal Income Taxes are Born
Roosevelt’s idea of a progressive President than his predecessor
President Wilson believed that reduced competition in the
William Taft, there were some distinct differences between
marketplace was created by the actions of monopolies which
Roosevelt’s approach toward businesses and government and
were in turn created by high tariff rates. This was part of his
Wilson’s. Wilson didn’t believe that trusts should be regulated--
address to a special session of Congress early in 1913, when he
he thought they should be broken up entirely. Additionally, with
established a precedent by delivering his State of the Union
regard to changes in the role of the federal government, Wilson
message in person rather than sending it to be read by a clerk.
believed that government shouldn’t become bigger--large
Wilson drew on his experience as a previous political science
businesses should get smaller. However, Wilson also promised
professor at Princeton to help secure passage of the Underwood
more freedom and opportunities to small businesses.
Tariff which substantially reduced tariffs by approximately 10% for
The Clayton Antitrust Act the first time since before the Civil War.

Up until 1914, conservative courts were treating trade unions as

monopolies under the
provisions of the Sherman
Interactive 2.21 AntiTrust
Antitrust Act. The passage of Acts
the Clayton Antitrust Act of
1914 sought to strengthen
and clarify the provisions of
the Sherman Antitrust Act.
Additionally, the
establishment of the Federal
Trade Commission gave a
Learn more about the AntiTrust
five-member agency the Acts here.
power to investigate possible
violations of the Clayton Antitrust Act.
https://www.google.com/search?
safe=strict&hl=en&authuser=0&site=imghp&tbm=isch&source=hp&biw=1280&bih=917&q=income+tax
+history&oq=income+tax+history&gs_l=img.3...15133.22903.0.23642.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0..0.0....0...1ac. 72
1.64.img..0.0.0.dTb9cr7bGJk#imgrc=lmHPFild4VGQeM%3A
Lower tariffs meant that the federal government had to figure out Based on your completed chart, who do you think was the most
how to replace the revenue that tariffs had previously supplied. progressive U.S. President and why?
The 16th Amendment put into place a legalized federal income
tax.

Additional Financial Reform

Interactive 2.22
Wilson next turned his attention to financial reform. Most Progressive Presidents
Americans agreed that credit availability and money supply both
needed to keep pace with the economy. Wilson was able to
address both issues through the establishment of a decentralized
private banking system controlled by the federal government.
The Federal Reserve Act of 1913 established and divided the
nation into 12 districts each affiliated with a federal reserve bank.
Through the power to issue new paper currency in emergency Use this Google Doc to track
situations and transfer funds to member banks on the verge of information on Roosevelt, Taft,
and Wilson.
closing, by 1923, the Act had resulted in approximately 70% of
the nation’s banking resources as part of the Federal Reserve
System. Many Americans still see the nation’s banking system
as one of the most enduring achievements of President Wilson’s
administration.

73
Chapter 3

How successful was the

U.S. in balancing the
ideals of democracy
with those of
imperialism as America
became a world power?
1. Why were the 1890s a turning point in American foreign policy
history?

2. To what degree was American expansion in the 1890s a

continuation of manifest destiny? To what degree was
expansion in the 1890s a change from previous expansion?

3. What were the causes and consequences of the Spanish-

American War?

4. What challenges did America face in governing an empire?

5. Were Wilson’s 14 Points idealistic or realistic?

How did America’s response to WWI challenge the concept of
the American dream and change what it meant to be an
“American”?
Section 1

Imperialistic Pursuits

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY As progressives worked for domestic reform in political, economic, and social
1. Why were the 1890s a turning point in matters, others focused on and pushed for U.S. expansion overseas. American
American foreign policy history? Imperialism was partly rooted in 'American exceptionalism,' the idea that the

2. To what degree was American expansion in

United States was different from other countries due to its specific world mission
the 1890s a continuation of manifest to spread liberty and democracy. While many Americans favored imperialistic
destiny? To what degree was expansion in endeavors, others wondered if the contradiction to democratic ideals was too
the 1890s a change from previous
large of a gamble in the area of foreign affairs.
expansion?

3. What were the causes and consequences “JUSTICE TOWARDS ALL NATIONS”
of the Spanish-American War?
As George Washington bid farewell as President in 1793 amidst the turbulence of
4. What challenges did America face in
the French Revolution overseas, he provided the young country with some fatherly
governing an empire?
wisdom regarding relationships—specifically, the “great rule of conduct” of
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
relationships between the U.S. and foreign powers in general: “Observe good
Alfred Thayer Mahan faith and justice towards all nations; cultivate peace and harmony with all. . . . It
annexation will be worthy of a free, enlightened, and at no distant period, a great nation, to
give to mankind the magnanimous and too novel example of a people always
Frederick Jackson Turner
guided by an exalted justice and benevolence.“
Imperialism

Queen Liliuokalani

Sanford B. Dole

Tariffs

Theodore Roosevelt
75
 “…Just and amicable feelings towards all should be
cultivated. . . “

“. . . Europe has a set of primary interests which to us have

none; or a very remote relation. Hence she must be engaged
in frequent controversies, the causes of which are essentially
foreign to our concerns.”

--George Washington’s Farewell Address, 1796

In Washington’s eyes, friendly trade relations with foreign

countries was the goal, but playing favorites through political
alliances that could needlessly drag the young nation into
Europe’s seemingly endless cycles of imperial war and drama
would need to be avoided. U.S. Expansion in North America is republished with permission of
Stratfor.
Geography played an important role in America’s development.
By the early 1900s, French ambassador Jules Jusserand noted across the North American continent, acquiring a path to the
that the United States was “blessed among nations….On the Pacific Ocean through negotiation, purchase, war and conquest.
north she had a weak neighbor; on the south, another weak Unbeknownst to Washington, the following century would see the
neighbor; on the east, fish, and on the west, fish.” United States flourish at an unimagined rate, thanks in large part
due to a geography that left it with seemingly unlimited natural
Washington had every reason to view those controversies as resources, two vast oceans, and relatively few obstacles involving
foreign since, in terms of its geography, the young country had greater foreign powers.
tremendous capacity for growth. Geographically, the young
nation took full advantage of the vast territory to its west. The
century that followed saw an America that rapidly expanded

76
For the better part of the following century, the United States was Each new territory acquired by a foreign power within the waters
able to adhere to Washington’s advice in regards to relationships surrounding the United States was a potential threat to United
overseas, despite the turbulence of war with Great Britain in the States security and economic interests. And as European powers
new nation’s early “teen years”. However, the late nineteenth began to troll the Pacific and Caribbean for large trophies to add
century found the country jealously watching the great empires of to the economic and strategic might of their empires, America
Europe carve out large territories of control and influence in found itself racing to compete. The influence of America’s
Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, and the siren call of empire became international peers overseas proved too great, and Washington’s
irresistible. This policy of extending political, economic, and earnest warning to avoid Europe’s influence, fell upon deaf ears.
military control over other nations became known as imperialism.
REDEFINING AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY

Throughout the past century, historians have often debated the

primary causes of America’s shift away from Washington’s foreign
policy ideals toward the overseas pursuit of building an empire.
While opinions still differ on whether America stumbled upon the
process of building an empire or actively pursued the creation of
one, few would challenge the significant impact that America’s
territorial expansion would have on its emergence as a world
power.

http://howard.dearbornschools.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/566/2014/04/Grab-Bag-
Imperialism.jpg
77
 expansion begun in the colonial cradles of Jamestown and
Plymouth, the patterns of territorial acquisition following the
Civil War were significantly different from the acquisition of
territories before the war. Prior to the Civil War, settlers
generally migrated westward across the continent in pursuit of
rich, fertile soil. New lands were frequently adjacent to existing
U.S. territory and, despite the presence of smaller tribes of
Native Americans, were perceived to be sparsely populated and
open for settlement. When enough settlers had arrived in a
particular area, the territory could then apply for statehood and
enter the United States as a state equal with its colonial
predecessors. Upon admission, the Inhabitants were then
considered citizens of the United States. Territories in the Old
Northwest, the Louisiana Purchase, Florida, Texas, and
California had followed this pattern, as did the land acquired
Cartoon Analysis: from Mexico (Arizona and New Mexico).
1. What is the main argument presented by the cartoonist?

2. What evidence does the cartoonist present for his argument?

Post-Civil War Settlement Patterns However, lands acquired
3. Is the argument convincing? Why or why not?
following the Civil War tended to be island possessions away
from the mainland United States that were desirable for strategic
and economic reasons, such as naval bases, coaling stations,
and trading ports along major shipping lanes. Whereas pre-Civil
Early Settlement Patterns While historians in the twentieth
War land acquisition reflected the resource needs of an agrarian
century developed differing interpretations as to whether the
society, post-War expansion reflected the needs and desires of
expansion of the United States was “a great aberration” from
an industrial society seeking access to economic markets in
previous periods of expansion, or was simply a continuation of
patterns of
78
heavily-populated, foreign lands. The new lands were viewed as output had far outstripped the capacity of the American public to
colonies to be possessed, with little regard for future statehood or purchase its goods. As quantities of goods remained unsold,
potential citizenship for its settled populations. prices fell, as did profits. Employment rose and fell with the
fortunes of business. The economic challenges of
Interactive 3.1 overproduction in an industrial economy resulted in several
Characteristics of difficult financial crises throughout the late 1800s, including
Expansion
significant depressions in the years 1873-1878, 1882-1885, and
1893-1897 (the country’s worst until the Great Depression of the
1930s). [4] Railroads, which had driven much of America’s
corporate growth, found themselves plagued by overexpansion
and facing bankruptcy. With virtually half of the last twenty-five
years of the nineteenth century mired in economic uncertainty,
social unrest in America increased.
Determine which of the following
characterize American expansion Labor Unrest As workers fell upon hard times financially, labor
prior to 1865, and which ones unrest exploded in a series of violent strikes, forcing business
characterize Post-Civil War
expansion. leaders to conclude that new markets overseas for American
goods were necessary before the American ship of state sank like

AMERICA LOOKS OVERSEAS a stone amidst the stormy waves of economic crisis.

Problems with the Industrial Economy Throughout much of

the nineteenth century, American industry grew rapidly and
profited greatly from America’s vast natural resources, steady
stream of immigrant labor, and technological advances in
agriculture and industry. However, by the late 1800s, rapid gains
in productivity had produced a new problem--America’s domestic
markets for its products were saturated. American industrial and
agricultural
79
 How might images such as these in weekly news magazines
influence public opinion? How might these events be viewed
by Businessmen? Workers? The Middle Class?

The Disappearing Frontier and Need for New Markets

Compounding the troubling situation domestically was the
United States Census Bureau’s 1890 announcement that the
Western frontier was no longer distinguishable from settled areas.
Historian Frederick Jackson Turner argued that the American
Homestead Steel Strike, 1892
character, innovation and
http://explorepahistory.com/displayimage.php?imgId=1-2-10DA
democracy had been profoundly
Interactive 3.2 The Frontier
shaped by the frontier, and its Thesis
disappearance would pose a
challenge to America’s future. With
potential settlement and future
markets within the country’s
borders limited, “new frontiers” and
markets in Latin America and Asia
became financially attractive for
For more on the Turner Thesis,
America’s excessive agricultural click here
and industrial products.

80
Striking workers fire on Pinkertons at Andrew Carnegie’s Homestead Steel Plant
Technological Advances

Overseas markets became an option in the nineteenth century

due to significant advances in communications and
transportation technology. Since the 1830s, steamships had
greatly reduced the time necessary to reach distant ports in such
faraway places as Hong Kong, Manila, Hawaii, and China.
Communications developments such as telegraphs, telephones,
and undersea cables further improved the information flow
internationally, thereby assisting in raising public awareness and
curiosity about lands previously absent from the public
imagination.

Today, many Americans are exposed to foreign cultures through

television, movies, and the internet. For many Americans in the
late 19th century, their first exposure to foreign cultures came
through seeing the world through a stereoscope.

Interactive 3.3 America on

the Move

To learn more on American

Transportation history, click here 81
Christian Missions economic interests overseas.

As more people became aware of those distant shores, the The Influence of Alfred Mahan Of course, in order to protect
missionary impulse to bring the message of Protestant those markets and America’s economic interests abroad, a strong
Christianity to regions like Hawaii and China increased as well. navy was necessary, especially among nations that began to see
Christian missionaries sought to improve the lives of native the lessons of the biological world of Charles Darwin and the
populations by bringing Christianity, education, medicine, and social world of Herbert Spencer in terms of “survival of the
modernization to distant populations. fittest”—Life among the nations was a continuous struggle for
existence, and much like the biological world, the strongest
Racial Superiority
nations would survive and dominate the weaker ones. In a world

Some expansionists, such as Josiah Strong, were strongly driven where ideas have consequences, Naval Academy graduate Alfred

by the idea that the Anglo-Saxon race was superior to all others. Thayer Mahan became the man who provided the rationale for

As the superior race, American empire (in addition to the rationale for the naval buildup

Strong argued that in Europe that contributed to World War I), and a powerful navy to

America had a moral back it. In a series of several books, including The Influence of

responsibility to fulfill a Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783 (1890), Mahan argued that

divinely-appointed sea power was essential to national greatness, and that greatness

destiny of bringing the was dependent upon a highly productive industrial economy, a

blessings of liberty and large fleet of ships engaged in the “carrying trade,” a powerful,

Christianity to less modern navy to protect the merchant ships, and colonies that

enlightened races. could provide strategic naval bases, foreign markets for products,

Such ideas were and essential raw materials. Mahan’s ideas heavily influenced

blended into the policy makers across America and the Atlantic, including the

period’s economic future Assistant Secretary of the Navy and President of the United

arguments to further States, Theodore Roosevelt. Among Mahan’s solutions to help

promote the expansion America win the competitive struggle of the nations: Build

of democratic and strategic military bases in the Caribbean and the Pacific to guard

82
https://www.loc.gov/item/ggb2005023626/
the canal and American interests from European encroachment, Markets
gain control of Hawaii and other islands along key trade routes in
the Pacific, and construct a canal across the isthmus of Central New outlets for manufactured products, services, or raw
America. When Mahan’s book was published, the American Navy materials; access to foreign goods necessary to meet consumer
was ranked twelfth in the world. By the end of the 1890s, the demand
United States was firmly anchored at number three. Ultimately,
National Security
America was not the only country heavily influenced by Mahan’s
writings. The European powers and Japan were persuaded as Actions taken to protect the country from foreign threats
well, leading to a military arms race that would culminate in two
Raw Materials
world wars.
Acquisition of food, ports, or other natural resources
Below are a list of common foreign policy priorities of presidents
over the ages. The year is 1896 and you are President of the Ideology
United States. As you consider the social, economic, and
political state of the nation, what would be your top three biggest To spread political, religious, or economic ideas (or to stop the
foreign policy priorities? Justify your answer. What should be our spread of them in other areas)
top priorities today?
Self-Determination
National Unity
The desire to liberate a group or nation of people from the
To develop, promote, or maintain a sense of national identity by influence and domination of another
uniting Americans against a hostile, external group or force
National Prestige or Pride
Humanitarianism
The desire for more power or influence among other nations,
To promote justice and stability globally through relief efforts, which may include the desire to overcome a previous loss or
quality of life improvements, reduction in human trafficking, or to humiliation
stop the actions of an aggressive/oppressive country against
SEEDS OF AN AMERICAN EMPIRE
another
83
Seward’s Vision American expansion into the Pacific took root Hawaii
several decades earlier under Abraham Lincoln and Andrew
Johnson’s Secretary of State, William Seward. As an early Hawaii was also a key to Seward’s vision of empire, although he
expansionist who envisioned a vast commercial empire that was unsuccessful in negotiating economic treaties with the island
included Canada, Mexico, the Pacific, and Latin America, Seward nation. Known as the “Crossroads of the Pacific,” Hawaii was
and others like him saw the trade routes and markets of China strategically located in the heart of the Pacific and served as a
and Asia as a significant key to American prosperity, in addition to vital port for whaling and merchant ships. Naval strategists
a canal across Latin America that was protected by strategic valued its harbors, and it was perfectly situated to guard the
island bases in the Caribbean. In order to orient American approaches of any canal that might be built in Central America.
economic ties westward, Seward managed to annex the Christian missionaries had first arrived on the island in 1820, and
uninhabited Midway Islands northwest of Hawaii in 1867. new settlers soon followed, as did American business investors
who felt sugar cane could grow heartily in the Hawaiian climate.
Alaska That same year, Seward encouraged a reluctant U.S. They were not disappointed. Soon, sugar cane became the
Congress to approve the purchase of Alaska from Russia for $7.2 heart of the Hawaiian economy. By the 1870s and 1880s,
million, which would economic treaties were signed between Hawaii and the
provide the United United States that allowed Hawaiian sugar, an industry
States with fish, furs, which soon came to be dominated by American planters, to
and coaling stations be sold in the United States duty-free. This had been done
for merchant ships in in exchange for a Hawaiian pledge that no other nation
the Pacific. While would be able to lease or acquire Hawaiian territory or be
many regarded Alaska granted special economic privileges. To protect American
as “Seward’s Icebox” trade and provide a strategic military base in the Pacific,
and “Seward’s Folly,” America further negotiated a naval base at Pearl Harbor.
the sentiments were However, by 1890, the economic fortunes of Hawaiian sugar
quickly forgotten by took a dramatic twist. That year, tariffs went into effect that
the time gold was made Hawaiian sugar more expensive in the United States.
discovered in the Yukon. A tariff is a special tax placed on imported goods. Because

84
Hawaiian sugar had become so dependent upon American By January of 1893, American planters responded. Outraged by
markets, the Hawaiian economy crashed, and unemployment the queen’s quest to keep Hawaii independent, the white
skyrocketed among the large numbers of Chinese and Japanese American planters revolted against Liliuokalani’s authority in a
immigrants who worked the cane fields and sugar mills. In an bloodless coup. An intimidating force of 150 U.S. Marines, called
effort to re-assert political control over an island nation that was in by U.S. Ambassador John L. Stevens in response to planters’
increasingly being dominated by a minority group of American requests to “protect American lives and property", were lined up
planters, in 1891 the Hawaiian queen Liliuokalani began calling outside of the royal palace with Gatling guns. Queen Liliuokalani
for a “Hawaii for the Hawaiians” that constitutionally restricted the surrendered her throne to “the superior force of the United
political power of U.S. planters in favor of native Hawaiians. States,” in the hopes that she would be reinstated once leaders in
Washington, D.C. investigated how her throne had been
overthrown. A provisional government was immediately
established with Sanford B. Dole, a Hawaiian-born son of
American-born missionaries, as president. Stevens, sensing an
opportunity for the United States to take over control of the
islands, famously cabled back to Washington, "The Hawaiian
pear is now fully ripe, and this is the golden hour for the United
States to pluck it." The provisional government submitted a
treaty for annexation into the United States. President Grover
Cleveland, however, refused to seek annexation of the islands
and had U.S. troops removed, believing Liliuokalani’s overthrow
to be illegal and an “act of war.” When Cleveland sought
Liliuokalani’s restoration to the throne, the white planters refused.

Hawaii's Queen Liliuokalani in 1891

85
 Interactive 3.4 The Impact
Instead, they drafted a constitution and proclaimed the birth of Interactive 3.5 Hawaii’s
of Annexation
the new Republic of Hawaii, with Dole as its first president. Story
Despite native Hawaiian opposition, the republic would not have
to wait long to gain admission to the United States, however, as
the outbreak of the Spanish-American War on the island of Cuba
5,000 miles away would soon cause President William McKinley
to support Hawaii’s annexation in 1898.

To view the impact of annexation

from the Hawaiian perspective, Read Queen Liliuokalani's own
click here story here

John Gast's American Progress, 1872

To what extent was American expansion in the 1890s a

The United States flag is raised over the ʻIolani Palace In Honolulu after the annexation of Hawaii continuation of manifest destiny in the 1840s?
86
Section 2

The Spanish-American War

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

1. Why were the 1890s a turning point in

American foreign policy history?

2. To what degree was American expansion in

the 1890s a continuation of manifest
destiny? To what degree was expansion in
the 1890s a change from previous
expansion?

3. What were the causes and consequences

of the Spanish-American War?

4. What challenges did America face in

governing an empire?

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Yellow Journalism http://cdn.loc.gov/service/pnp/ppmsca/28700/28700v.jpg

Reconcentration

Jingo Cuba had found itself alongside Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam as the only
Teller Amendment remaining colonies of the once vast Spanish Empire that had rose to prominence
Rough Riders with Columbus’s discovery of the New World in 1492.

87
Cubans Seek Independence As Hawaiian planters discovered,
the world was becoming much more interconnected in the
nineteenth century, and connections with American markets
could come with a steep price. Cuba’s reliance on US markets
for its sugar produced a situation similar to what Hawaii
experienced only a few years earlier. Located 90 miles off the
Florida coast, Cuba was home to a native population that had
tried unsuccessfully to free itself from the colonial grip of Spain.
However, Cuba was also home to the largest share of American
investments overseas, with American business interests deeply
involved in Cuban sugar and tobacco plantations, mining
operations, business properties, and residences. Sugar planters
in Cuba had also teamed up with American sugar planters in the
United States to encourage Congress to pass tariff protections
on Cuban sugar, at the expense of Hawaiian sugar. Now, only a
few years later, Cuba found itself holding the short end of the https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Judge-2-6-1897.jpg

stick when the U.S. Congress passed a tariff in 1894 that

eliminated the special economic benefits given to Cuban sugar in In American political cartoons, Uncle Sam and Columbia have

U.S. markets. The ensuing decline in the demand for Cuban often been used to represent the United States. In this cartoon,

sugar deeply impacted the Cuban economy, as sugar growers on Uncle Sam refers to the U.S. government, while Columbia is

the island cut jobs and laid off thousands. Then, amidst the representative of the American people.

economic turmoil of 1895, Cuban separatists began their push to

finally liberate themselves from Spanish rule. The Philippines 1. What are some of the symbols that are critical to
understanding the political cartoon?
followed suit by rebelling against Spanish rule in 1896.
2. What is the cartoonist’s perspective on assistance for
Cuba?

88
U.S. Intervention in Cuba warfare designed to
pay off the costs of
For the United States, the strategic location of Cuba at the
expensive state-of-
entrance to the Gulf of Mexico and its tropical climate had left an
the-art printing
indelible impression on the minds of policymakers who saw Cuba
presses by winning
as key to American prosperity and security. Thomas Jefferson
over the wallets of
saw this as early as 1823: “[Cuba’s] addition to our confederacy
the American people.
is exactly what is wanting to round out our power as a nation to
Their over-the-top
the point of its utmost interest.” Several times in the 1800s,
style of reporting that
American presidents sought to purchase the island, but to no
emphasized eye-
avail. In absence of actually acquiring the island, American policy
catching headlines
was dictated by another of Jefferson’s ideas, that being that
over concern for the
Cuba’s “independence against all the world, except Spain . . .
facts soon became
would be nearly as valuable to us as if it were our own.” In other
known as yellow
words, in the eyes of American foreign policy interests, the best
journalism.
Cuba was a free Cuba.

Yellow Journalism As the insurgency began to spread across the

Cartoon featuring the Yellow Kid, from which yellow journalism
island of Cuba, American newspapers picked up the Cuban
received its name
cause of independence and began to catalogue the violence and
Interactive 3.6 The Yellow Interactive 3.7 Rise and
suffering of the Cubans in an effort to increase their newspaper
Kid Fall of Yellow Journalism
circulation. Leading the way were William Randolph Hearst’s
New York Journal and Joseph Pulitzer’s New York World, two
newspaper publishers at war against one another on the
journalistic battlefield of the country’s largest city. Using artillery
such as bold, sensational headlines, riveting pictures, and
novelty elements like comics, the newspapers engaged in direct

To learn about the Yellow Kid click Learn about the rise and fall of 89
here. Yellow Journalism here.
 Reconcentration Not only did Americans begin to associate the
Cuban struggle for independence with their own, but the national
press collectively incited the public against Spain in other ways.
In an effort to put an end to the rebellion, the Spanish sent the
veteran general, Valeriano Weyler, to Cuba in 1896. Known for his
ability to pacify rebels, Weyler turned to a new policy to end the
hit-and-run tactics of guerilla-style warfare that the Cubans had
practiced with great success against the Spanish. Known as
reconcentration, the policy sought to limit the guerillas’ access to
resources and people by forcing the local populations to move
inside fortified camps and towns where access could be strictly
controlled. Scorched earth tactics, or policies used by a military
that involved destroying anything of value to an opposing army,
were then used by the Spanish to further limit the guerillas’
access to food and supplies. The policy of reconcentration had
two significant impacts: First, the crowded conditions inside the
camps and towns, combined with shortages of food, produced
an abundance of disease, illness, and poor sanitation, killing an
estimated one in every four Cubans inside the camps. Hundreds
of Cubans perished as a result of the inadequate supplies.
Second, it drove many locals who had been undecided in the
war to the side of the Cuban nationals. The American press,
sensing an opportunity to increase their circulation and pay the
How is this an example of “Yellow Journalism”
bills, picked up the stories and made “Butcher” Weyler a
household name. By the end of 1897, public outrage led the
Spanish to recall Weyler and announce an end to reconcentrado.

90
The Impact of Weyler’s Reconcentration Policy January of 1898 raised Presidential concerns that the Spanish
were further losing control of the island, President McKinley, with
the full permission of Spain, ordered one of America’s newer
“Torn from their homes, with foul earth, foul air, foul water and foul
battleships, the U.S.S. Maine, to Cuba. Spanish officials gave a
food, or none, what wonder that one-half have died and that one-
warm reception for the ship, and one historian commented that
quarter of the living are so diseased that they cannot be saved. A
form of dropsy is a common disorder resulting from these
the presence of the ship seemed to provide a calming of tensions
conditions. Little children are still walking about with arms and in the city. However, two events permanently altered the course
chests terribly emaciated, eyes swollen and abdomen bloated to of affairs between Spain and the United States.
three times the natural size. The physicians say these cases are
hopeless.” The De Lôme Letter First, tensions increased when a Cuban
sympathizer intercepted personal correspondence between
--Senator Redfield Proctor, “When Will the Need for this Help to
Spain’s ambassador to the United States, Enrique Dupuy de
End?”, Address to the U.S. Senate, March 17, 1898
Lôme, and a Spanish foreign minister residing in Cuba. De Lôme,
concerned about the actual effectiveness of Spanish policy in
The story is often told that when William Randolph Hearst sent Cuba and the influence of the yellow press, labeled McKinley as
Frederic Remington, one of America’s premier artists, to Cuba in “weak,” “a bidder for the admiration of the crowd”, and “a would-
order to capture the war being raged against the Cubans in 1897, be politician.” While criticism of McKinley’s decision-making was
Remington wired back that there was no war, and requested to be not new, the fact that it was from a Spanish minister set off a fury
reassigned elsewhere. Hearst allegedly telegraphed back, “You of outrage in the yellow press. The letter was initially published
furnish the pictures, and I’ll furnish the war.” However, there is no by Hearst’s New York Journal with the headline, “Worst Insult to
historical evidence that the two ever cabled the exchange. the United States in Its History!” American public opinion surged
against Spain. In response, de Lôme resigned which left Spain
Tensions Escalate As the Cuban revolt against Spanish rule
without a high level ambassador in the U.S. Unfortunately, the
began to impact American property and business interests,
next event would forever change the course of American history.
requests were made by American officials in Cuba to provide a
warship in case American lives were jeopardized and evacuation
deemed necessary. When riots by Spanish army officers in early

91
 pages to the tragedy. A popular rallying cry soon arose,
“Remember the Maine and to Hell with Spain!” President
McKinley, who had sought to avoid involvement in a war over
Cuba, ordered an investigation into the causes of the explosion
and requested $50 million from Congress to prepare for war.
Much to the delight of the American public and to the total
surprise of Spain, Congress wasted no time in passing the bill.
Near the end of March, six weeks after the explosion, the
Presidential board of inquiry found the cause of the explosion to
be external to the ship,
most likely a Spanish
mine. More recent
investigations have
suggested coal may
have combusted
spontaneously in
storage bins adjacent to
Explosion of the USS Maine https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
the ship’s powder
File:Maine_explosion.jpg
magazine, thereby
Explosion of the U.S.S. Maine On the evening of February 15, a internally causing the
thunderous shockwave rippled through Havana as the U.S.S. explosion. Nevertheless,
Maine exploded. The source of the blast was just below the the leaked results of the
sleeping crew’s quarters. The ship sank quickly. In all, 266 commission further
Americans died in the explosion. The yellow newspapers incited public opinion
immediately blamed Spain. The New York World even offered toward war, a war that many Wall Street investors hoped to avoid
$50,000 to anyone who could identify the destroyer of the U.S.S. due to its potential impact on trade with Cuba. Public sentiment
Maine. With sensational headlines, the yellow press devoted on behalf of the Cuban people prevailed.
92
War with Spain On March 27, the President sent an ultimatum to doors. If ever there is to be a war, it Interactive 3.8 The
Spain. Spain agreed to provide relief to the Cuban people, an should be to prevent such things as Spanish American War
end to reconcentrado, and to an armistice with the Cuban rebels. that.”
However, it made no guarantees toward Cuban independence.
The U.S. Army soon found itself in a
On April 11, President McKinley addressed Congress and asked
war that, logistically, it was unprepared
for authorization to take necessary measures to end hostilities in
for. Lacking necessities like sanitary
Cuba, including the use of military and naval forces. On April 19,
training camps, healthy meat supplies,
after debate over McKinley’s request, Congress passed a joint
and sufficient knowledge of tropical
resolution that declared Cuban independence, demanded that For a short video overview of the
illnesses, disease ended up taking ten Spanish-American War, click here.
Spain withdraw its troops completely from Cuba, and granted
times the number of American lives
McKinley authorization to use military force against Spain.
than Spanish bullets. A lack of uniforms, rifles, and experienced
However, concerned that pro-imperial factions within the
officers meant troop enthusiasm for war was usually higher than
government might use the humanitarian response toward Cuba
their actual preparedness to fight.
as an excuse to annex the island, Senator Henry M. Teller from
Colorado proposed an additional measure stating that the United Dewey Captures the Philippines Despite the challenges faced
States had no intentions of controlling the island and would leave by the army, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt
Cuba free and independent in the hands of its citizens once took steps to insure that Alfred T. Mahan’s recommendations
hostilities ended. This addition to the joint resolution, known as became reality. Ten days after the U.S.S. Maine explosion, when
the Teller Amendment, was sent to McKinley and signed into law Roosevelt’s superior, Secretary of the Navy John D. Long,
April 20. The next day, in response to the U.S. naval blockade of stepped out of the office early one afternoon, Roosevelt
Cuba, the Spanish government cut diplomatic ties with the United capitalized on the opportunity to prepare for war by strategically
States and declared war. On April 24, Congress did the same. ordering the American fleet in the Pacific to report to Hong Kong,
Even anti-imperialist voices in Congress saw justification in war: then to attack the Spanish fleet in the Philippines in the event of
Senator George Hoar from Massachusetts commented, “We war with Spain.
cannot look idly on while hundreds of innocent human beings,
women and children and old men, die of hunger close to our

93
 Over the course of six hours, the entire
Interactive 3.9 Charles
Spanish fleet was decimated at the Battle Gridley
of Manila Bay: three Spanish ships were
sunk and seven more were reduced to
flaming debris. By one o’clock in the
afternoon, the Spanish governor of the
Philippines had surrendered. Not a single
American life was lost, and only nine were
injured. The Spanish fleet, meanwhile,
suffered 371 casualties.[3] George Dewey To read the fascinating story of
former Michigan resident Captain
became a national hero. Soon thereafter, Charles Gridley at the Battle of
Manila Bay, click here.
Filipino insurgents, led by Emilio
Aguinaldo, gained control over most of the
Philippine archipelago. The only remaining obstacle was the city
of Manila, which was the last remaining stronghold for the
Spanish. While besieging the city, Aguinaldo declared the
The U.S.S. Olympia in the Battle of Manila Bay
independence of the Philippines from Spain on June 12th and
declared that he would be dictator and supreme head of the
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_Bay#/media/File:USS_Olympia_art_NH_91881-KN.jpg
formal government of the Philippines.
On April 25, the fleet commander, Commodore George Dewey,
The U.S. Army in Cuba Meanwhile, in the United States, the
received the orders to take the fleet to the Philippines. In the
recruitment of soldiers for the war in Cuba provided an interesting
early dawn of May 1, Dewey’s flagship, the U.S.S. Olympia, sailed
assortment of volunteers. Roosevelt, sensing a unique historical
into Manila Bay with five other warships and dropped into
opportunity to “make his words good by his deeds”[5] and lead
formation . As the U.S. fleet approached the anchored Spanish
the country into a just war that he felt would liberate the suffering
fleet, Dewey turned to the U.S.S. Olympia’s captain, Captain
Cubans, protect sugar and tobacco interests, resigned his post in
Charles Gridley, and issued an iconic order: “You may fire when
the Navy Department to assist in organizing a volunteer collection
you are ready, Gridley.”[2]
94
of horse-riding Harvard, Yale and Princeton graduates from the Wood and assisted by Roosevelt, the Rough Riders soon made
East with “young, sound, good shots and good riders” from the their mark on history...without their horses. Unfortunately, due to
West. He had hoped to create a group that represented a cross- crowded quarters on the ship headed for Cuban shores, the
section of American society and included immigrant groups and Rough Riders found themselves invading Cuba relatively
American Indians. African Americans were excluded. The result horseless. They soon dubbed themselves, “Wood’s Weary
was what the Army called the First United States Volunteer Walkers.” Fortunately, Roosevelt was able to secure his horse for
Cavalry, or simply, the Rough Riders. Led by Colonel Leonard the travels, and the Rough Riders made a name for themselves
when they charged a barrage of Spanish bullets to take Spanish
positions at San Juan Hill and Kettle Hill.

Ironically, it was the African American Interactive 3.10 The

Buffalo Soldiers that established Buffalo Soldiers
themselves heroically in the fighting
alongside the Rough Riders, but Roosevelt
emerged as the Army’s largest hero for his
own charge up Kettle Hill on the San Juan
Heights. Roosevelt documented the
account in his memoir, The Rough Riders,
an account so centered around himself that
To learn more about the Buffalo
Peter Finley Dunne’s popular fictitious Soldiers, click here
political pundit, known as Mr. Dooley, light-
heartedly noted that the account should
have been called, “Alone in Cuba.”

Image Source

In addition to serving in Cuba during the Spanish-American War, the US Army’s 13th Cavalry
Regiment, known as “Buffalo Soldiers,” also served in the Indian Wars, the Philippine-
American War, and two World Wars. The Spanish referred to African American troops as 95
“Smoked Yankees.”
 Roosevelt: A Just and Necessary War

Theodore Roosevelt, 1898

“During those years, while we continued at "peace," several hundred

times as many lives were lost, lives of men, women, and children, as
were lost during the three months' "war" which put an end to this
slaughter and opened a career of peaceful progress to the Cubans. Yet
there were misguided professional philanthropists who cared so much
more for names than for facts that they preferred a "peace" of
continuous murder to a "war" which stopped the murder and brought
real peace. Spain's humiliation was certain, anyhow; indeed, it was more
certain without war than with it, for she could not permanently keep the
island, and she minded yielding to the Cubans more than yielding to us.
Our own direct interests were great, because of the Cuban tobacco and
sugar, and especially because of Cuba's relation to the projected
Isthmian Canal. But even greater were our interests from the standpoint
of humanity. Cuba was at our very doors. It was a dreadful thing for us
to sit supinely and watch her death agony. It was our duty, even more
The Rough Riders after the Battle of San Juan Hill
from the standpoint of National honor than from the standpoint of
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/archive/c/cd/20091001190146%21RoughRiders.jpeg National interest, to stop the devastation and destruction. Because of
these considerations I favored war; and to-day, when in retrospect it is
Interactive 3.11 Movie easier to see things clearly, there are few humane and honorable men
Footage who do not believe that the war was both just and necessary.”

Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography, 1913

For actual historical movie footage 96

from the Spanish-American War,
click here
 With the Army victorious on land, the Navy was able to soundly Terms of the Treaty On August 12, with
defeat the Spanish fleet outside of the port of Santiago de Cuba the last of its major colonial holdings Interactive 3.12 Popular
once the poorly-armed and equipped Spanish fleet attempted to lost (Cuba and Puerto Rico), and the Songs
escape U.S. naval forces blockading the island. With the waters last remaining stronghold in the
around Cuba securely in U.S. hands, the remaining Spanish army Philippines surrounded by insurgents
command in Santiago de Cuba surrendered within two weeks, (Manila), Spain asked McKinley for an
bringing an end to the major fighting on the island. American armistice, an agreement to end the
forces then landed in Puerto Rico, the last remaining Spanish fighting. McKinley agreed. The next
colony, and defeated the Spanish forces there within three weeks. day, Spanish forces surrendered
Manila to the custody of Before there was iTunes, popular
U.S. forces, rather than songs were purchased as sheet
music, for play on pianos at home.
the Filipino insurgents. Take a look here at the popular
In December, the Treaty songs in 1898. What songs are
you familiar with? Which ones
of Paris formally ended reflect patriotism or the influence
of the Spanish-American War?
the Spanish-American What other trends in the music
War. U.S. Secretary of does this collection reveal?
State John Hay labeled
the Spanish-American War “a splendid little war”.
Combat resulted in 379 American deaths. Tropical
diseases and fever accounted for another 2500
lives lost. In just four months of fighting, the United
States managed to acquire strategic holdings in the
Caribbean and the Pacific. The Spanish agreed to
give up all claims to Cuba, and Puerto Rico and
Guam were ceded to the United States. The most
http://www.authentichistory.com/1898-1913/4-imperialism/2-saw/4-afterward/18980000_Our_Terms-Judge-Zimmerman.jpg
controversial article in the treaty was the cession of
Image Source the Philippines to the United States for $20 million. Convinced
97
that he could not give the Philippines back to Spain, that the an opportunity “to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize
Filipinos were unfit for self-rule, and that the Philippines might be and Christianize them and by God's grace do the very best we
easy-pickings for imperial Pacific rivals like Germany, Russia, could by them.” Not everybody agreed, especially the Filipinos.
Japan or Great Britain, President McKinley made the decision to
retain possession of the islands. When the treaty was submitted
to the Senate for ratification, it touched off a storm of political and Interactive 3.15 Decision
on the Philippines
public debate.

Interactive 3.13 the Interactive 3.14 Treaty of

Spanish American War Paris Terms
Timeline

Click here to read what McKinley

said influenced his decision to
keep the Philippines

To read the terms of the Treaty of

For a detailed timeline of the Paris, click here
Spanish-American War, click here

The Debate over Empire

Theodore Roosevelt, Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge,

and others who agreed with President McKinley saw a host of
opportunity in retaining the Philippines. The Philippines would
provide the United States with the necessary gateway to Asian
markets that had been sought for American exports, while its raw
materials could supply American industry. For McKinley, it was
98
 4. What is the cartoonist’s opinion or message on this
issue?

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/%22The_White_Man%27s_Burden%22_Judge_1899.png

Cartoon Analysis

“THE WHITE MAN’S BURDEN” (with apologies to Rudyard

Kipling)

1. Describe the objects or people in the cartoon.

2. What words are being stepped over by John Bull (England)

and Uncle Sam (United States)? What do they represent?

3. What issue is this political cartoon about?

99
Opposition to McKinley’s Interactive 3.16 American
expansionism galvanized Anti-Imperialist League
immediately in the form of the
Anti-Imperialist League, which
included such prominent national
figures such as the reformer Jane
Addams, the writer Mark Twain,
labor leader Samuel Gompers,
and steel tycoon Andrew Carnegie
To read the Platform of the
(who offered to purchase the American AntiImperialist League,
look here
independence of the Philippines
for $20 million. McKinley declined
the offer.). The League, organized in June of 1898, held meetings
throughout the country and published tracts that promoted the
message of liberty and self-determination for all men ‘whatever
race or color”: “DECLINED WITH THANKS”

The Antis--Here, take a dose of this anti-fat and get slim again!

Uncle Sam--No, Sonny!, I never did take any of that stuff, and I'm
too old to begin!

Does this political cartoon appear to be in favor of

American expansion, or opposed to it? Defend your
answer.

100
 “We hold, with Abraham Lincoln, that "no man is good enough to
govern another man without that other's consent. When the white
man governs himself, that is self-government, but when he
governs himself and also governs another man, that is more than
self-government-that is despotism."

Others opposed the annexation of

Interactive 3.17
the Philippines for economic and Promoting/Rejecting
social reasons, as opposed to Imperialism
matters of principle. Labor leaders
were concerned that the newly Filipino troops outside of Manila, 1899. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War#/
media/File:Filipino_soldiers_outside_Manila_1899.jpg
acquired territories would flood the
market with cheap labor. Other The Philippines in Revolt Of course, the greatest resistance to
members of the Anti-Imperialist annexation of the Philippines came not from the anti-imperialists
League, such as E.L. Godkin, within the United States, but from
voiced racial concerns about the Filipinos who had fought
Identify whether the following Interactive 3.18
admitting “alien, inferior, and arguments are promoting incessantly against Spain for their Declaration of Philippine
mongrel races to our nationality.” imperialism or objecting to it. For Independence
what reasons was imperialism own independence. Tensions
supported by some and opposed
began to mount between the rebels
by others? Furthermore, classify
the reasoning as political, and the United States when it
economic, social, religious, or
military. became clearer to Emilio Aguinaldo
that the United States was not
about to recognize Filipino
independence. Aguinaldo’s
revolutionary government found Read the Declaration of Philippine
itself unrepresented at the Paris Independence here

101
peace talks between Spain and the United States. completely civilized and sent to Heaven.” When the gunfire
subsided, the number of American soldiers killed numbered
In December of 1898, while the United States secured the treaty
4,200, while the Filipinos suffered the loss of 16,000 troops in the
conditions with Spain, the Philippine revolutionaries worked on
struggle for their independence. Tragically, upwards of 200,000
implementing a new constitution. With the arrival of the New
civilians on the islands died from war-related famine, disease, and
Year, Aguinaldo was declared president of the new Philippine
violence. The uprising ended when five American officers,
Republic. The United States refused to recognize the new
disguised as
government. In February, when three Filipino soldiers were shot
prisoners, managed to
and killed by U.S. troops, tensions between the two sides
capture Aguinaldo in
exploded into full scale war. The ensuing Philippine-American
his hiding place in
War, also known as the Philippine Insurrection, was a brutal
1901. After urging his
guerilla conflict that lasted three long years before United States
people to give up the
troops captured Aguinaldo and asserted control over the island.
fight, he pledged his
The violent struggle saw multiple atrocities committed on both
loyalty to the United
sides. Many of the same military tactics that had incited outrage
States. Despite
among the American public in Cuba were used to pacify the
sporadic guerrilla
Filipinos: the burning of villages, the use of reconcentration,
fighting that lasted
brutality towards civilians, and the utilization of torture against
another year,
prisoners of war. McKinley’s rationale for adding the Philippines
American troops
to the U.S. map was to “uplift and civilize and Christianize” the
secured the
Filipinos. All told, the United States ended up committing
Philippines.
125,000 troops to the pacification of the Philippines, a number
four times higher than the number of troops who fought against Emilo Aquinaldo, c. 1898
the Spanish in the Caribbean. The death toll was horrendous:
To learn more about the Philippine-American War, look here
The tragedy led Carnegie to comment to a friend in McKinley’s
cabinet: “You seem to have finished your work of civilizing the To read letters from American soldiers who fought in the war, click
Filipinos; it is thought that about 8,000 of them have been here
102
Section 3

Governing an Empire

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Entanglements of Empire

1. Why were the 1890s a turning point in
In the popular Marvel comic book series and movie, Spider-Man, the superhero’s
American foreign policy history?
is reminded that “With great power comes great responsibility.” With the dawning
2. To what degree was American expansion in
of the twentieth century, for the first time America found itself controlling the
the 1890s a continuation of manifest
destiny? To what degree was expansion in destinies of lands outside its own hemisphere. Throughout this time, the question
the 1890s a change from previous could legitimately be applied to the world’s newest emerging power: Would it live
expansion? up to its great responsibilities?
3. What were the causes and consequences
of the Spanish-American War? During America’s own war for independence a hundred and twenty years earlier,
Thomas Jefferson had envisioned an “empire of liberty” on the North American
4. What challenges did America face in
continent that would bring the virtue of freedom and self-government to other
governing an empire?
nations, thereby “converting dangerous enemies into valuable friends.” The
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
imperialists of Roosevelt’s generation further promoted the idea as justifications for
Boxer Rebellion acquiring territory overseas. Opponents argued against it, reminding the American
Foraker Act public that empires like the old Roman Empire were synonymous with tyranny and
oppression, not liberty. With the dawning of an American empire in the Pacific and
Incorporated Territory
the Caribbean, events overseas seemed to bring to mind past history lessons
Insular Cases
regarding how difficult empires were to maintain. The Philippine Insurrection was
Monroe Doctrine one such reminder that all empires come with a cost, both in terms of the rulers
Open Door Policy and the ones being ruled. The acquisition of empire had important ramifications
for America deep into the twentieth century. First, America found its own foreign
Platt Amendment

Sphere of Influence
103
policy moving away from a previously isolationist foreign policy to The lands acquired by America during and after the Spanish-
one that took a more active role in the affairs of other countries, American War found themselves heading in very different
particularly those essential to U.S. economic well-being. That directions.
active role frequently involved sending troops to foreign shores at
The Pacific
the slightest appearance of potential problems to U.S. interests,
raising questions about whether an “empire of liberty” could truly Hawaii When it had become clear during the Spanish-American
maintain liberty while attempting to preserve its own interests. War that the Philippines were going to end up in American hands
Second, the appearance of empire raised important and, with it, a gateway to Chinese markets, Congress dropped its
constitutional questions regarding whether or not the Constitution previous inhibitions against annexing Hawaii and, to the dismay
“followed the flag.” Prior to the Spanish-American War, people in of the Japanese, snatched it up for its strategic location between
territories acquired by treaty (the Louisiana Purchase, Mexican the Philippines and a future Central American canal. Like its
Cession) had been given the opportunity for full citizenship as predecessors of Louisiana, the Mexican Cession, and the Oregon
American citizens with the potential for qualifying for statehood in Territory, Hawaii was put on the path to statehood when it was
the future. The Founding Fathers had made Constitutional given traditional territorial status in 1900. Hawaiian residents
provision for this. However, the Constitution lacked a provision were given full American citizenship and were authorized to elect
for handling previously-settled, overseas lands that were not a legislature. Hawaii, along with Alaska, received statehood in
candidates for statehood. Would the Constitution still be 1959. Guam and American Samoa were placed under the
applicable in those lands, guaranteeing Constitutional rights for supervision of the United States Navy
its inhabitants?
The Philippines Once the revolutionaries surrendered in the
Philippines, President McKinley promised the Philippines self-
“The acquisition of the Louisiana territory, Florida, Texas and other
government when they were perceived to be ready for it, and he
tracts which have been secured from time to time enlarged the republic
appointed William Howard Taft, a well-known judge from Ohio,
and the constitution followed the flag into the new territory. It is now
proposed to seize upon distant territory already more densely populated to lead a civilian commission that would govern the islands and
than our own country and to force upon the people a government for prepare them for democratic government. Politically, the Taft
which there is no warrant in our constitution or our laws.” Commission helped construct local governments throughout the

--William Jennings Bryan, Imperialism, August 8, 1900 islands that took into account Filipino ruling traditions and
104
encouraged Filipino participation. Many positions in Taft’s contradictions, and it would take almost fifty years of American
government were filled by Filipinos who had served in Aguinaldo’s rule and two world wars before the Philippines would become a
revolutionary government. In order to restore good will among fully independent nation on July 4, 1946.
the general population, U.S. soldiers were involved in food
distribution, law enforcement duties, school construction, and the
building and improvement of infrastructure such as railroads,
telegraph lines, harbors, roads and bridges. Taft wanted the
Filipino people to see the best of what “Anglo-Saxon liberty”
could be. Some soldiers even taught classes to Filipinos.
Significant improvements were made to public health. Hospitals
were built, vaccinations were introduced, and sanitation was
improved. Educationally, the schools built under the Taft
Commission provided Filipinos with an education in English,
courses in industrial arts, and introductions to American
democratic values. Agriculture was also modernized, although
not without problems that ran contrary to cultural considerations.
Despite these gains, many Filipinos were disillusioned by the vast
discrepancies they observed between America’s talk and its walk.
Many thought their independence from Spain had been clearly
earned, only to see their homeland fall into the hands of another
imperial power. In schools, American values of life and liberty,
freedom and self-government were spoken of highly, but on the
battlefield America’s own struggle with racism manifested itself
with a vengeance, and in the eyes of many it showed up in how
American soldiers responded to the pressures of the battlefield
and the conduct of brutal guerilla warfare against the natives. For
many Filipinos, the American “empire of liberty” was one full of
105
Analyzing Political Cartoons

Cartoon Analysis

1. What is the subject of the political cartoon?

2. What is the occasion of the cartoon?

3. Who is the intended audience of the cartoon?

4. What is the purpose of the cartoon?

5. Compare the various nationalities portrayed in the cartoon.

What impressions might such portrayals leave with the
audience?

“SCHOOL BEGINS”

Uncle Sam (to his new class in Civilization):

Now, children, you've got to learn these lessons whether you

want to or not! But just take a look at the class ahead of you, and
remember that, in a little while, you will feel as glad to be here as
they are!”

106
China With the acquisition of the Philippines, a gateway to
China became fully realized. However, by 1899, the European
powers and a newly-modernized Japan were in the process of
dividing up a weakened China into spheres of influence, where
each power had been given special privileges that allowed them
to dominate trade in specific ports. To counter the possibility
that the powers would ultimately colonize and divide China,
leaving the United States locked out of highly profitable
Chinese markets and ports, U.S. Secretary of State John Hay
wrote identical letters to Japan, England, Germany, France, and
Russia, influential powers that maintained a significant presence
in China. Known as the “Open Door Notes,” Hay laid out his
expectations that all nations in China would have their trading
rights and privileges respected, regardless of whose sphere of
Image Source: https://edu.hstry.co/timeline/century-of-humiliation
influence they were in. In order to ensure China’s territorial
integrity, the Chinese government would continue to collect
tariffs (a nod to the Chinese an outright rejection from Russia), Secretary of State Hay
government’s continued Interactive 3.19 The Open nevertheless declared in May of 1900 that all countries had
Door Policy
independence), and the accepted it, and that the United States would expect the Open
European countries would not Door policy to be the law of the land in governing trade relations
favor their own interests by among the powers in China.
charging higher port fees or
railroad rates to foreign nations For many Chinese nationalists, however, it was too much
than they would their own watching their homeland get carved up by “foreign devils”. Three
nation. While responses to the months after the Open Door policy was announced by Hay, the
Open Door notes varied (with To learn more about the Open Boxer Rebellion broke out in the Chinese capital of Beijing in
Door Policy, click here June of 1900. Encouraged by the Chinese empress and led by a
107
secret society of Chinese nationalists known as the
Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists (or Boxers, for
their practice of martial arts), the rebellion’s goal was
elimination of foreign influences from China. Shouting
“Kill, Kill! Death to the foreigners!”, the rebels murdered
Christian missionaries, slaughtered thousands of Chinese
civilians who converted to Christianity, targeted foreign
businessmen and railroad workers, and destroyed
property associated with the West. The rebellion, which
began in Beijing (China’s capital) and spread like wildfire
across eastern China, was ultimately put down when a
coalition of 20,000 troops from Europe, Japan and the
United States was sent into Beijing to rescue the foreign
diplomats, who were besieged for two months by the
US Marines Fight the Boxers Outside of Peking - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
rebels. Constrained by time, President McKinley
File:Marines_fight_rebellious_Boxers_outside_Peking_Legation,_1900._Copy_of_painting_by_Sergeant_John_Clymer.,_1927_-_1981_-
established a new precedent by ordering over 2,000 _NARA_-_532578.tif

troops to China without a congressional declaration of

foreign policy of the United States in East Asia and established
war, in order to assist in the rescue of the diplomats and to secure
the precedent for United States intervention in the affairs of Asia.
peace in China. The European countries responded to the
uprising by demanding further concessions against the Chinese. Interactive 3.20 The Boxer
To prevent China from being further divided up by the imperial Rebellion
powers seeking compensation for losses from the Boxer
Rebellion, Hay released a second set of Open Door notes,
declaring the importance of preserving Chinese territory and
independence. The European nations instead settled for cash
compensation from the Chinese government. With U.S. access
to Chinese ports preserved, the Open Door became the prevailing
108
For more on the Boxer Rebellion,
click here
Governing The Caribbean island while a constitutional convention was held, a census
taken, local governments put in place, and the social order
No region on the globe saw greater American influence in its
stabilized. During this time, the United States also oversaw the
affairs than the Caribbean. In the hemisphere that was fully
reconstruction of the island’s infrastructure, which had been
considered off-limits to any other foreign power by the Monroe
damaged during the civil war. Roads and schools were built,
Doctrine (1823), the United States asserted its newly acquired
ports modernized, sanitation measures implemented, and Yellow
power politically, physically and economically throughout the
Fever eradicated. As a requirement for the last U.S. troops to
early twentieth century. Following America’s acquisition of Cuba
depart from Cuban soil, however, the new constitution (which had
and Puerto Rico, the debate as to whether the Constitution
been modeled after the U.S. Constitution) was required by the
followed the flag raged fully.
United States to contain a series of political, economic, and

Cuba How well did America live up to those ideals of an “empire military guarantees that would define the future of US-Cuban

of liberty” in the Caribbean while projecting its power? The relations, protect American business interests, and reinforce

strategically-important islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico found America’s commitment to the Monroe Doctrine. First, because of

themselves moving in very different directions than did Hawaii Cuba’s proximity to the United States, its location at the mouth of

and the Philippines. Unlike the Philippines, Cuba resigned itself the Caribbean, and its strategic

to American occupation following the Treaty of Paris with Spain, location near a potential Central Interactive 3.21 The Platt
American canal, the Cuban Amendment
and most U.S. troops were withdrawn from the island by 1899.
While some Cubans believed, much like the Filipinos, that they government was prohibited from

had been deprived of independence by American intervention in ever entering into a treaty with a

their war for independence, there was no question that the foreign power that would put its

prolonged civil war between Cuba and Spain had taken a serious independence in jeopardy, or to

toll on the island’s inhabitants, its social order and stability, and allow any foreign power access to

its economy. And, unlike the situation in the Philippines, the Cuban soil for military or naval
purposes. Second, because To view the Platt Amendment,
Teller Amendment had provided a certain measure of comfort
foreign debt was the gateway to look here
and security to Cuba that the U.S. was not going to keep it as a
foreign intervention, Cuba was
war prize. A small contingent of U.S. forces remained on the
prohibited from undertaking any
109
debts it could not pay. Third, the Cuban government had to grant considered citizens of Puerto Rico only, despite residing in a U.S.
the United States the right to intervene in Cuban affairs to territory. In a series of Supreme Court decisions collectively
“preserve Cuban independence” and to maintain “protection of known as the Insular Cases (1901), the Supreme Court ruled that
life, property and individual liberty.” These provisions, including full American citizenship did not necessarily follow the United
one that gave the United States a naval base at Guantánamo Bay, States flag, but it granted that Congress could extend U.S.
became known as the Platt Amendment. Once added to the citizenship rights to those in the newly acquired territories as it
Cuban constitution, Cuba gained the independence it had deemed necessary.
sought, although its future was clearly intertwined with its vast
neighbor to the North.
In 1917, Congress granted Puerto Rico U.S. citizenship, and
Puerto Rico Puerto Rico, like Cuba and the Philippines, had
today the island is classified as a U.S. commonwealth under the
dreams and aspirations of self-rule within the Spanish empire.
protection of the United States. While it cannot vote in U.S.
When the United States invaded Puerto Rico and drove the
presidential or congressional elections, it does elect its own
Spanish out, the future of the country remained up in the air.
government.
After the signing of the Treaty of Paris with the Spanish, Puerto
Rico’s civilian government was structured under the Foraker Act
of 1900, which ended military rule and established the
organization of the Puerto Rican government and court system.
The lower of the two-house legislature would be composed of 35
delegates that were democratically elected, while the President of
the U.S. would appoint a governor and the eleven members of
the upper house. However, the Foraker Act labeled the island as
an insular area a designation from the Latin word for “island” that
clearly distinguished it and its inhabitants from incorporated
territories like Hawaii and the Mexican Cession, which granted its
inhabitants the full rights of U.S. citizenship and a path to
statehood. Instead, the inhabitants of Puerto Rico were
110
Section 4

The Panama Canal

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

1. Why were the 1890s a turning point in

American foreign policy history?

2. To what degree was American expansion in

the 1890s a continuation of manifest
destiny? To what degree was expansion in
the 1890s a change from previous
expansion?

3. What were the causes and consequences

of the Spanish-American War?

4. What challenges did America face in

governing an empire?

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Big Stick Diplomacy

Dollar Diplomacy Image Source https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_imperialism#/media/

File:Victor_Gillam_A_Thing_Well_Begun_Is_Half_Done_1899_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1136_01.jpg
George Washington Goethals

Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty “The Path Between the Seas”

Moral Diplomacy
With the acquisition of Samoa, Hawaii, Guam and the Philippines in the Pacific,
Roosevelt Corollary and Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Caribbean, the United States now had increased
William Gorgas

111
motivation to pursue a canal in Central America. With so much Epic Fail The French had tried to dig such a canal in the 1880s
new real estate and trade routes to protect, the US Navy needed through the region of Panama, an isthmus belonging to Colombia.
a faster way to move its fleet between the Atlantic and Pacific Despite being led by the well-recognized name of Ferdinand de
oceans. The two months it took the battleship U.S.S. Oregon to Lesseps, who had just finished building the Suez Canal through
sail 15,000 miles around the tip of South America to reach Cuba the deserts of Egypt, and later another engineer named Gustave
during the Spanish-American War in 1898 only confirmed the Eiffel, the French attempt ended in economic ruin and human
great need for a shorter route in the interests of American tragedy. Tropical diseases such as yellow fever and malaria;
security. When President McKinley was assassinated at the Pan- relentless tropical rains, flooding and
American Exposition in Buffalo, New York, in 1901, the man who mudslides; and the deaths of over Interactive 3.22 The
had been most influenced by Alfred Thayer Mahan’s naval 20,000 workers doomed and Panama Canal
recommendations, Theodore Roosevelt, now sat in the highest ultimately bankrupted the project
office of the land. Now, all of Mahan’s naval recommendations within eight years of the beginning of
for America as a world power were falling into place: a domestic excavation. The Panama Affair in
economy that could prosper based on significant trade France became associated with
connections to foreign markets?. Check. A large fleet of scandal, ruin, and the ultimate “epic
merchant ships engaged in international trade? Check. Colonies fail”.
which could provide raw materials, coaling stations, and markets
Click here for a documentary on
in both the Atlantic and the Pacific? Check. Defensive bases to the challenges of building the
Panama Canal
guard entrances to a Central American canal? Check. All that
was needed now was to construct a canal somewhere across the
Isthmus of Central America in order to expand the mobility of a A Man, A Plan, A Canal, Panama Roosevelt was not about to
powerful, modern navy that could patrol the seas, project let the “lamentable failure” of the French efforts stop him. After
American strength, and protect American interests at home and U.S. Secretary of State Hay successfully negotiated with Great
abroad. Britain to allow the United States to build, maintain and protect a
proposed canal open to all nations across the Central American
isthmus, considerable debate took place as to the best
geographical location for the canal. The decision was narrowed
112
down to the two most feasible routes: a shorter but more Colombian government was going to delay another year until the
challenging route across Panama and a longer, but potentially French Panama Canal Company’s rights expired and its assets
easier, route across Nicaragua. The shorter route through were forfeited over to the Colombian government, meaning that
Panama was chosen and negotiations with Colombia began. the $40 million paid by the United States Government to the
company for the right to its holdings would fall back into the
hands of the Colombian government, as well. Calling the actions
of the Colombian government a “sham” and an example of “pure
bandit morality,” Roosevelt considered occupation of the isthmus
for the purpose of building the canal, in addition to pursuing the
longer canal route through Nicaragua. Personally, Roosevelt
expressed his frustrations with the Colombians, calling them
“jackrabbits”. However, three months after the rejection of the
treaty, the Panamanians, who supported the canal project for the
economic boost it would potentially give their region and who had
a long history of rebellion against Colombia, revolted. Roosevelt
acted fast, sending troops from the U.S.S. Nashville to prevent
Colombian troops from quelling the rebellion on the isthmus.
Within three days, the United States recognized the
http://panama.lindahall.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2014/08/panex0301e.jpg independence of Panama and immediately negotiated the Hay-
Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903). The treaty guaranteed Panama’s
The United States negotiated a $250,000 annual lease payment
independence, while also giving the United States the “use,
for a six mile-wide canal zone, plus an additional one-time
occupation and control” of a 10 mile-wide canal zone “in
payment of $10 million. Under terms of the Hay-Herrán Treaty
perpetuity” for $250,000 a year, with the same one-time $10
(1903), the agreement would be good for 99 years. However, the
million payment it had offered to Colombia.
Colombian Congress refused to ratify the treaty, citing concerns
over sovereignty of the land and requesting an additional $10
million in cash. In Roosevelt’s eyes, it appeared that the

113
 America for decades to come. To help mend relations,
President Woodrow Wilson ended up paying Colombia
$25 million.

https://cdn.loc.gov/service/pnp/pan/6a24000/6a24100/6a24135r.jpg

Work began on the U.S. phase of the canal in 1904. Ten years
and $375 million later, the first boat steamed through the canal
just as the European powers were heading off to World War I.
The canal reduced travel time between the Pacific and the
Atlantic from two months to less than three weeks, cutting more
than 8,000 miles off the typical voyage. In addition to the 20,000
plus who died under the French phase of canal construction,
another 5,600 lives would be lost before the canal would open,
many of them black West Indians who provided the chief labor
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
source for the project. Colonel George Washington Goethals
File:Roosevelt_and_the_Canal.JPG
would become known as the Army officer and chief engineer who
finally conquered Panama’s geography through courage,
organization, and persistence. Dr. William Gorgas, known for his
previous work eradicating disease in Cuba, conquered the
tropical diseases in Panama that had taken so many lives under
the French phase of the project. According to Roosevelt, Gorgas
made Panama “as safe as a health resort.” And while the canal
was welcomed in Panama, the tactics used by Roosevelt to
acquire the canal zone left a bitter taste in the mouth of Latin

114
"WAITING"--Death awaits the resuming of construction of the Panama Canal in 1904.

https://cdn.loc.gov/service/pnp/ppmsca/25800/25859v.jpg

115
 of the Monroe Doctrine. Theodore Roosevelt often quoted an
old African proverb, "speak softly and carry a big stick; you will
go far. The “big stick” turned out to be military intervention, and
that approach backed his foreign policy in the Caribbean. In
1902, when the international bill collectors of Germany and Great
Britain arrived in Venezuela and blockaded its ports to collect
unpaid debts, it became clear to Roosevelt that excessive debt
by Latin American nations would invite European powers to
intervene, in violation of the Monroe Doctrine. In order to prevent
similar issues in the future. Roosevelt extended the doctrine in a
speech given to Congress in 1904. In that speech, Roosevelt
asserted the right of America to intervene in Latin American
nations as an "international police power" in order to collect
debts and ensure that the United States would not have to deal
with European involvement in its own
hemisphere. Interactive 3.23
Roosevelt’s Message to
The Roosevelt Corollary to the Congress
Image Source https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosevelt_Corollary#/media/ Monroe Doctrine set the precedent for
File:Roosevelt_monroe_Doctrine_cartoon.jpg
American foreign-policy for the next
Big Stick Diplomacy quarter century until it was reversed by
Franklin Roosevelt's “Good Neighbor
As the dreams of constructing a canal across Central America Policy” of the 1930s. Several times
were being realized, United States foreign policy within the region throughout the Caribbean, Presidents
focused on ensuring the political and economic stability of the Taft and Wilson followed the footsteps To read Roosevelt’s Message to
region, protection of the Canal Zone, and keeping foreign of Roosevelt and sent troops to Congress where he asserts the
Roosevelt Corollary, click here
influences out of Latin America in accordance with the principles intervene in the affairs of Latin

116
American countries. Interactive 3.25
Unfortunately, with Americans Presidential Policy Toward
nosing into the affairs of their Latin America
neighbors, namely to protect any
US markets that were perceived
to be threatened, it established a
legacy of bitterness, resentment
and bullying that has lasted even
to the present day.
Can you identify the policies?

Interactive 3.24 Crash

Course Imperialism

For an overview and recap of

Imperialism, view this video.

117
Chapter 4

Would the American

image have changed
drastically from both
foreign and domestic
viewpoints if the U.S.
had not participated in
WWI?
1. Do any of the causes of WWI still pose foreign
policy issues or problems for the U.S.today?

2. What can be learned about the changes in

American character from the manner in which the
U.S. mobilized, prepared, and participated in a
world war both at home and abroad?

3. How did the geography of Europe impact WWI

warfare?

4. To what extent should the victors of a war be

permitted to structure a post-war peace?
Section 1

The Causes of World War I

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY The Causes of WWI

1. Do any of the causes of WWI still pose
On June 28, 1914 Gavrillo Princip, a young Serbian Nationalist, leveled his pistol
foreign policy issues or problems for the
U.S.today? and fired two shots at the Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his young wife Sophie.
As an angry crowd tackled him to the ground and beat him, not even he could
2. What can be learned about the changes in
American character from the manner in imagine the chain of events that these two shots would set off around the world.
which the U.S. mobilized, prepared, and Long before these shots echoed out in Serbia, a perfect storm of forces was laying
participated in a world war both at home the groundwork for what would become the first truly global conflict the world had
and abroad?
ever seen.
3. How did the geography of Europe impact
WWI warfare? World War I, “The Great War”, or as it was optimistically, and rather naively known,
“The War to End All Wars,” pitted the Triple Entente, comprised of the Great
4. To what extent should the victors of a war
be permitted to structure a post-war Britain, France, and Russia, against the Central Powers, made up of Germany,
peace? Austria-Hungary, and Italy. These major world powers were joined on both sides
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE by almost one hundred other countries in a conflict fueled largely by swelling
militarism, an entangling and chain reacting set of alliances, a fever of
Triple Entente
imperialism, and chest pounding nationalism in both large and small countries
Triple Alliance
alike.
Militarism
Militarism
Nationalism

119
The United States was not the only country that had spent
substantial amounts of time and money expanding its navy and
other military forces during the late 1800s and early 1900s.
Militarism is the belief or desire of a government or people that a
country should maintain a strong military capability and be
prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national
interests. The military buildup was no new game to Great Britain,
France, and Germany. Between 1890 and 1913, these powers
had more than doubled their defense spending as well as the
sizes of their militaries. Militarism is closely tied to imperialism
and nationalism, and generally serves as another way for
countries to compete against each other, sometimes resulting in
an arms race.

Alliances

Perhaps one of the biggest contributors to the ticking time bomb

prior to the war in Europe was the entangling system of defense
alliances that had been in place since the early 1900s. An
alliance occurs when two countries have a mutual interest and
agree to protect each other. Beginning in 1879, with the Dual
Alliance, between Germany and Austria-Hungary, the complicated
system of alliances snared more and more countries as tensions
began to rise The two major alliances which entangled all of the https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Triple_Entente.jpg

major powers inside of Europe were the Triple Alliance,

Entente, made up of Great Britain, France, and Russia. All that
comprised of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy; and the Triple
120
was needed to set off the the
chain of alliances was a
small spark.

Imperialism

Imperialism, or the
economic, political, and
military domination of a
strong nation over other
weaker nations, also played
(http://www.authentichistory.com/1914-1920/1-overview/1-origins/MAP-1914_Colonization.jpg)
a major role in the building
tension between the European powers. Great Britain and France Alsace-Lorraine from France, a major point of contention between
had been carving up and claiming territory around the globe for the two powers.
centuries. Russia had also been carving out its own slice of the
globe for territorial expansion.
Nationalism
As can be seen in the map above, most of the world had been
claimed by 1914, leaving very little territory for Germany to The spark that lit the powder keg came from a building sense of
expand and compete against the other world powers in their hunt nationalism in both small and large nations alike. Nationalism is
for supremacy, markets, and natural resources. Germany had the belief that a nation’s interests and national unity should be
only managed to stake claim to small sections of Africa, and in placed ahead of global cooperation and that a nation’s foreign
the aftermath of the Franco-Prussian War, had managed to annex affairs should be guided by its own self-interests.

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Two competing philosophies about nationalism were starting to throne, Franz Ferdinand was Interactive 4.1 The
Assassination of Archduke
create a rift between the major European powers. To Germany, making an official visit to
Ferdinand
nationalism was defined along clearly ethnic lines. The only way Sarajevo, with his wife Sophie.
to be “German” was to speak German, have a German name, and
Gavrillo Princip, one of three
a German heritage. Germany’s ultimate goal was to unite all
members of the Serbian
German speaking regions of Europe under one flag and one
Nationalist group the Black
country, by any means necessary. Countries like France had a
Hand sent to Sarajevo during
different theory about nationalism. To the French, anyone who
the Archduke’s visit, pulled the
claimed allegiance to the French civil state was deemed to be
trigger that killed Franz Learn more about this pivotal
“French”. While there was a degree of uniformity enforced, this
Ferdinand and his wife Sophie. event in this video.
type of nationalism was not defined along ethnic lines, like the
The assassination of the
German brand.
archduke caused Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia,
A nationalistic sense of pride was also brewing in smaller nations which in turn triggered Russia to declare war on Austria-Hungary.
as well. This nationalism was based largely along ethnic lines, Germany responded by declaring war on Russia and France,
like the German brand, but instead of seeking to join together, which in turn triggered Great Britain to declare war on Germany.
they were looking to break away and seek their independence
The Great War had begun.
with the opportunity to form their own identity. In Serbia, a
country, within the Balkan region of Europe, this nationalism was US Neutrality
particularly strong.
Fresh from victory in the Spanish-American War, and with its
The Assassination that Sparked it All appetite whet from its first taste of true imperialism, an inner
battle began within the United States as to what its role should be
The pressure had been building in Europe for decades, but every
in the growing global conflict.
explosion needs a spark. On June 28, 1914, Gavrillo Princip
ignited the match that would set the entire world off. The Despite forays into imperialism, for decades, the United States
Archduke of Austria-Hungary, heir to the Austro-Hungarian had tried to heed the warnings of George Washington in his
farewell address: “steer clear of permanent alliances with any
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portion of the foreign world”. But Germany was ready to test how immediately established
committed the United States was to its doctrine of isolationism. the coast of Germany
as an active war zone.
The British warned any
Woodrow Wilson, a pacifist at heart, determined to keep the ship that was entering
United States out of the war, would have his own morals and those waters could face
doctrine tested. Wilson wanted to remain neutral for a variety of imminent danger. The
reasons, first and foremost being the conflict had little to do with British went so far as to
the United States in the first place. Wilson also feared a highly declare food as
divided population if the United States were to get involved. contraband, or
According to the 1910 census, ⅓ of the United States population prohibited items.
was made up of immigrants, many of these from European
The Germans
countries on both sides of the conflict across the Atlantic. By
responded in 1915 by
1914, that number had easily grown. Many of these new
declaring all of the
immigrants still had strong ties to their mother country, and if the
water around Great
United States chose sides, it could potentially divide the
Britain as an active war
population, making support for the war effort a very difficult
zone. Because the https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/
endeavor to undertake. German_Submarine_Zone_February_1915_SGW_Vol_V.png
British navy was far
Wilson’s battle to maintain neutrality became increasingly difficult superior to Germany’s,
as the war raged on, and the following events served as major the Germans had to rely on the u-boat, or submarine, to sneak up
forces pushing the United States towards war. and sink ships without warning they felt were carrying contraband
to the British.
Unrestricted Submarine Warfare
While U-boat attacks were deemed immoral and cowardly by the
When World War I first broke out, naval blockades were quickly Allies (naval battles to them should be fought above the sea, and
established to prevent necessary war related materials from in plain sight), the only way for the German’s to compete against
entering countries. Great Britain, with its superior navy
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the British naval superiority was to utilize the stealth abilities of another passenger liner, sunk just a year after the Lusitania). The
the U-boat. Sussex Pledge stated that unrestricted submarine warfare had to
stop, and in order for a ship to be sunk, a submarine would have
to announce itself and conduct a formal inspection of the vessel

Interactive 4.2 The Sinking

of the Lusitania
On May 7, 1915, the RMS
Lusitania, a British passenger
ship, was traveling from New
York to Great Britain when it
was torpedoed off the coast
of Ireland by a German U-
boat. When initially hit by the
torpedo, some claimed there Learn more in this video!

was a mysterious secondary

explosion (check out these theories on the source of the second
explosion!), and the Lusitania sank in just under 18 minutes. Of
the over one thousand victims,
roughly 128 of them were Interactive 4.3 U-20
American, enraging the Logbook
American public.

President Wilson immediately

called for an end to unrestricted
submarine warfare, and in 1916,
the Germans hesitantly signed
the Sussex Pledge (named after
Read the Logbook from U-20, the
u-boat that sank the Lusitania
124
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Lusitania_sunk_8_May_1915.jpg
before deciding if the vessel should be sunk or not. The signing
of the Sussex Pledge served as great political ammunition for
Wilson and arguably earned him reelection in 1916, by “Keeping Interactive 4.4 Decoding
the US out of war”. the Zimmerman Telegram

The Zimmerman Telegram

The tipping point for many Americans, and the the last straw for
Wilson’s pacifist patience, occurred in January of 1917. British
cryptographers intercepted a message between Arthur
Zimmerman, the German Foreign Minister, and the German
Ambassador in Mexico:. Learn more here!

The message called for an alliance between Germany and Mexico

against the United States along with the promise of helping
Mexico “reconquer the lost territory in Texas, New Mexico, and
Arizona.” Zimmerman even extended his invitation to include
Japan.

For Wilson and many other Americans, who were already

clamoring for war, this was the final straw. On April 2, 1917,
Wilson appeared before the US Congress and asked Congress
to, “ take immediate steps not only to put the country in a more
thorough state of defense but also to exert all its power and
employ all its resources to bring the Government of the German
Empire to terms and end the war.”

American neutrality was officially over.

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 Section 2

The Home Front

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY “It is a fearful thing to lead this great peaceful people into war,” Woodrow Wilson
1. Do any of the causes of WWI still pose declared to Congress on April 2, 1917. By the time the United States joined the
foreign policy issues or problems for the conflict, Europe had already been embroiled in a bitter stalemate for just over three
U.S.today? years, leading to hundreds of thousands of casualties,both military and civilian.
2. What can be learned about the changes in While eager to join the fight to support the Allies, Wilson knew that in order for
American character from the manner in U.S. troops to be successful in Europe, a wartime mentality would need to be
which the U.S. mobilized, prepared, and
developed and strengthened not only among soldiers but among all Americans on
participated in a world war both at home
and abroad? the homefront. Revving up the American “war machine” would require a lot of
work.
3. How did the geography of Europe impact
WWI warfare?
Opposition to the War
4. To what extent should the victors of a war
be permitted to structure a post-war While Wilson was quite certain that he could secure the approval of Congress, he
peace? did anticipate dissent. He didn’t have to wait long. At 1:00 a.m. on April 6, 1917,
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE after 15 hours of debating President Wilson’s request for a declaration of war
against Germany, a roll call vote began in the U.S. House of Representatives.
Mobilization
When the clerk of the House came upon the name of Jeannette Rankin of
Trench warfare
Montana, the first woman elected to Congress stood up and declared, “I want to
Pandemic stand by my country but I cannot vote for war. I vote no.” In later years she
armistice reflected on this action by saying, “I believe that the first vote I cast was the most
significant vote and a most significant act on the part of women, because women
are going to have to stop war. I felt at the time that the first woman [in Congress]

126
should take the first stand, that the war began for the U.S. in 1917, she was a strong advocate for
Interactive 4.5 Jeannette
first time the first woman had a Rankin women’s roles in the war effort to further ideals of democracy
chance to say no to war she including the women’s right to vote. The picture below illustrates
should say it.” Jeannette Rankin: a public patriotic parade in Grand Rapids, Michigan. The words
First Lady in Congress below the picture were written by Catt herself.

Although Representative Rankin

was the only member in the House
of Representatives to vote against
U.S. entry into the Great War, other As the first woman ever elected to
Congress, Jeannette Rankin left a
Americans opposed entry into the remarkable legacy. To learn more
war as well for various reasons. about her role as an activist, view
this comprehensive 6 minute
Some did not think the war had video:
anything to do with the United
States and was a European conflict that only involved
Europeans--the issues shouldn’t concern Americans. Other
Americans opposed the war because they did not want the US to
take the side of the British. This was especially true of German
immigrants (who leaned favorably to Germany, of course) and of
Irish immigrants (who hated Britain for colonizing their homeland).
Finally, socialists opposed the war because they thought the war
was purely an economic conflict--fighting that would end in the
rich getting richer. They didn't want the poor to die for the sake
of rich men's profits. Prominent Americans like Henry Ford, Jane
Addams, and Carrie Chapman Catt were also known to support
American neutrality during the war. Catt argued that the U.S.
should stand for democracy through neutrality, although once the

127
Mobilizing the Economy While Bernard Baruch and the War Industries Board were gearing
up industry, Herbert Hoover, tapped by President Wilson to head
Many Americans believed that the first step to waging war
the Food Administration, was mobilizing the food industry and
successfully was to mobilize the economy. Industrialization had
agriculture. Hoover encouraged Americans to practice food
primed the pump for the United States, and made the conversion
rationing practices, and also hiked up crop prices to encourage
to war time production a little bit easier. But switching the
farmers to grow certain crops over others.
economy over to wartime production was not as easy as flipping
a switch. The Laissez-faire attitude of little government Mobilizing the Army
intervention and promotion of the free market that had paved the
The last major war the United States had fought with a major
way for industrialization to expand on such a large scale ended
standing army had been the Civil War. While Wilson encouraged
with the creation of the War Industries Board, and the National
Americans to sign up and serve, volunteer forces alone would not
War Labor Board.
be enough to supply the necessary number of troops to help the
The War Industries Board, headed up by Bernard Baruch, was Allies “over there.” In May, 1917 Congress passed the Selective
tasked with regulating and controlling industries responsible for Service Act. The act authorized the government to carry out a
producing war related materials. Among its duties, the War military draft to raise the requisite number of troops. The first
Industries Board was responsible for dictating what products
would be produced, where they would be produced, how much
they would cost. This amount of control ensured that the
American Expeditionary Force would get what it needed when it
needed it.

To ensure that factories were operating at full capacity, the

National War Labor Board brokered agreements between factory
owners and factory employees over wages and work hours to
ensure that strikes would not inhibit the factory’s ability to
produce necessary military materials.

128

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/U.S._draft_lottery.jpg
draft call required all men ages 21 to 30 years old to sign up for trade on the Great Lakes and converted them for transatlantic
potential service in the armed forces. During the course of the use.
war, there were three total draft calls to provision the demand of
the military, which drafted over 24 million men, of these, 2.8 The Convoy System Comes to the Rescue!

million of these men served in the American Expeditionary Force

U.S. Navy Rear Admiral William S. Sims persuaded the British
(AEF), commanded by General John J. Pershing.
that the best strategy against German U-boats was that of the
convoy system. Sims plan called for merchant vessels to travel in
American Success in Combat
large groups with a guard of circling destroyers and cruisers as
Once the American military was mobilized, the next task for the protection. The convoy system worked; by midsummer of 1917
U.S. was to transport its troops overseas--complete with food shipping losses were cut in half.
and equipment not only for them but for the Allied forces as well.
To complete this huge task, the U.S. immediately began to build
ships to expand its fleet. While on the surface, it might have
seemed like an easy switch from the production of industrial
capital to that of wartime production, the U.S. would have to take
four critical steps in order to make mobilization, or assembly a
reality. First, shipyard workers were exempted or deferred from
military service. Second, the U.S. Chamber of Commerce
participated in public relations campaigns in order to increase the
number of workers in shipyards across the nation. Third, a new
process of fabrication, using standardized parts to more quickly
assemble ships at shipyards was employed. Fourth, the federal
government took over privately owned ships used for commercial
http://i1317.photobucket.com/albums/t637/Lord_Coen/HMCS%20Moose%20Jaw/UK-RAF-
II-4_zpsa2103e77.jpg

129
Additionally, soldiers in the U.S. navy helped lay 230 miles of
mines in the North Sea from Scotland to Norway. Designed to
bottle up German U-boats and keep them out of the Atlantic
Ocean, by the first few months of 1918, the Allied Forces had
drastically minimized the U-boat threat.

Fighting in Europe

The American contribution of fresh and enthusiastic troops to the

Allied war effort cannot be overstated. After suffering three years
of exhausting trench warfare against the Germans, British and
French soldiers were grateful for the massive numbers of
American troops sent overseas. Under the leadership of General
John J. Pershing, the American
Expeditionary Force (AEF) first Interactive 4.6 Trench http://i0.wp.com/www.archivingwheeling.org/blog/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Whg-WWI-soldiers-Hoffman-
Warfare
served mostly as replacements for collection-e1438860701585.jpg

Allied casualties. Nicknamed

By spring of 1918 having been successful in knocking Russia out
doughboys because of the white
of the war, German forces shifted their armies from the Russian
belts they wore which they cleaned
front to the western front of France. By May, an aggressive
with pipe clay or “dough”, the AEF
German offensive had approached to within 50 miles of Paris.
fought as an independent force
Thankfully, American forces helped stop a German advance at
under the overall direction of French
Cantigny in France and a few weeks later assisted with forcing
marshal Ferdinand Foch, In addition to mechanized warfare,
or warfare that relies on the power
German forces to retreat at Chateau-Thierry and Belleau Wood.
commander of all Allied forces in
of gasoline and diesel to fuel By August the American forces helped the AEF win the Second
Europe. machines such and tanks and
airplanes, a common strategy of Battle of Marne and in September assisted with mounting
warfare was known as trench offensives against the Germans at Saint-Mihiel and in the
warfare. Listen to what life in a
trench was like by watching the Meuse-Argonne area. Even though American losses seemed
following video:
130
extensive (48,000 men in battle and an additional 62,000 from Americans lost their lives to the pandemic. Worldwide, the
disease), by October 1918 the tide had definitely turned against pandemic killed as many as 40 million people--more people than
the Central Powers. were killed in the Great War.

Enemy on the Homefront: The Influenza Pandemic

American doughboys weren’t the only subculture of Americans

fighting for their lives. In the fall of 1918, with the end of fighting
on the horizon in Europe, the U.S.suffered a life-threatening crisis
as an international flu pandemic, or international epidemic had
reached American shores. The pandemic actually occurred in
three waves: the first wave had occurred when mild influenza
erupted in the late spring and summer of 1918. The second wave
occurred with an outbreak of severe influenza in the fall of 1918,
and the final wave occurred in the spring of 1919. It was the
second (and most severe) mutation of the flu that erupted in the
port city of Boston in late August of 1918 and spread rapidly
across the nation. As many who were infected with the flu died
from pneumonia that set in, the effects on the American economy
were devastating. Mines were shut down, telephone service was
cut in half, and factories and offices were forced to stagger shifts
to avoid contagion. Cities ran out of coffins causing the corpses
http://www.flu.gov/pandemic/history/1918/documents_media/photographs/images/flu1.jpg
of some who had died to lay unburied as long as a week.
Doctors were at a loss as to what to do other than to recommend
extreme cleanliness and sanitation. By the time the flu finally
disappeared after the third wave in 1919, the U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services has estimated that at least 675,000

131
Poppies with a Purpose Mobilizing Support

Do you ever wonder why Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW) Americans would not have been as willing to sacrifice the free

volunteers give you a paper poppy after you give them a market, ration food, and register for the draft if they did not

donation? Noticed as early as the Napoleonic Wars, red believe in the cause for which they were being asked to sacrifice.

poppies were found to have grown on the graves of dead In order to ensure that Americans knew they were making a

soldiers in the fields of northern Europe. Poppy seeds lie worthy sacrifice, Wilson approved the creation of the Committee

underground for years and bloom if they are plowed up. In on Public Information, headed by George Creel. The former

the spring of 1915, red poppies flourished in the fields of the journalist from Kansas City was tasked with “selling” the war to

Ypres salient in Belgium covering the newly dug graves after the American public. The CPI utilized advertising principles

the Second Battle of Ypres on May 2. To learn more about developed through studying psychology, such as dramatizing the

the most famous war memorial poem, In Flanders Fields or evilness of the enemy,

about the author of the poem, visit: http:// to harness the

www.flandersfieldsmusic.com/thepoem.html emotions of Americans

and rationalize the
sacrifices they were
making to support the
Interactive 4.7 In Flanders war effort. Propaganda
Fields posters were posted to
garner support for
various war efforts from
enlisting in the army, to
working in a factory.
Amongst many of its
efforts, the CPI also
For a powerful reading of the trained “4 Minute Men”
poem click here! to deliver speeches to

132
educate audiences on America’s war aims and efforts. both official and unofficial erupted with the main targets of the
drive for patriotic conformity set upon immigrants--especially
The American government took other avenues for mobilizing
those from Germany and Austria-Hungary. Many Americans who
public support as well: silencing the opposition. In 1917,
had emigrated from those countries lost their jobs. Orchestras
Congress passed the Espionage Act followed by the Sedition Act
stopped playing music of the composers Mozart, Bach,
in 1918. The Espionage Act gave postal officials the right to ban
Beethoven, and Brahms. Some towns with German names
certain newspapers and magazines. It also threatened individuals
changed the name of the town. In some instances, acts of
attempting to inhibit the draft with hefty fines and substantial jail
physical violence broke out.
time. The Sedition Act outlawed any “disloyal, profane,
scurrilous, or abusive language” against the government or the When young American men left home to fight in the war, they left
war effort. behind not only family and friends, but jobs. With the American
war machine revving its engine, filling these jobs, many of them in
While a clear violation of the first amendment, the Supreme Court
manufacturing, was critical to supplying the war effort with the
upheld the Espionage and Sedition Act in a landmark case in
necessary equipment. Women started filling jobs left behind by
1919 Schenck v. The United States. Charles Schenck, a
their husbands and boyfriends, but the demand for workers had
prominent socialist, was distributing literature discouraging young
not been satisfied.
men to resist the draft. His activity was found in violation of the
Espionage Act for promoting dissent against the war effort. The African Americans, who felt they were economically trapped in
case established the “clear and present danger” test, which the South, dealing with Jim Crow segregation laws began moving
essentially meant that the first amendment’s guarantee of north in hopes of escaping not only the terrible segregation, but
freedom of speech isn’t limitless, and in fact, is limited by the of finding a job to help them get one step closer to living the
context of the situation in which it is used. American dream. The Great Migration had begun, as African
Americans moved in large numbers to large northern cities like
Other Impacts of the War on the Homefront
Chicago, Detroit, and New York. Unfortunately though, when the
While mobilization for the war had some predicted war ended and soldiers returned home, both women and African
consequences, there were others that the government and other Americans were forced out of their factory jobs. Most women
planners could have never predicted. Attacks on civil liberties, went back to the home, but African American families were now

133
living in large cities without viable job opportunities and no source organizing revolutionary councils. Six days later on November 9,
of income. the people of Berlin rose in rebellion, forcing the kaiser to
abdicate his throne and seek refuge in the Netherlands. With no
As a result of economic tensions, many larger cities experienced
actual battle taking place and no Allied troops on German
sectioned growth--many blacks ended up creating their own
territory, the German economy and war machine were too weak
cities within big cities which fostered the growth of a new urban
to continue. On the eleventh hour on the eleventh day in the
African-American culture. The most prominent example was
eleventh month of 1918 a cease-fire agreement was reached that
Harlem in New York City. A formerly all-white neighborhood, by
ended the war.
the 1920s Harlem was home to some 200,000 African Americans.
The black experience during the Great Migration became an
important theme in society, especially with aspects of culture.
The Harlem Renaissance, for example, known first as the New
Negro Movement and later as the Harlem Renaissance, would
have an enormous impact on the culture of the era. Politically,
the Great Migration was also the beginning of a new era
increased political activism among African Americans, who after
being disenfranchised by Jim Crow laws in the South, found a
new place for themselves in public life in the cities of the North
and West.

An End to the War

On November 3, 1918 the German Grand Fleet was ordered to

set out to sea from its naval base at Kiel. A total shock to the
admiralty occurred when the sailors and marines refused to man https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/564x/c9/04/a0/c904a0ae8bf0464dbb8671b201c4da61.jpg

their ships. To them, there was no use in fighting any longer and
they verbalized these thoughts to their superiors. The mutiny News of the armistice, or truce brought great relief for the Allies--
quickly spread and soon everywhere in Germany soldiers were both in Europe and across the Atlantic as American civilians were

134
grateful. And while many wanted to believe that life would
continue as it had prior to the war, many soon realized their lives
had changed nearly as much as those who had fought in
Europe--there was no going back.

135
Section 3

Wilson’s Quest for Peace

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Even before the war had ended, President Wilson, guided by the basic ideals of
1. Do any of the causes of WWI still pose progressivism which had guided American domestic policy during the previous
foreign policy issues or problems for the decade, was inspired to draft several international points for peace. Divided into
U.S.today? three groups, the list consisted of core points which stressed self-determination of
2. What can be learned about the changes in peoples, free trade, and open diplomacy. Wilson
American character from the manner in believed that international acceptance of his Interactive 4.8 The
which the U.S. mobilized, prepared, and Fourteen Points
Fourteen Points would lead to a just and lasting
participated in a world war both at home
and abroad? peace. Believing that U.S. endorsement of his
points was critical to international acceptance by
3. How did the geography of Europe impact
WWI warfare?
the Allied nations, President Wilson delivered his
address to a joint Congress on January 18, 1918.
4. To what extent should the victors of a war
Assuring the country that World War I was being
be permitted to structure a post-war
peace? fought for a moral cause and for a lasting, postwar
peace in Europe, Wilson outlined his Fourteen Click here to access the primary
source document of Wilson’s
Points.
Fourteen Points:

136
 A simplified version of Wilson’s Fourteen Points is below: 12. Protection for minorities in Turkey and the free passage
of the ships of all nations through the Dardanelles.
The Fourteen Points could be simplified to a core list of
agreements and goals for all participating nations: 13. Independence for Poland, including access to the sea.

1. No secret alliances between countries. 14. Establishment of a League of Nations to protect

"mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial
2. Freedom of the seas in peace and war.
integrity to great and small nations alike."
3. Reduced trade barriers among nations.
The first five of Wilson’s points addressed issues that Wilson
4. General reduction of armaments. believed had caused the war in 1914. The following eight points
dealt mostly with boundary changes for countries that had been
5. Adjustment of colonial claims in the interests of involved in the war. Wilson’s final point called for the
inhabitants as well as the colonial powers. establishment of an international organization responsible for
addressing diplomatic crises, similar to those that had started the
6. Evacuation of Russian territory and a welcome for its
war. Named, The League of Nations, the organization would
government to the society of nations.
provide a forum for nations to discuss and settle their grievances
7. Restoration of Belgian territories in Germany. without having to resort to war. President Wilson believed that
the U.S. should serve as a moral compass to the rest of the world
8. Evacuation of all French territory, including Alsace-
and clearly delineated the United States’ goals in the war from the
Lorraine.
goals of the other warring powers. To Wilson, the U.S. had not
9. Readjustment of Italian boundaries along clearly entered the war with the hope of obtaining wealth or territory;
recognizable lines of nationality. instead, Americans entered the war to bring about a new
international climate and to ensure the well being and continued
10. Independence for various national groups in Austria- growth of democracy. Wilson’s campaign was successful--
Hungary. Americans responded to his idealistic aims and rallied behind him

11. Restoration of the Balkan nations and free access to and the war effort.

the sea for Serbia.

137
Source: Boundless. “Wilson's Fourteen Points.” Boundless U.S. History. Boundless, 08 Jul. 2016. Retrieved 30 Aug. 2016
Internationally, Allied governments paid lip service to the Fourteen one, cartoonists can help their readers see it in a different light.
Points while the war waged on. Allied nations needed American After you’ve studied the cartoon for a while, try to decide what
financing to assist in their rebuilding after the war and did not the cartoon’s main analogy is. What two situations does the
want to risk offending President Wilson. Some in Europe feared in cartoon compare? Once you understand the main analogy,
the U.S. might seek a separate peace with Germany, freeing that decide if this comparison makes the cartoonist’s point more clear
nation to continue the fight without the presence of American to you.
forces.
Allies Reject Wilson’s Fourteen Points
Cartoon Analysis
Even though President Wilson’s ultimate goal was to establish a
Sometimes cartoonists overdo, or exaggerate, the physical foundation for international peace, many were surprised at his
characteristics of people or things in order to make a point. In failure to grasp the level of anger that was felt by Allied leaders.
this political cartoon what object does the cartoonist exaggerate? Because of their intense desire to make Germany pay for its
For what actions, a general consensus on all of the points could not be
purpose? In reached and President Wilson was forced to concede on most of
other words, his points in return for the establishment of the League of
what point was Nations.
the cartoonist
A Treaty is Reached at Versailles
trying to make?
On June 28, 1919, the Big Four (President Wilson of the U.S.,
An analogy is a
British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, French Premier
comparison
Georges Clemenceau, and Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando)
between two
gathered in the Great Hall of Versailles with leaders of the
unlike things. By
defeated nations to sign a peace treaty officially ending WWI.
comparing a
The Treaty of Versailles addressed the following main provisions:
complex issue or
situation with a
more familiar
138
 • Nine new nations were established (including Poland, • Germany was forced to acknowledge that it alone was
Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia) and boundaries of other nations responsible for WWI
were shifted
• Two international peacekeeping bodies were
• Four areas of the Ottoman Empire were given to established-- the League of Nations and the World Court. League
France and Great Britain as temporary colonies member countries were obligated to assist one another in
stopping international aggression. The World Court was set up to
• Germany was demilitarized and stripped of its air force
mediate disputes between countries.
and most of its navy; its army was reduced to 100,000 men

• Germany was to return the land of Alsace-Lorraine to

Interactive 4.9 White Out - Because the provisions of the
France and pay reparations to France
Treaty of Versailles Treaty were extremely harsh
toward Germany, its ability to
serve as a basis for lasting
peace was severely weakened
in three main aspects. First, the
war-guilt clause humiliated
Germany. Germany could not
protest any of the other
provisions, nor could it pay back
the huge amount of financial war reparations. Second, because
the Bolshevik government in Russia felt that their sacrifices
caused by three years of involvement in the war had been
ignored by the Big Four, attempts to gain back former territory
was imminent. Lastly, because Germany had been stripped of
all of its colonial possessions in the Pacific, there was no way
Germany could make war reparations.

139
Wilson’s Troubles at Home delivered 35 speeches in 22 days in his attempt to garner public
support. On October 2nd, Wilson suffered a stroke and was
Upon his return to the U.S. President Wilson discovered several
rushed back to the White House. When the treaty came up for a
groups were opposed to the treaty. Many Americans felt the
vote in the Senate in November, 1919, Senator Lodge introduced
provisions of the treaty were too harsh. Some, like Herbert
a number of amendments and while the Senate rejected the
Hoover, believed that the economics alone would pummel
amendments, it also failed to ratify the treaty. The U.S. signed a
Germany into financial collapse and the rest of Europe (and
separate treaty with Germany in 1921 under President Harding
ultimately the U.S.) with it. Still others protested that the treaty
and never joined the League.
was a sellout to imperialism--that one set of colonial rulers would
be exchanged for another. Some ethnic groups objected
because the newly established national boundaries didn’t satisfy
demands for self-determination and still many were angry with
Wilson for not attempting to secure Ireland’s independence from
Great Britain.

Additionally, President Wilson also discovered

considerable opposition to the establishment of the
League of Nations because of the threat of European
entanglements. Conservatives in the Senate, led by
Henry Cabot Lodge had suspicions about the
provisions for joint economic and military action
against aggression even though it had been
voluntary. Realizing there was enough discontent in
the Senate to block approval, President Wilson
decided to appeal directly to the people and set out
on an 8,000 mile tour in September of 1919. Despite
warnings from friends and physicians, Wilson

http://gdb.voanews.com/A9311431-3BD3-45D9-9D7E-84912567A7B8_w987_r1_s.jpg 140
Chapter 5

How did the decade of

the 1920s illustrate
social, economic, and
political change in the
United States?

1. From a political and economic perspective, were the

actions of government and business seen as more
conservative or innovative during this decade?

2. What part did the League of Nations play in the shift toward
isolationism by the U.S. after WWI?

3. At what point can fear lead to infringement upon an

individual or group’s civil liberties?

4. Did the short-term victories of the labor movement in the

1920s ultimately help or hinder its long-term goals?

5. To what extent did the contradiction between agriculture

and business contribute to economic bust by the end of the
decade?
 Section 1

United States Politics in the 1920s

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Revolution Overseas Causes Mixed Reactions at Interactive 5.1 Crash
Home Course - The Roaring 20s
1. From a political and economic perspective, were
the actions of government and business seen as
more conservative or innovative during this decade? America’s involvement in WWI left most Americans
exhausted--in more ways than one. Soldiers returning
2. What part did the League of Nations play in the shift
toward isolationism by the U.S. after WWI? home had suffered huge emotional distress from the war
itself as well as from the physical injuries that many had
3. At what point can fear lead to infringement upon an
individual or group’s civil liberties? suffered. Americans at home were deeply divided over
the issues at the forefront of the League of Nations
4. Did the short-term victories of the labor movement For an overview on the period
debate and the impact that the war had on thousands of you’re about to study, check out
in the 1920s ultimately help or hinder its long-term
goals? immigrants with relatives overseas, many suffering in this video from John Green and
Crash Course!
war-torn lands. Many Americans wished to return to
5. To what extent did the contradiction between
agriculture and business contribute to economic what President Harding described as “normalcy.” Because of this desire by the
bust by the end of the decade? American public, three trends in American society began to develop, both in rural
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE towns and in urban areas across the country:

Isolationism • A desire to return to the practice of isolationism, in which the U.S. would pull
Nativism away from any involvement in world affairs

Anarchism • The return of nativism, in which many Americans would become increasingly
Red Scare suspicious of individuals not born in the U.S.
Ku Klux Klan

142
• The leaning toward political conservatism which would cause that the “Reds” or Communists would take over the country. The
governmental activism that had become the norm during the Attorney General, A. Mitchell Palmer took decisive action in order
Progressive era to cease to combat the “Red Scare.”

The first result of these trends was the fear by many of the rise of
communism in the U.S.

By 1917, the Russian Revolution had begun. Czar Nicholas II,

unable to cope with desperate conditions in Russia, combined
with the great loss of life of a large number of Russian soldiers to
the fighting of WWI, abdicated his throne. The provisional
representative government that was put into place was quickly
overthrown by the Bolsheviks--a group of revolutionaries led by
Vladimir Lenin. Eventually a state based on the economic and
social system of communism was put into place. In March of
1919, during the Third Communist International meeting that was
held in Moscow, a worldwide revolution was advocated to http://img.timeinc.net/time/photoessays/2008/10_worst_cabinet/palmer.jpg
overthrow all of the tenants of capitalism.
In August of 1919, a new division to the Justice Department had
The Red Scare been added and J. Edgar Hoover had been appointed by Palmer
to oversee it. (This new division would later become the FBI.) In
In response to the call for international revolution, approximately
his essay, The Case Against the Reds, Palmer charged that
70,000 radicals in the U.S. formed a Communist Party in the U.S.
"tongues of revolutionary heat were licking the altars of the
And even though the 70,000 radicals was the equivalent of only
churches, leaping into the belfry of the school bell, crawling into
one-tenth of 1% of the American population, any talk of
the sacred corners of American homes, seeking to replace
communism frightened the American public. In addition, several
marriage vows with libertine laws, burning up the foundations of
dozen bombs had been mailed to both government leaders and
society."
prominent business leaders in the U.S. thus adding to the panic

143
Government agents were sent to Interactive 5.2 The Palmer Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Interactive 5.3 The Trial of
Raids Sacco & Vanzetti
hunt down anyone who was Vanzetti were Italian-Americans and
suspected of being a socialist or anarchists, who were charged with
communist, as well as anyone the crimes of robbery and murder in
suspected of being an Braintree, Massachusetts in 1920.
anarchist--a person who The trial that ensued was largely
opposes any form of sensationalized and some of the
government. Suspects were evidence used against the men was
jailed without being entitled to a A brief video with footage is discredited. However, given the anti- Click here for text of the speech
available here. from Sacco & Vanzetti.
lawyer and many foreign-born foreign, anti-radical sentiment at the
radicals were deported without time, Sacco and Vanzetti were both
trials even though no evidence of a revolutionary conspiracy was convicted and sentenced to death. On August 23, 1927, the men
found. Eventually in 1920, Palmer was discredited when his claim met their death by electric chair. Their executions sparked
of a communist plot to overthrow the government failed to protests across Massachusetts and the nation.
happen.
The Ku Klux Klan Rises Again
Interactive 5.4 C-SPAN
The Trial of Sacco & Vanzetti Video
With a national sentiment that
Fear and distrust of foreigners bled into other facets of society seemed to enhance nativist attitudes,
during the 1920s. Groups that endorsed socialism or anarchism groups like the Ku Klux Klan began
bred suspicion amongst citizens and government officials. The to wield their influence and power.
1920s was plagued by what became known as the “Red Scare,” Traditionally a group that was
or the fear of a leftist revolution or communist take-over as had prejudiced towards African-
happened in Russia in 1917. The trial of Italian immigrants, Americans, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK)
Sacco and Vanzetti, had come to illustrate the fear of foreigners began to broaden their target during Professor James Madison showed
pictures and artifacts in the
that gripped the nation at the height of the Red Scare. the decade of the 1920s to include collection of the Indiana Historical
immigrant groups, Catholics and Society in Indianapolis, Indiana, as
he talked about the history of the
Ku Klux Klan in Indiana
144
 members of the Jewish faith. With a message of “Americanism” Labor Conflicts
and limits on foreign immigration to the United States, the
Another substantial conflict that occurred in postwar America
message of the Ku Klux Klan gained appeal. At its height, Ku
pitted labor against management in the workplace. Poor working
Klux Klan membership swelled to four million people during the
conditions, income inequality, and low wages, combined with an
1920s.
increased cost of living led to overwhelming frustration and anger
among thousands of workers. During the war, workers had not
been allowed to strike as nothing was allowed to interfere with
the war effort; however, once the war had ended, labor unions
began to look favorably upon striking for better conditions as an
effective tactic. Management on the other hand, did not want to
provide raises to workers, nor did they want to be seen as
catering to organized labor unions as visions of revolt similar to
the one in Russia were in forefront of many business owners’
minds. Believing that a strike, or work stoppage by employees in
order to gain higher wages and/or better working conditions
would yield the most positive benefits for the greatest number of
unionized workers, some 3,000 strikes were used in 1919 alone.
Of those, three grabbed the attention of the American public.

The Boston Police Strike

When Boston police officers sent representatives to the police

commissioner in 1919 to ask for a pay raise, the cost of living
Photo of the KKK organizing for a Parade in Washington, D.C., 8/8/1925, LIbrary of Congress. http://www.loc.gov/item/ had doubled. The police commissioner responded by firing
npc2007014035/
everyone in the group. The remaining officers responded by
going on strike.

145
 representatives, representing more than 350,000 workers,
attempted to meet with management to plead for shorter hours
and a living wage. When the company refused to meet with
representatives the strike began.

https://libcom.org/files/images/history/Boston.jpg

Calvin Coolidge who was the governor of Massachusetts at the

time, called out the National Guard to restore order. The strike
was then called off by the police but the commissioner refused to https://www.quia.com/files/quia/users/rwvatsc/Homestead_steel.jpg

hire back the officers he had fired. When the commissioner hired
Steel companies had been in the practice of hiring strikebreakers
new officers to replace those he had fired, Samuel Gompers, the
and force was not uncommon. U.S. Steel security police, state
president of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) got involved.
militias, and federal troops killed 18 workers and injured hundreds
Appealing to Governor Coolidge on behalf of the fired men, the
more. The strike was finally broken in January of 1920 but even
governor replied by declaring that, “There is no right to strike
after a report was published about the harsh working conditions
against the public safety by anyone, anywhere, any time.” The
in the steel mills, the steelworkers remained without a union.
public praised Governor Coolidge as many felt he had saved
Boston from communism and anarchy. The Coal Miner’s Strike

The Steel Mill Strike In November of 1919, the new president of the United Mine
Workers, John Lewis called for his workers to strike in protest of
Even more upsetting to the American public was the strike at the
long workdays and low wages. When Attorney General Mitchell
U.S. Steel Corporation in September of 1919. Union
Palmer ordered workers back on the job through a court order,
146
Lewis publicly declared the Isolationism Impacts Immigration
strike over while quietly
In the wake of the First World War and the Russian Revolution of
telling striking workers to
1917, immigration to the United States began to increase. As the
continue to strike. After the
influx of immigrants rose, old issues including nativism, made a
mines remained closed a
reappearance. To stem the tide of immigration, primarily from
month, President Wilson
Southern and Eastern Europe, Congress passed the Emergency
appointed an arbitrator to
Quota Act of 1921. This law’s aim was to curb the tide of
decide on the outstanding
immigrants by setting a yearly constraint of immigrants entering
issues. Although the miners
the country to 350,000. The law further went on to restrict
did not receive a shorter
immigration of each nationality to 3 percent of the 1910 U.S.
work day or a 5-day work
http://www.ohwy.com/history%20pictures/lewsenat.gif census figures. In 1924 the Emergency Quota Act was
week, they did receive a
strengthened to completely exclude
27% wage increase.
Japanese immigrants to the United Interactive 5.5 Says the
Although gains were made for workers during the 1920s, the States. Laws passed reflecting Anti- Foreigner Is Not
decade saw a substantial decline in the labor movement. One Asian sentiment was nothing new. Appreciated
reason had to do with the huge influx of immigrants that had The Emergency Quota Act continued
come to the U.S. Because of the language barrier, organization an earlier trend established in the late
into unions was a difficult task. And many immigrants were 1800s and early 1900s. Legislation,
willing to work in poor conditions because their circumstances such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of
were so dire. Farmers who left their farms and moved into cities 1882 and the Gentleman’s Agreement
for work weren’t used to the idea of organized labor; their of 1907, put restrictions specifically
previous necessity of self-reliance made them reluctant to join on Japanese immigrants. Pressure Why would labor groups pressure
unions. Additionally, many unions excluded African Americans from labor groups helped to validate the government to pass laws like
the Emergency Quota Act of
which reduced their favorability. Combined with the decline of laws during the 1920s designed to 1921? Why would the law be
need for unskilled labor, many Americans changed their attitudes specifically exclude Asian immigrants. geared specifically restrict Asian
immigrants?
not only about unions but also about immigration.

147
 Section 2
Did the majority of the social and cultural changes
that took place in the 1920s reinforce traditional
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY The 1920s Version of Business in America
1. From a political and economic perspective, were the
In the immediate years following World War I, the United States, for the first time
actions of government and business seen as more
conservative or innovative during this decade? ever, had a population that was more urban than rural. Though the definition of
what is defined as an urban environment has changed throughout the last century,
2. What part did the League of Nations play in the shift
toward isolationism by the U.S. after WWI? in the 1920s the relative number of people working on farms decreased. During
World War I, the price of corn and other foods reached an all-time high. At the start
3. At what point can fear lead to infringement upon an
individual or group’s civil liberties?
of the 1920s, farmers were earning 70 cents per bushel, but by the end of the
decade farmers were reaping only 10 cents per bushel. The term prosperity is
4. Did the short-term victories of the labor movement in
often associated with the 1920s, but this does not paint a complete picture when
the 1920s ultimately help or hinder its long-term
goals? illustrating the economic perspective of the decade. Some farmers had borrowed
large quantities of money to supply troops with food in Europe during World War I.
5. To what extent did the contradiction between
agriculture and business contribute to economic bust At the end of the war, farms harvested large quantities of food with fewer buyers.
by the end of the decade? This overproduction led to an oversupply of food lowering the price of most
foodstuffs. Farmers were not making the money they anticipated when they had
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
borrowed money from local banks. By 1924, with decreasing commodity prices--
GNP (Gross National Product)
corn, wheat, pork--and the inability to pay back loans to banks, over 2400 farms
Installment plans faced foreclosure. This helped trigger the movement from rural areas to more
superficial prosperity urban centers as people searched for jobs. The average daily wage rate for a
farmworker in 1920 was $2.82, and by 1929 the average was only $2.30.
Speculation

Buying on margin

Bull market
148
Bear market
 industries and were characterized as lower paying jobs since
many thought the jobs were to be secondary family income.

The Economy of the 1920s

Not all areas of the economy

faced the issues confronting the
agricultural industry. With the
exception of the first few years of
the 1920s, as demobilization
occurred and veterans of World
War I returned home looking for
Photo of the Model T, 1915, Library of Congress.
employment, there was great
economic prosperity for many http://www.loc.gov/item/2002706384/

Americans. On some levels the

https://www.census.gov/history/img/urban-rural-distributionmap.jpg
US economy, at least in urban areas, benefited the nation’s
As soldiers demobilized after World War I, they returned to the families--providing more income to spend on consumer products
United States and looked to enter the workforce. While like radios, phonographs and vacuum cleaners. The auto industry
unemployment rates were relatively low throughout the decade, grew as millions of cars were produced on assembly lines,
male participation in the labor force decreased and women’s providing affordable vehicles for many families to purchase. New
participation increased. Even though the process of women financial instruments like purchasing items on credit in
entering the workplace had started long before the 1920s, there installment plans allowed Americans to purchase greater
were jobs that were considered by greater society to be quantities of consumer goods. As consumers bought more goods
“acceptable” for women’s work. World War I saw the need for and as industry met the demand for these goods, there was a
women to work as secretaries, nurses, and clerks. These so general increase in Gross National Product (GNP). Typically, a
called “Pink-Collar” professions continued into the 1920s in many higher GNP per person equates to a higher standard of living for a
country, though that is not to imply that this prosperity was

149
equally distributed amongst all people evenly. As a matter of fact,
the gap between the wealthy and poor increased during this time
period, leading to a superficial prosperity. Rural farms and the
urban poor did not reap the same benefits garnered by a
relatively few corporations and wealthy individuals.

Along with the increase in GNP per Capita, the stock market
increased during this time period. New businesses and industries
like the automobile and home appliance industries prospered
while older industries like the coal industry struggled as it was
replaced by gasoline, electric, and natural gas industries.
Electrification of homes increased as a result of corporations like
Westinghouse and General Electric. Americans spent less money
on staples like food and utilities and spent a larger percentage of
their incomes on at home appliances, new consumer products
like radios, and recreation like the going to the movies. The
tourist industry also flourished, partly due to the increased Which effects had the greatest impact on the trend shown
affordability of cars. As electrification increased, especially in in the graph?
urban areas, so did the purchasing of new consumer goods like
stoves, washing machines, vacuum cleaners and more. The
mechanical refrigerator typified this growth. In 1920, only 2500
refrigerators were manufactured. In 1921, 5,000 mechanical
refrigerators were manufactured in the US. By the end of the
decade, the number grew to over 1 million.

150
Stock Market Boom 1929, the ripple effects of these practices would have
tremendous impact on the American and global economy.
Many corporations grew at staggering rates especially with sales
of new goods geared toward consumer and the growth of
electricity. These corporations’ stocks drove the stock boom of
the 1920s. Even though many corporations like RCA did not pay
dividends to shareholders, the expectation of growth helped
increase stock value. This mirrors the internet “.com” boom of the
late 1990s and the housing market boom of the 2000s where the
value of internet corporations or real estate increased as a result
of speculation. In the 1920s, the use of credit to purchase
consumer goods expanded to some employing the same tactic to
purchase stocks. Buying on margin--borrowing money to
purchase stocks--became a favorable practice by some. For
example, Investors would purchase a stock with only having 10% www.macrotrends.net/1319/dow-jones-100-year-historical-ch

of the value in their own money. They would borrow the rest of
the value of the stock. In a bull market, where stocks prices are
rising, an investor could make money on the stock as its value
increased greater than what they paid for it. They could pay back
the loan and still reap the monetary reward.

What happens when stock prices remain stagnant or decrease--

This is known as a bear market. Investors need to pay back
loans plus any interest accrued. If the stocks purchased on
margin decrease in value, investors run the risk of losing any sort
of equity they had invested and still owe money from whom they
borrowed the money. When the stock market crashed in October

151
 Section 3

In what ways did the emergence of the double

standard reflect the broader struggle for women
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY At the start of the 1920s, the United States had a Interactive 5.6 The 20s At
population of approximately 106 Million people. A Glance
1. Did the majority of the social and cultural changes
that took place in the 1920s reinforce traditional People were moving to more urban environments-
values or represent a shift more reflective of modern places such as Detroit where the 15 millionth Model T
thoughts and ideas?
would roll off Henry Ford’s assembly line in the
2. In what ways did the emergence of the double suburb of Highland Park, Michigan in May of 1927.
standard reflect the broader struggle for women
The economy grew at 4.2% Gross National Product
between traditional and modern societal and cultural
standards? (GNP) on average, each year of the decade. America
had become an urban nation where urban centers Take a look at this stacked timeline
3. To what extent did growing venues of mass media
and cities were the place many wanted to be. As to get an overview of the 20s.
shape a mass culture?
cities rose to prominence in the eyes of many, small
4. In what ways did the arts of the Harlem Renaissance
town attitudes had lost their hold on the predominating culture. As many moved
break down racial boundaries?
into the booming cities like New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago, changes in
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
thinking had to accompany changes to everyday living. This was difficult for many
Urban Fundamentalism as they experienced a moral and sometimes cultural tug-of-war between small
Rural town safety and close ties to others, hard work, and strict morals and that of
Flappers
anonymous crowds, money makers, and pleasure seekers of larger cities. The
Temperance
Jazz conflicts of the 1920s pitted a more modernist, urban culture against a more
Prohibition
traditionalist, rural culture.
Bootleggers

“Rum-runners”

Speakeasies
152
The Experiment of Prohibition terrorize cities like Chicago and Detroit, as powerful liquor gangs
vied for territory to distribute illegal alcohol.
One robust clash between cultures began in 1920 when the 18th
amendment. Temperance groups such as the Anti-Saloon
League and the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)
were common in the early Twentieth Century. These groups had
been in existence since the late 1800s. Members of these
organizations saw alcohol as a social evil that was leading to a
decline in American society, causing destruction of families, and
threatening morality. Partially influenced by pressure from
temperance societies, big business, progressives reformers, and
other groups, the United States Congress passed the 18th
Amendment in 1919. The prohibition amendment banned the
sale, manufacture, transportation and distribution of alcohol
nationwide. It did not prohibit the consumption of alcohol.

Although the purpose behind the passage of the 18th

Amendment may have been a worthy one to many Americans,
problems developed from the onset of the law. The enforcement
of this unpopular amendment became problematic. Government
officials at the National, State and local levels fought to enforce Photo of Detroit Police inspecting brewery equipment. National Archives

prohibition through the Volstead Act, but due to the enormous

http://docsteach.org/documents/541928/detail?
profit to be made, Gangsters, “bootleggers,” and “rum-runners” menu=closed&mode=search&sortBy=relevance&q=prohibition&commit=Go&page=2

began to smuggle and distribute alcohol. Some law enforcement

officials also found they could make a profit, by turning a blind-
eye to smuggling operations. Violence began to consume and

153
In Detroit alone, there was an estimated number of illegal bars Organized Crime
between 15,000 to 25,000 known as speakeasies by 1925.
In addition to disrespect for the law that prohibition helped to
Detroit’s location, situated on the international border with
create, there were other harmful effects as well. The most
Canada, with only the Detroit River separating the two countries,
harmful effect was the flow of money away from lawful or law-
provided the perfect opportunity for organized crime to flourish.
abiding businesses and into organized crime. In almost every
Seventy-five percent of all alcohol smuggled into the United
major city, the opportunity to make and sell liquor at an
States during prohibition, came across the Detroit River from
enormously high profit rate was seized by underground gangs.
Canada. The Purple Gang, led by the Bernstein brothers, took
Chicago for example, was known as the most corrupt and crime-
advantage of the situation and controlled smuggling and
ridden cities in America not only in the 1920s but the 1930s as
distribution operations in Detroit throughout the decade of the
well.
1920s. Al Capone, one of the most infamous gangsters during
the prohibition era, counted on Detroit’s Purple Gang to supply
his mob with illegal alcohol. Instead of curing many of society’s
ills, it soon became clear that prohibition was having the opposite
effect, leading to a rise in violence and crime and a breakdown of
order.

Instead of stopping the production, sale and distribution of

alcohol, prohibition pushed the manufacture and drinking of
alcohol underground, often accompanied by devastating
outcomes. People began to make their own alcohol, known as
“bathtub gin” or “moonshine” in their homes. Bootleggers also
tried to stretch their supply of alcohol by diluting it with
substances such as wood alcohol, rubbing alcohol, or other lethal
chemicals that could lead to ailments from blindness to death. What role did geography play in Chicago’s emergence
as one of the most corrupt cities in America during the
1920s?

154
One of the most notorious Interactive 5.7 Al Capone As ordinary citizens
gangsters in Chicago at this time began to grow
was Al Capone, whose weary of organized
bootlegging empire netted more crime and the
than $60 million a year. As a violence that often
gangster who took control of the accompanied it,
Chicago liquor business by killing many began to
off his competition, newspaper change their
headlines reported at least 522 To view a succinct video of Al opinions about
Capone and organized crime in
gang-related killings during the the city of Chicago, watch the prohibition. By the
short video by the Smithsonian
1920s. middle of the
decade, only 19
percent of
Americans were
still supportive of
the 18th
amendment--many
“Bullet Proof,” Chicago Daily Tribune, April 29,1926. Accessed through The
believed that the
Janet A. Ginsburg Chicago Tribune Collection, Michigan State Library
rise in the crime
https://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/tribune/trib00000000/trib00000000439.jpg

Based on what is depicted in this cartoon, why does the

author think that prohibition is a failure?

rate and the level of disrespect for the law was

worse than the problem of prohibition itself and the original

http://www.umich.edu/~eng217/student_projects/nkazmers/chicagoskyline1929americanmemory.jpg
155
problems prohibition was supposed to fix. The outcry to repeal The Trial of John T. Scopes
the 18th Amendment began to grow, especially in urban areas
The first state in the country to pass a law making it a criminal
after largely publicized murders, such as the 1929 St. Valentine’s
offense to teach evolution in a public school was in Tennessee in
Day Massacre in Chicago occurred. By 1933, a Constitutional
1925. Almost immediately, the American Civil Liberties Union or
Amendment to repeal prohibition was being debated in the United
ACLU publicly announced that it would defend any teacher who
States Congress. That same year, Congress sent the 21st
would challenge this law. Founded in 1920, the ACLU already
Amendment to the states for approval. Michigan became the first
had the reputation as a
state to ratify the 21st Amendment and Prohibition was officially
public-interest law firm that
repealed on December 5, 1933.
defended rights such as
The Clash Between Science and Religion freedom of speech. On May
7, 1925, John Scopes, an
Another contentious struggle between traditionally held ideas and
Illinois native new to his job
modern ones that tended to also run along regional lines was that
as a general science teacher
of religion versus science. More specifically, fundamentalism, a
at Rhea County Central High
Protestant movement that was grounded in a literal interpretation
School in Dayton, Tennessee
of the Bible led Fundamentalists to reject the more modern theory
was officially arrested for
of evolution--a theory developed by Charles Darwin in the 19th
violation of the Butler Act
century that plant and animal species had developed and
which forbid the teaching of
changed over millions of years. As a result of a widespread
any theory that denied the
Fundamentalist following, many Americans feared the clash
biblical story of Creationism.
between science and religion would rear its head in public
The trial began on July 10th
schools across the nation--specifically about the teaching of
with Clarence Darrow, one of
evolution (or the prohibition of it) in public schools. It didn’t take
the most famous trial
long for the issue to claim national attention.
lawyers of the day defending Photo of John T. Scopes, 1900. Library of Congress.
the actions of Scopes.
http://www.loc.gov/item/ggb2006013628/
William Jennings Bryan, a

156
three-time Democratic candidate for President as well as a The 1920s Woman
devout fundamentalist was hired to serve as a special prosecutor
The 1920s was an era of conflicting views and ideologies as
for the case.
demonstrated over the struggle with prohibition and contrasting
The Scopes trial was a conflict over evolution and the role of views of traditional vs. modern viewpoints. In 1920, the
science and religion in public schools and in a larger sense, Nineteenth Amendment
American society. became Constitutional
law, giving all American
Before a crowd of over 2,000 people, Darrow questioned Bryan
women the right to
about his religious beliefs. Through the onslaught of questions,
vote. With this
Bryan’s answers revealed his admission that the Bible might be
sweeping political
interpreted in many different ways. He had been publicly
change, women began
humiliated and his fundamentalist beliefs had been disgraced.
to enjoy unprecedented
Even though Bryan had won the case (Scopes was found guilty
social freedoms as well.
and fined $100), he was a defeated
Interactive 5.8 The Scopes Bolstered by a new
man. On July 26th, just five days
Trial found sense of
after the trial had ended, Bryan laid
independence, many
down for a Sunday afternoon nap
women desired to
and never woke up. Although the
break free from
verdict of the trial was later
traditional gender roles.
overturned on a technicality (the fine
Some women known
imposed was determined to be too
as flappers, pushed
excessive) the law remained until
conventional
the issue was addressed by the For a thorough and succinct
overview of the trial with actual boundaries that defined
Supreme Court in 1968 where a footage, check out this 3-minute
the way that women
similar case in Arkansas was found video:
were expected to look
to be unconstitutional. https://usercontent2.hubstatic.com/5521457_f260.jpg
and act. Flappers

157
daringly cut their hair short, in a bobbed-off fashion and dyed it decade. Social morals for men loosened gradually from decade
jet black. They also wore short, flashy, waistless dresses, often to decade--by the decade of the 1920s, casual dating which also
adorned with fringe and beads. According to a 1926 article included greater sexual freedom for men became increasingly
written by Samuel Crowther of Collier’s Magazine, “Barring size, accepted. For women of this time, however, the expectation was
flappers at a hundred feet are as standardized as Ford cars. As that they were to observe stricter social standards of behavior
far as dress goes, they are a simplified national product….” than men. Because of this double standard, many young women
Since the 1920s, the flapper has become an iconic symbol of the (flappers or not) were pulled back and forth between old
roaring 20th youth culture and fashion. standards and new.

Flappers danced the Charleston Changes to the Home and the Workplace
Interactive 5.9 Flapper
and frequented nightclubs where Dancing
The challenge of old standards clashing with new was also
jazz music became the norm. In
occurring for women with regard to their roles at work and at
a huge departure from the
home. As soldiers demobilized after World War I, they returned
acceptable behavior of the
to the United States and looked to enter the workforce. While
previous generation, flappers
unemployment rates were relatively low throughout the decade,
pushed social norms by smoking
male participation in the labor force decreased and women’s
and drinking in public and
participation increased. Even though the process of women
conveyed a more casual attitude
Click here to see a video of entering the workplace had started long before the 1920s, there
about the previously taboo topics flappers dancing the Charleston
were jobs that were considered by greater society to be
of dating and sex.
“acceptable” for women’s work. World War I saw the need for
And while magazines, newspapers, and advertisements took women to work as secretaries, nurses, and clerks. The increasing
advantage of the opportunity to promote the image of the flapper, trend for women to work in professional positions continued in
this image was not reflective of the attitudes and values of many the 1920s with nearly one million female college graduates
of the nation’s young people. Morals loosened but only to a entering into what were referred to as a category of women’s
certain extent and for the first time in the nation’s history, a social professions. Many women worked as nurses, teachers,
double standard for men and women soon developed during this librarians, social workers, bankers, lawyers, and police officers.

158
But even though by 1930 approximately 10 million women had
entered the workforce, most faced discrimination and wage
inequality in the workplace.

As a result of the widespread economic change of women in the

workplace, social changes as well also contributed to the
changing image of the family. While the U.S. birthrate had been
slowly declining, it dropped at an even faster rate in the decade
between 1920 and 1930. The biggest reason for this was the
greater availability of information about birth control. The
founding of the American Birth Control League in 1921 by
Margaret Sanger. During the same time, social and technological
advances helped simplify household labor; ready-made clothes,
canned foods and the emergence of public agencies freed many
homemakers from the most traditional family responsibilities. This
impacted the sphere of influence that women had as many
experienced greater equality in their marriages. But although the
institution of marriage experienced improvements, many women
had a new challenge to deal with: that of the rebellious teen. This
was reflected in much of the entertainment of the day.

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Section 4

To what extent did growing venues of mass media

shape a mass culture?
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Mass Media Shapes Popular Culture
1. Did the majority of the social and cultural
For the first time, the
changes that took place in the 1920s
reinforce traditional values or represent a growing mass media in the
shift more reflective of modern thoughts 1920s greatly shaped a
and ideas? mass culture. Newspaper
2. In what ways did the emergence of the circulation rose substantially
double standard reflect the broader across the nation as did
struggle for women between traditional and
mass-circulation magazines.
modern societal and cultural standards?
However, nothing could
3. To what extent did growing venues of mass
rival the medium of the
media shape a mass culture?
radio--both as the main
4. In what ways did the arts of the Harlem source of entertainment as
Renaissance break down racial http://moneyinc.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Babe-Ruth.jpg

boundaries?
well as national news
brought to the American
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
public as it was happening. And much of the nation’s pop culture was broadcast
Double standard over radio airwaves.
The Lost Generation
Thanks to the medium of radio, many sports heroes of the 1920s became
Great Migration household names. Baseball’s most legendary star, New York Yankee, Babe Ruth
Harlem Renaissance hit home run after home run in the 1920s. The colorful, hard-drinking Ruth was
quite the character earning nicknames such as Sultan of Swat and Colossus of

160
Clout. Ruth lived up to his nicknames and in 1927 hit a record 60 solo flight across the Atlantic in May Interactive 5.10
home runs; needless to say, Americans went crazy with the of 1927. 33 hours and 29 minutes Lindbergh’s Journey
utmost certainty that Ruth was a one-of-a-kind baseball player after taking off from New York City,
whose accomplishments would never be replicated. Lindbergh landed his plane, the Spirit
of St. Louis at LeBourget airfield
Simultaneously, in 1920, the
outside of Paris. Seen as a hero in
Negro National League
the U.S., Lindbergh represented the
formed as one of the nation’s
honesty and bravery that many felt
first in a series of black
the nation had lost. To see footage of Lindbergh’s
baseball leagues. Wildly
journey, click here!
popular in their own right, Not to be outdone by radio,
these leagues produced such newspapers, or magazines, the
talented players as Josh movie industry tapped into
Gibson and Satchel Paige up America’s desires for
until many entered the major excitement and romance in the
leagues. 1920s as well. By 1925,
http://coe.k-state.edu/nlbemuseum/images/players/
filmmaking held its place as the
Additionally, other sports
paige.jpg fourth largest industry housing
possessed famous athletes
more than 20,000 movie
as well. Boxing’s biggest star was Jack Dempsey; in football,
houses across the nation with
Red Grange’s college career at the University of Illinois fascinated
Hollywood as America’s movie
thousands, and tennis greats Bill Tilden and Helen Wills and
capital.
golfing great Bobby Jones all became household names in the
1920s. While motion pictures provided
escape for thousands, many
Sports were not the only institution to benefit from the ever-
turned to art for a fresh
expanding news media of newspapers and radio. Small town
perspective. Plays and
pilot, Charles Lindbergh became famous with his first nonstop http://meetthemasters.com/wp-content/uploads/03/
okeeffe2.png
161
 produced represented their highly critical views of society.
Sinclair Lewis, known as one of America’s most outspoken critics
won a Nobel Prize in literature for his novels, Main Street and
Babbitt where he articulately depicted middle-class American life
as stifling and shallow. Another famous writer of the time, F. Scott
Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby brought to life the negative side of
high society.

Many more American writers became so disenfranchised with

American society that they settled in Europe. Termed the “Lost
Generation” by Gertrude Stein, writers such as Ernest
Hemingway, John Dos Passos, Ezra Pound, and T.S. Eliot
embraced the literary cultures of Europe and frequently used new
forms of literature in their works.

http://www.georgiaokeeffe.net/images/paintings/oriental-poppies.jpg During this time of rich cultural development shaped by the many
variations of the theme of “old” conflicting with “new”, important
concerts became popular as playwrights and composers tapped
cultural developments were also taking place in African-American
into their creativity to contest the status quo, instantly becoming
society. Messages of pride in their heritage, black writers and
famous. Art at this time was also wildly dynamic and
artists creatively illustrated the richness of African-American
experimental. Perhaps one of the most famous artists of this
culture.
decade was Georgia O’Keeffe who became famous for her
paintings of the Southwest while capturing urban artistic dramatic
styles such as New York City.

In contrast to famous Americans in sports, movies, theatre,

music, and art, the writers of the 1920s lived and wrote in sharp
contrast to mainstream American society. Much of the work they

162
Section 5
In what ways did the arts of the Harlem Renaissance
break down racial boundaries?
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY The Great Migration
1. Did the majority of the social and cultural
During the WWI era, many African-Americans had
changes that took place in the 1920s Interactive 5.11 The Great
reinforce traditional values or represent a moved to northern cities for job opportunities and to Migration in Maps
shift more reflective of modern thoughts escape racial injustice. This mass movement of African-
and ideas? Americans, called the Great Migration, concentrated
2. In what ways did the emergence of the large populations of black Americans in large urban
double standard reflect the broader areas such as Chicago, New York, and Detroit. By the
struggle for women between traditional and
end of the 1920s, approximately 4.8 million of the
modern societal and cultural standards?
country’s 12 million African-Americans lived in cities.
3. To what extent did growing venues of mass
And along with the massive influx of African-Americans
media shape a mass culture? Click here to learn more!
to large cities came rising tensions, especially in cities in
4. In what ways did the arts of the Harlem the North. The result was more than 25 urban race riots culminating in the
Renaissance break down racial
boundaries?
summer of 1919.

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE The NAACP and the Campaign Against Lynching
Great Migration
As a result of the alarm to African-Americans caused by the race riots, the National
Harlem Renaissance Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) undertook an anti-
lynching campaign. The NAACP worked through the court system to gain civil
rights protections for African-Americans. Under the leadership of Executive
Secretary James Weldon Johnson the group supported an anti-lynching bill

163
introduced in Congress in 1922. Interactive 5.12 NAAACP truly be free of racial prejudice and violence was to unite to form
Johnson became the primary AntiLynching Bill their own society. The downfall of his movement came when
Congressional lobbyist for this Garvey was indicted on charges of mail fraud, however the legacy
legislation in the 1920s. The text of of his message caused many African-Americans to gain a
the anti-lynching bill called for, “An newfound appreciation for their heritage.
act to assure to persons within the
jurisdiction of every State the equal
protection of the laws, and to
punish the crime of lynching.” Click here to see the text of the
Although the Senate defeated the anti-lynching bill:
bill, the NAACP’s vigilant campaign
to end lynching, led to awareness of racial violence directed
against African-Americans in the United States. The NAACP
continued to gain political power in the decades that followed to
help African-Americans gain protections of liberty.

Marcus Garvey and The Universal Negro Improvement

Association

During the 1920s, Black nationalist leader, Marcus Garvey

founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA). http://a5.files.biography.com/image/upload/
c_fill,cs_srgb,dpr_1.0,g_face,h_300,q_80,w_300/
His movement was based in Harlem, and focused on self-
MTE5NDg0MDU1MDE0OTY2Nzk5.jpg
reliance of African-Americans. Garvey promoted the idea that
“Black is Beautiful” and encouraged African-Americans to be
prideful in their culture and heritage. Garvey initiated a “Back to
Africa” movement, in an effort to build a separate society from
whites. He believed the only way that African-Americans could

164
 Writers such as Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston and
Claude McKay became large contributors to the movement.
Their works focused on African-American themes that addressed
the struggles that black Americans endured. In one of his poems
titled, If We Must Die, McKay described how African-Americans
should ban together to contest racial prejudice. Likewise the
poet Langston Hughes addressed similar themes. In two of his
most famous works, The Negro Speaks of Rivers and I Too, Sing
America, Hughes not only described the importance of African-
American heritage, but also the triumph of the African-American
spirit. Zora Neale Hurston’s most famous novel, Their Eyes Were
Watching God, chronicled the difficulties faced by a young
African-American woman.
http://cdn.thedailybeast.com/content/dailybeast/articles/2015/02/20/langston-hughes-s-letter-to-ezra-pound/
jcr:content/image.img.2000.jpg/1424433967482.cached.jpg Jazz, a uniquely American form of
music, born out of ragtime and Interactive 5.13 The
The Harlem Renaissance blues, also came to epitomize Harlem Renaissance
1920s culture and the Harlem
The neighborhood of Harlem in New York City, began to attract
Renaissance. Some of the most
many talented writers, artists and musicians. Harlem soon
influential musicians in the history of
became the center of a literary, social and artistic movement that
American music became famous in
forged a rebirth of black culture. The movement that became
Harlem nightclubs. Notable jazz
known as the Harlem Renaissance showcased the talents of
artists including Edward Kennedy
African-Americans in the arts and helped to encourage pride in
“Duke” Ellington and Cab Calloway
black heritage. For a short overview of the music
performed at the Cotton Club, one of the Harlem Renaissance and
of Harlem’s most well-known the works of Langston Hughes,
click here:
entertainment establishments. Jazz

165
musician Louis Armstrong, also largely contributed to Harlem Interactive 5.15 Voices of
Interactive 5.14 The
Renaissance. Armstrong was known for his raspy sounding voice the 20s Matching Activity
Harlem Renaissance
and the use of improvisation. Armstrong has been referred to as
the “most important improviser” in the history of jazz. The
influence of Louis Armstrong continues to impact music in the
21st Century.

Blues music evolved from African-American spirituals was also

gained notoriety during the Harlem Renaissance. Singer Bessie
Listen to the music of the Harlem
Smith, was regarded for her strong vocal ability. Although a highly Can you figure out who said
Renaissance here!
what?
regarded performer in her own right, Smith collaborated with
Louis Armstrong on works such as Saint Louis Blues. Bessie
Smith was celebrated for songs, such as and Nobody Knows
You When You're Down and Out, and became widely regarded as
“The Empress of the Blues.”

The Impact of the 1920s

The decade of the 1920s left a lasting impact on American

society. Jazz music paved for more modern forms of music such
as rock ‘n’ roll. Literature defined the attitudes of a generation
and shared themes of the Lost Generation and the Harlem
Renaissance. Conflict over changing attitudes concerning
traditionalism vs. modernism shaped new ideas and
perspectives. However, the “roar” of 1920s was short lived. The
excesses of the 1920s led to the most prolonged economic
disaster to face the United States and the world.

166
Chapter 6

What Role Should the

Government Play in the
Economy and Society?

1. How did economic, political, social/ cultural

choices made a decade earlier contribute to the
start of the Great Depression?

2. How did environmental factors affect the Great

Depression?

3. How did the government under Hoover react to

the Great Depression and what were pros and
cons associated with his response?

4. How did the Great Depression affect American

citizens?
Section 1

Economic Troubles Loom

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Even though the 1920s were “roaring” in many respects, from an economic
1. How did economic, political, social/ cultural standpoint it became clear that serious problems threatened the nation’s economy.
choices made a decade earlier contribute Important industries were in trouble and overproduction plagued the agricultural
to the start of the Great Depression? sector. As the decade came to a close, the slipping economy would soon crash,
2. How did environmental factors affect the thus ending a decade of innovation, cultural advances, and individual prosperity.
Great Depression?
Industries Experience Trouble
3. How did the government under Hoover
react to the Great Depression and what The prosperity of the late 1920s was superficial and hid the weaknesses that
were pros and cons associated with his
response? would ultimately lead to the Great Depression. Key basic industries barely made a
profit because of improvements to each industry. The chart below shows some of
4. How did the Great Depression affect
the most significant impacts.
American citizens?

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Price supports
Great Depression
Shantytowns

168
Farmers Also Experience Hard Times The Stock Market Tumbles

More than any other aspect of the economy, agriculture suffered As early as March of 1929, some financial experts had warned
the most in the 1920s. After the war had ended, overproduction that banks were granting too many loans for stock speculation.
was thought to be the solution to helping farmers boost profits. The Federal Reserve responded as the U.S. central bank tried to
However, the plan failed and prices fell even further. Attempts by rein in the country's banks but was not successful. In September,
Congress for federal price supports--the support of certain price Roger Babson, an economist for the New York Herald Tribune,
levels at or above market values by the government for key publicly predicted the market was headed for a crash. After his
products were consistently vetoed by President Coolidge, so speech, stocks wavered and declined a bit. Again, the Federal
farmers continued to struggle. Many defaulted on their loans and Reserve tried to slow the out-of-control pace at which banks
the residual effect was that many rural banks began to fail. were making loans to buy stocks but again, to no avail. On
October 23, a block of General Motors stock was sold at a loss,
Consumers Suffer as well
and the market headed in a downward direction. Orders to sell

The American consumer was not immune from the cyclical came in too fast for brokers to keep up. Bankers tried to stabilize

economic events of overproduction, over-speculation, and shifts the market at the end of the day, but on Thursday, October 24,

in supply and demand; the end results was the same--economic the market took another sharp downward turn. Financial losses

hardship to the consumer. were in the billions of dollars, and small investors were wiped out.
On Friday, October 25, and Monday, October 28, bankers tried to
Late in the decade, it was evident that American consumers were revive the market by finding new big investors but their efforts
buying less because of rising prices, stagnant wages, unbalanced came too late forcing bankers to announce that they could no
income, and overbuying on credit. As production expanded at a longer support the market. On Tuesday, October 29, 1929—which
rapid rate while wages failed to increase, the gap between the became known as "Black Tuesday"—stock prices crashed.
rich and the poor widened. As the gap widened, the resulting Individuals as well as corporations tried desperately to sell their
unequal distribution of income meant that fewer and fewer stocks before prices fell even further. By the middle of November,
Americans could participate fully in taking advantage of the approximately $30 billion was lost in the American economy--
economic advances of the 1920s. The foundation of the nation’s ironically, the same amount of money that had been spent by
economy was more fragile than it had even been. Americans in WWI. As the stock market crash of 1929 ushered in

169
what became known as the Great Depression, few could Financial Collapse in the U.S. and Around the World
imagine the far reaching impact it would have on the country.
What happened after the Stock Market Crash of 1929 is a classic
Causes of the Great Depression example of cause and effect. Many Americans panicked and
rushed to their banks to withdraw what little money they still had.
A depression is a prolonged downturn in the economy, marked by
Because banks in many rural areas did not have a sound
high unemployment and restricted growth of the economy. The
financial reserve of money, once those living in rural areas rushed
Great Depression earned its namesake for its duration, depth,
to their bank, there were no funds available for withdrawal. This
and ghastly effects. While the stock market crash signaled the
is known as a “run-on-the-bank.” With no financial insurance by
start of the Great Depression--the time period between
1929-1941 in which the economy was in severe decline and
millions of people were out of work, it was not the sole cause of
the Great Depression. Although there are some differences of
opinion by economists and historians, most identify a common
list of factors. View the
following Teachable Interactive 6.1 What
Caused the Great
Moments video, “What Depression?
Caused the Great
Depression?”

Learn more here

https://rgessford.files.wordpress.com/2013/03/bank-run.jpg

170
 the federal government, for most smaller banks, the end result Additionally, many American workers couldn’t earn any income as
was closure. When farmers couldn’t make the mortgage the unemployment rate jumped from three percent in 1929 to 25
payments on their farms, many were forced into foreclosure. percent by 1933 as businesses were hit equally hard--many
forced into bankruptcy. The U.S. was not the only country to
suffer huge economic loss during this period of time. Much of
Europe had also experienced a depression which began a few
years before the depression in the U.S. economy. Countries that
had been severely damaged by WWI faced huge debt payments.
And Germany, with its requirement to make war reparations--
payments to compensate Allied countries for the damage it had
caused, experienced great suffering during this time. Because
most of the countries in Europe found themselves in a similar
situation, foreign trade of American farm products and
manufactured goods was stagnant.

Congress tries to Help

In 1930, Congress (while trying to help pull the U.S. out of the
http://eh.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/image017.gif
Depression) made the bad situation worse by passing the
Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act. While this act was designed to help
How does the trend illustrated in the graph
American farmers and manufacturers by protecting their products
demonstrate the plight of farmers in the 1920s?
from foreign competition through the highest protective tariff in
Predict how this will impact farmers in the 1930s
U.S. history, it ended up having the opposite effect.
Unemployment was worsened in industries that could no longer
afford to export their goods to European markets. And with the
retaliation of raised tariffs in European countries, world trade fell
more than forty percent which caused an extreme reduction in

171
economic activity Interactive 6.2 Crash about shantytowns during the Interactive 6.3 Shanty
Course - the Great Town Facts
throughout the world. Depression Depression visit this site:

Social Issues Daily, the urban poor could be found

scrounging throughout the city,
As the Great Depression
searching for food by digging through
gripped the nation, the
garbage cans or, in some cases,
effects were widespread--in
begging on street corners. In the
both cities and rural areas,
absence of government relief
no person or family unit Learn more at this website from
Learn more in this video from programs, people could also be seen American Historama.
could escape the hardship John Green waiting in long lines, commonly
and suffering that millions of
known as “bread lines,” in order to Interactive 6.4 Brother Can
Americans faced. Unemployment was a problem that affected You Spare A Dime?
receive nourishment. With so many
much of the population. The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimated
Americans living in poverty,
that 1 out of every 4, or one-quarter of the American workforce
community organizations began to
was jobless by 1933. In March of 1933, it is estimated that fifteen
open soup kitchens to feed the
and one half million American workers were unemployed.
hungry.

The Impact of the Depression in Cities

In cities across the country, many Americans were unable to

Click this link to hear “Brother Can
provide for themselves and their families. Destitute and unable to you Spare a Dime,” a popular
pay their mortgages, some Americans suddenly found song from 1931:

themselves without work and homeless. Before long,

“Hoovervilles” or shantytowns--small towns consisting largely of
How does this song illustrate the context of the time
shacks emerged on the outskirts of cities. While some consisted period?
of only a few families, others grew to the point where they
functioned like communities. For some quick but interesting facts

172
The Impact of the Depression in Rural Areas

The impact of the Depression in rural areas was just as

devastating but there was one advantage over living in the city:
most farmers could manage to grow just enough food to feed
their families. As crop prices continued to fall, plots of land that
farmers once owned no longer belonged to them when they
couldn’t pay their debts. For many, tenant farming was the only
way to scrape by.

http://docs.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/images/photodb/27-0657a.gif

173
Section 2

The Dust Bowl

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY The Devastation is furthered by the Dust Bowl

1. How did economic, political, social/ cultural
In addition to overproduction and falling crop prices, the Great Plains suffered a
choices made a decade earlier contribute
to the start of the Great Depression? phenomenon that became known as the Dust Bowl. A combination of factors led
to a devastating situation for people living throughout the region from Texas to the
2. How did environmental factors affect the
Great Depression? Dakotas. Traditionally the Great Plains were covered with prairie grasses, but a
high demand for wheat during World War I, caused parts of the Great Plains to be
3. How did the government under Hoover
react to the Great Depression and what
stripped of its normal foliage. Over-farming and dry farming techniques depleted
were pros and cons associated with his the topsoil and overgrazing cattle on the land left parts of the Great Plains barren.
response?

4. How did the Great Depression affect

American citizens?

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Dust Bowl

http://www-tc.pbs.org/kenburns/dustbowl/media/images/slideshow/hm-slide-0.jpg

174
In the early 1930s drought and Interactive 6.5 Dust Bowl
a large wind storms plagued the Timeline
region, causing the soil to blow
away. In 1932, the weather
bureau reported fourteen dust
storms.

In the following year, there were

38 dust storms. The storms
Learn more about the Dust Bowl in this
were so monstrous that the
interactive timeline.
clouds of dust reached 10,000 http://cdn.history.com/sites/2/2015/06/Great-Depression_Dust-Bowl_wagon-wheels-against-barbwire-
fence_Corbis-A.jpeg
feet high, blocking out the sun. The dirt rose so high in the
atmosphere that in 1934 Midwest towns like Chicago had twelve
million tons of dust fall over the city. Likewise, ships located 300
Farmers tried desperately to hold on Interactive 6.6 The Dust
miles off the Atlantic coast had a blanket of dust covering their
to their land and keep their farms, Bowl Episode
decks.
but unable to grow their crops and
The effects of these “black blizzards” were astounding. Dust raise livestock, led many to become
buried crops and farms. Heat caused uncovered crops to bake in penniless. Banks began to foreclose
the sun. The wind storms were so powerful that dust seeped into on property and farmers began to
homes, covering everything in a film of soot. Humans and migrate west to California in an effort
livestock that breathed in the dust suffered a variety of ailments to find work as migrant farmers.
and some died as a result. The children and the elderly were Over 400,000 people left the Great
Click this link to see a video about
more susceptible to a condition known as “dust pneumonia,” Plains region during the “dirty the Dust Bowl:

which resulted from prolonged exposure to the dust, eventually thirties.”

leading to death by suffocation.

175
Section 3

The Depression’s Effect on Society

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY The Depression Strains Many Families

1. How did economic, political, social/ cultural
While some Americans feared that the suffering caused by the Depression would
choices made a decade earlier contribute
to the start of the Great Depression? undermine moral family values, their fears were mostly unfounded. Family unity
became extremely important as families rode out the economic setbacks and
2. How did environmental factors affect the
Great Depression? social effects of the Depression together. However, there was intense pressure on
family life on a daily basis as the struggle to make ends meet was continuous. In
3. How did the government under Hoover
react to the Great Depression and what
some cases, families broke apart for one reason or another because of the
were pros and cons associated with his emotional strain.
response?
Psychologically, many men had a difficult time coping with unemployment.
4. How did the Great Depression affect
Accustomed to being able to support their families, many would daily walk the
American citizens?
streets searching for jobs.
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
Some, believing that no work would be available within walking distance,
Rugged Individualism
Bonus Army abandoned their families. Wandering the country, hitching rides on railroad
Run on the bank boxcars, and sleeping under bridges to survive and hopefully find work to send
money home to their families, approximately 2 million men and 8,000 women were
labeled as hoboes during the Depression.

176
 Children also suffered many hardships during the Depression.
Some suffered serious health problems due to poor diets and lack
of healthcare. As milk consumption declined, reports of
malnutrition and diet-related diseases such as rickets and
pellagra increased. With no child-welfare funded programs,
prevention of these maladies became extremely difficult. From an
education standpoint, due to lack of funds, school years were
shortened and some schools even closed leaving more than
300,000 students out of school. Many children went to work
instead of attending school, working in sweatshops under
deplorable conditions.

https://i.ytimg.com/vi/vkpKRxR9rA8/hqdefault.jpg

The Struggle for Women and Children

Women also worked hard to help their families survive the hard
times of the Depression. Within the home, many did what they
could to save money such as canning foods and sewing clothes.
Outside the home, those who could find jobs, did so, though
they usually received less money than men did. Pay was not the
only area where women faced job discrimination. As the 1930s
wore on, many working women faced resentment because there
were so many men who were unemployed. Some cities even
refused to hire married women as teachers.

http://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2012/06/09/article-0-1384F792000005DC-815_964x667.jpg

177
Long-lasting Social and Psychological Effects Hoover’s Attempts to Deal with the Depression

The short-term economic effects of the Depression led to In his 1928 presidential bid,
significant sacrifices that resulted in long-term psychological and Herbert Hoover promised
social issues for many. Many adults stopped going to the doctor prosperity. A famous Hoover
or dentist because they couldn’t afford it. High school graduates campaign slogan exclaimed
gave up their dream of going to college. Others set aside plans there would be “a chicken for
for marriage and the raising of a family. While seen as a drastic every pot.” However, eight
measure, many lost their will to survive; There was a thirty percent months after his inauguration,
increase in the suicide rate between 1928 and 1932. the president soon found
himself presiding over the
For many who survived the Depression, their lives were changed
worst economic depression in
forever by memories of extreme poverty and suffering. For some,
the nation’s history.
the feeling of being financially stable was the driving force in their
lives. Others continued to take advantage of opportunities to Herbert Hoover’s policies to combat the Great Depression, are
save money and food whenever they could. Perhaps just as often criticized and misunderstood, because they did little to
strong was the sense of unity that developed among multiple alleviate the immediate social consequences of the Great
generations of people during this decade of hardship and Depression. President Hoover was an opponent of socialism and
suffering. To strangers down on their luck, many showed a supporter of rugged individualism, the belief that people should
kindness often sharing food, giving clothing, and in some better themselves, with minimal government intervention.
instances a place to stay. Families worked together to share However in the midst of the Great Depression, President Hoover
resources and strengthened bonds in communities while took action to try to fix the nation’s economic woes. Hoover
developing positive habits that would see themselves through expanded public works programs and asked Congress to pass a
dark economic times. An entire generation of Americans was $160 million tax cut. In addition, President Hoover persuaded
shaped by these habits--habits that would not only see them Congress to enact legislation that led to the creation of the
through the Great Depression but through further decades of Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), which allowed the
conflict and challenge. government to issue loans to businesses, in an effort to stimulate

178
the economy. Hoover, however did not advocate direct relief, in Interactive 6.7 Bonus Army
Video
the form of federal welfare payments to impoverished individuals,
believing that would lead to corruption and dependence on the
government. Hoover’s political adversaries, in turn portrayed him
as callous and disconnected from the citizenry.

Hoover and the Bonus Army

During the summer of 1932, over 15,000 World War I veterans

and their families converged on Washington, D.C., demanding an Learn more about the Bonus Army
here.
early payment of bonuses due to them in 1945. With the nation’s
economy in shambles, many veterans were also suffering from
jobless and homeless. Dubbed, “The Bonus Army,” the veterans
camped in Hoovervilles on the Washington mall and petitioned
Congress to issue the payment of their bonuses. According to
eyewitness, Joseph C. Harsch, “...These were simply veterans
from World War I who were out of luck, out of money, and wanted
to get their bonus.” On July 28, upon orders from President
Hoover, the military confronted the veterans with tear gas and
bayonets in an effort to get them to disperse. Panic and riots
ensued, and by nightfall hundreds had been injured and a baby
had died. With Hoover’s response to the economic crisis brought
on by the Great Depression already in question, the media and
public opinion criticized his handling of the Bonus Army incident,
further harming his credibility and sealing his fate as President.

Picture of Bonus Army Hooverville shacks on Fire after the confrontation with the US Military. https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Evictbonusarmy.jpg

179
Section 4

The New Deal

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Many see the election of 1932 as a referendum on the policies of “rugged
1. How did economic, political, social/ cultural individualism” of the Hoover administration. In the election, Hoover primarily only
choices made a decade earlier contribute won the northeast states, Pennsylvania, Delaware and Connecticut whereas
to the start of the Great Depression?
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) carried all of the other states in the Electoral
2. How did environmental factors affect the College. With the election of FDR, the United States embarked on a new path
Great Depression? where the Federal Government would
3. How did the take a more active role in the economy
government under with greater intervention including direct
Hoover react to the
relief to citizens in the areas of
Great Depression
and what were pros agriculture, banking, and other social
and cons associated programs Where Hoover did not
with his response? advocate for direct relief to Americans,
4. How did the Great he had--especially since the stock
Depression affect market crash of 1929--worked to
American citizens?
alleviate the economic situation through
TERMS, PLACES, the creation of governmental programs
PEOPLE
and providing incentives to banks and
Direct relief business to stimulate the economy. He

Fireside chat had increased the federal budget

significantly from his Republican
Deficit spending
predecessors in the prior decade from
http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1932

180
$3.3 billion in 1930 to $4.6 billion in 1933 resulting in deficit
spending to the tune of $2.7 billion in 1932. Although Hoover did
attempt to deal with effects of the beginning of the depression,
however FDR stated he was willing to go further. He believed that
the presidency and the federal government could create
programs to directly aid American citizens. This message
resonated with American voters who overwhelming elected
Franklin Delano Roosevelt as president in 1932.

The New Deal

In a fireside chat on May 7, 1933, newly inaugurated President

Franklin Roosevelt outlined his “New Deal” for the American
people. He laid out his plan to cope with the banking crisis in an
earlier chat, but he continued to spell out what action was being
taken for relief for the nation in
terms of unemployment, mortgage
Interactive 6.8 Crash
relief for farmers, an increase in Course - The New Deal
public works programs among http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/0804/images/expand-newdeal02.jpg

other ideas. He stated, “We are

working toward a definite goal, not deny that we may make mistakes of procedure as we carry
which is to prevent the return of out the policy. I have no expectation of making a hit every time I
conditions which came very close come to bat. What I seek is the highest possible batting average,
to destroying what we call modern not only for myself but for the team.”
civilization. The actual
Learn more about the New Deal Roosevelt’s New Deal demonstrated a new role for government in
accomplishment of our purpose here! the economy. Economic theories like those of John Maynard
cannot be attained in a day...I do
Keynes argued for increased government spending, including

181
deficit spending if necessary, to help moderate the boom and enough, they were forced to close and people sometimes lost all
bust cycle of the business cycle and to alleviate unemployment. of their life’s savings. In 1930 alone, 1,300 banks failed and by
Since the the United States was in a period of economic calamity, 1933 over 9000 bank closed their doors Further compounding the
Roosevelt believed it necessary to create new government issue, some banks quickly sold assets at low prices and limited
programs and regulation to mitigate the impacts of the the availability of credit to generate money to pay depositors, so
depression and eventually lead the US to economic recovery. banks had limited funds available to payout, while the need for
During a radio address on July 24, 1933, FDR referenced the first the money grew even greater. The Hoover administration had
100 days that the 73rd Congress was in session. These 100 days tried to provide relief for banks by loaning money with the
contained legislation for the underpinnings of the New Deal Reconstruction Finance Corporation, but borrowers including
including programs for relief for banks, farmers, and the banks were publically disclosed thus appearing weak since they
unemployed. Roosevelt’s goal for his New Deal included had borrowed money.
programs for relief, recovery, and reform. Some programs
In order to restore faith in the banking system, Roosevelt and
focused on relieving the suffering of the of the Depression, while
Congress enacted various laws and executive orders to bolster
others were aimed at helping the economy recover. The last set
people’s faith in the American banking system. Banks reopened
of programs aimed to reform the economy to avoid future
after the “holiday” increasing faith in the US banking system.
depressions.

To address the needs of the banking system, a bill passed by

Congress on March 9, 1933 and signed by Roosevelt, created a
“bank holiday”, that temporarily closed banks. The act was
created to give time for the US Treasury to look at the health of
the banks in the United States and rate banks based on their
solvency. People’s faith in the banking system had waned since
the stock market crash of 1929 and culminated in many runs on
banks, where a massive amount of people went to withdraw their
savings at the same bank at the same time. If banks didn’t have
enough cash available and couldn’t liquidate assets quickly

182
Section 5

The TVA and the CCC

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Relief to Farmers

1. How did economic, political, social/ cultural
Farmers had faced lower commodity prices throughout much of the 1920s and
choices made a decade earlier contribute
to the start of the Great Depression? into the beginning of the 1930s. Many farmers faced foreclosure as they struggled
to repay mortgage loans. The Hoover administration had set up the Federal Farm
2. How did environmental factors affect the
Great Depression? Board to help stabilize crop prices by holding certain surpluses of commodities
like cotton and grain in storage. By reducing the supply, the price of these crops
3. How did the government under Hoover
react to the Great Depression and what
was thought to rise. When Roosevelt became President, he asked Congress to
were pros and cons associated with his take more action.
response?
In a message to Congress on March 16, 1933 he stated in regards to the
4. How did the Great Depression affect
Agricultural Adjustment Act, “It relates to agriculture and seeks to increase the
American citizens?
purchasing power of our farmers and the consumption of articles manufactured in
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
our industrial communities, and at the same time greatly to relieve the pressure of
Direct relief farm mortgages and to increase the asset value of farm loans made by our
Fireside chat banking institutions.”

Deficit spending Part of the act was to provide governmental subsidies to farmers for not planting
Sit-down strike certain acres and to slaughter various livestock. The intent of both of these
programs was to reduce the excess supply of farm commodities which prices had
Welfare strike
remained very low since World War I in order to increase the price. Many of these
programs benefited farmers throughout the United States, but especially on the

183
great plains where farmers had been confronted with not only produce hydroelectric power. As a result electricity was brought
falling farm prices, but the huge ecological problem of drought to the homes of thousands of residents in the Tennessee Valley
called the Dust Bowl. region for the first time. The TVA also helped to foster economic
development within the states contained in the Tennessee Valley.
Even though the the AAA was eventually ruled unconstitutional by
the US Supreme Court, it was rewritten and passed again in
Interactive 6.9 The TVA Interactive 6.10
another form. The legacy of these programs is evidenced today in Roosevelt’s Message to
various farming practices including subsidies for not cultivating Congress
land and farm price supports.

The Tennessee Valley Authority

In order to address the widespread poverty and needs contained

in the Tennessee Valley, President Franklin Roosevelt authorized
the Tennessee Valley Authority Act of 1933. The Tennessee Click on this link to watch a video
about the TVA
Valley, including portions of Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, North Read Roosevelt’s Message to
Carolina, Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi, encompassed some Congress where he suggests the
TVA here.
of the most poverty stricken areas of the country during the
Depression. The region suffered from destructive flooding and
many residents had a difficult time dealing with the disastrous
effects. Parts of the region also lack modern efficiencies such as
electricity. Section 23 of the Tennessee Valley Authority Act
directed the government to improve “the economic and social
well-being of the people living in said river basin.”

While providing jobs through this government agency, The

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), constructed dams to control
flooding and also harnessed the power of the Tennessee River to
November 21, 1934, Jersey City Journal.
184
http://newdeal.feri.org/texts/182.htm
The Civilian Conservation Corps

One of the New Deal’s most regarded programs was the Civilian
Conservation Corps (CCC). Roosevelt proposed the program to
Congress soon after he assumed office, and in March of 1933 the
CCC was passed by Congress and signed into law. The CCC
had a dual purpose of putting young American men to work, as
well as, environmental conservation. Throughout the decade of
the 1930s, the CCC employed over three million workers.

The Labor Department and state agencies, selected single men

between ages 18-25, many of which were listed on relief rolls, to
work in the forestry service planting trees, putting out fires,
fighting soil erosion, clearing trails and beautifying beaches. The
men were paid $30 a month, a major portion of which, was sent
directly to their families. CCC camps were set up in every state in
the Nation. The program included African-Americans, however The CCC in Michigan

the camps were segregated, with separate camps for minority http://docsteach.org/documents/2129004/detail?
groups by 1935. Indigenous People were also part of the CCC menu=closed&mode=search&sortBy=relevance&q=new+deal&commit=Go&page=2

workforce in many states. In fact over the course of the program

over 80,000 Indigenous People were employed by the CCC.

The efforts and legacy of the CCC are still visible in many states,
including Michigan. By the time the program ended in 1942, the
CCC had employed millions men who had worked in forestry or
environmental projects in 94 national parks. The CCC also
established 711 state parks, and expanded many others.

185
Section 6

The New Deal and its Critics

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY The Supreme Court and the New Deal
1. How did economic, political, social/ cultural
The New Deal was not enacted without controversy. Roosevelt’s programs faced
choices made a decade earlier contribute
to the start of the Great Depression? attacks from both the political right and the political left. Conservative opponents
felt the New Deal involved too much government interference in business. They
2. How did environmental factors affect the
Great Depression? also believed that policy of deficit spending--spending more money than the
government collects from tax revenues to finance the New Deal, was putting the
3. How did the government under Hoover
react to the Great Depression and what
U.S. too far into debt. Some liberal opponents believed the New Deal did not go
were pros and cons associated with his far enough to aid poor Americans.
response?
Some of the conservative criticisms of the New Deal became apparent when the
4. How did the Great Depression affect
Supreme Court declared the National Recovery Act (NRA) and the Agricultural
American citizens?
Adjustment Act (AAA) unconstitutional. The NRA was declared unconstitutional
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
because, according to the Court, the program went too far to regulate business.
Direct relief In January of 1936, the Court also voided the Agricultural Adjustment Act. In a 6-3
Fireside chat decision, the Court ruled that the federal government did not have the power to
regulate agriculture; only the states could do that. The Supreme Court was also
Deficit spending
poised to rule on many other programs such as the Wagner Act and The
Sit-down strike Tennessee Valley Authority and the Social Security Act. Sensing that his New Deal
Welfare strike could be dismantled, Roosevelt announced his plan to pack the Supreme Court
with as many as six new justices that would support his policies. The “court-
packing plan,” as it became known threatened to undermine the system of checks

186
and balances. In the eyes of some, Roosevelt lost credibility. In
the end, Roosevelt did not carry through with his court-packing
plan. By 1941, four justices retired and two died. Roosevelt end
up appointing seven out of the nine justices, who would serve on
the Court.

Additional Critics

In addition to the challenges placed before him by the Supreme

Court, FDR also faced challenges by critics outside the
governmental realm. Some of the most notable are listed in the
chart on this page..

As New Deal programs took hold, President Roosevelt started to

look ahead as he knew that a lot more plans for relief, recovery,
and reform were needed. The second hundred days of the
Roosevelt administration would bring a second burst of New Deal
reforms.

187
Section 7

The Second New Deal

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY The Second New Deal is a Hit

1. How did economic, political, social/ cultural
By the second hundred days of FDR’s Presidency in 1935, economic gains were
choices made a decade earlier contribute
to the start of the Great Depression? not as great as the President had hoped they would be. But even though
unemployment remained high and industrial production was lower than expected,
2. How did environmental factors affect the
Great Depression? the New Deal experienced widespread popularity. This led to increased majorities
in both houses of Congress gained from the 1934 midterm election. A pleased
3. How did the government under Hoover
react to the Great Depression and what
President Roosevelt took advantage of this and called on Congress to help
were pros and cons associated with his provide more extensive financial relief for two groups of people: farmers and
response? workers.
4. How did the Great Depression affect
Farmers Get a Hand
American citizens?

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE Early in 1936, when the Supreme Court had struck down the AAA, Congress

Direct relief
responded by replacing the law with another. The Soil Conservation and Domestic
Allotment Act paid farmers for cutting the production of their soil-depleting crops
Fireside chat
such as cotton and wheat and rewarded farmers for practicing good methods of
Deficit spending soil conservation. Two years later, Congress approved a second AAA, bringing
Sit-down strike back many features of the first AAA. Through additional assistance many
sharecroppers and tenant farmers were able to resettle on more productive farm
Welfare strike
land. Followed by the establishment of the Farm Security Administration (FSA) in
1937, more than $1 billion in assistance was provided to sharecroppers, tenant

188
farmers, and migrant workers. Additionally the FSA sent These rights were not greeted by most business leaders as
photographers such as Dorothea Lange, Ben Shahn, Walker something that was beneficial. In fact, most of them were
Evans, Arthur Rothstein, and Carl Mydans throughout rural towns unwilling to negotiate with the new unions. Starting in December
and farms to capture the tough lives those in rural America faced 1936 and continuing into 1937, the United Auto Workers in Flint,
during the Depression. Michigan staged a strike. The workers, instead of picketing
outside the General Motors (GM) factory, took to the factory floor
Labor Conditions Get a Boost
and engaged in a sit-down strike. There were violent clashed
Even though the labor movement had lost momentum in the between the strikers and local police. GM took to the courts to
1920s, the economic crisis of the Great Depression changed end the strike, but the Governor of Michigan, Frank Murphy,
many people's perspectives on the role of unions and labor. The refused to use the Michigan National Guard to expel the workers
largest union in the United States up until the Great Depression from the plant. Murphy stated, “If I send those soldiers right in on
was the American Federation of Labor (AFL) which organized the men, there’d be no telling how many would be killed.” He
skilled craft workers. Competing models from organizations like declared, “The state authorities will not take sides. They are here
the Congress of Industrial Organizations worked to bring many only to protect the public peace.” Talks between management
more types of workers including: and labor ensued and in the end, the UAW was recognized by
GM. This was seen as a victory for union recognition and
African-Americans And Women collective bargaining rights. This was further evidence by the Fair
Labor Standards Act of 1938, which set minimum wages,
The passage of the Wagner Act in 1935 reaffirmed the provisions
ensured better working conditions, and limits on minors in the
of the National Industrial Recovery Act that had provided workers
workplace.
the rights to organize and to collectively bargain contracts with
their employers. The act also restricted ways employers could The New Deal Affects Multiple Groups
interfere and react to labor practices in the private sector,
including the activities of labor unions and striking. Additionally, One of the goals of New Deal programs was to provide new
Congress later passed the Fair Labor Standards Act in 1938 to opportunities for women. FDR attempted to model this by
establish maximum hours and minimum wages. appointing women to important official positions. Frances
Perkins, for example, was the first woman ever appointed to a

189
President’s Cabinet as her efforts toward increased
the Secretary of Labor. opportunities for African Americans
FDR also appointed the didn’t stop there. Bethune helped
first female ambassador organize a “Black Cabinet” of
and a considerable influential African Americans to
number of women to advise the President’s administration
federal judgeship on racial issues. Never before were
positions. Unfortunately, there so many African American
women still faced voices in White House affairs and
ongoing discrimination in decisions. However, some New https://www.quia.com/files/quia/users/patsys/
bethquia.jpg
the workplace with Deal programs discriminated against
regard to lower wages African Americans. The WPA, the
and unfair hiring CCC, and the TVA discriminated against African Americans in
http://www.gayrva.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/
practices. Widespread providing direct relief and wages to workers. Nonetheless most
Perkins2-496x627.jpg
criticism against women African Americans supported FDR and abandoned the
working during the Republican Party.
Depression didn’t help
Mexican-Americans also supported FDR’s administration even
with women’s desires for equal employment rights; yet the long-
though, as a group, they received fewer benefits than did African
term trend of women working outside the home became a reality.
Americans. Because many Mexican-Americans worked on farms
Increased rights for African Americans during the decade of the and the farming industry wasn’t protected by state or federal
Depression was a contradiction because although President laws. With no support at the state or federal level for guaranteed
Roosevelt tried to promote racial equality, he stopped short of a wages or protection for unions, farm workers ended up working
commitment for full civil rights. for pennies per hour with no union to fight for them.

Through the President’s appointment of Mary McLeod Bethune to Perhaps the group that experienced the most support from the
head a special department of the National Youth Administration, New Deal were the Indigenous Peoples. Strong government

190
support through the strengthening of land claims helped place construct city guides, paint murals, and perform in theater troops
reservation lands back into the hands of tribal leadership. Many providing entertainment across the country.
Indigenous Peoples who valued tribal traditions saw the transfer
Meanwhile, Eleanor Roosevelt was pushing her husband to create
of land as a giant step forward.
relief programs for younger Americans who had also suffered
Although results were mixed for minority groups, most backed the during the Depression. Mrs. Roosevelt worried that long-term
President because the general consensus was that the unemployment and poverty would undermine young Americans'
Democratic Party would continue to move rights for each group faith in democracy. She told The New York Times that "I live in
forward. Many saw one of FDR’s greatest achievements as his real terror when I think we may be losing this generation. We have
creation of a New Deal Coalition. This alignment of diverse got to bring these young people into the active life of the
groups of people including Southern whites, various urban community and make them feel that they are necessary." The
groups, African Americans, unionized industrial workers, and National Youth Administration (NYA) was created shortly
many others shared one common goal: to support the thereafter, to help young people by providing aid and employment
Democratic Party--not only with regard to the U.S. presidency, by providing grants to high school and college students in
but in the U.S. Congress as well. exchange for work. Secondly, for young people who were both
unemployed and not in school, the NYA combined economic
Other Groups Receive Assistance
relief with on-the-job training in federally funded work projects
Another large group to receive assistance through the designed to provide youth with marketable skills for the future.
establishment of various programs was comprised of youth,
Social Security
professionals, and workers. One of the largest programs was the
Works Progress Administration. The WPA created as many jobs One of the most influential programs that was enacted as a part
as possible employing more than 8 million persons between 1935 of the New Deal was the Social Security Act of 1935. The Great
and 1943. Workers built airports, constructed and repaired roads, Depression had far reaching effects on all sectors of the economy
built libraries, schools, and hospitals and female WPA workers and on all portions of the population. Often the first to be laid-off,
sewed over 300 million garments for those in need. Professional elderly Americans were hit especially hard by during the
workers were also employed by the WPA to create music and art, Depression. In addition, less than ten percent of Americans had
access to private pension plans through their employers. Hence
191
the Depression, led to a situation in which many older Americans,
could not sufficiently provide for their needs. The Social Security
Act (SSA) aimed to provide some financial security to older
Americans, as well as unemployed workers, those with disabilities
and impoverished children.

The old age pension portion of the Social Security Act was
designed to provide a retirement benefit, that was to be collected
monthly when people reached the age of 65 and ceased working.
Social Security was funded through payroll taxes of working
Americans, which garnered controversy among critics of the New
Deal. However, Roosevelt wanted the program to be self-
sustaining, not dependant on government revenues. The payroll
tax was a necessity in Roosevelt’s view. Although Social Security
gave aid to many who were suffering from poverty, it also
excluded agricultural and domestic workers, meaning that at least http://docsteach.org/documents/195880/detail?

60 percent of the nation's black population was excluded. menu=closed&mode=search&sortBy=relevance&q=new+deal+social+security&commit=Go

Interactive 6.11 Fireside

Chat

Click on this link to listen to and

read Franklin Roosevelt’s Fireside
Chat. 192
Section 8

Lasting Legacies of the New Deal

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Society and Culture

1. How did economic, political, social/ cultural
The popular culture of the 1930s was full of
choices made a decade earlier contribute
to the start of the Great Depression? contradictions. While the previous decade might Interactive 6.12 Popular
Works During the Great
have signaled the beginning of the clash between
2. How did environmental factors affect the Depression
Great Depression? traditional values and modern ways of thinking, it
continued during the 1930s. The sentimentality
3. How did the government under Hoover
react to the Great Depression and what
associated with the longing for the good and
were pros and cons associated with his simple times of the “Roaring 20s” would have to
response? blend with the toughness needed to survive the
4. How did the Great Depression affect decade of financial suffering of the 1930s and
American citizens? dream of a brighter future. As with other decades,
artistic expression through art, music, theater, For a look at some of the popular
works of the decade watch this
movies, and literature reflected the societal video
challenges of the time.

New Deal Reforms that Last

Both New Deal programs attracted criticism from all sides of the political scene.
While some labeled the Roosevelt administration as fascist, others labeled it
communist. From the political right, the New Deal placed too much of an
emphasis on the government’s involvement in the economy and was too extreme

193
in its pro-labor and anti-business stand; from the left, the New controversial assistance program. The debate hinges on how the
Deal gave business too much power--never attempting to change program continues to be funded. WIth a greater percentage of
the system of capitalism in the country. Americans reaching retirement age, compared to those who are
currently working and paying into the system, many fear that
No matter which side of the political spectrum critics leaned,
Social Security may be unsustainable. However, many Americans
there were enduring effects of Roosevelt’s New Deal programs.
continue to rely on Social Security as an important source of
The Roosevelt administration was responsible for expanding the
income in their retirement years.
power of the federal government (especially that of the President)
in shaping the state of the nation’s economy. Prior to the Great One of the greatest legacies of the New Deal was not the
Depression, there was little government oversight in the banking programs, but instead, how people viewed the role of government
and financial sector. Programs were put in place to help the in the economy and society. The New Deal dramatically expanded
economy recover, to restore confidence in the US banking the size of the federal government and the influence of executive
system, and to help to avoid future depressions. The Federal power. One of the most pronounced effects of the New Deal was
government created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation the acceptance of deficit spending. In order to finance the
(FDIC) to guarantee individual bank deposits up to $2500 initially multitude of governmental programs that made up the New Deal,
and increased to $5000 by 1934. The FDIC continues to exist the government needed to spend more money than it took in
today. During the Great Recession of 2008, deposits became through taxes. This caused the U.S. debt to increase from $22
guaranteed up $250,000. Another program that is still in billion in 1933 to $33 billion by 1936. In addition to the expansion
existence today, called the Security and Exchange Commission of the government spending, the public view of governmental
(SEC), was put in place in 1934, to protect investors, insure assistance changed. The idea that the government was
fairness in trading, and help maintain efficiency in the stock responsible for the economic security of its citizens was a shift in
market. perspective, that became more accepted as a by product of the
New Deal. The effects of the Welfare State remains point of
Another program that continues to have a lasting impact on the
political discussion and debate today.
United States is Social Security. WIth the goal of providing
financial security to elderly Americans, unemployed workers, the Although the New Deal did not end the Depression, it did help to
disabled, and dependant children, Social Security has become a relieve some suffering and provide a stronger sense of security for

194
many Americans. The New Deal expanded the role of
government in the United States. The legacy of these programs is
mixed as far as their effectiveness and how people view the role
of government in the economy and society. Regardless of
perspective, there are New Deal programs that still impact the
nation today.

195
 Chapter 7

Was the Conduct of the

U.S. During WWII
Consistent With Its Core
Democratic Values?

1. What were the causes of World War II?

2. How did the civic values of the Axis powers differ from the core
democratic values of the United States?

3. Would the alliance of Axis powers have happened if the U.S. had
not adopted a policy of Isolationism?

4. How did American civic values contribute to the role the U.S. home
front played during WWII?

5. Could steps have been taken by the Allies that would have
prevented or greatly reduced the impact of the Holocaust?

6. What were the major turning points of the war in each theater of
war?

7. How did the role of technology affect the outcome of World War II?

8. How did World War II change the foreign policy of the United
States?
 Section 1

Roots of the Second World War

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Roots of the Second World War

1. What were the causes of World War II?
After four long and bitter years of a
2. How did the civic values of the Axis powers differ from
the core democratic values of the United States?
disastrous conflict that claimed the
lives of over 620,000 soldiers, a
3. Would the alliance of Axis powers have happened if the
U.S. had not adopted a policy of Isolationism? haggard and worn president looked
over the crowd and uttered the
4. How did American civic values contribute to the role the
U.S. home front played during WWII? immortal words:

5. Could steps have been taken by the Allies that would

“With malice toward none, with charity
have prevented or greatly reduced the impact of the
Holocaust? for all, with firmness in the right as

6. What were the major turning points of the war in each

God gives us to see the right, let us
theater of war? strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation’s wounds, to care for
7. How did the role of technology affect the outcome of him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow and his orphan, to do all
World War II? which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with
8. How did World War II change the foreign policy of the all nations.”
United States?

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Totalitarianism
Fascism
National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi)
Lebensraum
Collective Security

197
 tragic, senseless war--World War I, the “war to end all wars.” His
goal: “a just and lasting peace.” Wilson also understood the
destructive nature of revenge, and his hope for the world was one
that could cut right to the causes of war and surgically eliminate
them, replacing them instead with democratic ideals and self-
determination. However, European leaders wanted to make
Germany pay, and pay it did. The “just and lasting peace” sought
by Wilson ended with a treaty that one Versailles representative
called “a peace built on quicksand.” David Lloyd George,
Britain’s prime minister, lamented that the terms were “so harsh
that we shall have to fight another war again in 25 years’ time at
three times the cost.” The end result was a Second World War

“The Day” (Der Tag): Allied leaders at Versailles force Germany to take a bitter pill. Source: Daily
that picked up where the last one left off.
Express [London] 7 May 1919

Just a month before his assassination, President Abraham

Look at the maps in the Interactive 7.1 Map
Lincoln spoke those words with the intent to heal the nation’s
interactive. Analysis
wounds and unite friends and foes alike after four years of the
American Civil War. Lincoln seemed to understand that bitterness 1. What changes do you see on
and hatred, revenge and strife, have the capacity to inflict severe the 1923 map?
damage long after the last artillery shell is launched on a
battlefield. 2. What countries seemed to have
lost the most territory?
Failure of the Versailles Treaty
3. How might the changes on the
Study the maps located here. Use
Just over fifty years later, Woodrow Wilson headed to the map as a result of the Treaty of them to answer the questions that
Versailles Conference following the Great War, hoping to bring follow.
Versailles contribute to political,
reconciliation and peace to Europe after four years of a different social tensions and geographic
198
 Interactive 7.4
tensions? leader or small council of leaders Totalitarianism
have total and complete authority,
Interactive 7.2 Two World Interactive 7.3 How did the controlling all aspects of a country’s
Wars but One Global Versailles Treaty Change
Conflict the World? political, economic, and social life.

Stalin and the Communist State

The rise of totalitarian dictatorships in

the interwar period began in Russia
In this widget are several key traits
following its early departure from of totalitarianism. For each trait of
totalitarianism below, identify a
World War I. The war had greatly major core American value that
highlighted Russia’s weak and the trait conflicts with.
Click here for a video from the Click here for a narrated timeline
History Channel. of events. ineffective leadership, both politically
and militarily, in addition to its relative lack of industrialization
Aggressive Dictatorships Promote National Interests
compared to the Western powers. Furthermore, Russia was
President Wilson had hoped that “making the world safe for
democracy” through self-determination, young democracies
would be born that would assist in promoting world peace and
security. But, in the years following the Great War, democracy
after democracy struggled. Leader after leader arose and made
promises to provide food and jobs for people while the social
order continued to break down around them. Instead of
democracy flourishing in the post-war world, democracies gave
way to powerful leaders who secured their power through brutal
means and controlled every aspect of society. The 1920s and
1930s were the decades characterized by the rise of totalitarian
dictatorships. Totalitarianism is a form of government whereby a

199
 forced to make tremendous land known as gulags, where life expectancy was typically one winter.
concessions when it surrendered to While many of these aspects of Soviet life under Stalin’s rule were
the Germans in 1917, only to watch hidden from international view, Stalin’s impact on the Soviet
that land further divided up by the economy got the attention of the world. For the Soviet Union to
Allies at Versailles. overcome the humiliating defeat to Germany in World War I and
to become a global power to be reckoned with, the Soviets
In the ensuing years of the Russian
needed to increase the availability of essential industrial products
Revolution, the move towards
like oil, steel, and electricity, in addition to significantly improving
communism brought about a
agricultural production. Stalin took control of all aspects of the
complete reordering of Russian
Soviet economy by instituting a series of economic plans that
society and the creation of the
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ sought to modernize the country. After some initial setbacks
world’s first socialist state. The
commons/thumb/6/65/Stalin_Joseph.jpg/
industrially, Stalin’s plans significantly enhanced the Soviet
180px-Stalin_Joseph.jpg country’s name was changed to the
Union’s position as a modern industrial power.
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR), or Soviet Union. The country’s leader, Joseph Stalin was Stalin’s economic plans succeeded in providing full employment
able to ultimately seize power and gain total control of all aspects and economic growth in the Soviet economy during the early
of Soviet power, the economy and life. The process began with 1930s at a time when western democracies were struggling
the creation of a powerful police state that heavily monitored all heavily with the global depression. Even as early as the 1920s,
aspects of Soviet life. Instead of serving and protecting, the as young democratic countries arising out of the ruins of World
Soviet secret police used terror, murder and intimidation to carry War I struggled economically to provide jobs for workers, Russia’s
out the policies of Stalin’s government. Education was used to initial transition to communism began to seem like a better
promote the virtues of communism with Stalin at the head. solution than capitalism. As unemployed workers took to the
Propaganda was used extensively to control the information streets in protest of ineffective governments and poor economic
received by citizens. Anyone perceived to be a threat to Stalin’s conditions, violence often resulted, and many perceived
authority were systematically destroyed through the use of a communism to be a significant threat to stability and social order.
secret police that ruthlessly arrested and/or executed any They responded by supporting individuals and political parties
opposition. Millions were sent to Soviet work camps in Siberia, who promised to counter communism, bring about social order,

200
 and restore a perceived path to destiny that had somehow been wave after wave of labor strikes and even led Italy’s peasant
lost due to the outcome of World War I. For Italians and farmers to seize private land.
Germans, those individuals were Benito Mussolini and Adolf
Mussolini gained a following after creating a political party called
Hitler, and their emergence as totalitarian dictators took similar
the Fascist Party and using his followers (known as “Black Shirts”
paths.
due to the uniforms they wore) to violently confront communists
Mussolini and the Fascist State and socialists in the streets. Fascism is a totalitarian political
movement characterized by extreme nationalism, militarism, anti-
Benito Mussolini’s rise to power
communism, and denial of individual rights. [Mussolini coined the
in Italy eleven years before Hitler
term after the fasces, a symbol from Ancient Rome of an ax head
was fueled mainly by troubling
projecting from a tight bundle of sticks, which came to represent
economic conditions and
power (ax) and collective strength (the bundle of sticks)].
frustration that Italy’s territorial
gains from the Versailles Treaty For Mussolini, fascism was summed up by the idea, “All within
had not been more significant. the state, none outside the state, none against the state.” In
Italy had been severely addition to promising order and stability, Mussolini further
weakened by the war and promised through fiery, rousing speeches that he would lead Italy
suffered from inflation, “back to her ways of ancient greatness.” The ensuing social
unemployment, and a series of order brought about by the fascist troops earned him the support
ineffective governments that of the lower middle class, in addition to the wealthy industrial and
could not handle the postwar agricultural land-owning classes. Mussolini secured his power in
economic challenges. This only October of 1922 when he marched on Rome with 30,000 fascists
gave birth to further instability and demanded that Italy’s king put him in power. To avoid
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ and popular discontent. Further violence, the king appointed him as prime minister and, from that
File:Benito_Mussolini_Duce.jpg
plaguing the country was the point forward, Mussolini worked to consolidate total power.
spread of the ideals of the Calling himself “Il Duce” (the leader), he moved quickly to
Russian Revolution, whose communist philosophy promoted eliminate democracy, outlaw political parties, and eliminate any

201
 opposition through the secret police. Italy soon became the from the war in 1917, and the German army still maintained
world’s first fascist government. troops in France and Belgium when the armistice was signed.
The bitter defeat, the harsh conditions imposed by the Versailles
Hitler and Nazi State
Treaty, and the ensuing economic collapse of the German
Mussolini’s march on Rome economy led German citizens to seek blame for the postwar
was inspiring to a German settlement that had deprived Germany of her greatness on the
World War I veteran named world stage. For Hitler, the answer was found in socialists,
Adolf Hitler. A few years after communists, Jews, and anybody else who had “stabbed
the war, Hitler got involved in Germany in the back,” including members of Germany’s own
a political organization that Weimar Republic who seemed a little too quick to sign the Treaty
was also able to capitalize on of Versailles. Hitler found his ideas were collectively shared by a
the instability of the postwar German political party that ultimately came to be known as the
years and the bitter legacy of National Socialist German Workers’ Party, or Nazi Party.
the Versailles Treaty. While
Italians were struggling with
Interactive 7.5 Nazism and Interactive 7.6 Nazism and
Versailles because of what Fascism: A Comparison Pt Fascism: A Comparison Pt
they did not get, Germans 1 2
were stunned by what they
did get—blame for the loss
image source: Shutterstock
and a $33 billion reparations
bill for the entire cost of the
war, all while having a significant means of national income
stripped away from them in the form of lost colonies and
productive capacity. In the minds of many Germans, being Hear Mussolini’s own Definition
To see the 25 core beliefs of the
saddled with the loss of the war was inconceivable, especially in Nazi Party (the Nazi Party here.
Platform) under Hitler, click here to
light of the fact that the German army had forced the Russians visit this website from The History
Place
202
 Much like the Italian fascist Black Shirts, the Nazis distinguished
Read the two documents on the previous page. themselves with their private uniforms and army (known as Brown
Compare and contrast the Nazi Party platform with Shirts, or storm troopers), their willingness to use violence, and
Mussolini’s definition of fascism. the use of symbols (the swastika) for identification. Their
intensely nationalistic beliefs and racist views, their desire to
stomp communism from their midst, and the belief that Germany
needed to be liberated from the bondage of the Treaty of
Versailles led Hitler and the
Nazis to overthrow the German
government in Munich in 1923,
the year after Mussolini
marched on Rome. While the
“Beer Hall Putsch” was a failure
and resulted in his arrest for
treason, Hitler served only nine
months of a five year jail term.
While in prison, he wrote his
autobiography, Mein Kampf (My
Struggle), which outlined several
key beliefs that would serve as a
blueprint for the rise of a new “One People, One Empire, One Leader”

Germany: Germans were a

Hitler relied upon emotional and captivating
“master race”, and races such speeches, the continuous use of propaganda,
and Germany’s democratic system in order to rise
as Jews and Slavs were inferior;
to power in Germany,

A German woman in Berlin uses German currency to fire her stove. Because
German losses at the hands of
of the economic challenges that plagued Germany after the Treaty of the Versailles Treaty needed to
Versailles, German currency was more valuable as fuel for the stove. Image
source: Shutterstock
be rolled back; German-speaking peoples needed to be reunited
203
in one land; and the vastly-underutilized expanses of eastern the popular vote and his rising political influence to demand that
Europe and Russia were destined to provide lebensraum, or he be installed as
“living space,” for Germany’s master race. All members of the chancellor of Germany.
master race who wanted employment would find it, and
After the Reichstag fire was
Germany’s prosperity and greatness would be restored.
blamed on communists, he
Hitler and the Nazi party remained relatively powerless until the persuaded the German
impact of the Great Depression reached Germany and Europe. president, the German
As the German economy worsened and fear and uncertainty people, and the Nazi Party-
increased, more Germans began to vote extremist political parties controlled Reichstag to
like the Nazi and communist parties into the Reichstag, grant him “emergency
Germany’s national parliament. Hitler found easy targets for powers” necessary to
Germany’s economic woes—capitalists, the Weimar Republic, the protect the country. He
Versailles Treaty, communists, and especially Jews. Political suspended civil liberties
battles for public support often found violent expression in the and began the process of
streets, where clashes between purging Germany of anyone
communists, Nazis and other who might oppose him. When a suspicious fire burned down the German Reichstag
Interactive 7.7 How did
groups became commonplace. Hitler Rise to Power? The communist party was building a month later and was blamed on a communist
plot to take over the government, it conveniently gave Hitler
Through the clever application banned, while freedom of the opportunity he needed to secure his power. Image

of propaganda and Hitler’s the press and of assembly source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/

thumb/2/20/Reichstagsbrand.jpg/374px-
ability to captivate audiences were denied. A month later, Reichstagsbrand.jpg

with a dramatic flair for public another act was passed

speaking, the Nazi party was which gave Hitler powers to bypass both the Reichstag and the
able to democratically win more country’s constitution. With his power expanding, Hitler had his
seats in the German Reichstag enemies, rivals, and even former friends murdered in 1934 in what
For a short video on how a
than any other political party by became known as “Night of the Long Knives.” When the German
democracy like Germany could
1932. Hitler used the results of give rise to a dictator like Hitler, president died later that summer, Hitler assumed full dictatorial
click here
204
powers and began pursuing the goals he laid out in Mein Kampf. European powers were a little too slow to recognize its
But before he could regain lands taken from Germany after emergence as a world power, and its national resentment began
World War I, he needed to equip Germany with a powerful military to build. Its first solution to the problem was to invade the
that had been denied by the Treaty of Versailles. In violation of resource-rich region of China, known as Manchuria, in 1931. This
the peace agreement, Hitler began a dramatic expansion of the would be the aggressive first step for the Japanese in creating an
military, including the creation of a dominant air force known as empire that would provide living space for the country, in addition
the Luftwaffe. Withdrawal from the League of Nations soon to the raw materials necessary for Japan to prosper. China, in
followed. little position to act while in the midst of a civil war, appealed to
the League of Nations for assistance. The League condemned
Japanese Emperor Hirohito
Japan’s actions in the region, but was unable to encourage
Meanwhile, halfway across the globe League members to collectively impose sanctions. Japan simply
while Hitler and the Nazi Party were withdrew from the League in 1933 and soon began a massive
rising to power in the Reichstag, the naval build up in the Pacific. This would give the Japanese the
imperial-minded and highly military power needed to expel Western imperial powers from
nationalistic Japanese military had Asia and increase the magnitude of the Japanese empire.
taken dictatorial control of Japan,
while Emperor Hirohito ruled as the
symbolic power of Japan.
Throughout the early 1900s, Japan
had sought to take its place among
the most prestigious and modernized
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/4/44/
countries of the world, but it
Hirohito_in_dress_uniform.jpg/344px- struggled economically due to its
Hirohito_in_dress_uniform.jpg
overpopulation and lack of important
raw materials necessary for industry,
like oil, rubber, and metals. Furthermore, the country had felt that

205
 viewed as an attack on all members. Unfortunately, the
League of Nations was weak from the start.

• Several powerful countries were initially left out of the

formation of the League following World War I, including
Germany and Russia.

• The United States itself failed to join, for fear that the
country would be under obligation to enter into yet another
horrendous foreign conflict.

• Without a military or even the full cooperation of

member nations, the League lacked the power to effectively
carry out its rulings.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Gap_in_the_Bridge.png
As a result of the League’s weaknesses, it was often
ineffective in halting acts of aggression committed by larger
The League of Nations Fails to Halt Aggression
countries seeking to expand their territory, restore their national
The League of Nations was created in direct response to honor, and to overcome the humiliations handed out at Versailles
Woodrow Wilson’s desire to avoid future wars through a “general following World War I.
association of nations”, both big and small, that could gather and
With little to stop the ambitious totalitarian agenda, the result
peacefully resolve international disputes. By pursuing policies
would be the single biggest catastrophe in the history of mankind,
related to disarmament and the principle of collective security,
a second global war that would view civilian populations as
war (at least in theory) could be rendered obsolete. Collective
legitimate targets of military action.
security is the idea that countries can maintain peace by entering
into agreements whereby an attack against one member is

206
 Section 2

Axis Expansion, Allied Response

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Italy Invades Ethiopia By 1935, Italy began pursuit of its plans to dominate the
1. What were the causes of World War II? Mediterranean and to incorporate more of Africa into its empire, in pursuit of the
2. How did the civic values of the Axis powers differ from dream of reestablishing for Italy the glory of the old Roman Empire. Fighting soon
the core democratic values of the United States? broke out between Italian and Abyssinian troops in Africa’s only remaining
3. Would the alliance of Axis powers have happened if the independent nation, Abyssinia (now Ethiopia). Despite pleas for assistance to the
U.S. had not adopted a policy of Isolationism? League of Nations by Abyssinian emperor Haile Selassie, the best the League
4. How did American civic values contribute to the role the could do was impose limited economic sanctions (coal and oil were not included)
U.S. home front played during WWII?
against Italy. With European democracies weakened by depression, Mussolini
5. Could steps have been taken by the Allies that would sent in tanks and planes, and Abyssinia fell, eliciting little response other than
have prevented or greatly reduced the impact of the
Holocaust?
sympathy from the West. With the world watching, the door was now opened for

6. What were the major turning points of the war in each

theater of war?

7. How did the role of technology affect the outcome of

World War II?

8. How did World War II change the foreign policy of the

United States?

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Axis Powers
Nye Committee
Neutrality Acts
Rape of Nanking
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/top-hs-6-624i-e13947929522761.jpg
Appeasement
Munich Agreement
Cash and Carry 207
German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact
Germany, Italy and Japan to further expansion of their empires The bombing of the Spanish city of Guernica by the German air
without much resistance from the Western powers, who were force was a forerunning of how aerial attacks on civilian
growing increasingly isolationist and pacifistic in their desires to populations would characterize the Second World War.
overcome the effects of the Great Depression and to avoid being
drawn into the affairs of other countries.

Hitler Enters the Rhineland

By 1936, Hitler was ready to make his move. With the world’s
eyes focused on events in Abyssinia, German troops moved
unchallenged into the Rhineland in violation of the Versailles
Treaty. France and Britain, unwilling and unable to challenge the
rising Nazi war machine, declined to intervene. It would not be
the last fascist challenge of the year.

Under the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles, the territory

around the Rhineland was not to be militarized.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25224,_Guernica,_Ruinen.jpg

Spanish Civil War

Spanish General Francisco Franco led a rebellion against his

country’s republican government, seeking to replace it instead
with a fascist government. Both Mussolini and Hitler supported
the move with troops and weapons, including the use of the

208

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remilitarization_of_the_Rhineland#/media/File:Rhineland.jpg
German Luftwaffe to bomb civilians in the Spanish city of America Moves Toward Isolationism
Guernica. After three years of fighting, Franco’s fascist troops
With events heating up overseas, the United States was being
prevailed, and another European country fell to fascism. Once
swept by a wave of isolationism. Mired in depression and
again, France, Great Britain and the United States stood by,
haunted by the memories of the senseless loss of lives during
alarmed by the direction events were headed, but unwilling to be
World War I, the United States was further moved toward isolation
dragged into another potential war. The Spanish Civil War, along
with the economic sanctions imposed on Italy after the invasion by the findings of the Nye Committee, a Senate committee

of Abyssinia, cemented the relationship between Italy and charged with investigating a popular conspiracy theory that the

Germany. After signing a treaty of friendship with Hitler, Mussolini United States had entered World War I so that munitions makers

announced the creation of “a Rome-Berlin axis around which all could earn a profit. Although the investigation had found that so-

European states that desire peace can revolve.” By 1937, the called “merchants of death” had indeed made a profit (and were a
little resistant to international disarmament throughout the 1920s),
alliance of Italy, Germany and Japan (the Axis Powers) was
there was little evidence that bankers and armaments
complete.
manufacturers had overly influenced Wilson’s decision to enter
the war. Despite the reports’
findings, the aggressive actions of Interactive 7.8 Merchant of
the totalitarian governments Death
overseas combined with rising anti-
war sentiment of the American
public encouraged Congress to pass
an initial series of Neutrality Acts in
1935, 1936, and 1937. The acts
essentially prohibited Americans
from selling arms, providing loans, or
To learn more about the Nye
travelling on ships of any foreign Committee’s investigation, click
here
nation at war with another. The acts
Hitler and Mussolini in Munich, Germany in 1940. Image source: Shutterstock
additionally banned American
209
involvement in the Spanish Civil War, although 3,000 Americans
(the Abraham Lincoln Brigade) did voluntarily fight on behalf of
the Loyalists. At the discretion of the President, belligerent
nations could purchase items unrelated to arms, but only a “cash
and carry” basis-- They had to pay upfront and then transport
the goods using their own ships.

Japan Invades China

While the solution seemed reasonable to keep America out of

Europe’s growing crisis, events across the Pacific cast a rather
long shadow on those hoping to keep America out of conflict. In
the summer of 1937, Chinese troops clashed with Japanese
troops outside of the city of Peking, not far from the border of
Manchuria, which the Japanese had renamed Manchukuo. The
Japanese used it as a pretext for all-out war to capture Chinese
markets, a move that the Open Door policy and the presence of An orphaned baby cries among the remains of the Shanghai train station after it had been bombed by Japanese planes

the Western imperial powers had prevented. Japanese troops in August of 1937. Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:This_terrified_baby_was_almost_the_only_human_being_left_alive_in_Shanghai%27s_South_Station_after_brutal_J
poured across the border and, in the ensuing months, advanced apanese..._-_NARA_-_535557.tif

towards the Chinese city of Nanking. Hoping to issue a wakeup

call to the American public regarding the inevitability of
involvement in war, President Roosevelt called for an economic
“quarantine” of the aggressor nations, warning that peace-loving
nations had a responsibility to oppose the “reign of terror and
international lawlessness” that was spreading like a disease
.
across the globe. Isolationists criticized Roosevelt, fearing that
Roosevelt was steering the United States away from neutrality.

210
Panay Incident

In less than two months, Roosevelt’s warnings were driven home

after Japanese planes attacked several American and British
ships on the Yangtze River in China. Three tankers and the
U.S.S. Panay, a gunboat which had been charged with
evacuating American citizens from China, were sunk, killing two
Americans and wounding 30 more. Roosevelt and the American
public were outraged. Roosevelt suggested that Britain and
United States should collectively impose a naval blockade of
Japan to cut off imports of raw materials but, fearing war, Britain
declined. The threat of action, however, lead the Japanese to
issue an apology, in addition to payment for damages and a
promise to avoid future attacks.
The American public was Interactive 7.9 Bombing of
temporarily satisfied. Two days USS Panay
after the Panay incident,
Japanese troops marched into
the city of Nanking. It would
become a precursor to the
enormous cost civilians would
pay in a global war where
civilians would be specifically
For a newsreel on the invasion of
targeted by militaries across Nanking and the attack on the
Panay, click here
Europe, Asia, and the Pacific.

211
 presence in the Philippines, Japan and the United States were on
a collision course.
Interactive 7.10 The
Rape of Nanking

To read of an account of a
witness in Nanking, click
here

The USS Panay sinks after being hit by Japanese planes on the Yangtze in December, 1937. Image source: https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USS_Panay_sinking_after_Japanese_air_attack.jpg

Over the next six weeks, Japanese troops committed mass

atrocities against the Chinese civilians in Nanking, involving
systematic murder, rape, mutilation, beheadings and torture.
Between 260,000 and 350,000 Chinese were slaughtered in what
became known as the Rape of Nanking. While limited by the
Neutrality Acts, the United States made efforts to support the
Chinese indirectly with supplies through neighboring countries,
while putting diplomatic pressure on the Japanese to withdraw
from China. Japan refused, instead beginning an extensive push
"My good friends, for the second time in our history, a British Prime Minister has returned
to eliminate Western influence from the region, thereby creating
from Germany bringing peace with honour. I believe it is peace for our time. Go home and
an “Asia for Asians,” or what the Japanese would refer to as the get a nice quiet sleep."

“Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.” With a strong U.S. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, announcing the results of the Munich Agreement
after returning from Berlin on September 30, 1938.
212
The Allies Seek to Appease Hitler “Britain and France had to choose between war and dishonor.
They chose dishonor. They will have war.”
In Europe, Hitler had been carefully monitoring the reactions of
Great Britain, France, the United States, and the League of
Nations to Axis territorial aggressions unfolding in Africa, Spain,
and China. With both the Western powers and the League of
Nations refusing to take a stand, Hitler began his pursuit of
reuniting German-speaking peoples by regaining German lands
held before World War I. In March of 1938, Hitler marched troops
into Austria and announced that his native land had formed an
Anschluss, or “union”, with Germany. Britain and France
protested, but failed to act. In September, Hitler zeroed in on
annexing the German-speaking population that occupied the
Sudetenland in western Czechoslovakia. In the hopes of avoiding
the tragedy of another bloody war, French and British officials met
with Hitler in Munich (with Italy’s Mussolini acting as a mediator).
In exchange for Hitler’s promise not to seek any further territory,
the British and French agreed to allow Hitler to take the
Sudetenland. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain returned
to London and declared there would be “peace for our time.” The
policy of giving up territory in exchange for promises to avoid war
became known as appeasement. In March of 1939, a mere six
Image source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/history/roadwar/rhine/revision/1/
months after the Munich Agreement, Hitler seized the rest of
Czechoslovakia. Italy took advantage of the situation and
invaded Albania. For many, appeasement was viewed as
cowardly and destined to fail. Winston Churchill commented,

213
 between the two powers. The pact was a shock to the world,
since fascism’s primary goal had been the elimination of
communism. However, Stalin was also attempting to buy time
before an inevitable confrontation with Hitler.

A women weeps while others salute Hitler and German troops as they enter the Sudetenland in 1938.

Stalin and Hitler Sign a Nonaggression Pact While appeasement

did not ultimately prevent war, what appeasement did do was buy
Great Britain and France time to prepare for war. They did not
have to wait much longer. For Hitler, the time was ripe for
entering the next phase of his master plan, living space in Eastern
Europe for his “master race”. To eliminate the threat of a two-front
war involving the Soviet Union during Germany’s invasion of
Eastern Europe, Hitler signed a nonaggression pact with Joseph
Stalin in August, which included promises to avoid war with each
other for ten years, in addition to a plan to secretly divide Poland

214
 Section 3

War Erupts in Europe

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

1. What were the causes of World War II?

2. How did the civic values of the Axis powers differ from the core
democratic values of the United States?

3. Would the alliance of Axis powers have happened if the U.S. had
not adopted a policy of Isolationism?

4. How did American civic values contribute to the role the U.S.
home front played during WWII?

5. Could steps have been taken by the Allies that would have
prevented or greatly reduced the impact of the Holocaust?

6. What were the major turning points of the war in each theater of
war?

7. How did the role of technology affect the outcome of World War
II?

8. How did World War II change the foreign policy of the United
States? German troops enter Poland. https://www.ushmm.org/lcmedia/photo/lc/image/80/80487.jpg

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Germany Invades Poland
Blitzkrieg
Vichy France
On September 1, 1939, German troops launched a massive invasion of Poland,
Battle of Britain
Cash and Carry demonstrating the damage that a rapid-strike, industrialized-warfare using tanks,
Tripartite Pact planes, and troops could inflict on those who were in the way. While Britain and
Lend-Lease Act
Operation Barbarossa
Atlantic Charter
215
Pearl Harbor
France declared war two days after the start of the invasion,
President Roosevelt affirmed the neutrality of the United States.
Poland fell in less than five weeks, victims of the lethal Nazi
strategy known as Blitzkrieg, or “lightning war.” In November,
the Neutrality Acts were modified by the U.S. Congress to allow
Great Britain and France to purchase
weapons on a “cash and carry basis.”
Interactive 7.11 The
They would need them: Within the Invasion of Poland
next six months, the fascist war
machines rolled over the European
continent until only Britain remained.
In fact, between 1939 and 1942, it
appeared as if the successful military
campaigns of the totalitarian
dictatorships would indeed swallow
For more on the invasion of
up the world. Poland, including pictures and
film, click here
Europe Falls to the Nazis

The start of the intense Nazi push into

Western Europe appeared deceptively uneventful: From the
invasion of Poland until April of 1940, the continent saw little Adolf Hitler in Paris front of the Eiffel Tower, 1940
conflict on the Western Front. The period was dubbed the
“Sitzkrieg”, or “sitting war”, while others called it the “Phony
War”. Expected Nazi attacks on British cities and the French Norway, the next two countries to fall to the Nazis. An invasion of
countryside were non-existent. However, the relatively quiet the Lowland countries of the Netherlands, Belgium, and
winter ended with a surprise invasion in April of Denmark and Luxembourg followed, despite efforts by French and British

216
troops to resist. In June, France surrendered when German The Battle of Britain
troops marched into Paris while Italian troops invaded from the
With the French defeated, Hitler was now able to turn his
south of France. After forcing the French to sign surrender terms
attention across the English Channel, attempting to accomplish
in the same railroad car that saw the Germans sign the armistice
what no other army had been able to do since 1066--successfully
to end World War I, Hitler had France divided into two: Northern
invade Britain. German troops began to amass in France, but
France was occupied by the Germans, while a puppet
first Hitler had to gain military dominance in the skies over Britain
government controlled by Germany was established in southern
by defeating the Royal Air Force. In what became known as the
France (Vichy France). In London, a Free French government
Battle of Britain, the German Luftwaffe began attacking the island
was established by Charles de Gaulle. Over the same time frame,
in earnest throughout the summer and fall of 1940, bombing
protected by the nonaggression
British airfields and cities. British pilots, spurred on by Britain’s
pact with Hitler, the Soviets
Interactive 7.12 The Fall of Prime Minister Winston Churchill and assisted by Britain’s
invaded Eastern Poland and France
development of radar, fought valiantly in defense of the country,
Finland, then took over the Baltic
ultimately defeating the German Luftwaffe and forcing Hitler to
Republics of Estonia, Latvia, and
abandon his plans for invading Great Britain.
Lithuania, seeking to expand
Soviet influence in Eastern Roosevelt Moves America Towards War
Europe and to regain much of
the land that Russia had lost as a Britain’s resistance against the Nazi war machine soon began to
result of World War I. take a toll on its finances. The shortage of cash in the treasury
Click here for an interactive media made it difficult for the country to continue to gain war materials
timeline that includes radio news,
speeches and broadcasts for under the United States’ policy of “cash and carry.” In
signficant events from World War
September, Roosevelt responded by trading 50 World War I
II (Requires Flash - May not work
on an iPad) destroyers to Great Britain in return for leases of British military
bases in the Caribbean and the Atlantic. By the end of the
month, though, the situation changed further: News broke that
Germany, Italy and Japan signed a mutual defense agreement,
the Tripartite Pact, designed to keep the United States out of the
217
war. Not only did it agree to respect the “new order” created by events unfolding in Europe, including the request for funds
the Axis powers on their respective continents, but it also necessary to supply cash-strapped European countries with the
guaranteed assistance if any of weapons and supplies necessary to carry on the fight against the
the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis fascist countries. In what became known as the “Four Freedoms”
Interactive 7.13 The
were attacked by the United Arsenal of Democracy speech, Roosevelt also laid out his vision of the post-war world:
States. The pact guaranteed
America would find herself in a
Roosevelt’s Four Freedoms Speech
two-ocean war if she declared
war. Further compounding the “In the future days, which we seek to make secure, we look
situation in Europe, Italy had forward to a world founded upon four essential human freedoms.
entered the war and had
invaded Greece. For The first is freedom of speech and expression -- everywhere in
For audio and text of Roosevelt’s the world.
Roosevelt, the intent of the Axis Arsenal of Democracy Speech,
powers was clear and, coming click here
The second is freedom of every person to worship God in his
off a fresh election victory in
own way -- everywhere in the world.
1940 for an unprecedented Interactive 7.14 Detroit
third term, it was time to take a The third is freedom from want, which, translated into world
decisive stand, declaring in terms, means economic understandings which will secure to
December of 1940 that America every nation a healthy peacetime life for its inhabitants --
“must be the great arsenal of everywhere in the world.
democracy.”
The fourth is freedom from fear, which, translated into world
He took advantage of his terms, means a world-wide reduction of armaments to such a
annual address to Congress a Detroit played a major role in point and in such a thorough fashion that no nation will be in a
providing many of the weapons
week later, the first week of that won the war. To learn more position to commit an act of physical aggression against any
January, 1941, to lay out of Detroit's role as an "Arsenal of neighbor -- anywhere in the world.
Democracy," click here
America’s policy toward the

218
 Despite opposition to intervention officially remaining neutral, the United States was preparing for
Interactive 7.15 The Lend from groups like the America First war.
Lease Act Committee, Roosevelt was able to
Political Cartoon Analysis
promote the passage through
Congress of the Lend-Lease Act, Ho Hum! No chance of contagion. (appeared in May 1941)
which loaned war supplies to Britain
and other countries considered vital to 1. What is the subject of the political cartoon?
U.S. security, in exchange for future
2. What are the circumstances that would have led to the
repayment. With Britain fighting to
creation of the cartoon?
To View the Act Click here. fend off the Nazis, the act passed
Congress in March of 1941. While 3. For whom would the cartoon have been created?

4. What is the message that Dr. Seuss is attempting to get across

to the audience?
Roosevelt Explains the Lend-Lease Act

“Well, let me give you an illustration: Suppose my neighbor's home catches

fire, and I have a length of garden hose four or five hundred feet away. If he
can take my garden hose and connect it up with his hydrant, I may help him to
put out his fire. Now, what do I do? I don't say to him before that operation,
"Neighbor, my garden hose cost me $15; you have to pay me $15 for it." What
is the transaction that goes on? I don't want $15--I want my garden hose back
after the fire is over. All right. If it goes through the fire all right, intact, without
any damage to it, he gives it back to me and thanks me very much for the use
of it. But suppose it gets smashed up--holes in it--during the fire; we don't
have to have too much formality about it, but I say to him, "I was glad to lend
you that hose; I see I can't use it any more, it's all smashed up." He says,
"How many feet of it were there?" I tell him, "There were 150 feet of it." He
says, "All right, I will replace it." Now, if I get a nice garden hose back, I am in
pretty good shape.”
http://library.ucsd.edu/speccoll/dswenttowar/
--FDR’s Fire Hose Lend-Lease Press Conference index.html#ark:bb38916372 219
Hitler Invades the Soviet Union Charter would serve as the foundation upon which the United
Nations would be constructed at the end of the war, replacing the
As Britain’s pilots began to defeat wave after wave of German
broken and ineffective League of Nations.
planes over Britain, Hitler abandoned his plan to conquer Britain
and turned his attention instead to Eastern Europe. Driven by his
pursuit of raw materials, lebensraum, and a desire to eliminate Interactive 7.16 The
Primary Source Analysis: The
Europe of Jews and communists, Hitler broke his nonaggression Atlantic Charter
Atlantic Charter
pact with Stalin. After Axis powers took over Greece and
Yugoslavia, Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa, the German 1. Do a close reading of the
invasion of the Soviet Union, in June of 1941. The massive Atlantic Charter.
assault into Soviet territory was composed of the largest military
force ever assembled: 3 million troops, 625,000 horses, 3350 2. What are the principles of the
tanks, and 2,270 aircraft. Despite Allied warnings, the Soviets Charter that Churchill and Wilson
were caught unprepared. The seemingly unstoppable German thought would bring about “a better
Click here to read the Atlantic
troops blitzkreiged their way into heart of the Soviet Union world”? Charter
throughout the summer of 1941.
3. What principals are similar to

Churchill and Roosevelt Establish Allied War Goals Wilson’s Fourteen Points?

Meanwhile, in preparation for war, President Roosevelt and Prime 4. As you read the rest of the chapter, rate the British and the

Minister Winston Churchill gathered for a secret meeting aboard United States in terms of how well they achieved their goals

the USS Augusta off the coast of Newfoundland. There, the two throughout the war and during the postwar settlement.

leaders forged the Atlantic Charter, a document that contained

the major goals that would govern Allied aims throughout the war.
The document, which echoed many of Woodrow Wilson’s
Fourteen Points from World War I, proclaimed that the Allies
would seek no territorial gains and would promote principles that
would reflect their “hopes for a better world.” The Atlantic
220
 America’s Undeclared Naval War with Germany

With the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, Roosevelt began

widening the Lend-Lease program to include shipments of
supplies to the Soviets. However, as American shipments of
supplies increased across the Atlantic, the expanded traffic and
lengthy supply lines attracted the attention of German
submarines (U-boats). In order to cut Britain and Russia’s
Lend-Lease lifelines to the United States, hundreds of German
U-boats relentlessly preyed upon Allied shipping. As Allied
losses mounted throughout the spring and fall of 1941,
confrontations between the Germany and the United States
increased. In September, a German U-boat fired on a U.S.
destroyer in the Atlantic. Despite neutrality with Germany,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Reuben_James_(DD-245)#/media/
Roosevelt ordered the Navy to shoot U-boats “on sight.” In
File:USS_Reuben_James_(DD-245)_on_29_April_1939.jpg October, U-boats torpedoed two American destroyers on
convoy duty within a week of each other, including the U.S.S.
Six weeks before the Japanese attack on the American fleet at
Reuben James, which sank with 115 lives lost. This undeclared
Pearl Harbor, the U.S.S. Reuben James was sunk by a German
naval war in the Atlantic led Congress to pass legislation allowing
U-boat in the North Atlantic on October 31, 1941, claiming the
the arming of merchant ships, in addition to permitting U.S.
lives of 115 sailors. The destroyer, which was on convoy duty
vessels to sail into belligerent ports. Hitler had initially hoped to
protecting lend-lease shipments at the time, was forever
avoid war with the United States, which would create a two-front
immortalized by the Woody Guthrie song, The Sinking of the
war for Germany. Yet, Germany and the United States remained
Reuben James.
on a collision course. Events in December of 1941 changed
everything.

221
 carriers in the Pacific were out at sea. Also, the Japanese attack
missed submarine pens, oil storage facilities, and the dockyard,
allowing the United States to sufficiently recover from the initial
shock within a relatively short period of time.

Interactive 7.17 Interactive 7.18

Eyewitness Pearl Harbor Eyewitness Pearl Harbor 2

Ammunition aboard the USS Shaw explodes during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7,
1941. Image source: Shutterstock
To read an eyewitness account of Japanese Account of Pearl Harbor
Pearl Harbor, click here
The United States Enters the War The Japanese had sought to deal
a surprise death blow to the United States Navy in the hopes of
Shortly before 8 am Hawaiian time on Sunday morning, keeping the United States from interfering with the expansion of
December 7, the Japanese navy launched a surprise air attack on their empire in Asia. When Hitler had rolled over France and the
America’s main naval base in the Pacific, Pearl Harbor. Using Netherlands in 1940, it left those colonial empires in Southeast
waves of over 350 planes from six aircraft carriers located north Asia defenseless. Japan’s conquest of French Indochina and the
of the Hawaiian island of Oahu, the Japanese assault killed 2,403 Dutch East Indies would add much-needed deposits of rubber, oil
Americans and wounded another 1,178.[2] In just under two and tin to the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. By
hours, the attack damaged or sunk 21 ships, including eight crippling the U.S. fleet in Hawaii while simultaneously attacking
battleships, and destroyed 188 U.S. planes. Another 150 planes the Philippines, Guam, Wake Island, Midway Island, and British
received damage. Fortunately, the U.S. fleet’s three main aircraft bases in Singapore and Hong Kong, the Japanese hoped to buy
222
 time and create an impenetrable line of defenses around their On December 8, President Roosevelt sought a declaration of war
newly acquired territories. The Japanese military leaders from Congress, calling December 7 “a date which will live in
assumed Americans lacked the will to fight back, believing the infamy.” Congress obliged, passing declarations in both the
United States to be too decadent and materialistic. However, the House and Senate by a margin of 388-1. Only pacifist Jeanette
only thing Americans lost was their desire for maintaining the Rankin, the first woman elected to the House, voted against
policy of isolationism. going to war. With America’s proclamation of war against Japan,
Germany and Italy followed three days later with declarations of
Congress Declares War
war against the United States. The decision would
ultimately be a foolish one for Hitler and Germany. Two
weeks after the U.S. entered the war, Churchill and
Roosevelt met at the White House to discuss how the war
would be fought. The meeting would be the beginning of
tight-knit cooperation between the two countries. It was
decided among the two leaders that Hitler posed the largest
threat in Europe, so resources
would be directed toward the Interactive 7.19
European theatre of war until Declaration of War
the defeat of Hitler. Then,
resources would be directed
toward the war in the Pacific.

To hear and see President

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg/800px- Roosevelt’s speech to Congress
Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg on December 8, 1941, click here

223
 Germany Gains Ground in Russia, North Africa

For America and her Allies, the early years of the war through
the first half of 1942 proved to be difficult ones characterized
by continuous setbacks. There appeared to be no stopping
the battle-hardened German and Japanese militaries, as they
advanced through Europe and the Pacific. The times, indeed,
seemed dark. After conquering Western Europe, the German
Army continued to make significant inroads into Eastern
Europe and Russia, having reached the front door of Moscow
and Leningrad. In the southeast region of the Soviet Union
known as Ukraine, the Germans had begun an offensive to
capture the rich oil reserves in the Caucasus region. General
Erwin Rommel’s Afrika Korps of tanks had made a significant
push across the desert sands of North Africa, trapping British
forces in Egypt and threatening
Hitler declares war on the United States in the German Reichstag on December 11, 1941. the Suez Canal, Britain’s major Interactive 7.21 State of
supply line. the World Pre-WW2
Interactive 7.20
Declaration of War Against Japanese Control the Western
the US
Pacific

After Pearl Harbor, Japan

continued to expand its empire.
With complete dominance of air How powerful were the military
and sea, by mid-1942, the powers of the US, Nazi Germany,
and Japan prior to Pearl Harbor?
Japanese had invaded Southeast
Asia and taken control of Singapore, the oil-rich Dutch East
To read Hitler’s speech declaring
war on the United States, click 224
here.
Indies, and the Philippines. There, American and Filipino forces, 78,000 U.S. and Filipino troops were forced to surrender on the
led by General Douglas MacArthur, put up stiff resistance, but Bataan Peninsula. It was the largest surrender in U.S. Army
were unable to halt the Japanese advance. MacArthur was history. Tragically, over 10,000 prisoners would die on the
ordered to evacuate to Australia, where he would assume grueling, sixty-five mile-long Bataan Death March, the victims of
command of all Allied forces in the Pacific. Vowing “I shall Japanese guards who bayoneted, beheaded, starved, beat, and
return,” he left the Philippines a month before the last holdout of tortured their captives.

Primary Source Analysis-Propaganda

1. What is the subject of the poster?

2. How is the subject of the poster being used to promote the

war effort?

3. What techniques are being used in the poster to create a

response in the reader?

4. Does the poster appeal more to reason or to emotions? Why

do you believe this is so?

5. How are the techniques used in this poster similar to

techniques used today? Explain.

225
 With the capture of the Philippines, Japan gained control of the in just the first four months of American involvement in the war
Western Pacific and began fortifying its holdings. against Germany.

The American tanker “Dixie Arrow” burns off the coast of North Carolina after being hit by a German U-boat in
1942.

German U-Boats Dominate the Atlantic

In the shipping lanes of the North Atlantic, groups of German U-

boats known as wolf packs were devastating Allied shipping and
threatening to choke off food and supplies to Britain and the
Soviet Union. In the first seven months of 1942 alone, the wolf
packs had sunk close to 700 Allied ships in the Atlantic. Off the
east coast of the United States, wolf packs sunk close to 90 ships

226
 Section 4

The War At Home

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Work-Labor-Business

1. What were the causes of World War II?
During World War II, 16 million American men and women served in the armed
2. How did the civic values of the Axis powers differ from the
core democratic values of the United States?
forces. This number made up 10% of the total population in the country. Giving
their lives for a cause they believed in, 400,000 did not return home from the war.
3. Would the alliance of Axis powers have happened if the
U.S. had not adopted a policy of Isolationism? Aware of the dangers their family members, friends and neighbors faced fighting
overseas, the civilians that remained at home were deeply affected in all realms of
4. How did American civic values contribute to the role the
U.S. home front played during WWII? their lives. They became “citizen soldiers” in a variety of ways. Day to day

5. Could steps have been taken by the Allies that would have
activities resulting in what to purchase, what to make and what to eat became part
prevented or greatly reduced the impact of the Holocaust? of the war effort. People boosted production in the workplace and at home. The
6. What were the major turning points of the war in each war influenced American government, economics and society.
theater of war?
To coordinate the war effort, at home and abroad, the US government created new
7. How did the role of technology affect the outcome of
World War II? government agencies such as the National Defense Research Committee, Office of
Censorship, Office of Civil Defense, Aircraft Warning Corps and the National War
8. How did World War II change the foreign policy of the
United States? Labor Board. The government also set prices on many products and capped
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE wages in many sectors to help control spending to help with the war effort.

Rationing
Propaganda
Homefront How would setting prices and capping wages help with
Black-Out Drills government spending?
War bonds
Internment camps

227
As you have already read, prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor, Interactive 7.22 Manpower
President Roosevelt vowed that the US would become the
world's “arsenal of democracy.” The United States was true to
FDR’s word and became the hub of weapons and military
manufacturing. The dramatic increase in sales of US production
towards the war lifts America out of the Great Depression.
Factories that once made goods for consumers (like cars and
household appliances) converted to factories that made goods US Government Office of War
for the war (like planes, Jeeps and tanks). At it’s height of Information - World War II

production, Ford Motor Company was producing a B-25 bomber

Propaganda
every hour. By the end of the war the United States was
manufacturing 50% of all manufactured goods globally, and To encourage a voluntary spirit amongst its citizens, the US
made up only 5% of the world’s population. government launched the
Interactive 7.23 Why We
biggest advertising and
Fight
public relations campaign in
How would US manufacturing influence people history. Many forms of
around the world? What is different about this media were used to
compared to today? encourage people to
become “citizen soldiers”.
Technology had changed
significantly since the first
The government encouraged and trained people to work towards
world war and so had war Click here for US Government
the war effort. People who were working in other fields of service reels “Why we fight”
propaganda. Radios were
were encouraged to leave their jobs to take jobs that would help
popular in American homes and movies were no longer silent!
in the war effort. The US Office of War Information put together
80% of American households had a radio and families were
the following “newsreel” (video) to encourage people to become
listening to newscasts, messages from the president, broadcasts
better “citizen soldiers.”

228
from the front, and patriotic Interactive 7.24 Disney reminded her of her duties - both Interactive 7.26 How to
music. It was a common Propaganda financially and in homemade Use Rationing Books
occurrence to learn about the war production.
before watching a movie in a
In the Home
theatre during this time in history.
Even in kids’ films, cartoons were During World War II people boosted
created depicting the enemy in production not only in the workplace
caricature. (Imagine sitting in a but at home as well. People conserved
movie theatre and watching the whenever possible and participated in
Even in kids’ films, cartoons were After viewing the video, create a
news instead of promotional created depicting the enemy in
mandatory rationing programs. When pamphlet to explain how rationing
caricature. books were used and why they
movie trailers before your show!) products were rationed, people were were important.
Newspapers, of course, still
Interactive 7.25 World War only allowed to buy a fixed amount of
remained popular and were an II Propaganda Posters particular products. The government controlled the purchasing
important means of getting of certain products like gasoline, food items and clothing. The
information out to the masses. military needed the gasoline to keep the ships, planes and tanks
The media acted as an outlet to moving and certain food items were packaged as MREs (Meals
escape the worries of war and Ready to Eat) for the soldiers on the front. Manufactured fabric
demonize the enemy. was needed for military uniforms, not the latest ball gown or other

Posters were incredibly popular. trendy item. There was a nylon shortage for civilians as well, so

They encouraged production, See some of the WW2 women went without nylon hosiery, drawing seams on their legs
Propaganda Posters. with dark pencils to keep up appearances. Americans also took it
investment, and civilian
responsibility. Inside factories, upon themselves to host collection drives to acquire used items

posters reminded workers that every error or tardy was helping like cans, scrap metal, and rubber which were then recycled into

the enemy. For the young woman, posters reminded her of the different types of munitions for the war.

sacrifice being made for her safety. For the homemaker, posters People were also encouraged to grow their own “Victory
Gardens” instead of buying their produce from the market. By
229
1945 there were roughly 20 million making sure that the people were safely hiding and covering up
gardens that produced 40% of the any light that might help an enemy aircraft target civilian
vegetables consumed in America. populations.

Blackout Drills Buying War Bonds Interactive 7.28 Buying

War Bonds
The Office of Civilian Defense helped War is an expensive endeavor for
people at the state and local levels a country to undertake and World
establish emergency protocol in the War II was no exception. The
event of an invasion on US soil. United States spent roughly $300
People all over the country, billion on World War II, which is
especially on the coastal regions, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
roughly $4 trillion in today’s
were required to “blackout” any light commons/7/72/Victory-garden.jpg money. Another way for civilians
Learn more about war bonds here!
that might be seen by the enemy at to contribute to the war effort was
night. This included covering windows with paint, wood or heavy to buy War Bonds. A War bond
draperies as well as turning off street lights at night and not allowed people to invest financially in the war while investing in
permitting cars to drive at night their own futures.
Interactive 7.27 What to
during a blackout drill. These do during a gas attack
drills, also called air raid drills,
were scheduled and supervised
by a local air raid warden. (By
1943 there were about 6 million
volunteers in roles like that of an
air raid warden.) During a drill,
one would first hear the warning
siren (see below) and an air raid Click here for a US Government
reel entitled “What to do in a gas
warden would patrol the streets attack” (national archives)

230
POW Camps in America Most camps were minimum security camps and the prisoners at
many of these camps even developed relationships with the
When we think of Prisoner of War (POW) Camps we often think of
locals in the area. It has even been reported that some of the
American soldiers overseas, but the US also had POW Camps for
prisoners wanted to stay in the US after the war was over;
the captured enemy and most of these camps were located on
however, rules established at the Geneva Convention required all
American soil, near civilians. Approximately 425,000 prisoners
foreign POWs to be returned to their own country.
were housed in the United States, most of which were in the
South. However, there were about 6,000 POWs in Michigan
camps.

Most of these prisoners were captured out of North Africa and

were part of “Rommel’s Army” before they came to America as
prisoners of war. These camps gave the prisoners food, clothing
and a place to sleep. And according to the Geneva Conventions
guidelines prisoners were not allowed to be forced into labor, so
many men were hired to do tasks that were in demand, like
farming and forestry work. They were paid a small sum of money
and worked alongside civilian laborers.

“I kind of questioned going up and guarding these guys. I wasn’t

Some prisoners took to studying, while others had agricultural jobs - photo, National Archives
too happy about that. But after I was there for a while, I kind of
enjoyed it. I didn’t hold anything against them. I mean they were
doing their job, we were doing ours. War is kind of a senseless
thing. You’re both in it.” - Gilbert Hart, US Army, guard who was
stationed in AuTrain, Michigan

231
Entertainment two pieces of metal together.) Rosie wasn’t really about one
woman but represented a group of millions.
During the war, entertainment changed for people as well.
Baseball was known as “America’s Pastime” and was full of able Contributions of Minorities in the Armed Services
bodied men that wanted to fight for their country. During the war,
Many minority groups faced new dilemmas once the U.S. entered
95% of professional baseball players enlisted in the armed
the war. Restricted to racially segregated sections of society
services and while they were serving, a women’s league was
such as neighborhoods, schools, and places of work and
formed. Famous actors like Clark Gable and Jimmy Stewart also
business, African Americans, Native Americans, Mexican
joined the war effort and joined the military. Hollywood was still
Americans, and Asian Americans similarly questioned whether
producing films, but footage updating people on the war was
this was their war to fight. Still, many minorities set aside those
almost always shown first.
sentiments because they ultimately believed that their situation
A Changing Role for Women would be much worse under the control of Axis powers if the
victors of the war were Germany, Italy, and Japan.
Women were vital to the war
effort. Factory orders for war Interactive 7.29 Alice the African American contributions
Riveter
materials continued to grow and
In the beginning of the war, fewer than 4,000 African Americans
the jobs that were only available to
were serving in the military--many had been frequently passed
men prior to the war were now
over for service from all-white draft boards. After receiving
open to women. Over 6 million
pressure from the NAACP, President Roosevelt pledged to enlist
women took on factory jobs
more African Americans into the armed services. By 1945 over
during World War II. Women
1.2 million African American men and women were serving. In the
found employment as electricians,
beginning, these soldiers were assigned to non-combat service
welders and as riveters in defense Click here to learn about Alice, a
Michigan “riveter” from WWII. units like supply, maintenance and transportation. As the war
plants. The most famous face of
Video provided by author Heather raged on, more were assigned to positions like infantryman,
female patriotism during the war Wolf.
pilots, tankers and medics.
was Rosie the Riveter. (A “riveter”
was someone who rivets and a rivet is a metal object that fastens
232
 “The world’s greatest democracy fought the world’s greatest racist
with a segregated army.”

Stephen Ambrose, Citizen Soldier

During the war, the “Double V” campaign was established by

African American leaders. This campaign called for victory
against our enemies overseas and victory against racism at
home. It was this defiant rejection of unjustified racism and the
push for desegregation that planted the important seeds for the
Civil Rights Movement.
Philip Randolph (Biography.com) was a labor leader and social activist. During World War I he tried to
unionize African American shipyard workers and elevator operators. During World War II he was instrumental
in desegregating the US military and ending discrimination in government defense factories.

Thinking Like A Historian:

One of the most influential groups of African Americans during
In a racially divided America, what did the Tuskegee airmen
this time was the Tuskegee Airmen. These pilots began training
prove? In what ways would this event give hope to minority
with the Army’s PT-17 Stearman ii-plane in Tuskegee, Alabama
groups?
as an Army AIr Corps “experiment” to see if African AMericans
could be trained as combat pilots. These men did not disappoint.
They proved that they had the mental and physical abilities to be
successful leaders and pilots….and radio operators, technicians, Native American Contributions
supply personnel, medical personnel, meteorologists and much
Similar to African Americans, Native Americans answered the call
more. There were 996 pilots and over 150,000 ground personnel
for war service with some 25,000 enlistments, 800 of which were
that made up the Tuskegee group. These groundbreaking
women. For many, this was their first opportunity to meet non-
soldiers paved the way for other African Americans to experience
Indians as they left their reservations for the first time. In 1941,
opportunities that had once been closed. In 1948, President
the Marine Corps began actively recruiting Native Americans,
Truman officially integrated the armed forces.

233
 specifically Navajo code talkers. Based on the recollection of Often lying about their age in order to be recruited (some were as
some WWI soldiers who experienced firsthand, the effectiveness young as 15), the Navajo code talkers endured intense training
of secretly transmitted battle messages by American Indians of under physical harsh conditions to simulate battlefield training.
the Choctaw tribe and combined with demonstrations by the The American Indian tradition of handing down stories, songs
Navajo, over 400 Navajo Indians were recruited and trained as and prayers through memory served these soldiers well when
code talkers. having to memorize, interpret and pass on accurate messages
without writing anything down. Required to memorize up to 17
pages of codes at times as part of their training, the intelligence,
dedication, and bravery of the Navajo code talkers paid off
significantly. Throughout the Pacific campaign the Navajo code
talkers were considered indispensible to the war effort. Other
Native American tribes also contributed greatly to the war effort.
The Comanches fought against German forces in Europe; the
Meskwakis fought against German forces in N. Africa.

Contributions of Latinos to the war effort

It is estimated that over 500,000 Latinos (including 350,000

Mexican Americans and 53,000 Puerto Ricans) served in WWII.
Exact numbers are difficult to obtain because Latinos were not
segregated in the war effort in the way that African Americans
originally had been. Latinos served in various regiments
throughout Europe as well as in the Pacific Theater, North Africa,
the Aleutian Islands, and in the Mediterranean. Of particular note,
http://navajominist.powweb.com/WordPressSite/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/CodeTalkers-1024x786.jpg
was the service of the 158th Regimental Combat Team
(comprised of a large percentage of Latinos) who fought in New
Guinea and the Philippines. General MacArthur was so

234
impressed he referred to them as, “the greatest fighting combat Japanese Internment Camps
team ever deployed in battle.” In the European Theater, Latino
Historically, there had been tension between Asian immigrants
soldiers from Texas as part of the 36th Infantry team were some
and Americans starting the 19th century. At the turn of the last
of the first to land on Italian soil at Cassino. And the 88th Infantry
century laws were passed making it difficult for Asians to migrate,
Division (comprised of a large percentage of Latino soldiers) was
become citizens and to own land. After the bombing of Pearl
ranked in the top 10 for combat effectiveness.
Harbor in 1941, the tension between mainstream America and
Asian Americans also contribute citizens of Japanese descent skyrocketed, especially on the west
coast. Many Americans were concerned that Japan was going to
Similar to the contributions of African Americans, Native
attack the US via the west coast and that Japanese Americans
Americans, and Mexican Americans, contributions by Asian
were loyal to Japan and would be willing to aid them in their
Americans were also impressive and significant. The 100th
quest. In 1942, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066
Infantry Battalion and the 442nd Regimental Combat Team were
which gave military leaders the authority to create areas where
segregated Army units who fought in both Germany and Italy.
certain groups could be contained and excluded from daily
Known as the most decorated unit in US military history for their
American life. The War Relocation Authority was created to see
size and length of service, these teams were among some of the
this order out and over 110,000 people of Japanese descent were
best infantrymen in the U.S. Army. Also of noteworthy
removed from their homes and relocated to internment camps.
importance were contributions of Japanese Americans who
Half of these people were children and two-thirds were American
served in the Pacific Theater against Japan. Their knowledge of
citizens. None of these citizens had ever shown disloyalty to
Japanese language and culture were put to use in the Military
America. Internment camps were sprinkled throughout the
Intelligence Service, earning praise from General Douglas
western interior of the US in areas of Arizona, California, Utah,
MacArthur when he claimed that never, in the history of U.S.
Idaho, Colorado, and Wyoming.
combat, has one side known so much about an enemy prior to
actual combat. Their “eyes and ears of the Allies” proved critical In most cases, families were given a week to evacuate their
in many U.S. and Allied Forces victories in the Pacific Theater. homes, close up businesses and say goodbye to friends and
neighbors. In other cases they had only 48 hours. Internees
could only take with them what they could carry and before

235
leaving many tried to sell off their Interactive 7.30 A
goods, only to be swindled by Japanese Interment Story
people who offered far less than
market value of their possessions.
While in these internment camps,
families were housed in small
barracks and had community areas
for bathing, laundry, and eating.
Internment camps were guarded Local San Diego born and raised,
by US military personnel. There Japanese Internment survivor
Ruth Voorhies tells her experience
was inadequate medical care, during World War 2 when her
increasing emotional stress and family was placed in the Poston
Arizona Japanese Internment
coping with extreme temperatures camp. The experience was a
tragic event that never should Was the conduct of the United States during WWII
for those placed in desert areas.
have happened and was a
violation of American rights. consistent with its values?

During the war only ten people were convicted of spying for
Japan. All of the ten were white. The camps were eventually
closed down in January of 1945 and allowed internees to return
to their homes. Some of them did but others were unforgiving of
the US government and returned to Japan. Some people saw
these internment camps as a necessary evil after Pearl Harbor,
but many others looked as these internment camps like
concentration camps and a violation of Habeas Corpus (unlawful
imprisonment). What do you think? Was this a necessary evil or a
violation of human rights?

236
 Section 5

Turning Points Favor the Allies

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Despite the early Axis military victories and territorial advancements that occurred
1. What were the causes of World War II? in the early war period, several critical developments turned the tide of victory
2. How did the civic values of the Axis powers differ from the away from the Axis Powers and in favor of the Allied forces throughout 1942 and
core democratic values of the United States? 1943.
3. Would the alliance of Axis powers have happened if the U.S.
had not adopted a policy of Isolationism? Technology Gives Allies the Upper Hand in the Battle of the Atlantic

4. How did American civic values contribute to the role the U.S. In the North Atlantic,
home front played during WWII?
technological
5. Could steps have been taken by the Allies that would have
advancements helped to
prevented or greatly reduced the impact of the Holocaust?
counter the German U-
6. What were the major turning points of the war in each theater
of war?
Boat threat to Allied
supply lines. Radar,
7. How did the role of technology affect the outcome of World
War II? which had been used so
effectively to intercept
8. How did World War II change the foreign policy of the United
States? German planes over
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE Great Britain in 1940,
Battle of Stalingrad was now used in planes
George C. Marshall to detect German U-
Dwight Eisenhower
Boats on the surface of
Casablanca Conference
the Atlantic. For U-
Doolittle Raid
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sinking_of_U-175.JPG
Chester Nimitz Boats patrolling below
Battle of the Coral Sea
Battle of Midway 237
Island-Hopping
the icy waters of the North Atlantic, naval destroyers equipped industrial city of Stalingrad. The decision would prove to be
with sonar proved to be devastating to the German wolf packs. disastrous for Germany, as another Russian winter and the
While the Battle of the Atlantic would continue until the end of persistence of the Soviets would once again slow down German
the war, the Allies used the combination of technology and troops. After a bitter 199-day battle involving the complete
industrial might to gain a significant advantage by the end of devastation of Stalingrad and intense block-to-block fighting
1943. By that time, the Allies were building more ships than the amidst its ruins, the German army was forced to surrender
Germans could sink and were destroying more U-Boats than the 108,000 troops to the Soviets. Only 5,000 of those troops would
Germans could build. see the end of the war. At a cost of 2 million casualties on both
sides, the Battle for Stalingrad was the first significant loss for the
German army and would be the beginning of the Soviet drive on
the Eastern Front to push the Germans all the way back to Berlin.
Hitler’s decision to invade the Soviet Union ultimately led to his
downfall.

Allied Tanks Push Germany Out of North Africa

Allied forces also made significant gains in North Africa. While

German and Soviet armies were locked up over Stalingrad,
Roosevelt and Churchill made the decision to invade North Africa,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_44732_Soviet_soldiers_attack_house.jpg
in preparation for an invasion of Southern Europe. The decision
German Army Defeated at Stalingrad Arguably the greatest was not an easy one, revealing divisions among the Allies. Stalin,
turning point of the entire war occurred at the Battle of whose army and civilians were being decimated by the full force

Stalingrad in the fall of 1942. After a particularly nasty Russian of the Nazi war machine, sought an immediate second front in
Western Europe to reduce the pressure on the Eastern Front.
winter and ferocious Soviet resistance had prevented Hitler’s
Army chief of staff George C. Marshall had proposed opening a
armies from capturing the Russian cities of Moscow and
two-front war for Germany by invading France by spring of 1943,
Leningrad in late 1941, Hitler had turned his armies towards
but Churchill and Roosevelt feared more troops were needed to
southern Russia in the hopes of capturing oilfields and the

238
guarantee Allied success. If they were going to invade northern
France, they needed to do so with overwhelming force. A build-
up of American and Allied troops in Britain would take time.
Instead, Britain advocated attacking the “soft underbelly” of
Europe while the buildup continued. Roosevelt agreed.

Throughout late October and early November of 1942, British

General Bernard Montgomery kicked the Germans out of Egypt
after a victory at El Alamein and began pushing Rommel’s Afrika
Korps westward across North
Africa’s vast deserts. Interactive 7.31 North
Meanwhile, Operation Torch, African Front in Photos
headed by General Dwight
Eisenhower, landed American
and Allied tanks and troops at Roosevelt and Churchill meet at Casablanca, 1943

points in Morocco and Algeria,

while the Russians were desperately defending Stalingrad. To
which then fought east across
Stalin’s dismay, Churchill convinced Roosevelt to postpone the
North Africa, eventually meeting
opening of a western front until 1944, while announcing that only
up with Montgomery’s British
To see the North Africa front in the unconditional surrender of the Axis Powers would bring an
forces in Tunisia. There, photos, click here
end to the war. The Allies also agreed that they would begin
Rommel’s forces surrendered to
bombing German cities from the air.
the Allies in May of 1943.
Allies Invade Southern Europe Following the German defeat in
Casablanca Conference
North Africa, Allied forces began their invasion of Italy to knock

During the North African campaign, President Roosevelt met with the Italians out of the war and to encourage Germany to shift

Churchill in the city of Casablanca to begin hammering out the troops from France to southern Europe. Despite initial successes

next step towards peace. Stalin had been invited, but declined in Sicily, which fell after 38 days, the Allied attempt to advance up

239
the Italian peninsula stalled south of Rome and bogged down
significantly. The intended consequence of knocking Italy
out of the war somewhat succeeded when Mussolini’s
government collapsed and he attempted to flee to Germany.
Italy’s replacement government then joined the Allied side,
only to see German troops pour into Italy and effectively halt
American advance south of Rome throughout the rest of
1943 and into 1944. Rome finally fell on June 4, 1944, two
days before Allied forces opened up a western front in
Europe by invading the beaches of France, . Unfortunately,
some historians argue that the invasion of Italy postponed
the opening of a western front by as much as a year, a delay
which Stalin and the Soviets would bitterly remember at the
peace table at the war’s end.

Pacific Aircraft Carriers Turn the Tide at Midway A B-25 launches from the aircraft carrier USS Hornet in order to participate in the Doolittle Raid over Tokyo.

The Allied gains against Axis powers in 1942 and 1943 were bombers ran out of fuel after dropping their bombs and were
not limited to Southern and Eastern Europe. The Pacific Theatre forced to crash land in China (with one making it to the Soviet
had its fair share of turning points in those years, as well, which Union), the Doolittle Raid was the first successful bombing raid
highlighted the importance of aircraft carriers and airplanes to the over the islands of Japan and served as a significant morale
war’s conduct in the Pacific. On April 18, 1942, 16 bombers boost for the United States. However, it also revealed a critical
under the command of Colonel James Doolittle left the carrier security hole in Japanese defenses around the Pacific, namely
USS Hornet and flew a bombing mission over Tokyo and several around Midway Island. To fix the flaw the Japanese would have
other Japanese cities in retaliation for the bombing of Pearl to destroy the remnants of the US fleet in the Pacific and capture
Harbor. The Hornet had been stationed in the Pacific, north of Midway Island. Since Australia was a major United States ally,
Midway Island, about 650 miles from Japan. While all sixteen the Japanese Navy also sought to cut off the Australians and

240
isolate them by taking over their northern neighbors, the Solomon and the fighting was savage and intense, revealing a glimpse of
Islands and New Guinea. The plan failed when US Pacific Forces what was to come throughout the Pacific campaign--the painfully
led by Admiral Chester Nimitz clashed with the Japanese Navy tragic sacrifices that would be necessary throughout the island-
in the Battle of the Coral Sea in May of 1942, despite the fact hopping campaign to close out the war in victory. By the end of
that no surface ships exchanged any shots. Instead, all of the 1943, the Japanese advance had been halted, as had the Axis
fighting was conducted 200 miles apart from the fleets by carrier- advance across all fronts of the war. After initial setbacks, the
launched planes. The United States successfully turned back the Allies now had experienced a series of turning points that
Japanese assault on New Guinea, then scored a major victory in significantly altered the direction of the war and pointed the Allies
June when US planes from three aircraft carriers near Midway down the road towards victory. That road would be a tough one
Island sank four of Japan’s ten aircraft carriers at the Battle of to travel.
Midway, while the United States lost only one. The battle turned
Report to the President: Course of the War, 1942-43
out to be the turning point in the Pacific campaign, as the
Japanese navy lost its offensive power and was unable to recover You are responsible for advising President Roosevelt on military
the devastating loss of carriers, planes, and pilots. Now, the matters related to the course of the war across all theaters of the
United States launched its program to take the war back to war (Europe and the Atlantic, North Africa, and Asia and the
Japan. Pacific) between 1942 and 1943. Write a briefing for the
President that summarizes the overall direction of the war for the
The Allied Offensive in the Pacific Begins
Allies during this period in each of the theaters, providing specific
The plan for defeating Japan involved a two-fold offensive: campaigns and their results to support your assessment of the
General MacArthur would lead a campaign from Australia time period. Again, consider the geographical problems that each
towards the Philippines. Admiral Nimitz would lead another theater poses for the Allies in your assessment.
campaign from Hawaii to capture strategic islands for air and
military bases in the Central Pacific, a process called “island-
hopping.” The two forces would then meet up for a final offensive
against Japan’s home islands. The American offensive in the
Pacific towards Japan began in August of 1942 at Guadalcanal,

241
 Section 6

The Road to Victory

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY The wave of successes experienced by the Allies on all fronts of the war by the
1. What were the causes of World War II?
end of 1943 reversed the course of the war decisively in favor of the Allies. In the
2. How did the civic values of the Axis powers differ from the core Pacific, the US Navy’s victory at Midway had put the Japanese Empire on the
democratic values of the United States?
defensive and, despite the “Germany First” approach by the Allies, had overcome
3. Would the alliance of Axis powers have happened if the U.S. had not
adopted a policy of Isolationism? a shortage of resources to begin the arduous campaign of island-hopping towards
4. How did American civic values contribute to the role the U.S. home the Japanese
front played during WWII?
mainland. In Europe,
5. Could steps have been taken by the Allies that would have prevented
or greatly reduced the impact of the Holocaust?
the Russians had the

6. What were the major turning points of the war in each theater of
German army
war? retreating on the
7. How did the role of technology affect the outcome of World War II? Eastern Front, while
8. How did World War II change the foreign policy of the United States? the Allies had kicked
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE Germany out of North
D-Day
Africa and were
Battle of the Bulge
Harry S Truman
pushing up the Italian
V-E Day Peninsula. Mussolini’s
Kamikaze government had fallen,
Battle of Okinawa
and a new government
Battle of Iwo Jima
Albert Einstein had sided with the
Manhattan Project Allies and declared war
J. Robert Oppenheimer A German aircraft factory lies burning in the background after being bombed by 100 American
on Germany. German B-17s.
Incendiary bombs
Hiroshima and Nagasaki
V-J Day
242
U-boats had been significantly withdrawn from the North Atlantic
due to tremendous losses at the hands of Allied planes and ships
equipped with radar and sonar, and preparations were being
made to open up a western front in France.

Allies Target German Cities

As part of the preparation for invasion, Churchill and Roosevelt

had agreed at Casablanca to begin the strategic bombing of
German cities from the air, hitting Germany’s ability to make war
through the targeting of factories and transportation lines. By
June of 1943, the two countries had agreed that the United
States would precision bomb industrial and military targets during
the day, and British bombers would area bomb cities by night.
The British had hoped that targeting cities would destroy the
morale of the citizens of Germany.

D-Day: June 6, 1944--U.S. troops arrive on Omaha Beach

Interactive 7.32 DDay
Soldiers Account D-Day Opens Up a Second European Front

Meanwhile, Allied troop buildup in Britain continued until early

June of 1944. On the night of June 5, 1944, British radio stations
began broadcasting coded messages to the French resistance
that the invasion was on. This was their cue to sabotage German
railway and transportation routes in France. Allied planes
dropped tinfoil from the air to confuse German radar stations as
To read a soldier’s account of
landing on Omaha Beach on D-
to where the location of the invasion would actually be. Shortly
Day, click here after midnight, two American airborne divisions landed behind
243
enemy lines to protect the flanks of the troops who would hit the Allied Armies March towards Berlin
beaches just before dawn. On the morning of June 6, 1944, D-
In December, the Germans began one last counteroffensive to
Day, the invasion of France began. Under the direction of
offset Allied gains in Western Europe by capturing the port city of
General Eisenhower, who was promoted to the Supreme Allied
Antwerp, Belgium, thereby effectively splitting Allied lines in two.
Commander in Europe, 156,000 American, British and Canadian
It would be their last offensive in the West. Sensing a weakness
troops landed amidst stiff German resistance across five beaches
in Allied lines, the Germans launched a blitzkrieg attack and
in Normandy, codenamed Sword, Juno, Gold, Omaha, and Utah.
pushed the Allies back towards the Ardennes Forest, creating a
The landings would become the largest amphibious invasion the
60 mile bulge in the center of Allied lines. During the so-named,
world had ever seen, as another 5,000 ships, 11,000 aircraft, and
50,000 vehicles assisted the invasion force. Because the weather month-long “Battle of the Bulge,” U.S. troops resisted a strong

had been poor, the Germans were caught off guard, especially German tank attack despite bitter cold, a lack of winter clothing,

since they were expecting the invasion to occur at the shortest and a serious shortage of supplies and ammunition. With the

point across the English Channel. Following five days of intense arrival of General George Patton’s Third

fighting, Allied troops were able to unite all five beachheads and Army, Allied troops held their lines and
Interactive 7.34 DDay By
begin the advance across forced enough losses on Hitler’s army the Numbers
in the West to eliminate its ability to
northern France. By the end of Interactive 7.33 42 Maps
August, Paris had been liberated; launch further offensives. On the

by the end of September, France Eastern front, the Soviets had also

and Belgium. In October, launched major offensives throughout

American troops captured their the summer of 1944 and, by the end

first German town. Progress, of the year, had made their way

however, was much slower than through Poland, Eastern Europe, and
For an infographic of D-Day: By
originally planned. By winter, the the Balkan Peninsula.
the Numbers, click here
For 42 maps that explain World
Allied offensive ground to a halt. War II, click here
Bad weather, overstretched
supply lines, and strong German defenses hampered Allied efforts
to force a German surrender by the end of 1944.
244
The War in Europe Ends All eyes now turned toward the grueling, savage battles being
fought in the Pacific as the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps
The arrival of April in 1945 saw events unfold dramatically. In the
battled its way toward the Japanese mainland, with the full
United States, the country went into mourning as it was
industrial might of the American home front behind them.
announced that President Roosevelt had died of a stroke on April
12 while sitting for the presidential portrait in Warm Springs, The Soldier’s Life
Georgia. Vice President Harry S Truman inherited the presidency
Few people captured the difficult life of an American soldier quite
just as the Allies were moving toward the final defeat of the Third
like Bill Mauldin. Mauldin served in the 45th Infantry Division of
Reich: While U.S. and British forces raced forward to Berlin from
the U.S. Army, drawing cartoons from the front of “Willie and
the West, the Soviets rolled towards Berlin on the East. On April
Joe”, two American soldiers who came to symbolize the combat
25, the Soviet army reached Berlin. Within the next five days,
experience of American soldiers in Europe.
with the city above him under constant bombardment, Adolf Hitler
would marry his mistress Eva Braun in an underground bunker, Here, he discusses the life of a soldier on the front lines.
write his final “Political Testament” to the German people, and
commit suicide alongside his new wife. Nazi officials took the The life of the World War 2 soldier was often captured in the

bodies outside, doused them with gasoline, and burned them letters they wrote to loved ones during the war.

before the Soviets could recover

them. Mussolini and other Italian Interactive 7.35 WW2 in
Pictures
fascist leaders would be executed
by their fellow countrymen in Italy
during the same span of time.
Finally, on May 8, 1945, the
remaining German armies
surrendered unconditionally, and
the day became known as V-E
Day—Victory in Europe Day. The For more photos on the fall of
Germany, click here
war in Europe had been won.
245
 How the War Impacted High School Life base from which long-range bombing missions to the Japanese
mainland would be conducted, including the atomic bombs
For a glimpse of how the war impacted high schools back home,
dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The victory at Saipan
visit the yearbook of Grand Rapids Union High School here
provided an airbase, but it also revealed the commitment of

Island Hopping Towards Tokyo Japanese soldiers and civilians alike to face death at the hands of
suicide rather than surrender: 30,000 Japanese troops fought to
Shortly after the D-Day invasion in Europe, the US Navy was the bitter end and, as horrified Marines looked on, another
continuing its strategy of island-hopping by attacking the heavily- estimated 1000 Japanese civilians leapt to their deaths off
fortified Mariana Islands. The battles were fierce and bloody, as Saipan’s “suicide cliffs”. Many were entire families consisting
the Japanese demonstrated their willingness to fight to the death men, women and children.
rather than surrender. The battles resulted in the capture of
Tinian, Guam and Saipan, all of which were used for airfields. At Japanese Begin Using Kamikazes in the Philippines
Tinian, US Forces captured the island that would serve as the air
The willingness of the Japanese to sacrifice everything continued
at the Battle of the Leyte Gulf in the Philippines in October of
1945, where the Japanese fleet threw everything it had against
the United States in what became the largest naval battle in
history, as well as the last fleet-versus-fleet engagement in the
Pacific. During the battle, American forces sunk the last four
major Japanese aircraft carriers. During the battle, the Japanese
began employing the use of the kamikaze, a suicide plane
loaded with explosives that would fly into a ship in order to
destroy it. Japanese kamikaze pilots flew over 400 suicide
missions against U.S. ships in the Leyte Gulf, sinking or
damaging close to 100 ships. Despite the attacks, the United
States scored a decisive victory in the encounter, and the
Japanese fleet would not pose a serious threat to the United

246
The USS Bunker Hill is hit by two Japanese kamikaze planes within a short period of time at the Battle of
Okinawa.
States for the duration of the war. Interactive 7.36
Eyewitness Kamikaze
Japanese resistance to U.S. island
Allies Experience High Casualties at Iwo Jima and Okinawa
landings, however, remained fierce.
Meanwhile, in February of 1945, American marines landed on the
After the Battle of the Leyte Gulf,
General MacArthur landed in the small volcanic island of Iwo Jima, which was located about 750

Philippines and began the long miles from Tokyo. US commanders believed the island could be

process of retaking the island chain. captured in four days, but the Japanese on the island had created

It would take another year before tunnels and strongholds deep beneath the black sands and

the city of Manila fell to American underlying rock of the island. Marines had to go tunnel by tunnel
For an eyewitness account of
forces. kamikaze attacks, click here using grenades and flamethrowers to flush out the Japanese
strongholds. The island finally fell at the end of March. In the
end, one in every three U.S. marines fighting on the island were
either killed (5,885) or wounded (23,573), making it the costliest
single battle in Marine Corps history. Over 23,000 Japanese
fought to the death or committed suicide by the time the battle
was over a month after the initial invasion. Less than 220
Japanese surrendered.

The fierce Japanese resistance intensified on the island of

Okinawa less than a week after the fall of Iwo Jima. Located less
than 350 miles from the Japanese islands, the strategic location
of Okinawa made it an ideal base for the Allied invasion of Japan.
In the largest amphibious assault in the Pacific, over 180,000
U.S. Army soldiers and Marines battled a well-entrenched
Japanese army for a span of two and a half months. The intense
combat and heavy losses on the American side were further
compounded by week after week of kamikaze attacks on
U.S. Marines destroy a cave during the Battle of Okinawa, which began on April 1, 1945

247
American support ships off the coast. Caught in the middle were
the citizens of Okinawa, many of whom were forced to assist the
Japanese in the fighting. Often, American troops faced the
terrible challenge of being unable to distinguish soldier from
civilian as fighting raged across the island’s maze of caves. By
the time the island was secured in June, the United States had
experienced another 50,000 casualties, including the deaths of
12, 500 sailors and soldiers. [Box of battle casualties in the
Pacific] Over 110,000 Japanese were killed, in addition to
another 100,000 civilians, many of whom committed suicide. The
tenacious Japanese defense at the Battle of Okinawa, combined
with the tremendous loss of troops, materials, ships, and tanks by
American and Allied forces
assisting in the invasion, Interactive 7.37 WW2 in
convinced many high ranking Pictures Workers prepare for the first test of an atomic bomb, codenamed Trinity, which was successfully denoted
on July 16, 1945.
commanders that a full-scale
invasion of the Japanese
homeland would yield an
extremely high number of
casualties on all sides. For
Development of the Atomic Bomb
this reason, many began to
embrace an alternative that For more photos of fighting in the
The roots of America’s development of the atomic bomb began
would bring a quick end to the Pacific, click here with a letter from a Jewish refugee who left Hitler’s Germany in
war by forcing a Japanese 1933 for the United States. Albert Einstein, a prominent
surrender. That alternative was the atomic bomb. physicist, wrote a letter to President Roosevelt informing him that
scientists in Europe and America had recently come to believe

248
that nuclear chain reactions could be set up inside uranium to Over the next several years, the United States worked in
unleash “vast amounts of power.” Furthermore, he warned, partnership with Great Britain to begin to research and develop
“extremely powerful bombs of this type” had the potential “if atomic weapons in a top secret program known as the
carried by boat and exploded in a port” to “very well destroy the Manhattan Project. Led by J. Robert Oppenheimer, the $2
whole port together with some of the surrounding territory.” billion program would ultimately produce three working atomic
German scientists, noted Einstein, were already working to bombs by July of 1945 and usher the world into the atomic age.
develop such a weapon, and he believed that it would be in the Scientists, many of whom were refugees from Europe, worked in
best interests of the United States to lend its weight to atomic a variety of sites spread out across the United States, places as
weapon research and development. diverse as laboratories underneath the football stadium of the
University of Chicago, in the deserts of Los Alamos, New Mexico,
Interactive 7.39
Einstein Letter

To see Einstein’s letter to

Roosevelt, click here

Interactive 7.38 Atomic

Heritage

For an extensive timeline on the

research and development of
atomic weapons technologies,
click here
The first 16/1000 of a second of the Trinity Test produced a mushroom cloud that was already 660 feet high when this picture was249
taken. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Trinity_Test_Fireball_16ms.jpg/640px-
Trinity_Test_Fireball_16ms.jpg
nestled within the ridges and valleys of Oak Ridge, Tennessee, instead to use precision-bombing to destroy specific military and
and along the river and streams of Hanford, Washington. industrial targets. However, due to the weather of northern
Components for the bomb ultimately made their way to Los Europe, this was not always possible, and civilians often perished
Alamos, where they were assembled for the first test, code- at the hands of errant bombs. However, by 1945, the British had
named Trinity. On July 16, 1945, the first atomic explosion encouraged Americans to begin carpet-bombing cities. In
illuminated the Alamogordo Bombing Range with a brilliant flash, February of 1945, British and American commanders made the
followed by the full impact of the blast. President Truman, who controversial decision to target the German cultural center of
was meeting with Stalin and Churchill in the Berlin suburb of Dresden as part of their bombing campaign to devastate German
Potsdam, was immediately notified of the results. Stalin, who had
spies at Los Alamos, had already been informed of the bomb’s
existence when Truman passed on the information “of a new
weapon of unusual destructive force” to him a week later.
According to Truman, Stalin showed relatively little interest in the
development, replying that he hoped the Americans would make
“good use of it against the Japanese.”

Debate Over the Morality of Bombing Civilians

The decision to use the bomb against Japanese cities raised the
question of the morality of bombing cities not just for their military
targets, but with the intent purpose of destroying civilian morale.
In the minds of the British, civilians were producing the weapons
and materials being used against troops on the battlefield.
Therefore, cities were reasonable targets for area bombing, or
bombing with the intended purpose of demoralizing the enemy.
Throughout the early stages of the war, it had been the policy of
the United States Army Air Force not to bomb civilian targets, but
American B-29s firebomb Tokyo on May 26, 1945 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/
Firebombing_of_Tokyo.jpg/968px-Firebombing_of_Tokyo.jpg 250
morale. In the attack, waves of British and American bombers 4. If the Nazi medical experiments produced medical data that
dropped incendiary bombs on the population, causing a would be useful for today's researchers, would it be ethical to use
firestorm that killed anywhere from 25,000 to 100,000 people. that data?
Incendiary bombs are those that use fire and the spread of fire to
5. Should a doctor use his or her medical knowledge to assist the
inflict heavy damage. In March, the United States began the
military or government design physical or mental techniques for
regular fire-bombing of Japanese cities, beginning with Tokyo,
interrogating prisoners of war?
which had a large number of wooden buildings. In two days of
bombing, over 100,000 Japanese perished in the attacks. A 6. Is it heroic to use new weapons technologies that allow people
quarter of the city had disappeared in ashes. More Japanese to kill from a distance, without ever seeing their enemies?
cities suffered the same fate.

Debating the Real World Implications of Science and

Technology
How would you answer these?
The National World War II Museum recently asked some very
challenging questions for people to consider regarding the
application and use of science and technology during wartime:

1. What kinds of technological weapons are morally acceptable

and what kinds are not?

2. Under what circumstances is it morally acceptable to bomb

civilians during a war?

3. Was it the right decision for the U.S. Government to bring Nazi
rocket scientists to the U.S. to help develop the American space
program?

251
The Debate over the Use of Atomic Weapons You are an advisor to President Truman who must brief the
president on whether or not to use atomic weapons.

Review the various arguments here.

Arguments in Favor of Dropping the Atomic Bomb

Arguments Against Dropping the Atomic Bomb

For official documents relating to the dropping of the bomb, click

here

For select portions of International Law, you may wish to consider

these

The atomic bomb, codenamed Little Boy, lies near the How would you advise the President?
cargo bay of the B-29 the Enola Gay in preparation for
its use against Hiroshima

252
Truman’s Decision to Use the Bomb keep their emperor, as opposed to unconditional surrender.
Others, however, felt that the intensity of the Japanese spirit in
For Truman, the decision to use atomic weapons was clear. The
defending the islands closest to the mainland had proved that
atomic bomb clearly would be an instrument of war that could
they were willing to fight to the last man, woman and child in
bring an immediate end to the tragedy, as opposed to a full-scale
defense of their homeland. Furthermore, it was the Japanese
invasion of Japan that would cost even more Allied lives would
who had started the war at Pearl Harbor, and the atrocities in
take at least another year to conclude. Others were not so sure.
Nanjing and at Bataan only reinforced their belief that the
Some military leaders argued that the Japanese, who were
Japanese had it coming. Because of concerns of the morality of
already underneath a significant naval blockade that had stopped
bombing civilian populations, some scientists promoted the idea
supplies from
of conducting a
reaching the islands,
demonstration of
were on the verge of
the power of the
surrender, especially
atomic bomb on
in light of the
an uninhabited
regularity in which
area first, which
U.S. air forces were
might then
able to fire-bomb
encourage the
Japanese cities
Japanese to end
unopposed. Using
the war. Truman
such a powerful
decided to go
weapon would not
ahead with the
be necessary,
weapon with the
especially if the
blessings of
United States
Churchill, who
accepted surrender
had been
terms that allowed
replaced by
the Japanese to
Britain’s new
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki#/media/ The mushroom cloud over Nagasaki on August 9, 1945 253
File:Atomic_bomb_1945_mission_map.svg
prime minister (Clement Attlee) Interactive 7.40 Hiroshima damage caused by the blast in comparison to the bomb over
before the conference ended. At Hiroshima, but another 70,000 people perished. Meanwhile, the
Potsdam, the three Allied leaders Soviets declared war on Japan and invaded Manchuria on the
issued an ultimatum to the same day.
Japanese to surrender or “face
complete and utter destruction.”
Japan refused.

One year after the bombing of

Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Hiroshima, writer John Hersey
published the accounts of six
On August 6, the B-29 Enola Gay people who were in Hiroshima
when the atomic bomb was
left from the airbase on Tinian dropped. To read his powerful
Island in the Pacific carrying an account, click here.

atomic bomb known as Little Boy.

The target was Hiroshima, a city that had experienced very little
wartime damage from U.S. bombing missions. Two days before
the bombings, American planes dropped hundreds of thousands
of leaflets in Hiroshima, warning citizens to evacuate immediately.
At 8:16 am local time, a brilliant flash appeared 1,850 feet above
Hiroshima. Survivors would later call it “pika-don,” literally “flash-
boom”. In that instant, an estimated 80,000 Japanese were
killed, and the death toll would later rise to around 140,000 from
radiation poisoning, burns and other bomb-related injuries.
Despite the devastation, there was no response to U.S. calls for The ruins of Nagasaki

surrender. On August 9, three days after the attack on Hiroshima,

a second atomic bomb was dropped on the city of Nagasaki.
The rolling hills and topography of the city limited the extent of

254
V-J Day 1. What is the subject of the infographic?

Finally, August 14, 1945, became known as V-J Day (Victory over 2. Who created it and why?
Japan Day), as Emperor Hirohito announced the Japanese
3. What are the strengths of the infographic?
surrender. On September 2, aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo
Bay, the formal surrender was presided over by General Douglas 4. What are its weaknesses?
MacArthur. While the global fight against fascism was finally over,
5. What are the sources for the infographic? Do they seem
the bloodiest war the world had ever known would soon launch
reliable?
another, this time between the totalitarian state of the Soviet
Union and the democracies of the West, using weapons capable 6. Are there any errors in the infographic?
of unimagined destruction harnessed from the power of the atom.
Report to the President: The Road to Victory, 1944-45
Interactive 7.41
Infographic Analyzing Graphics: Not All is You are responsible for advising President Truman on military
What It Appears matters related to the end of World War II across all theaters of
the war (Europe and the Atlantic, North Africa, and Asia and the
Infographics are very popular Pacific) between 1944 and 1945. Write a briefing for the
and quite eye-catching. President that summarizes the winding up of the war for the Allies
However, not all infographics during this period in each of the theaters, providing specific
are created equal. campaigns and their results to support your assessment of the

Infographics are very popular and

time period. In your assessment, consider the role that
Study the infographic here and
quite eye-catching. However, not technology played for the Allies in each of the war’s theaters.
all infographics are created equal. answer the following questions:
Finally, assess how well the United States lived up to its
democratic principles and its war aims as set forth in the Atlantic
Charter.

255
 Section 7

The Holocaust

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY The Holocaust was a systematic, government organized persecution and murder
1. What were the causes of World War II? of 6 million Jews and other targeted groups by Nazi Germany and her
2. How did the civic values of the Axis powers differ collaborators. After the Holocaust was brought out into the open for the world to
from the core democratic values of the United see, the world said, “Never again.” Yet, here we are. Again. Genocides did not
States?
start with the Holocaust and there have been more since… Armenia, Bosnia,
3. Would the alliance of Axis powers have happened if Rwanda, Cambodia and as recently as 2016 between IS and their targeted groups
the U.S. had not adopted a policy of Isolationism?
in Syria. So, the question to be asked, as global citizens is, “How do genocides
4. How did American civic values contribute to the role
start--specifically the Holocaust?”
the U.S. home front played during WWII?

5. Could steps have been taken by the Allies that would The Holocaust was not an idea that materialized instantaneously. The
have prevented or greatly reduced the impact of the
stereotypes that were accepted and mainstreamed into the culture at the time
Holocaust?
assisted with the normalization of this behavior. It began with the elimination of
6. What were the major turning points of the war in
each theater of war? individual rights of select groups--mainly because certain groups were feared due
to differences in religious and political beliefs. By the end of World War II, negative
7. How did the role of technology affect the outcome of
World War II? stereotypes that had turned into fear and hatred by those in power led to the

8. How did World War II change the foreign policy of

extermination of over 6 million men, women and children in Europe.
the United States?
The largest group targeted in Europe were those of the Jewish faith. Others that
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
were targeted were homosexuals, gypsies, people with physical and mental
Holocaust
Genocide disabilities and other political and religious dissidents. Jews had been made to be
Scapegoat scapegoats many times in history, dating back hundreds of years.
Stereotype
Anti-semitism
reparations
256
Nuremberg Laws
 German citizens responded positively to his promises. By 1933,
Hitler had manipulated the democratic process through bully-like
Over the last several centuries, Interactive 7.42 Holocaust
Timeline tactics to become chancellor. Within a year his chancellorship
anti-semitism has occurred in
become an absolute dictatorship and he had complete control
the form of political, economic,
over all aspects of the German government.
social, religious and racial
prejudices. All of these forms of Timeline of Loss of Liberties
anti-semitic hatred played a key
Between 1933-1936 over 1400 anti-Jewish laws were passed in
role in creating the Holocaust,
Germany. Using the information on the timeline below, organize
particularly in the form of racism.
the events into the following categories: Economic, Social,
Without the practice of anti- Learn more in this gallery.
Political or Religious. Once you have done this, choose the
semitic behaviors, many
three events that would have had the most impact on your life
historians argue the Holocaust would not have happened.
and describe why.
After World War I ended (1918) and the Treaty of Versailles was in
3/22/33 The first concentration camps, Dachau, is established.
place, Germany found itself saddled with the blame for the war as
By 1945 the Nazis will have built over 1000 camps.
war reparations to the Allies were being paid. Germany’s
territories were smaller and its military was nothing more than a 4/1/33 German government creates an official boycott and
glorified police force. The democratic Weimar government Jewish lawyers, doctors and merchants
struggled with unemployment, and inflation was so bad that the
currency in Germany was worthless. Additionally, a huge national 4/4/33 Jews are required to wear a yellow Star of David to display

debt loomed over Germany’s government and a depressed their identification in public

population was growing restless. 4/7/33 Jews are banned from practicing law and from civil service

In 1921, Adolf Hitler was in charge of the Nationalist Socialist jobs. Jewish government workers are forced to retire.

People’s Party. Hitler promised full employment and to make

Germany great once again. He spoke of a superior race and was
outspoken at blaming the Jews for Germany’s then current state.
257
4/11/33 Racially biased employment and economic sanctions are 4/30/35 Jews were no longer allowed to display the German flag
instituted
5/31/35 Jews were banned from the armed forces
4/25/33 Jewish students are not allowed to attend German public
9/15/35 The Nuremberg Laws are established. All remaining
schools
rights are taken away. Jews are no longer considered citizens.
4/27/33 The German government prohibits the kosher (ritual) Jews and non-Jews are not allowed to marry. The black
slaughter of animals for meat. swastika in a white circle on a red background became the official
flag of Germany.
5/10/33 Books that were seen as “un-German” were burned.
Over 20,000 books were destroyed including books by John 1935-1936 Jews were banned from parks, restaurants, and
DosPassos, Thomas Mann, Karl Marx, Ernest Hemingway, HG swimming pools. Jews were forbidden to use the German
Wells, Helen Keller, Erich Maria Remarque and others. greeting “Heil Hitler.” Jews were no longer allowed to use
electrical equipment, bikes, typewriters or records. Passports to
6/28/33 Hitler begins to regulate the German press and
travel abroad for Jews was restricted. Many Jewish students
publishing
were removed from German universities.
7/14/33 German citizenship rights were stripped away from
Eastern European Jews living in Germany. The Law for the
Prevention of Offspring with Hereditary Diseases is enacted and Of these bans, which three would be the most impactful on
provides sterilization of “unfit” parents and potential parents as YOUR life? Why?
well as euthanasia of handicapped people who were seen by the
government as defective. Which three do you think were the most important towards
Hitler’s Final Solution?
9/22/33 Jews are banned from cultural activities like journalism,
music, broadcasting and theatre Click on each event and label it as political, social, economic
or religious.
9/29/33 Jews were forbidden to farm

258
The Final Solution and Events of the Holocaust Major events of the Holocaust:

Hitler and the Nazi party coined the phrase “Final Solution” to Kristallnacht
describe the calculated plan to wipe out the Jewish population,
Translated Kristallnacht means “Crystal Night” but has become
starting in Europe. This plan would lead to the the death of
known as the “Night of Broken Glass” because of the piles of
millions by shooting, gas chamber, and other methods. During
shattered glass from Jewish homes, businesses and synagogues
this horrific period in history two thirds of the Jewish population in
after a night of plundering and destruction. This night of anti-
Europe was killed.
Jewish violence took place on November 9-10, 1938 in Germany,
Austria and occupied Czechoslovakia. Instigated by Nazi Party
officials and Hitler Youth, they were instructed to remove
synagogue archives and deliver them to the government before
vandalizing. They were also ordered to jail as many Jews as local
jails could hold, targeting young, healthy men first.

A private Jewish
home vandalized
during Kristallnacht,
Gate as you enter in to Auschwitz. “Work Shall Set You Free” photo courtesy of Kim Noga Austria, November
10, 1938.(USHMM)

259
 German children, behind to live in ghettos died of disease, starvation or were shot by the
an SS man, watch as SS. Others were eventually deported to killing centers.
religious objects from the
“The Little Boy with
Zeven synagogue are set
His Hands in the Air”
on fire during
- Tsvi Nussbaum,
Kristallnacht. Zeven,
age 7, 1943,
Germany, November 10,
Warsaw, Poland
1938. (Leo Baeck
Institute, USHMM)

Local residents watch

the burning of the
ceremonial hall at the
Jewish cemetery in Graz
Pedestrians in the
during Kristallnacht,
Warsaw Ghetto walk
Graz, Austria,
past corpses lying
November 9-10, 1938
on the street.
(USHMM)
(Holocaust
Research Project)

Ghettos

Ghettos were set up in cities to segregate Jews from the rest of

the population. THese were often enclosed and guarded. They
were designed to be temporary and some lived there for only
days, while others stayed for years. The majority of people sent
260
Interactive 7.43 Ghettos in A German police officer
Poland
shoots Jewish women
still alive after a mass
execution of Jews from
the Mizocz ghetto
(Holocaust Research
Project)

Video clip of Warsaw Ghetto from

USHMM https://www.ushmm.org/
wlc/en/media_fi.php? Concentration Camps
ModuleId=10005059&MediaId=25
3 A concentration camp is a place where a person or group is
detained or confined.Under Nazi Germany these were unsanitary
SS Troops & Einsatzgruppen and inadequate and controlled by the SS. Sometimes the
prisoners were made to provide forced labor or to wait for mass
The SS (Schutzstaffel) was an instrument of Nazi Terror. This
execution. Nazi Germany established several hundred of these
group was responsible for the Final Solution. Membership was
between 1933-1945. Some camps were near factories or places
selective and based on racial purity. It started as a small group of
where raw materials were extracted and the prisoners were used
bodyguards for Hitler and grew into a group that controlled all
as forced labor. Prisoners were used ruthlessly and without regard
other policing agencies.
to safety at forced labor camps, resulting in high mortality rates.
The Einsatzgruppen were mobile killing squads that specialized in Gas chambers were used as the SS began to use the camps to
the mass murder of Jews. They would round up the Jewish kill their targeted groups.
populations (in many cases, entire families) in a particular place,
In Poland a concentration camp complex was developed called
take them to a secluded areas, force them to give up valuables
Auschwitz. Created by the Nazi leaders, Auschwitz became the
and take off all of their clothes. They would then shoot them at
largest camp of its kind. It was equipped with multiple gas
the edges of a ravine or of a mass grave that was often dug by
chambers, a crematorium and places for medical experiments.
the victims first.
261
Zyklon B, the chemical used to kill people in the gas chambers
was first tested and used here. It is estimated that 1.3 million
people were deported to Auschwitz and 1.1 million were
murdered there.

Auschwitz, crematorium

Auschwitz, today

Zyklon B canisters

262
 Interactive 7.44 Animated
Map

Link to animated map from

USHMM
https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/
media_nm.php?MediaId=3372

Medical Experiments

At least 70 research projects were conducted between 1939-1945

Auschwitz, empty barracks
on human subjects. These projects fell into three general
categories: research to improve survival and rescue of military
personnel, testing medical procedures and pharmaceutical drugs,
Memorial at and experiments attempting to confirm Nazi racial ideology.
Auschwitz
Many of these experiments were barbaric and performed on sick
(Auschwitz photos, people as well as healthy. Some had surgeries performed on
courtesy of Kim them. Some were exposed to various diseases like typhus,
Noga) malaria, and tuberculosis. Some were subjected to chemicals.

263
Others were robbed of their sexual organs. Humans had replaced that were purposely infected with bacteria, dirt, and slivers of
animals in research for Nazi Germany. glass. (USHMM)

Resistance Movements

A victim of a Nazi Despite the horrors being inflicted upon them, many Jews
medical experiment resisted Germany and her collaborators. Underground resistance
is immersed in icy movements grew in over 100 ghettos. Concentration camp
water at the Dachau prisoners led uprisings against their captors. And small militant
concentration camp. groups operated against the Nazis in France, Belgium, Ukraine,
SS doctor Sigmund Belarussia, Lithuania and Poland. Resistance included escaping,
Rascher oversees the hiding, cultural activities and acts of spiritual preservation.
experiment. (“Spiritual resistance refers to attempts by individuals to maintain
Germany, 1942. their humanity, personal integrity, dignity, and sense of civilization
(USHMM) in the face of Nazi attempts to dehumanize and degrade them.
Most generally, spiritual resistance may refer to the refusal to
have one's spirit broken in the midst of the most horrible
A war crimes investigation photo of degradation. Cultural and educational activities, maintenance of
the disfigured leg of a survivor from community documentation, and clandestine religious
Ravensbrueck, Polish political prisoner observances are three examples of spiritual resistance.”)
Helena Hegier (Rafalska), who was
subjected to medical experiments in
1942. This photograph was entered as
evidence for the prosecution at the
Medical Trial in Nuremberg. The
disfiguring scars resulted from
incisions made by medical personnel

264
Liberation Nuremberg Trials

In the summer of 1944 as Allied troops started offensives against In October of 1945, 22 Nazi leaders were brought to trial for
Nazi Germany across Europe, concentration camps and mass crimes against peace, war crimes, crimes against humanity and
graves were discovered and camps were liberated to the shock conspiracy to commit these crimes. This was the first
and horror of people around the world. And although liberation international trial of its time. The International Military Tribunal
was not a priority to fighting troops, prisoners were freed, given delivered its verdicts almost a year later. Twelve defendants were
food, and medical care. The liberators also collected evidence to sentenced to death, 3 were imprisoned for life, 4 received 10-20
be used at trials later. years in prison, and 3 were acquitted.
Interactive 7.45 Murrow on
International and American response to the Holocaust
Buchenwald
During World War II the rescue of Jews and other targeted groups
was not a priority for the United States government. It was also
unclear how a large scale rescue mission in Europe could happen
while the war was being fought. During the 1930s, the US State
Department made it difficult for refugees to obtain entry visas into
the United States. The government was influenced by the Great
Click the image above to hear Depression's economic hardships which encouraged some
Edward R. Murrow’s first hand citizens to be swayed by anti semitism, isolation, and xenophobia
account of the liberation of
Buchenwald, death camp. making it easier to discourage immigration into the US. Aside
Edward R. Murrow was an
from the immigration decline of the 1930s, slightly more than half
American journalist.
of refugees were of Jewish descent. In 1941, 45% were Jewish.
But, when the US entered the war in December of that year
immigration into the US was virtually non-existent. As
immigration into the US came to a halt, Nazi Germany began to
systematically murder the Jews and other “undesirables” of
Europe. In 1942 the mainstream American press reported on the
265
Holocaust but it failed to have extensive coverage or prominent Primary Source Analysis:
display in the media. People were more focused on the war itself
Using the Photo Analysis chart from the National Archives
and not the plight of the men, women and children in the grips of
(https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/worksheets/
the Holocaust.
photo_analysis_worksheet.pdf) observe some of the photos from
In 1944 the War Refugee Board was established by President this period in history. You can find many sources online, but one
Roosevelt for the “immediate rescue and relief of the Jews and of the most comprehensive is from the United States Holocaust
other victims of enemy persecution.” The War Refugee Board Memorial Museum (www.ushmm.org.)
was an independent government agency. John Pehle was the
Documenting the number of lives lost during the Holocaust is
first director of this agency and has said that the agency was
challenging because there is no one document with these
established “too little, too late” and is only credited with saving
numbers. It is estimated that around 11 million people were
200,000 lives during the Holocaust. The War Refugee Board was
killed, including the 6 million Jews.
dissolved under President
Truman in 1945. Interactive 7.46
Confronting the Holocaust

What can we learn today from

American action and inaction in
the face of the refugee crisis in
spring 1939 and the deportation
of Hungarian Jews five years
later?

266
 Section 8

Post War

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY On May 7, 1945 it was announced that Germany had unconditionally surrendered
1. What were the causes of World War II? to the Allies.
Interactive 7.47 Germany
2. How did the civic values of the Axis powers differ Surrender’s NewsReel
from the core democratic values of the United
States?

3. Would the alliance of Axis powers have happened if

the U.S. had not adopted a policy of Isolationism?

4. How did American civic values contribute to the role

the U.S. home front played during WWII?

5. Could steps have been taken by the Allies that would

have prevented or greatly reduced the impact of the
Holocaust? Use this video to answer the
questions below.
6. What were the major turning points of the war in
each theater of war? After watching this video, answer the following questions:
7. How did the role of technology affect the outcome of
World War II? 1. What does the newscaster explain to calm the public’s fears?

8. How did World War II change the foreign policy of

2. What was Eisenhower's role?
the United States?

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

“The Big Three”
Refugee
Displaced person

267
What was to become of Germany? On June 5, 1945 the Berlin Declaration split Germany into four
occupation zones. Eventually, the democratic nations of France,
In February of 1945, the “Big Three” (leaders of the United Great Britain and the United States were at odds with communist
Kingdom-Churchill, United States-Roosevelt and the Soviet Soviet Union. There were disagreements over the type of
Union-Stalin) met in Yalta to demand Germany’s unconditional governments in the occupied territories and how to best
surrender and create plans for a post war world. During the Yalta encourage economic growth in Germany. Eventually these
Conference Stalin agreed to allow free elections in Eastern arguments lead to the establishment of two German nations.
European nations (which he later retracted, thus contributing to
the increased tensions between several of the Allied countries
and Russia during the Cold War) and to help fight the Japanese in
the Pacific in return for lands lost during the Russo-Japanese war
(1904-1905). The group also decided to divide Germany into 4
sections with each section being supervised by a leader of the
largest countries of the Allied Powers--Great Britain, Russia,
France, and the U.S.

At the time Germany had surrendered, the country was in a

humanitarian and economic crisis. Plagued with a rapidly sinking
economy, a lack of public services, and widespread hunger and
homelessness, the Allied Forces knew that the restoration of
order and establishment of new economic and public services
would be critical. The Allies took steps to remove the elements of
Nazism from all aspects of life and collaboratively worked to Berlin, 1945, American Sector (photo, Walter Elkins http://
persecute the men responsible for the horrors of Hitler’s Third www.unmultimedia.org/avlibrary/asset/C106/C1065/)
Reich.

268
 promoting the idea of creating a Jewish homeland in
Palestine.

Read page of one the document below written in 1950.

Answer the following:

1. How many people were displaced? Where have most

displaced persons resettled?

2. Create a chart comparing the differences and similarities

of the post World War II refugee crisis to the current
Syrian refugee crisis. Some independent research may
be needed.
Tokyo, 1945.

Refugee Crisis in Europe Interactive 7.48 The

Refugee Problem of
After Germany’s surrender the Allies sent (repatriate) over 6 Germany
million displaced persons back to their home countries. As
people were liberated by the Allies many were housed in
displaced person camps and centers until arrangements could be
made to get them home. Despite the large numbers of refugees
making their way back to their homelands some 1.5-2 million
would not or could not return home. Destruction of homes and
entire communities made it impossible for some to return home
Read page of one this above
and in other places pogroms were initiated to keep Jews from document written in 1950.
Answer the following:
resettling in Eastern Europe. Because of this many Jewish
refugees moved from Poland to the Western European countries.
There were also committees established at this time that were
269
The Creation of the United Interactive 7.49 The UN
Charter Preamble
Nations

In 1945 fifty countries met in San

Francisco, California to drew up
the United Nations (UN) charter
which was ratified on October
24, 1945. The United Nations
also created the Universal Click on the image to hear actor
Declaration of Human Rights Laurence Olivier read the
preamble of the UN Charter.
(UDHR). Today, the UN has goals
of maintaining international peace
and security, promoting sustainable development, protecting
human rights, upholding international law and delivering
humanitarian aid.

United Nations www.un.org Eleanor Roosevelt was a driving force behind human rights. He is pictured here
holding a copy of the UDHR.

US occupation and Demilitarization of Japan

270
George MacArthur led the American military in occupying Japan Celebrating Victory
and supervising the creation of a new Japanese constitution.
As the Axis Powers surrendered countries and peoples around
America’s theory of establishing democracy in all areas of
the world rebuilt, restructured and celebrated. How are
Japanese society in order to create a stable country to head into
celebrations the same and different based on the pictures below?
the future with. The US feared that oppressing Japan would
backfire on the world as the Versailles treaty had backfired on the
world after World War I. The Japanese military was limited to
defensive purposes, women were given the right to vote and
other democratic reforms were established in order for Japan to
reach a full economic recovery. The US occupation of Japan
lasted seven years and as Japan succeeds in the world today and
acts as an ally to the US, it is obvious that this plan was a
success.

Interactive 7.50 The

Demilitarization Of Japan

VE Celebration, Times Square, NYC (Time magazine)

Learn more and answer the
questions on this website.

271
 “The nation could feel proud of itself for the way it acted when the
big news came on Monday, May 7. There was a little cheering, a
little drinking and a few prayers. There was a great sense of relief
and of a dedication to the job ahead. Only in New York was there
a real hullabaloo. There wild street celebrations were whitened by
snowstorms of paper cascading from buildings in Times Square,
Wall Street and Rockefeller Center. Ships on the rivers let go with
their sirens. Workers in the garment center threw bales of rayons,
silks and woolens into the streets to drape passing cars with
bright-colored cloth. Then the workers swarmed out of their
shops, singing and dancing, drinking whisky out of bottles,
wading in their own weird confetti.” (TIME article, http://time.com/
VE Parade, United Kingdom, Photo from the Imperial War Museums (IWM HU 49414)
3839303/v-e-day-celebrations/)

Interactive 7.51 The Costs Based on your knowledge of World

of War
War II, create an editorial or a
political cartoon to describe the
pros and cons of this conflict. Be
sure to include factual information,
images and description.

Review the cost of the war in this

interactive.

VE Parade, Red Square, Moscow (Photo from the Moscow Central Museum of the Great Patriotic War http://
www.poklonnayagora.ru/)
272
Chapter 8

Did America’s search for a “new

normal” strike a balance between
individual (freedoms and)
opportunities and national security
in the postwar years?

1. What factors contributed to the Cold War?

2. What were the causes of the American policy of

containment?
Section 1

Origins of the Cold War

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY As Soviet and U.S.

1. What factors contributed to the Cold War? soldiers worked together
to liberate Germany at the
2. What were the causes of the American
policy of containment?
end of World War II in
Europe, many on both
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
sides hoped for continued
Baruch Plan friendship between the two
Cold War countries. However,
Containment
problems had been
Harry Truman
building between the two
Iron Curtain
nations both before and
Marshall Plan
Molotov Plan during the war. Combined
Potsdam Conference with the incompatibility of
Satellite Nation the economic and political Soldiers from the U.S. and Soviet officers snap a photo during a friendly meeting near the Elbe
River in April of 1945.Image source: https://cdn.theatlantic.com/assets/media/img/photo/2011/10/
Truman Doctrine systems that drove both
world-war-ii-the-fall-of-nazi-germany/w32_45602386/main_900.jpg?1420519043
Yalta Conference countries, significant
foreign policy clashes were imminent.

The United States had supported anti-Communist resistance during the Russian
Revolution in 1917 and refused to recognize the Soviet Union until 1933. The
Soviets had also disagreed bitterly with the United States and Britain about tactics

274
and postwar plans during World War II. Mutual interest and a Postwar Plans
common enemy was all that had held the Allies together and, with
In February of 1945, Roosevelt met with Churchill and Stalin in
Germany defeated, the differences between the United States
the Soviet city of Yalta for the Yalta Conference. The goal was to
and Soviet Union would soon resurface.
work out a plan for a postwar Europe, and the nations agreed on
the division of Germany into American, British, French, and Soviet
occupation zones. Poland proved to be a more difficult issue to
address. The Soviets had occupied the country and supported a
Communist-dominated government. Stalin opposed the return of
the pre-war government, believing that a government
sympathetic to the Soviets would be necessary to their security
needs since Poland had historically served as an invasion route in
to Russia. The United States and Britain pushed for self-
government and free elections
in Eastern Europe, and Stalin
Interactive 8.1 Who Said
agreed to let the Poles hold it?
elections and choose their
own type of government.
Stalin also pressed for
Germany to pay the Soviet
World Leaders at the Yalta Conference. Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/1/19/Yalta_Conference_1945_Churchill,_Stalin,_Roosevelt.jpg
Union $10 billion in war
damages, which Churchill and
Roosevelt rejected. These
Who Said It? Consider the goals
disputes would continue to of the three superpowers that met
strain American-Soviet at Yalta and match the quote to
the leader.
relations.

275
One area in which the Allies would agree, however, was on the Division of Germany, 1945
creation of a new international peacekeeping organization called
Truman’s first meeting with Stalin came outside of Berlin in 1945
the United Nations (UN). The United States had refused to join
at the Potsdam Conference. By this time, the Germans had been
the League of Nations after World War I, and the organization had
defeated and the Allies were finalizing their postwar plans for
largely been a failure. This time, policymakers obtained
Germany. The Allies continued to debate the issues that had
congressional support for the UN. A charter was adopted stating
divided them at Yalta, and Stalin continued to demand that
that members would try to settle their differences peacefully. All
Germany pay reparations. During the conference, Truman
member nations would receive representation in the UN’s General
received word that the United States had successfully tested its
Assembly. Representatives of eleven countries would sit on a
first atomic bomb. He hinted to Stalin that the U.S. had a
Security Council. Permanent
powerful new weapon, which only fueled Stalin’s distrust of the
members of the Security Council
Interactive 8.2 The United Americans. There was also
included the United States, Soviet Nations
distrust on the American side
Union, France, Britain, and China.
since the Soviet Army still
These nations would have veto
occupied much of Eastern
power over proposed policies.
Europe, and Truman was
Roosevelt would never live to see
unsure of Stalin’s intentions.
his dream of the United Nations
Although Stalin had
fulfilled. Just two weeks before the
promised free elections in
UN’s first meeting in April of 1945,
Explore the UN Website: What Eastern Europe, he had not
President Roosevelt died issues are the United Nations
yet kept his promise.
unexpectedly. The Vice President of working on today?
Elections had happened in
the United States, Harry Truman,
Poland, but the Soviets had
now found himself leading the nation.
rigged them to ensure a
http://reichert.bgsu.wikispaces.net/file/view/
communist win. Germany_Map_with_Berlin.jpg/134450597/337x369/
Germany_Map_with_Berlin.jpg

276
Tensions over Poland demonstrated the differing views of the Tensions Among Superpowers
American and Soviet leaders. Americans had fought for
The Postwar World. The Soviets quickly gained control over
democracy and economic opportunity for the nations of Europe
Eastern Europe in areas that had been freed from the Nazis. In
and Asia. Seeing these goals achieved would mean an
many cases, the Soviets silenced anti-communist opposition to
economically strong and politically open world. The United
ensure the rise of communist governments. For example, in
States supported a system of capitalism in which private
Hungary, Soviet troops remained in the country and demanded
individuals and businesses would make most economic
Communist control of the police. The arrest of anti-communist
decisions. The Soviets, on the other hand, regarded capitalism
leaders allowed Communists to win the elections. In East
as an unjust system with great inequalities between the working
Germany, Stalin established national control of all resources and
and upper classes. The Soviets had also lost 20 million people
installed a totalitarian government.
during the war and suffered
significant destruction. They In February 1946, Stalin delivered a speech attacking capitalism.
Interactive 8.3 Comparing
wanted to rebuild the world in Economic Systems He declared that peace was impossible so long as capitalism
a way that would offer security continued to exist. He predicted the ultimate triumph of
and protection. One way to communism over capitalism. A month later, Winston Churchill
accomplish this goal would be responded in a speech calling on Americans to help keep Stalin
to create a buffer zone of from closing the iron curtain of Communist domination. This
friendly communist states to term came to refer to the growing barrier dividing Eastern and
protect them from invasion. Western Europe into two separate regions.
Developing satellite nations,
What are some of the differences
or nations subject to Soviet between capitalism and The Iron Curtain
domination, would create a communism?
These two speeches would set the stage for the Cold War, the
group of nations friendly to
competition between the United States and the Soviet Union for
communist goals.
power and influence in the world. This conflict would last until the
collapse of the Soviet Union nearly fifty years later. The tension
between these nations would be characterized by political and

277
economic conflict and military tensions. The rivalry stopped just Political Cartoon Analysis:
short of a direct military engagement between the two nations,
although both would engage in indirect combat in other nations.

Image source: http://mrortlieb.weebly.com/uploads/8/9/7/6/8976286/2070889_orig.jpg

What symbols do you see in this cartoon? What are their

Image source: http://resourcesforhistoryteachers.wikispaces.com/file/view/cold_war_mp.jpg/ meanings?
30572399/395x354/cold_war_mp.jpg
Do you think the “iron curtain” is designed to keep people out or
keep people in?
“From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended
across the Continent. Behind that lie all the capitals of … Central and Eastern What message is the artist trying to communicate?
Europe … The Communist parties, which were very small in all these Eastern
States of Europe, have been raised to preeminence and power far beyond their
numbers and are seeking everywhere to obtain totalitarian control … This is
certainly not the Liberated Europe we fought to build up. Nor is it one which
contains the essentials of permanent peace.”

”Iron Curtain” speech, Winston Churchill, March 5, 1946 278

Part of the reason the conflict never developed into a “hot” war Confronting the Communist Threat
was because the threat of nuclear attacks compelled both
In 1946, an American diplomat named George Kennan analyzed
countries to show restraint in their use of force. In the age of the
Soviet behavior and policy. He sent what became known as the
atomic bomb, the effects of a superpower conflict was more
“Long Telegram” to the U.S. Secretary of State, which would
frightening. However, it did fuel the race to develop nuclear
become the basis of American foreign policy for decades.
weapons. The United States continued to test and improve its
Kennan pointed out that the Soviets were committed to the belief
nuclear capabilities. Nuclear testing continued into the 1950s,
that the American way of life must be destroyed if their power
and for a few years the United States was the only country with
were to ever be secure. He indicated that the Soviets would be
an atomic bomb. Soviet scientists, however, were working to
cautious yet persistent in their goal to defeat capitalism and
develop their own.
expand their sphere of influence. From Kennan’s analysis, the
Because Truman recognized the damage an atomic bomb could policy of containment emerged. Kennan believed that Soviet
do, he asked the United Nations to help limit the development expansion should be restricted, although he viewed this as more
and use of atomic energy, or the power released from a nuclear of a political strategy than a military one. By containing the
reaction. Truman send one of his advisors, Bernard Baruch, to Soviets within their present borders, Kennan believed that
the UN to explain his position to the UN Atomic Energy communism would eventually crumble and collapse on its own.
Commission. Baruch explained that he hoped to see controls on
raw materials used in making the bomb and a ban on any future
bombs. This proposal, known as the Baruch Plan, would allow
the United States to retain its small nuclear stockpile. However, it
would stop the Soviet Union from their development of an atomic
weapon. This prompted strong opposition from the Soviets, who
stated that talks about international controls on weapons could
continue only if the U.S. destroyed their atomic weapons. The
Soviet Union refused to discuss the terms of the Baruch Plan and
this effort at nuclear arms control came to an end.

279
 Concerns about Soviet expansion were not limited to Eastern
The Long Telegram, 1946
Europe. Both Greece and Turkey faced communist takeovers.
“The Soviet Union cannot be easily defeated or discouraged by a single
When communist rebels attempted to gain control of the Greek
victory on the part of its opponents … but only by intelligent long-range
government, civil war erupted. Britain began sending troops and
policies … no less steady in their purpose … than those of the Soviet
money to assist the government forces. Britain also tried to
Union itself. In these circumstances, it is clear that the main element of
any United States policy toward the Soviet Union must be that of a long- assist Turkey, who was experiencing pressure from the Soviets.
term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive The Soviet Union was interested in controlling the Dardanelles, a
tendencies.” strait in Turkey that would give Soviet ports on the Black Sea
access to the Mediterranean. Facing severe economic problems
in the aftermath of World War II, Britain announced that they
George Kennan, Sources of Soviet Conduct, July 1947
could no longer afford to help Greece and Turkey. In 1947,
Truman addressed Congress and called on the United States to
Document Analysis. Read “Sources of Soviet Conduct” and take a leadership role. In that speech, he outlined a policy that
address the following elements: would become known as the Truman Doctrine. Truman stated, “It

To whom is it addressed?

Reason for the source

Who is the author

Immediate impact

Time period

Subsequent impact

http://www.history.com/s3static/video-thumbnails/AETN-History_Prod/74/943/
History_Speeches_1144_The_Truman_Doctrine_still_624x352.jpg

280
must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples satellite nations to do so as well. They believed the real purpose
who are resisting attempted subjugation [conquest] by armed of the plan was to create an American sphere of influence in
minorities or by outside pressures.” Responding to Truman’s Europe. To compete with their rival, the Soviets created the
plea, Congress dedicated $400 million in aid for Greece and Molotov Plan which was designed to aid the economy recovery in
Turkey. With U.S. aid and military equipment, the Greek Eastern Europe.
government was able to defeat the communist rebels. Turkey
was also able to resist communist pressure and maintain control
of the Dardanelles. The Truman Doctrine committed the United
The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan have often been
States to Kennan’s policy of
called “two halves of the same walnut”, different in many
containment, and demonstrated ways but sharing the same purpose. Can you identify the
Interactive 8.4 Truman
similarities and differences between the two plans?
the American desire to limit
communism to the countries in
which it already existed.

The United States also hoped to

Interactive 8.5
create stable democracies and Containment
achieve economic recovery in
Europe. By helping to restore Listen to Truman’s Speech here!
war-torn nations, Americans
hoped that they would be better able to resist communist threats.
The Marshall Plan was a recovery plan that offered generous
funding to European nations, including the Soviet Union, to
rebuild their economies as long as the money was spent on
Need Help with the “Stop and
goods made in the United States. This policy would reinforce the Think” above? Check this
Truman Doctrine in its policy of containment, and further boost resource!

the economy of the United States. The Soviet Union questioned

the motives of the Marshall plan and refused, pressuring its

281
By 1949, the alliance between the Soviet Union and United States
had turned into one of suspicion. Both nations held different
visions for the world. Although hostilities between the nations
often heated up, it never led to direct armed conflict between
them. It was for that reason that the rivalry between the Soviet
Union and United States became known as the Cold War. Both
sides knew that if the growing hostility between them were to turn
hot, it could result in another world war.

282
Section 2

The Cold War Abroad

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY East and West Germany Formed

1. What factors contributed to the Cold War?
By 1948, American, French, and British
2. What were the causes of the American leaders were confident that Stalin was
policy of containment?
not going to allow the reunification of
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE Germany. They decided to combine
38th Parallel their zones to create the Federal
Arms Race Republic of Germany, or West Germany.
Berlin Airlift The western part of Berlin, which was
Demilitarized Zone located within the Soviet zone, was to
Douglas MacArthur also become a part of West Germany. Image source: http://image.slidesharecdn.com/
Korean War The Soviets responded by creating the thecoldwarbegins-141105153104-conversion-gate01/95/the-cold-

Mao Zedong war-begins-20-638.jpg?cb=1415201644

German Democratic Republic, or East
NATO
Germany. Capitalist West Berlin and
Warsaw Pact
Communist East Berlin would become a symbol of the struggle between the
Soviet Union and Western powers. On June 24, the Soviets implemented a
blockade on Berlin that would stop all land travel and shipments into the city from
Allied occupation zones. This became known as the Berlin Blockade, and
threatened to create severe shortages of food and other supplies needed by the
people of West Berlin. The Soviets hoped this this would force the Allies to either
give up Berlin or their plans for a West German state.

283
Truman did not want to risk war by using the military to force As divisions increased in Europe, the superpowers began to form
open the transportation routes, but he was also not willing to lose new military alliances as well. With the Soviet Union’s use of its
West Berlin to the Soviets. Instead be began the Berlin Airlift, veto power in the Security Council of the UN, it became clear to
moving supplies into West Berlin by plane. Over the next ten Western Europe that they would have to look for another means
months, pilots made more than 270,000 flights into West Berlin by which to protect itself from Soviet aggression. In April 1949,
carrying nearly 2.5 million tons of supplies. The Soviets finally several nations joined to form the North Atlantic Treaty
gave up the blockade in May of 1949, and Germany officially Organization (NATO). This organization included the United
became two countries. Berline also remained divided between States, Canada, and ten Western European nations. The
East and West. founders included nations such as Britain and France, with
Greece, Turkey, and West Germany following a few years later.
Member nations agreed that an
Digging Deeper. Complete an Episodic Summary of the
Berlin Airlift using the Office of the Historian. Use the armed attack on one of them Interactive 8.6 What is
model Graphic Organizer below by recreating it on a would be considered an attack NATO?
separate sheet of paper or in Google Docs.
against them all. This plan for
collective security meant that they
would commit to mutual military
assistance, and the nations formed
a standing army to defend Western
Europe in the event of a Soviet
invasion. The creation of NATO
Use this interactive map to answer
prompted the Soviet Union to form questions about NATO’s activities
today. Describe one of NATO’s
their own security alliance called current missions. How does it
the Warsaw Pact. This support NATO’s purpose?

organization was comprised mostly Identify five troop contributing

partners.
by the Soviet satellite nations in
Where are three command and
Eastern Europe. control stations? What are their
responsibilities?
284
The Cold War Heats Up Hungary Tests Containment

In 1949, Truman made an announcement that the Soviets had Not long after the creation of the Warsaw Pact, upheaval in
tested their first atomic bomb. His response was to forge ahead Hungary tested the policy of containment. In 1956, thousands of
with the creation of a new weapon that would give the United Hungarians revolted against the communist government and
States the upper hand in nuclear development. In 1950, Truman demanded a democratic political system with freedom from
approved the development of a hydrogen bomb which would be Soviet oppression. The leader of the rebellion, Imre Nagy, boldly
much more destructive than the atomic bomb. The first declared that Hungary would withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and
successful test occurred in 1952, instantly vaporizing an entire become a neutral country. He also appealed to Western nations
island and leaving behind a crater more than a mile wide. The to help protect them
Soviets would follow three years later with their first hydrogen from Soviet aggression.
bomb, leaving both superpowers in possession of thermonuclear Soviet leaders
weapons. One American test called Castle Bravo in 1954 at responded quickly by
Bikini Island in the Pacific contaminated Japanese fishermen sending tanks and Red
some 90 miles from the blast, Army troops. After
causing severe radiation burns.
Interactive 8.7 Castle
killing thousands of
Bravo
As the United States continued protesters, the Soviets
to test the hydrogen bomb, it placed Soviet-backed
became clear that nuclear war leaders into power and
could threaten the world with put Nagy to death. The
radioactive contamination. This event stunned many
struggle between the United people, including
States and Soviet Union to gain Hungarians who were
weapons superiority was called Watch for information about shocked when American
Castle Bravo.
the arms race. forces failed to help
them. The United
Uprising in Hungary http://skepticism-images.s3-website-us-
States, however, was east-1.amazonaws.com/images/jreviews/Soviet-Tanks-
Budapest.jpg
285
unwilling to risk war with the Soviet Union to free a satellite States cut off all trade with China and refused to recognize the
nation. new state. The U.S. continued to refer to the Nationalists in
Taiwan as the legitimate government until the 1970s. The United
China Falls to Communism
States also opposed China’s admission to the United Nations.
During World War II, Chinese Communists led by Mao Zedong
and Nationalists led by Chiang Kai-Shek had joined forces to fight
Japan. With the defeat of Japan, the two groups turned on one Analysis: Although communism took different forms in the
another once again in a civil war for control of China. The United Soviet Union and China, the United States perspective
about the need to contain and destroy it remained the
States provided economic and military assistance to Chiang Kai-
same. Why do you think this is?
Shek even though he was viewed by many as corrupt and
inefficient. Despite the aid, the Nationalists were defeated by
Mao’s forces. Mao declared the
creation of the People’s
Interactive 8.8
Republic of China and the Intrepretation Match
Nationalists fled to Taiwan, an
island off the coast of China.
Many Americans criticized
Truman for the “loss of China”,
fearing they would form an
alliance with the Soviet Union
that would threaten U.S.
interests across the globe. Karl Marx developed the original
theory of communism, but the
Although China remained a key Soviet Union and China each
developed their own
ally of the USSR, they pursued interpretations. Read the resource
their own interests and rejected and match the interpretations
below with with the correct theory
Soviet control. The United of communism.

286
 The Korean War World War II, and had established a democracy in Japan during
the postwar occupation period. He was a brilliant military
Similar to China, Korea was freed from Japanese control at the
strategist that developed a bold plan to drive the invaders from
end of World War II. At that time, Soviet troops occupied the
South Korea.
Korean Peninsula north of the 38th parallel, a latitude line that
crosses the center of Korea. The United States occupied the With Soviet tanks and airpower, the North Koreans had
southern part of the peninsula. The Soviets established a pro- conquered most of South Korea in a matter of weeks. Only one
Soviet, communist government in the north while the U.S. backed port city, called Pusan, remained unconquered. MacArthur
a non-communist regime in the south led by Kim Il-Sung. This decided to first send forces to defend the city and then to attack
arrangement would eventually erupt in the Korean War in 1950. enemy supply lines from behind by landing at Inchon. The North
Korean forces found themselves caught between UN forces in the
The war began when North Korean troops invaded the south. north and the south, and with their supply lines cut off, they
Their goal was to reunite Korea under communist rule. Truman began to flee back across the 38th parallel. UN troops pursued
responded by ordering U.S. forces to repel the invaders and them northward, nearly reaching the
turning to the UN for help. Chinese border. As the troops Interactive 8.9 Korean War
The UN condemned the approached the border with China,
invasion and called on its the Chinese warned them not to
members to help South advance any further. MacArthur
Korea. A joint force of ignored the warning, and Chinese
troops from fifteen nations troops took the offensive with tens of
was created and placed thousands streaming over the border
under the command of into North Korea. An army of North Use the interactive website to
Douglas MacArthur. Korean and Chinese troops pushed learn more about the Korean War
MacArthur had led troops (Requires flash, may not work on
the UN forces back to the 38th an iPad - use a desktop for best
in the island-hopping parallel where a stalemate developed. experience)
campaign in the Pacific
against the Japanese in
Image source: https://www-tc.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/
macarthur/maps/images/koreatext/4.gif
287
MacArthur wanted to break the stalemate by calling for an Dueling Documents: Partner up with a classmate who read the
expansion of the conflict into China. He proposed blockading other document.
China’s ports and bombing their major industrial centers.
• Share the conclusions that you drew from the
President Truman rejected this plan, fearing that a war with China
document.
would be the onset of another global war. MacArthur would not
back down and publicly questioned the president’s decision. • These documents are competing for the best
Truman fired him for insubordination. MacArthur returned home perspective about how the United States should have handled
and made an emotional farewell, saying that “old soldiers never the Korean War. Who should win the duel?
die, they just fade away.” Truman maintained his limited war,
which would drag on for two more years. • Come to a consensus and be prepared to share which
document won the duel and why. Which would have been the
more effective application of the policy of containment?
You will read one of the documents on this site and
analyze it: What does this document suggest about
American policy in the Korean War?

Analysis: Why might historians arrive at different

conclusions about the past?

The final years of the war remained a stalemate with most of the
fighting occurring around the 38th parallel. In 1953, the two sides
signed an armistice to end the conflict. The agreement left the
peninsula divided along the 38th parallel and created a buffer
zone called the demilitarized zone (DMZ). No military force from
either side would be allowed to enter the DMZ. The Korean War
caused much frustration for Americans, who had lost 54,000
soldiers with limited results. At the end of the war, North Koreans
288
became increasingly isolated from the rest of the world while
South Korea continued its economic and political ties to the
United States. The hopes for a unified and democratic Korea
faded away, and many wondered if the American government
was serious about stopping the spread of communism.

What If? Imagine that the United States had followed the
suggestions of Douglas MacArthur and expanded the
war into China. How might the outcomes of the Korean
War have been different?

289
Section 3

The Cold War at Home

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Fear of Communist Influence Runs Rampant

1. What factors contributed to the Cold War?
While the latest conflict abroad was seen as a stalemate, the concern by many
2. What were the causes of the American Americans back home was an increased fear of communist aggression in the U.S.
policy of containment?
As several incidents came to light, strong anti-Communist Republicans were
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE quick to accuse those in the Truman administration of being soft on communism.
Federal Employees Loyalty and Security Program In March of 1947, President Truman issued an executive order establishing the
Loyalty Review Board Federal Employees Loyalty and Security Program. Included in this order was
House Committee on Un-American Activities the establishment of the Loyalty Review Board whose purpose was to investigate
Blacklist government employees and dismiss those found to be disloyal to the U.S.
McCarran Internal Security Act government. Although “disloyalty” was never clearly defined, between 1947 and
McCarthyism
1951, government loyalty boards investigated over 3 million employees, dismissing
212 of them as security risks. Individuals under investigation were not allowed to
see the evidence against them or even to know who had accused them of being
disloyal.

In addition to agencies investigating government employees, other agencies were

established to investigate possible Communist influence inside and outside the
government. The most well known was the House Committee on Un-American
Activities (HUAC), developed from a congressional committee originally created
prior to WWII to search out disloyalty. HUAC first made headlines in 1947, as it
began to investigate Communist influence in the movie industry.

290
The city of Hollywood had a substantial number of Communists, the bill went too far in stripping individuals of their civil liberties.
former Communists, and socialists. Combined with the Congress enacted the law over his veto.
production of several pro-Soviet films during the war, after 1945,
Point/Counterpoint: Thinking with
some argued that subversives were promoting Soviet
propaganda; HUAC wanted to get rid of Communist influences in a Civics Lens

the film industry. In September of 1947, 43 subpoenas were As you think about the government’s
issued to witnesses from the Hollywood film industry. Ten role in eliminating Communist fears
witnesses deemed to be “unfriendly” decided not to cooperate during this time period, consider the
and refused to answer the question in the stop and think box
committee’s questions thus being Interactive 8.10 HUAC -
The Hollywood Blacklist below.
sent to prison. Hollywood
executives responded to the
hearings by instituting a blacklist.
Those possessing a Communist
background who were blacklisted
(approximately 500 actors,
writers, producers, and directors)
To view some actual footage from Did Anti-Communist Measures at the Onset of the Cold War
were no longer allowed to work in
some of HUAC’s hearings, watch Threaten Civil Liberties and Domestic Freedoms in the
the film industry. this short, informative video: United States? This website provides excellent arguments
on both sides of the compelling question:
While HUAC hearings were
occurring in Hollywood, Congress
had decided that the Loyalty Review Board had not gone far
enough to protect the nation’s security and in 1950 passed the
McCarran Internal Security Act, making it illegal to plan any action
that might lead to the establishment of a totalitarian dictatorship
in the U.S. President Truman vetoed the bill because he felt that

291
Stunning Spy Cases Validate Communist Fears cables in 1990 which appeared to confirm that Hiss had been
guilty of espionage.
The first spy case that occurred in 1948 involved a former State
Department official named Alger Hiss. A former communist spy The Case of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg
named Whittaker Chambers had accused Hiss of spying for the
The case of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg was even more impactful
Soviet Union. Chambers claimed that Hiss had typed
than the Hiss case--not because it involved two individuals but
government documents on his personal typewriter which he
because of the international events that played a part in the case.
produced on microfilm. Although too many years had passed for
After the war had ended with the bombing of Hiroshima and
prosecutors to charge Hiss with espionage, he was convicted of
Nagasaki, most American experts had predicted that it would
lying about passing the documents and was sent to jail. Even
take the Soviets three to five years to figure out how to construct
though Hiss continued to claim his innocence, Soviets released
an atomic bomb of their own. On September 23, 1949,
Americans had learned that the Soviet Union had exploded an
atomic bomb. This caused people to wonder whether or not the
Soviets had stolen the secret of the bomb.

In 1950, Klaus Fuchs, a British physicist, admitted to giving

information about America’s atomic bomb to the Soviets. It was
predicted that because of the sharing of this information that the
Soviets had been able to construct their own atomic bomb about
eighteen months earlier than they would have otherwise. The
arrest of Fuchs in England set off a chain of arrests in the U.S.
Fuchs first implicated Harry Gold as the middleman between
himself and the Soviets. Gold then implicated David Greenglass,
one of Fuch’s co-workers on the Manhattan Project. Greenglass
then implicated his sister-in-law Ethel Rosenberg along with her
husband Julius Rosenberg. By the summer of 1950, the
Rosenbergs were arrested in New York City. They were both
Image source: http://cdn.quotationof.com/images/alger-hiss-3.jpg
292
found guilty and sentenced to death. The Rosenbergs were guilty of treason because leading Democrats allowed
executed at Sing Sing prison in June of 1953 despite multiple Communists to infiltrate the federal government. Some tried to
appeals for clemency from around the world. challenge McCarthy but the end result was always the same--
more accusations. The Republican Party did little to challenge
Interactive 8.11 The
McCarthy because they thought
Rosenbergs
the American public would see Interactive 8.12 White Out
Republican efforts to rid the
country of communism as
honorable, thus proving
advantageous at the polls in the
1952 election. However, in the
Senate, a few members did speak
To view some footage of their out.
arrest and trial, watch this short After reading the excerpts from
video the speech, determine who said it
and complete the Write Around
McCarthy Goes on a “Witch Hunt” activity that follows.
Effects of McCarthyism
Joseph McCarthy, a Republican senator from Wisconsin, felt he
As quickly as McCarthy gained power and authority in the
was going to need a winning issue in order to be re-elected in
Senate, he lost it in 1954 when he made accusations against the
1952. McCarthy found this winning issue by charging that
U.S. Army. In a nationally televised debate, McCarthy bullied
Communists were taking over the government. McCarthy’s series
witnesses, thus alienating the audience, ultimately costing him
of unsupported acquisitions in the early 1950s became known as
public support. The Senate condemned him for improper
McCarthyism--using unfair tactics to accuse people of disloyalty
conduct. Three years later, Senator McCarthy died.
without providing evidence. At various times, McCarthy claimed
to have the names of 57, 81, at one point 205 Communists in the McCarthy wasn’t the only person who had an impact on attempts
State Department, although he never produced a single name. to root communism from American society. Due to the efforts of
Additionally, McCarthy charged that the Democratic Party was many, by 1953, it was illegal in 39 states to advocate the violent

293
overthrow of the government, even though the constitutionality of
such legislation was in question. The result was that many were
hesitant to speak out on any public issue for fear of being
accused of having Communist undertones in their words.
Additionally, millions of Americans in many professions were
forced to take loyalty oaths or undergo investigations. Activism in
labor unions also went into decline. And from a foreign policy
standpoint, anticommunist sentiment continued to drive stringent
stipulations. Ultimately, because many Americans tried very hard
to root out any communist tendencies, they were willing to
sacrifice basic civil liberties. Despite their efforts, the Cold War
continued to escalate.

294
Section 4

The Cold War Expands

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY When Republican and World War II hero Dwight Eisenhower succeeded Truman as
1. What factors contributed to the Cold War? president in 1953, Cold War policy entered a new phase. Eisenhower’s Secretary
of State, John Foster Dulles, believed that the containment policy was too
2. What were the causes of the American
policy of containment?
cautious and that Americans should begin rolling communism back from where it
existed. Eisenhower, however, recognized the risks of confronting the Soviets and
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
hoped to avoid war. The threat of nuclear war carried the prospect of complete
Brinkmanship destruction, but this became a threat the United States would use to its
CIA advantage. During the 1950s, the government developed a policy called
Covert Action
brinkmanship, a willingness to go to the brink or edge of war. Dulles felt that the
Deterrence
Soviets needed to believe the United States would use its nuclear weapons if
Kitchen Debates
pushed too far. According to brinkmanship, the United States would have to be
Nikita Khrushchev
Suez Crisis ready to go to war in order to maintain peace.
U-2 Affair
The Arms Race

As the threat of nuclear warfare continued, a new strategy was developed by

Dulles to reinforce brinkmanship and ensure American superiority. The policy of
deterrence meant having a weapons arsenal so deadly that the Soviets would not
dare attack the United States. After both the United States and Soviet Union
successfully tested their hydrogen bombs, both continued to step up their
weapons development programs. By 1960, the arms race would also lead to the
development of nuclear missiles and submarines. Both the United States and

295
Soviet Union built ICBMs, or intercontinental ballistic missiles. everything.” Khrushchev responded to Nixon saying, “You don’t
These missiles would be able to deliver nuclear warheads to know anything about communism - except the fear of it.” Nixon
distant countries. The combination of deterrence and and Khrushchev
brinkmanship came to be known as Mutual Assured continued their debate
Destruction (MAD), meaning that either side would respond to a through the kitchen of a
nuclear attack by launching its own missiles. Fear of these model home, verbally
devastating results would hopefully make the United States and sparring over which
Soviet Union more likely to step back from all-out war. system was superior -
communism or
Kitchen Debates capitalism. The
“kitchen debate”
The sudden death of Stalin brought about the rise of a more
proved to be an
moderate Soviet leader, Nikita Khrushchev, and the hopes of
example of the https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/
improved American-USSR relations. In 1958, the two nations set Kitchen_debate.jpg/261px-Kitchen_debate.jpg
competitive spirit of the
up national exhibitions in each other’s countries as part of an
Cold War.
emphasis on cultural exchange. Vice President Richard Nixon
served as host for the visiting The U-2 Affair
Interactive 8.13 Kitchen
Soviet leader. As Khrushchev
Debates
was led through an exhibit of Although relations seemed to be improving, by the late 1950s the
American technology, he began United States and Soviet Union were still deeply involved in the
to scoff at the display and Cold War. A key tactic for both superpowers was espionage, or
proclaim that the Soviets would the use of spies and secret agents. Both sides sought to gain
have the same gadgets within a information about the enemy through the use of listening devices
few years. Nixon countered by and hidden cameras. In May of 1960, the Soviets shot down a
stating that the Soviet leader U.S. spy plane flying over the Soviet Union (USSR). The plane
should not be afraid of new ideas, Watch the Kitchen debates here! was a U-2 plane, one that could fly at high altitudes and served
saying “After all, you don’t know the purpose of exploring an area to gain military information. The

296
plane carried a variety of spying equipment including special The Space Race
cameras to photograph military installations. The pilot carried a
Space exploration quickly became another arena for U.S. and
deadly poison that he could take if the enemy captured him.
Soviet competition. Eisenhower’s advisors encouraged the
After the Soviets hit the plane, the pilot parachuted to safety and
development of satellites, which would be able to travel over
was captured before he could take the poison. Nikita Khrushchev
Soviet territory without the threat of being shot down. The
was outraged and accused the United States of spying.
Soviets also recognized this new potential for reconnaissance
President Eisenhower denied the charge. He first claimed the U-2
and launched their first satellite, Sputnik, in October of 1957.
was just an off-course weather plane, but later confirmed that it
This was the first man-made object to be launched into space
was on an intelligence-gathering mission. Khrushchev demanded
and came as an unpleasant surprise to most Americans. Just
that the United States stop its flights and apologize. Although
one month later, the Soviets made headlines again when they
Eisenhower agreed to end the flights, he refused to apologize for
launched the first animal into orbit. With a new sense of urgency,
defending American interests. The incident, known as the U-2
the United States launched their first satellite, Explorer I, in 1958.
Affair, was a major setback to U.S.-Soviet relations.
That same year, Eisenhower announced the creation of NASA, a
federal agency devoted to exploring space.

After the U-2 Affair, Eisenhower refused to apologize which

cooled relations between the United States and Soviet
Union. Take a position on the statement above and prepare
an explanation. Try to convince others who disagree with
you or are undecided to come to your side.

Take a Stand: Eisenhower should have apologized to the Soviet

Union.

297
Central Intelligence Agency in Guatemala. They opposed certain social reforms proposed by
the Guatemalan government, specifically the government plan to
In 1947, President Truman had asked Congress to respond to the
hand over thousands of acres of company land to the nation’s
Soviet threat by reorganizing the government’s security agencies.
landless peasants. The United States ordered the CIA to support
Congress passed the National Security Act, which created a
a military coup in with Arbenz was overthrown. Lands were
National Security Council (NSC) and the Central Intelligence
returned to the United Fruit Company and a military government
Agency (CIA). The NSC would advise the president on security
took charge.
issues and oversee the CIA. The CIA would be responsible for
collecting and analyzing intelligence gathered by agents in foreign Foreign Aid
countries. Throughout the 1950s, the CIA played a growing role
Nations also used foreign aid as a weapon during the Cold War.
in the Cold War. It expanded its role from intelligence collection
Both the United States and Soviet Union used money and
to covert action, a secret political, economic, or military
assistance to help countries and gain new allies. Some aid
operation that supports foreign policy. The United States often
helped the poor by providing funds for social and economic
used covert action to overthrow leftist or unfriendly governments.
programs, while others forms of aid were delivered in terms of
In 1953 the United States helped to topple the Iranian premier, military assistance. The United States would sometimes withhold
Mohammad Mossadegh. He had nationalized a British oil aid as punishment for nations that failed to support its policies. In
company, meaning that he placed the formerly private company the 1950s, Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser began
under government control. In Operation Ajax, the CIA overthrew establishing trade ties with communist nations. For example,
the democratic government and reinstated the Iranian monarch, Egypt purchased tanks from Czechoslovakia against American
Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. The Shah maintained a 25-year wishes. When the United States and Britain withdrew their offer
dictatorship supported by the United States, ruling with a brutal to help finance the building of the much-needed Aswan Dam on
police force that angered many Iranians. the Nile River, Nasser responded by seizing control of the Suez
Canal from Britain. The Suez Canal was an important waterway
The United States also used covert action in Central America. In
that allowed for Middle East oil to efficiently reach Europe via the
1954 in Guatemala, CIA agents helped to overthrow the
Mediterranean. In the Suez Crisis of 1956, the nations of France,
democratically elected president, Jacobo Arbenz Guzman. The
Britain, and Israel invaded Egypt to regain control of the canal.
United Fruit Company was an American business with operations
298
The Soviet Union threatened to back up Egypt with military force, Interactive 8.14 Analyzing
causing the United States to step in and persuade all sides to Cold War Strategies
withdraw in order to end the crisis.

The Cold War may have been a struggle between two

superpowers, but it had global implications. As the United States
and the Soviet Union competed for supremacy and allies, many
nations were impacted or drawn into the conflict. Due to the
threat of nuclear destruction, the hostilities never evolved into a
The United States utilized a variety
“hot” war. The dependence on nuclear weapons as a form of of strategies to contain
foreign policy, however, had a far-reaching impact. Even communism and advance their
interests during the Cold War.
Eisenhower feared that nuclear weapons might become more of a Can you match the event with the
threat to security than a stabilizer. Eisenhower warned in his strategy?

farewell address that “the potential for the disastrous rise of

misplaced power exists and will persist”. He feared that the
“military-industrial complex” created out of need to keep Which strategy was most effective? Defend your response.

Americans safe could potentially weaken or destroy the very

principles and institutions it was designed to protect.

Interactive 8.15 Crash

Course - the Cold War

For a review of the Cold War click 299

on the video above.
Chapter 9

Were the social, political, economic,

and cultural issues and events of the
1950s more representative of a
decade of progress and prosperity
or one of stagnation and poverty?
What were the significant social, political, economic, and cultural
readjustments that occurred in the U.S. after WWII and the 1950s?

Could the 1950s be considered a time of social, political,

economic, and cultural prosperity and challenge simultaneously?

Did every American have equal access to the attainment of the

“American Dream” of the 1950s?

How did the emergence of suburbia and the automobile culture

impact lives of Americans in different ways?

How significant was the new era of mass media on American life in
the 1950s?

Why did the emergence of “subcultures” occur when they did?

What new characteristics were present in 1950s society that led to
the emergence of subcultures?

How did the birth of rock and roll blur racial lines and lead to
advancements in ending certain types of segregation across the
nation?

What social, political, economic, and cultural factors led to the

increasingly wide gap between white, middle class Americans and
those living in the “other America?”
 Section 1

Post War America

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY
1. What were the significant social, political, economic, and The Cold War had a significant impact on domestic life in the decade after the
cultural readjustments that occurred in the U.S. after WWII and WWII; however, for most Americans, economic prosperity and social aspects such
the 1950s?
as pop culture and the building of suburban lifestyles by the middle class
2. Could the 1950s be considered a time of social, political,
dominated thoughts of anti-Communist fear. Even though the 1950s were known
economic, and cultural prosperity and challenge
simultaneously? as a time of unprecedented prosperity, not every subgroup of American society
benefitted. The urban poor, Mexican Americans, and Native Americans were left
3. Did every American have equal access to the attainment of the
“American Dream” of the 1950s? untouched by the economic boom, living in poverty.
4. How did the emergence of suburbia and the automobile culture
impact lives of Americans in different ways?
Readjustment and Recovery in Postwar America

5. How significant was the new era of mass media on American life Within a year after the surrender of Axis forces bringing an end to WWII,
in the 1950s?
approximately 10 million men and women had been released from the U.S. armed
6. Why did the emergence of “subcultures” occur when they did? forces. To assist with the transition of veterans into civilian life, Congress passed
What new characteristics were present in 1950s society that led
to the emergence of subcultures? the GI Bill of Rights--legislation that paid for college tuition, guaranteed

7. How did the birth of rock and roll blur racial lines and lead to
unemployment benefits during job searches, and offered low-interest federally
advancements in ending certain types of segregation across the guaranteed loans for veterans. The short-term gains of the GI Bill were
nation?
immediately evident--millions of men and women received financial support while
8. What social, political, economic, and cultural factors led to the fulfilling a sense of purpose by either receiving training as they entered the
increasingly wide gap between white, middle class Americans
and those living in the “other America?”
workforce or studying at college in pursuit of a career. One of the long-term
impacts was a substantial increase in the middle class of American society that
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
would last for at least 50 years. Historian Milton Greenberg estimated that the GI
GI Bill of Rights
Bill enriched U.S. society by producing 450,000 engineers, 240,000 accountants,
Suburbs

Dixiecrats 301
238,000 teachers, 91,000 scientists, 67,000 doctors and 22,000
dentists. This feat led these men and women to earn the moniker
of the “Greatest Generation”--with their legacy returning $7 to the
American economy for every $1 invested in the GI Bill. This was
a serious return on investment.

Additionally with the assistance provided by the GI Bill, many

veterans were able to purchase homes in the suburbs--small
residential communities outside of surrounding cities, to help
alleviate the effects of a severe housing shortage that occurred
shortly after the war had ended. One of the first suburbs was
created by William Levitt. Contracted by the federal government Image source: https://helmofthepublicrealm.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/house-materials-shot-smaller.jpg

during the war to quickly build housing for military personnel,

Levitt applied the techniques of mass production to construction
after the war. In 1947, Levitt set out to build the largest planned-
living community in the U.S. on farmland he had purchased on
Long Island, New York. Levitt identified 27 different steps to build
a house. Therefore, 27 different teams of builders were hired to
construct the homes. Levitt boasted that his teams could build a
house in sixteen minutes--each house had two bedrooms, one
bathroom, and no basement. The kitchen was situated near the
back of the house so mothers could keep an eye on their children
in the backyard. Within one year, Levitt was building 36 houses in
a day. His assembly-line approach made the houses extremely
affordable. At first, Levitt’s home could only be purchased by
Image source: http://projects.ecfs.org/Fieldston57/since40/units/unit1/supplements/
veterans. Eventually, though, Levittown was opened to others as Image3.jpg
well.

302
Additional Postwar SPECtacles trade, monetary policies, and taxation. An example of an
economic aspect of postwar America would be the booming
No matter which historical time period is under investigation,
economy that occurred as demands for goods outstripped supply
using the SPEC strategy is a terrific way to organize information
and production was increased thus creating additional new jobs.
and analyze multiple causes and effects of events across
sometimes broader historical contexts. Here are the basics C=CULTURAL
behind the SPEC strategy:
Having to do with the technology, arts, and institutions of a given
S=SOCIAL group of people at a given time. It is a tangible representation of
interactions. Examples of cultural characteristics might include:
Having to do with people in groups. Social includes issues such
literature, music, poetry, art, food, dialects, and slang. An
as gender, economic status, and ethnicity. An example of a social
example in the postwar time period would be the role of
aspect of life in postwar America would be the birth of suburbia in
advertising in creating demand for new products as suburbanites
hundreds of cities across the country.
wanted to “keep up with the Jones’s.”

P=POLITICAL
Create a SPEC graphic organizer, record additional examples of

Having to do with gaining, seeking, and organizing power, events SPEC characteristics as you continue to read this chapter.

related to the function of government including making laws,

Economic Challenges Faced by President Truman
enforcing laws, and interpreting laws. A political example in
postwar America is the passage of the GI Bill. It should be noted When Harry S. Truman inherited the Presidency after the death of
that some of the impacts of the bill could also be economic, FDR in April of 1945, he faced two significant challenges: dealing
social, and cultural. with the rising threat of communism and restoring the economy.
By 1946, with higher prices and lower wages, at least 4.5 million
E=ECONOMIC
workers went on strike. Steelworkers, coal miners, and railroad

Having to do with how people meet their basic material needs; workers significantly impacted many facets of economic activity.

the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and President Truman, refusing to allow the nation to be crippled by

services; includes such issues as domestic and international the many strikes, appeared before a special session of Congress
to request authority to draft striking workers into the army where
303
as soldiers they wouldn’t be allowed to strike. Before the who opposed civil rights formed their own party, the States’
President could finish his speech, unions gave in and ended their Rights Democratic Party, nominating South Carolina governor
strikes but the damage was done. The American public had had Strom Thurmond. Additionally on the far left of the party, there
enough and made this point during the 1946 elections. For the was also dissent resulting in the nomination of Henry A. Wallace
first time since 1928, Republicans had won control of both to represent the more liberal Progressive Party. Although the
houses of Congress. The new 80th Congress ignored President election was close, Truman ultimately won re-election and began
Truman’s domestic economic proposals, in 1947, passing the to try to implement his Fair Deal program. Despite the defeat of
Taft-Hartley Act over the President’s veto. The main purpose of some of Truman’s proposed programs, in other instances the
the act was to restrict power of labor unions. President was successful. Congress raised the minimum wage,
extended social security coverage to more Americans, initiated
Persisting Social Unrest and Political Ramifications
flood control and irrigation projects, and provided financial
In addition to a problematic economy, President Truman also had support to cities to build low-income family housing units.
to address a wave of racial violence in the South after the war had
Despite some social and economic victories for the Truman
ended. After meeting with African American leaders and seeking
administration, the President’s approval rating sank to an all-time
their top priorities, Truman took their requests to Congress.
low by 1951. As the President decided not to run for re-election,
When members of Congress failed to cooperate, Truman
the Democrats nominated Adlai Stevenson from Illinois to run
appointed a biracial Committee on Civil Rights to investigate race
against General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party’s
relations. When Congress failed to act a second time upon
nominee. A respected war hero, Eisenhower was no match for
recommendations including anti-lynching, poll-tax, and other anti-
Truman who had accumulated too much negativity from a failed
discriminatory measures, Truman issued an executive order in
attempt at peace during the beginning of the Korean War from
1948 integrating the armed forces and ending discrimination in
1950-1951. Combined with Truman’s inability to calm anti-
the hiring of government employees.
Communist fears and a resurgence of disputes between labor
As the 1948 election drew closer, Democrats again nominated unions and the corporate world, Eisenhower easily won the
Truman. However, Truman’s insistence upon a strong civil rights election with his calm and steady demeanor, his easy smile and
platform cost him the unanimous support of the Democratic his straight talk. For the first time since 1932, a Republican

Party. Dixiecrats--Southern delegates to the national convention

304
President would have a chance at trying to secure both domestic
stability and foreign diplomacy.

305
 Section 2

Living the American Dream

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY
1. What were the significant social, political, economic, and The emergence of the suburbs wasn’t the only rapid Interactive 9.1 Living in the
cultural readjustments that occurred in the U.S. after WWII and 1950s
expansion in the 1950s. By the mid 50s, the majority
the 1950s?
of Americans no longer held industrial or blue-collar
2. Could the 1950s be considered a time of social, political,
jobs. The American workforce was changing as
economic, and cultural prosperity and challenge
simultaneously? more people worked in white-collar positions such
as clerical, managerial, or professional occupations.
3. Did every American have equal access to the attainment of the
“American Dream” of the 1950s? As the shift from an industrial-based to a service-
4. How did the emergence of suburbia and the automobile culture based economy took place, numbers of workers in
impact lives of Americans in different ways? fields like sales, advertising, insurance, and This video will give you an
overview of life in the 1950s.
5. How significant was the new era of mass media on American life communications rose rapidly.
in the 1950s?

6. Why did the emergence of “subcultures” occur when they did?

Interactive 9.2 What are
What new characteristics were present in 1950s society that led
American Dream in the 1950s - The Organization Conglomerates?
to the emergence of subcultures?

7. How did the birth of rock and roll blur racial lines and lead to
and the Organization Man
advancements in ending certain types of segregation across the
nation? As white-collar workers dominated a new corporate

8. What social, political, economic, and cultural factors led to the America, the conglomerate was born. A
increasingly wide gap between white, middle class Americans conglomerate is a major corporation that includes a
and those living in the “other America?”
number of smaller companies in unrelated industries.
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
To see how expansive
Conglomerate Franchise conglomerates have become
today, this short video provides
Baby Boom Interstate highway system some excellent examples.
Consumerism Planned obsolescence 306
During the 1950s, one example of one of the first conglomerates occur.
was International Telephone and Telegraph (ITT). Although its
Even though the emergence of Interactive 9.5 Lets Be
original business was
franchises and conglomerates was Good Citizens at School
communications, ITT purchased Interactive 9.3 Large and
Small Businesess in the at first glance an advancement in
insurance companies, car-rental
1950s what would be known as
companies, and hotel chains.
“corporate America,” franchises like
Other conglomerates included
McDonald’s accomplished another
American Telephone and
task--it aided in the standardization
Telegraph (AT&T), Xerox, and
of America. While fast food
General Electric. Although there
franchises standardized what
were many conglomerates built in Other institutions followed this
people ate, other franchises cue as well as you will see in this
the 1950s, the ultimate goal was
standardized other actions in video about conformity in school.
the same--to protect the An example of what this looked
like from the business standpoint American life. Conformity was seen
conglomerate from decline in in the 1950s is illustrated in this
video.
as acceptable for not only advancement in the business world but
individual industries through
in other aspects of life in America.
diversification.
Interactive 9.4 How do
Franchises Work? In the struggle between conformity and individuality, conformity
In addition to the diversification
was rewarded; individuality was not. This value was reflected in
that took place under a
workplace practices as well as projected in literature, television,
conglomerate, another business
and other cultural aspects of society. Some Americans, however,
strategy that developed during this
began to feel dissatisfied, questioning whether or not the
time was the franchise. A
American dream could only be achieved through conformity
franchise is a company that offers
instead of individuality.
similar products or services in
many locations. Fast food View this short video to see how
restaurants like McDonald’s were franchises make profits.

some of the first franchises to

307
Life in Suburbia discovery of a vaccine to prevent polio, along with the
development of drugs to fight and prevent typhoid fever and
Suburbs grew rapidly in the 1950s. Of the 13 million homes built
diphtheria, hundreds of thousands of children’s lives kept the
in the 1950s, 85% of them were built in suburbs which quickly
children of the baby boom alive and well.
embodied an affordable single-family home, children’s attendance
in good schools, a safe, healthy living environment for the family, The babies of the baby boom continued to grow and thrive as
and congenial neighbors with extremely similar interests and suburban life revolved around children and the family. Many
desires to achieve “the American dream.” mothers turned to Dr. Spock for his advice on how to best parent.
Dr. Benjamin Spock, an author and pediatrician, published his
The Baby Boom and Dr. Spock impact Women’s roles
book, the Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care, offering

As soldiers returned home from fighting overseas after WWII, such advice as to not spank children, to hold family meetings

many considered the following factors with regard to the state of where children could express themselves, and for mothers to stay

the nation to which they had returned: at home with their

children as opposed
• Confidence in economic prosperity that was long-term to working outside
the home.
• Decreasing marriage age
Combined with
• Reunion of families after the war other influences
(values of
• Advances in medicine
conformity, media,
• Desires to have large families advertising, and
other well-noted
The added result of these factors was the largest generation in experts) the
the nation’s history. Known as the baby boom--an message for women
unprecedented population explosion between 1946 and 1964, at to focus on the
the height of the baby boom in 1957, one infant was born every family and the
seven minutes in America. And thanks to Dr. Jonas Salk and his creation of a loving Image source: http://ak-cache.legacy.net/UserContent/ns/Photos/Spock_350x302

308
home was a consistent reminder as results of this research formed the
to how the ideal women of the basis of The Feminine Mystique. The
1950s was to spend her time. book became a sensation and created
a social revolution by dispelling the
Fantasy vs Reality: The Inner
myth that all women aspired only to be
Conflict Many Women Faced
happy homemakers. Friedan

Though millions of Americans did encouraged women to seek new

not have the lifestyle portrayed in opportunities for themselves.

popular magazines, movies, and Despite the consistent pressure for

television shows, the role of women women to not work outside the home, Image source: https://
www.marxists.org/glossary/people/f/
in the 1950s was often depicted as Image source: http://ak- some women did work outside the pics/friedan-betty.jpg
that of a satisfied homemaker and cache.legacy.net/UserContent/ns/
home, the number of which, rose
Photos/Spock_160x244.jpg
mother. Although TV programs steadily throughout the decade. By 1960, almost 40% of women
such as Father Knows Best and with children between the ages of 6 and 17 held jobs outside of
Leave it to Beaver showed the 1950s mom as the key figure to the home. Disparities did continue to exist, however with regard
maintaining the ideal image of life in suburbia, some women did to gender. Career opportunities for women tended to be limited
find themselves unhappy in what was supposed to be the to certain fields--teaching, nursing, and clerical office positions.
aspirational norm. Subjected to extremely idealized gender roles And despite the fact that women earned less than men for
combined with expectations of conformity, many women felt comparable work, women continued to move their gender
isolated, bored, and unfulfilled. One person whose experiences forward in the workplace as numbers of women attending four-
mirrored those feelings was Betty Friedan. A reporter in New York year colleges increased steadily throughout the decade.
City who lost her job because of a second pregnancy, Friedan
stayed at home to raise three children in the early 1950s. As she Changes in Leisure in the 50s
became restless as a homemaker she began to wonder if other
Another substantial change in the 1950s was the amount of
women felt the same way. To answer this question, Friedan
leisure time Americans had. The 40-hour work week was a norm
surveyed other graduates of Smith College, her almamateur. The
along with earned vacation time. Additionally, households
309
consisted of more labor-saving devices than ever before resulting The result of the combination of the Interactive 9.6 1950s Car
Culture
in increased time spent on both active and passive leisure need for more travel by automobile
activities. Millions of Americans participated in sports such as and the need for additional roads
bowling, hunting, fishing, boating, and golf. Attendance at team was the birth of the automobile
sports such as baseball, basketball, and football increased while culture--a culture that would pervade
hundreds of thousands started to watch professional sports on American culture for decades. To
TV. Another leisure activity to experience a substantial increase grasp an idea of how dominant the
was reading. Due to a thriving paperback market, mysteries, automobile culture became in the
romance novels, and fiction by popular authors such as John 1950s, view the following video: To grasp how dominant the idea
Steinbeck, J.D. Salinger, and Ernest Hemingway along with the of automobile culture came, view
this brief video.
circulation of popular magazines and comic book sales reached a
peak in the mid-1950s. And in most suburban communities Unbound Consumerism
activities toward youth such as scouting and little league became
commonplace. By the mid-1950s, almost 60% of Americans were members of
the middle class who wanted increasing numbers of products and
The Automobile Culture Grabs Hold of America had the money to buy those products. Consumerism, the
preoccupation with the purchasing of material goods, knew no
Living in suburbia made owning a car a necessity since many
limits in the 1950s. Equated with social and economic success,
who lived in suburbia worked in cities and had to commute daily.
the combination of new products in response to consumer
And as many other necessary services (schools, churches,
doctors’ offices, etc.) were not within walking distance of demand along with planned obsolescence, designing products

suburbs, a family vehicle was a must. to wear out or to become quickly outdated so that people will feel
a need to replace their possessions, helped fuel the shift from
As more and more cars came into existence, more roads were spending earned income mostly on needs to those of wants.
needed which spurred substantial construction of local, state, Advances in credit (the birth of the credit card and installment
and eventually an interstate highway system. plans) was additionally another reason that instead of saving their
money, Americans, especially those in the middle class, were
spending it confidently with the expectation that times of
310
prosperity would continue for decades to come. Not to be left
out, the advertising industry capitalized on this decade of
unbounded consumerism by encouraging even more spending by
inundating the American consumer with ads to be found
everywhere. Endless advertising in newspapers, magazines, and
billboards prompted people to buy everything from food to
cigarettes to cars and appliances. Television along with radio
became a powerful advertising tool, dominating the new industry
of advertising. Not only did TV transmit cultural values through
advertising, it became a symbol of popular culture itself. You’ll
learn more about this in the next section.

311
 Section 3

The Culture that Defined the 50s

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY
1. What were the significant social, political, economic, and Mass Media in a New Era
cultural readjustments that occurred in the U.S. after WWII and Interactive 9.7 Vintage
the 1950s? First available in 1948, television developed in the Television Commercials

2. Could the 1950s be considered a time of social, political, 1950s with lightning speed. Compared to other
economic, and cultural prosperity and challenge
forms of mass media--means of communication
simultaneously?
reaching large audiences, television was in 55% of
3. Did every American have equal access to the attainment of the
“American Dream” of the 1950s?
American homes by 1954--a number that would soar
to 90% by 1960. Although tv sets were small boxes
4. How did the emergence of suburbia and the automobile culture
impact lives of Americans in different ways? that only broadcast in black and white and only
reached a small part of the East Coast at first, once To get a sense of what some of
5. How significant was the new era of mass media on American life
microwave relays were developed, the tv industry the first tv models looked like,
in the 1950s?
click here:
6. Why did the emergence of “subcultures” occur when they did?
boomed.
What new characteristics were present in 1950s society that led
to the emergence of subcultures? The Golden Age of Television
7. How did the birth of rock and roll blur racial lines and lead to
Although originally founded in 1934, the Federal Communications Commission
advancements in ending certain types of segregation across the
nation? (FCC) which was created to regulate all interstate communications (i.e., wire,
8. What social, political, economic, and cultural factors led to the satellite, cable, telephone, radio,etc.) and international communications originating
increasingly wide gap between white, middle class Americans or terminating in the United States, experienced a huge surge in activity with
and those living in the “other America?”
requests nationwide to launch tv stations. By 1956, there were almost 500
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE stations across the U.S. The “golden age” of television had begun.
Mass media

Beat movement

Beat generation 312

What was on TV in the 1950s?

At the time, television broadcasting was seen as a somewhat

risky business because programs usually had to be broadcast
live with mistakes and bloopers intact. Despite this, many
shows still attracted wide audiences. In 1955, the top 10
television shows were:

1. The $64,000 Question (CBS)

2. I Love Lucy (CBS)

3. The Ed Sullivan Show (CBS)

4. Disneyland (ABC)

5. The Jack Benny Show (CBS)

Image source: https://img.buzzfeed.com/buzzfeed-static/static/2014-01/enhanced/webdr07/6/13/
6. December Bride (CBS) original-23943-1389033512-16.jpg

7. You Bet Your Life (NBC) yielded greater flexibility but spontaneity was diminished.
Additional changes in the television industry included mass
8. Dragnet (NBC)
advertising on a whole new scale (from $170 million in 1950 to
9. The Millionnaire (CBS) nearly $2 billion by the beginning of the next decade) which
resulted in the emergence of children’s programs such as The
10. I’ve Got a Secret (CBS) Mickey Mouse Club and The Howdy Doody Show as children
were glued to advertisements for their kind of products like Silly
By 1956, the introduction of videotape eliminated some of the
Putty, Hula-Hoops, and coonskin caps. Product-wise, TV Guide
risks of the practice of broadcasting. Prerecording and editing

313
was introduced in 1953 and quickly Interactive 9.9 The Effects and Have Gun, Will Travel
outsold any other magazine on the of Television on 1950s were hugely popular, so Interactive 9.10 The Beat
Culture Generation
market. Even the food industry was much so, that by 1959, the
impacted, especially with the top three television shows
introduction of the TV dinner. were westerns.

Television’s Idealized White The Emergence of a

America Subculture

Although the television industry Even though mass media

For a student-produced For a very short video embedded
soared during the decade, not documentary on the effects of appealed to a majority of
with images of the
everyone in America was thrilled television on mainstream white popular culture, movement,click on this video.
American society, view this clip.
with stereotypes that were messages of the beat
portrayed. Some critics objected to the effects of tv viewing on movement in both literature and music clashed with the squeaky
children’s behavior; others objected to the stereotypical portrayal
of women and minorities. Male characters in television shows
outnumbered female characters by a 3-1 ratio and African
American and Latino minorities
rarely appeared at all. Interactive 9.8 Western
Additionally, plots were absent of Clips
references to diversity, poverty,
contemporary and/or controversial
issues. Safe topics such as the
glorification of historical events
led to a strong focus on the
historical conflicts of the Western
frontier. Shows like Gunsmoke A short clip of a western is
included in this video.
http://theuglyearring.files.wordpress.com/2008/05/beat.jpg 314
 Interactive 9.11 The Birth
clean, materialistic image of suburban life. Born in 1955, as Allen combination of electric
of Rock and Roll Music
Ginsberg read his lengthy, free-verse poem, Howl, at a cafe in instruments with the sounds of
San Francisco, the Beat Generation quickly emerged as a gospel, blues, country, jazz and
reaction against the conformity and materialism of the 1950's. R&B gave birth to the new sound
Rejecting the so-called security of Cold War America, the Beats of rock and roll. The newest
embraced gritty reality, Eastern traditions, non-materialistic musical genre was an instant
things, and altered states of consciousness. success--the music’s heavy
rhythm combined with simple
Beat literature was more bold, straightforward, and expressive As you watch this video clip, listen
lyrics and melodies captivated
than anything that had come before and because of that, it was closely to the lyrics reflective of
teenagers from one coast to the birth of rock and roll.
widely criticized as a fleeting, unintelligent, superficial movement.
another.
Criticism of the Beat Generation’s aesthetics and behavior came
from many corners of society. Academics labeled the Beats as Within a few short years, some of the musical genre’s first singers
anti-intellectual and unrefined. Mainstream America was horrified such as Little Richard, Bill Haley,
Chuck Berry, Fats Domino and Interactive 9.12 The Best
by their supposed illicit drug use. Established poets and novelists
of Rock and Roll
looked down upon the freewheeling abandon of Beat literature. Buddy Holly brought rock and roll to
Politicians such as Joseph McCarthy identified elements of Beat an unimaginable level of popularity
ideology as Communist and a threat to the nation’s security. The not to mention a hugely lucrative
Beat Generation effectively absorbed all of these criticisms component of the entertainment
without disintegrating. However, their relatively short time in the industry. However, while television
spotlight of literature and culture could be attributed to the mostly appealed to adults and
amount of negativity tossed their way. children, the stars of rock and roll
mesmerized teens across the Click on the following links to
Rock ‘N’ Roll sample some of the various
country--at first through the medium melodies that the rock-n-roll genre
of radio and eventually through of music had to offer:
While the Beats were expressing themselves through literature,
musicians were experimenting with a new sound. First made television.

popular in 1951 by Alan Freed, a Cleveland radio disc jockey, the

315
No surprise to anyone, adults Interactive 9.13 Elvis on into the mainstream with record sales reaching 600 million in
(many of whom were parents of Ed Sullivan 1960.
teens) condemned rock and roll,
Culturally and socially, rock and roll was responsible for blurring
believing that the music would
racial lines. It had an overwhelming influence on social
most certainly lead to widespread
interactions and intermingling of black and white teenagers in the
juvenile delinquency and
1950s. Even record companies who were reticent to sign black
immorality. And to most adults
musicians at first, succumbed to economic demand because the
who condemned rock and roll, a
music was so popular and profitable. And with a giant step in
young singer by the name of Elvis
To view a short clip of Elvis ending segregation in 1954 with the Brown v. Bd. of Education of
Presley quickly became “Public Presley’s performance on the Ed
Sullivan Show in 1956, click here: Topeka Kansas Supreme Court’s
Enemy Number One.” By the
ruling that separate was not
spring of 1956, Presley’s Interactive 9.14 Fats
equal, records from both black Domino
“Heartbreak Hotel” was number one on the rock and roll charts
and white artists were sold in
and a movie debut was imminent. Everywhere Presley
the same record stores and
performed, his sultry looks, swinging hips, and dynamic vocal
black and white artists were
style drove teenage listeners from around the nation wild. Even
signed to the same record
though Presley had already performed in front of a national
labels. And thanks to television,
audience six times previously, it was his appearance on The
specifically shows like the Ed
Milton Berle Show in June of 1956 that triggered huge
Sullivan Show and American
controversy. For an in-depth look at the history
Bandstand, black and white of rock and roll and its cultural and
Even though a large adult population condemned rock and roll teenagers interacted socially social milestones, watch the PBS
American Masters series, Fats
(parents were appalled by the dance moves associated with the increasing the chances that their Domino and the Birth of Rock and
Roll. This 30 second video clip
music, some churches referred to it as Satan’s music, and generation would break barriers
gives you an idea of what the
members of the middle class didn’t approve of its creation by the of prejudice as they ascended American Masters series is all
about:
lower class), exposure by the mass media brought rock and roll into adulthood. Rock and Roll
also brought people together,

316
from across regions, across race and class lines, and, finally,
across oceans. It was the beginning of a historical turn that would
change daily life in the modern world.

317
 Section 4

The Other America

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY
1. What were the significant social, political, economic, and While teens in the 1950s were rocking around the clock, life in postwar America
cultural readjustments that occurred in the U.S. after WWII and did not exemplify the “nifty fifties” for all Americans. Despite the emerging
the 1950s?
affluence of the new American middle class, challenges of poverty, racism, and
2. Could the 1950s be considered a time of social, political,
alienation were in full abundance. The “other America” that was comprised of the
economic, and cultural prosperity and challenge
simultaneously? poor in the inner cities, disenfranchised Mexican Americans (some of whom were
in the U.S. illegally), and Native Americans who had been forced to assimilate for
3. Did every American have equal access to the attainment of the
“American Dream” of the 1950s? the past 100 years. The immense hardships that each of these minority groups
4. How did the emergence of suburbia and the automobile culture faced were rarely depicted on TV.
impact lives of Americans in different ways?
The Issei and the Nisei
5. How significant was the new era of mass media on American life
in the 1950s?
After WWII ended, Japanese internees were freed and left to rebuild their lives as
6. Why did the emergence of “subcultures” occur when they did?
best they could. Although the Issei (first generation Japanese immigrants) and
What new characteristics were present in 1950s society that led
to the emergence of subcultures? Nisei (second generation Japanese immigrants) attempted to return to their pre-
7. How did the birth of rock and roll blur racial lines and lead to WWII lives, both generations experienced two significant challenges. The first was
advancements in ending certain types of segregation across the impoverishment as many Issei had lost their businesses, occupations and
nation?
property. Most were too old to restart their careers and were forced to depend on
8. What social, political, economic, and cultural factors led to the their children, the Nisei. The second challenge that young and old faced was
increasingly wide gap between white, middle class Americans
and those living in the “other America?” prejudice that lingered long after the war had ended. Although the biggest
challenge for the older generation of Japanese that were interned was that of
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
Issei Nisei White Flight financial security, the second challenge of assimilation back into society was the
De facto segregation Urban renewal Braceros most difficult for the Nisei. Thanks to various religious and civic organizations who
Operation wetback Wetback Assimilation
National Congress of American Indians 318
Termination policy
helped welcome many internees back to their homes, the Although millions of suburban homes had been built in the 1950s,
challenge of acceptance and eventually assimilation was a bit the fact was that most African Americans, Native Americans, and
easier. Latinos couldn’t afford to live in them nor would they have been
welcomed into suburbia if they could afford to do so. This type of
The Urban Poor Struggle
segregation that happened by fact (in this case due to economic

With the birth and rapid growth of the suburbs in the early 1950s, factors) is known as de facto segregation and it increased
millions of white, middle-class Americans left the cities for life in rapidly during the 1950s.
the suburbs and along with them went economic resources.
One proposed solution to the ever-growing problem of
Further isolated from middle-class white Americans, the rural
dilapidated inner cities was urban renewal--the redevelopment
poor migrated to the inner cities.
of areas within a large city, typically involving the clearance of
This “white flight” as it was sometimes called, directly impacted slums. Passed in 1949, the National Housing Act was to provide
the poor whites and nonwhites now living in the cities. Business a “decent home and a suitable living environment for every
was lost along with property and income taxes which greatly American family.” Although the most dilapidated areas were
diminished the city governments’ abilities to maintain public razed, new homes were not built in newly vacant lots. Instead
transportation including roads, police and fire departments, and parking lots, highways, parks, factories, and shopping centers
public schools. were built instead, resulting in a huge shortage of new housing to
accommodate those who had been displaced. Many of those
While poverty continued to grow as inner cities decayed, those critical of the idea of urban renewal saw it as merely removing the
living in suburbia became increasingly unaware of what was ugliest eyesores of poverty without solving the original problem.
happening. The urban poor lacked advocacy to call attention to
the segregated ghettos that were now the result of the migration The Plight of Mexican Americans and Native Americans
of suburbanites. Even most journalists focused on writing about
Despite the plight of poverty that African Americans faced (In
the highest standard of middle class living the nation had ever
1959, 55.1% of African Americans were living below the poverty
seen failed to bring the plight of the urban poor to the white,
line), they were able to make significant strides in reducing racial
middle class living room televisions across the nation’s suburbs.
discrimination and segregation. Mexican Americans, inspired by

319
these gains, also developed a deeper level of political awareness
and activism as did Native Americans during this decade.
UPDATE:
A shortage of agricultural laborers during WWII initiated a
Today, 60 years after the Longoria Affair, Three Rivers continues
program by the U.S. government to allow Mexican braceros, or
to struggle with its past. Santiago Hernandez, a local musician
hired hands to harvest crops. Many of these workers remained in
and member of the American GI Forum, has proposed honoring
the U.S. illegally after the war had ended. Additionally, hundreds
Felix Longoria by naming the local post office after him.
of thousands of Mexicans also entered the country illegally during
the post war period. Launched in 1954, Operation Wetback Many Anglo residents are angered by the proposal. They believe
(named after the term wetback, used to label those Mexicans discrimination against Mexican Americans never existed in their
who swam across the Rio Grande River to reach the U.S. by town and that the Longoria Affair never happened.
illegal means), was designed to find illegal aliens and return them
The past and present have collided as Three Rivers continues to
to Mexico. Many who remained in the U.S. legally faced
struggle to come to terms with a brutal history of segregation
prejudice and discrimination. After the war had ended in which
that has long haunted South Texas.
almost 350,000 Mexican Americans fought in the armed forces,
change did occur as these war veterans, determined to fight for Soon after the Longoria incident, a man by the name of Ignacio
democracy at home, fought to end wage discrimination and poor Lopez founded the Unity League of California. It’s mission was
living conditions. Some were even shocked into organized action to register Mexican American voters and to promote candidates
by the Longoria Incident, in which a decorated Mexican American who would represent them at local and state levels of
soldier killed in battle during WWII couldn’t be waked in the only government. Because of the actions of this league, California
funeral home in his hometown of Three Rivers, Texas. The owner outlawed segregated classrooms for Mexican Americans.
of the funeral home had told Longoria’s widow “the whites Similar groups were started in Arizona and Texas as efforts to
wouldn’t like it.” As those words became front page news across end discrimination continued creating for Mexican Americans a
the country the outrage that was produced across the nation nationwide voice in politics.
came to be known as The Longoria Affair.

320
Similarly, Native Americans continued to fight for their identity and private developers by state
Interactive 9.15 Indian
rights. Even though in 1924, all Native Americans were granted government actions, the Bureau of Country Diaries
citizenship, the policy of the federal government had mostly been Indian Affairs began a voluntary
one of assimilation--a minority group’s adoption of the beliefs and relocation program. Helping Native
way of life of the dominant culture as opposed to autonomy by Americans resettle in cities, the
Native American peoples. In 1934, the Indian Reorganization Act bureau helped them find jobs and
moved away official government policies regarding assimilation to adjust to their new communities.
one of autonomy. The Act was important because it mandated You will learn more about this in the
change in economic, cultural, and political areas. From an next chapter.
Click here to view an interactive
economic standpoint, Native American lands would no longer be map with information about
Although the termination policy was relocation cities and boarding
divided into individual farms and would belong to a tribe
a massive failure, the bureau did help schools.
collectively. Culturally, the number of boarding schools for Native
relocate 35,000 Native Americans to
American children was greatly reduced and children could attend
urban areas during the decade of the 1950s. However, Native
schools during the day on their reservation as opposed to being
Americans were often unable to find or keep jobs due to poor
sent away from family and tribal members to attend boarding
training and racial prejudice. Without access to medical care
schools far from home. Politically, tribes were granted permission
once federal programs had been abolished, the number of Native
to elect tribal councils to govern their reservations.
Americans on state welfare rolls greatly increased. In 1963, the
Native Americans took the initiative to improve their situation as a termination policy was abandoned but great damage had been
minority group as well. In 1944, they established the National done to the future of many Native Americans.
Congress of American Indians, an organization that worked to
ensure for Native Americans the same civil rights that whites had
and to enable Native Americans on reservations to retain their
own customs and traditions. By 1953, with the government’s
new approach known as the termination policy where the federal
government eliminated all economic support and discontinued
the reservation system resulting in tribal lands being sold to

321
Chapter 10

How successful was the

US in expanding
opportunities for all
Americans?
1. What were some of the “firsts” that occurred during the 1960 election?
Why were those “firsts” significant?

2. Did President Kennedy’s actions in dealing with leaders of Cuba, U.S.S.R.

and Germany reinforce public criticism that he was too inexperienced in
foreign affairs or did his actions prove them wrong? What evidence proves
your position?

3.
To what extent did the Kennedy mystique contribute to the President’s
approval rating?

4. What programs did John F. Kennedy create that helped various groups of
Americans?

5. How did Kennedy’s foreign policy philosophy impact his domestic

agenda?

6. How did Kennedy’s New Frontier create opportunities for all Americans?

7. What programs of President Johnson’s Great Society assisted certain

groups of Americans?

8. How did Johnson’s Great Society create opportunities for all Americans?

9. How were the decisions of the Warren Court reflective of the dominant
political climate during the Johnson administration?

10. To what extent did the government-sponsored programs of Johnson’s

Great Society prompt far-reaching and long-lasting social change?
Section 1

Kennedy’s Foreign Policy Challenges

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY The 1960 Election

1. What were some of the “firsts” that
In 1960, as President Eisenhower’s second term was drawing to a close, the mood
occurred during the 1960 election? Why
were those “firsts” significant? of American voters reflected one of restlessness. Between the U.S. economy
experiencing a recession and recent Cold War achievements by the Soviets
2. Did President Kennedy’s actions in dealing
with leaders of Cuba, U.S.S.R. and including the successful launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957 and the development of long-
Germany reinforce public criticism that he range missiles, Americans were feeling vulnerable. Along with U.S. foreign powers
was too inexperienced in foreign affairs or setbacks in 1960 (the
did his actions prove them wrong? What
U-2 incident and the
evidence proves your position?
alignment of Cuba
3. To what extent did the Kennedy mystique
with the Soviet Union)
contribute to the President’s approval
rating? many Americans were
beginning to question

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

whether the U.S.
might be losing the
Flexible Response
Cold War. Therefore,
Bay of Pigs Invasion as two very different
Berlin Wall personalities
campaigned for the
Cuban Missile Crisis
Presidency, the role of
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty the media took center
Hot line https://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/qipaZILkW0CJ5408uVi3fw.aspx

323
stage as Americans across the country watched the 1960 usher around the world along with the development of a national
in “the age of television” in American politics. organization to work toward enduring peace around the world.

The Candidates

“Kennedy: Leadership for the ‘60s” View the following commercials from JFK’s 1960 Presidential
campaign. While viewing, think about how you would describe
Young and charismatic, the Democratic Senator from the assets the commercials are trying to promote about the young
Massachusetts, John F. Kennedy at age 43, was one of the candidate.
youngest candidates to have ever run for the office. What he
lacked in years of experience as a politician in Washington D.C.,
he made up for in charm and personality. Combined with a well-
organized campaign, the backing of a large and wealthy family,
and the image of a well-educated scholar and war hero, Kennedy
exuded confidence. Despite his many assets, Kennedy did face
obstacles. First, many saw him as too inexperienced at age 43 to
lead the most powerful nation on Earth. Second, some viewed Interactive 10.1 JFK For Interactive 10.2 Belafonte
President Commercial
his Roman Catholic religious background as a huge detriment to
the office of President of the U.S.

Kennedy promised “active leadership” to get the country moving

again not just economically through a progressive labor policy,
fair prices for farmers, and increased fiscal responsibility by the
federal government, but socially as well with specific efforts to
improve civil rights with regard to education, housing, and
economic opportunities for all Americans. Additionally,
Kennedy’s platform called for increased military preparedness

324
“Nixon-Lodge: They Understand what Peace Demands” aggressive communist policies. Nixon also promised to continue
every effort at disarmament with inspection of other countries.
Richard Nixon, the Republican from California was a seasoned
lawmaker who was already serving as vice-president. He View the following commercials from Nixon’s 1960 Presidential
emphasized his extensive foreign policy experience as well as his campaign. While viewing, think about how you would describe
eight years as the country’s second-in-command after an the assets the commercials are trying to promote about the vice-
illustrious career in Congress where he cast crucial votes on a president.
variety of domestic issues. Combined with both his extensive
experience with foreign and domestic issues, Nixon firmly
believed that he was one of the most experienced presidential Interactive 10.3 Nixon Interactive 10.4 Nixon on
Campaign Ad Civil Rights
candidates to have run for the Presidency. Like Kennedy, as a
candidate, Nixon faced challenges as well. Believing that his
boss, the current President, Dwight Eisenhower was still very
popular with the American public, Nixon overestimated the level
of transfer that would take place between he and President
Eisenhower come election night in November. Nixon also
embarked on a grueling, non-stop campaign tour that left him
looking frail and extremely fatigued by the time the televised
debates took place in September and October.

Nixon’s platform emphasized the creation of greater opportunities

for the individual in the free enterprise system. Nixon also urged
the power of the states to take on greater responsibilities for
matters entrusted to them by the Constitution. From the foreign
policy standpoint, Nixon indicated that he would continue the
policy not to recognize Red China as long as it continued its

325
The Role of Television in Presidential Politics director of those presidential debates. Listen to him recall how
important makeup was to the image of both candidates on the
The first ever televised presidential debate took place on
evening of the first debate:
September 26, 1960, at the CBS studios in downtown Chicago.
Not only was it significant because it was the first televised
Interactive 10.6 The First
debate, it was the beginning of the significant role that television Televised Debates
would play on image--a quality that would prove to be just as
significant as experience, party affiliation, and platform.

Kennedy showed up to the studio tan and looking rested. During

the debate, he appeared calm and cool but also quick to answer
questions tackling issues aggressively. Anticipating close-up
shots from the cameras, Kennedy looked directly into the lens,
captivating the attention of the American audience with his
natural charisma. Nixon on the
other hand, lost the image Interactive 10.5 The Great
Debates
battle as soon as the debate What observations can you make from the demeanor and
responses of both Kennedy and Nixon?
went live. Exhausted, sick and
in pain from a knee injury,
Nixon refused makeup to
cover up his pale and sallow
image. During the debate,
instead of looking directly into
the camera, Nixon looked off
to the side to address reporters which appeared as if he was
shifting his eyes to avoid eye contact with the public. Don Hewitt,
the founder of the program, 60 Minutes, was the producer and

326
The Kennedy Brothers and King held a greater lead in the electoral college by winning 303-219
votes.
In October, a second event occurred that would further the divide
between the two candidates. Police in Atlanta had arrested Dr.
Martin Luther King, Jr. along with 52 other African-Americans for
sitting at a segregated lunch counter. King had been sentenced
to four months of hard labor (officially for a traffic violation).
While some saw the sentence as questionable, the Eisenhower
administration refused to intervene in the situation and Nixon, the
candidate, did not take a position on the situation.

The Kennedy brothers did take a position. Kennedy the

candidate, phoned King’s wife Coretta, to express his sympathy
while his brother and campaign manager Robert, was able to
persuade the judge who had sentenced King to release him on
bail. It was this news that spread across the African-American
community and helped carry key states for Kennedy in the
Midwest and South. Map of 1960 Presidential Election. Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/
ElectoralCollege1960.svg/349px-ElectoralCollege1960.svg.png

Election Day Finally Arrives

The 1960 election was predicted to be a toss up as the

candidates targeted growing suburban population. On November
8, 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president in one of the
closest elections in history. The youngest man to have ever been
elected, Kennedy barely triumphed over Nixon by 118,550
popular votes. With major support from urban centers, Kennedy

327
On January 20, 1961, John F. Interactive 10.7 Kennedy be strengthened thus allowing the President more options in
Kennedy, the first Catholic ever to Oath of Office Video international crises.
be elected President of the U.S.
The policy of flexible response called for an increase in defense
took the oath of office.
spending. Military branches were boosted and some special
Kennedy promised to reinvigorate forces such as the Green Berets and the Navy Seals were
America’s foreign policy, by using established. Additionally, nuclear capabilities were tripled which
a flexible response approach to allowed the U.S. to fight limited wars around the world while also
changing situations regarding maintaining a nuclear balance of power with the Soviet Union.
foreign policy. He promised to But even though President Kennedy’s goal was to reduce the risk
seek and explore options that he claimed had been ignored by of nuclear war, the reverse happened under his watch, in the
the staid and conservative Eisenhower administration. He country of Cuba--referred to by many as “America’s doorstep.”
wouldn’t have long to wait until the tenants of his foreign policy
Crisis in Cuba
approach would be tested.
Early in January, 1961, then President Eisenhower had abruptly
Flexible Response becomes “a thing”
ended diplomatic relations when the revolutionary leader of Cuba,
Once in office, President Kennedy immediately set out to take a Fidel Castro, declared himself a Communist and began
hard line on the Soviets, claiming that they were winning the race welcoming aid from the Soviet Union. Castro rose to power on
for allies in the economically less-developed countries of Asia, the promise of democratic leadership after leading a guerilla
Africa, and Latin America. Believing that the most urgent of tasks movement to topple Cuba’s dictator Fulgencio Batista in 1959.
was to focus on revamping the nation’s nuclear policy, the When Castro took control of three oil refineries on the island that
President, along with his advisors developed a new policy. They had been owned by American and British firms, relations
believed that during the Eisenhower administration, the worsened between the U.S. and Cuba. Furthermore, when
conventional forces of the U.S. had been neglected while the American sugar companies appealed to the U.S. for help when
buildup of nuclear arms had been occurring The policy of Castro broke up commercial farms into communes, the U.S.
flexible response called for the nonnuclear forces of defense to Congress responded by initiating trade barriers against Cuban
sugar. As Castro’s reliance on Soviet aid increased, many
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Cubans felt betrayed. Approximately 10% of Cubans went into exiles. Combined with a failed air strike designed to knock out
exile. Prior to the Election of 1960, then President Eisenhower the Cuban air force two days earlier and the failure of a small
granted permission to the CIA to secretly train hundreds of Cuban advance group sent to distract Castro’s forces that never reached
exiles for an invasion in Cuba, hoping that an invasion would lead shore, the entire operation was a catastrophic failure. Once the
to the overthrow of Castro. commando unit finally landed, 20,000 Cuban troops along with
Soviet tank and air support surrounded and killed some of the
The Bay of Pigs
exiles, and took others prisoner. As Castro triumphed publicly,
President Kennedy’s first test came in 1961 when he attempted to President Kennedy privately asked how the CIA and the Pentagon
overthrow the communist dictator, Fidel Castro in the Bay of Pigs could have been so misinformed. Kennedy publicly accepted the
Invasion. Originally Dwight D. Eisenhower’s plan, the invasion blame for the failed mission while negotiating with Castro for the
called for the use of CIA trained Cuban exiles to lead the way to a release of the surviving commandos. While President Kennedy
revolution in Cuba, resulting in the overthrow of Castro. The new made it clear that he would resist further Communist expansion in
President learned about the Eisenhower-approved operation
within the first few weeks of
winning the election. Having
doubts about the plan,
Kennedy approved its
execution anyway and
promised air support to the
Cuban exiles. On April 16,
1961, the exiles took off from
Nicaragua and led an air strike
the next day. Upon landing at
the Bay of Pigs on April 17, a
radio broadcast aired every
move of some 1,400 Cuban Bay of Pigs. Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/BayofPigs.jpg

329
the Western Hemisphere, Castro proceeded in accepting
additional foreign aid for Cuba.

Backlash in Berlin

Shortly after the humbling fiasco in Cuba, President Kennedy was

forced to turn his attention to a European crisis at hand in Berlin.
By 1961, the prosperous economy of West Berlin had drawn
approximately 20% of the country’s population to flee East Berlin.
The huge number of refugees into West Berlin was a vivid
testament to the failure of the communist government of East
Germany. In June of 1961, President Kennedy met with Soviet
premier Nikita Khrushchev in Vienna. The two leaders left the
meeting with greater distrust as Khrushchev threatened to cut
West Berlin off from the west. But Khrushchev realized that John F. Kennedy visits Brandenburg Gate on June 26, 1963. Source:
http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/Archives/JFKWHP-1963-06-26-
between Kennedy’s determination and the superior nuclear power B.aspx

of the U.S. it was not in the Soviet Union’s best interest to close
the routes between West Berlin and West Germany. Instead,
Khrushchev shocked everyone with the construction of the Berlin While the Cold War remained heated in Europe, events flared up
Wall, dividing the city in two. Constructed almost overnight on again in Cuba. After the failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion,
August 13,1961, the wall was not just seen as a physical barrier Cuban President Fidel Castro had struck a deal with the Soviets
ending the flood of refugees into the western half of the city, but to place nuclear missiles on the island in case of another invasion
further aggravated Cold War tensions. President Kennedy did not and during the summer of 1962, Soviet weapons (including
respond directly to the Soviet’s construction of the wall but did nuclear missiles) flowed into Cuba. On October 14,1962,
visit Berlin in 1963 and delivered his famous “Ich bin ein Berliner” American intelligence discovered the activity which sparked the
speech. Cuban Missile Crisis. Aerial photographs showed that
intermediate-range and mediate-range ballistic nuclear missiles

330
(some of which were in “ready Interactive 10.8 Kennedy’s Khrushchev were criticised harshly for their actions during the
to launch” mode) had been Address on Cuba crisis. Castro closed Cuba’s doors by 1973, sharply reducing exit
installed throughout the island. permits from Cuba, separating generations of Cubans from their
On October 22nd, President Cuban-American relatives.
Kennedy delivered a message
After the close call with potential nuclear warfare and the
to the American people. You
realization of the gravity of split-second decisions, the president
can see it in Interactive 10.8
worked to tone down his hard-line stance. In the spring of 1963,
For the next six days the world he established a hot line between the Kremlin and the White
watched with fear as the House which enabled both leaders to communicate immediately
situation continued to play out. The U.S. watched intensely as should another crisis occur. Kennedy worked towards limiting the
Soviet ships headed toward Cuba with what many believed to number nuclear bombs being tested. Intelligence provided both
contain additional nuclear missiles while the U.S. Navy began to Americans and Soviets that the testing of these weapons proved
plan to execute a quarantine of Cuba in order to prevent Soviet harmful to the environment. On August 5, 1963, President
cargo from reaching the island. Finally, a break occurred when Kennedy signed the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty with the Soviet
Union, and Great Britain. Although testing was not entirely
Soviet premier Khrushchev Interactive 10.9 Who eliminated, it was a small step as both superpowers agreed to
agreed to remove all missiles Cares About the Cuban
Missile Crisis? limit the amount of nuclear testing.
from Cuba and Kennedy
agreed not to invade the Questions for Reflection:
island. Kennedy also secretly
removed missiles from Turkey 1. In what ways were Kennedy’s foreign policy strategies similar

as part of the agreement. to and different from those of his predecessor, President

Nuclear war between the three Eisenhower?

countries had been averted but 2.Was President Kennedy’s philosophy on how to “win” the Cold

the effects of the crisis lasted War in sync with the American public?

long after the missiles had been removed. Both Kennedy and

331
Section 2

The New Frontier

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

1. What programs did John F. Kennedy create

that helped various groups of Americans?

2. How did Kennedy’s foreign policy

philosophy impact his domestic agenda?

3. How did Kennedy’s New Frontier create

opportunities for all Americans?

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Camelot Years

New Frontier

Mandate
The Years of Camelot
Peace Corps

Alliance for Progress On a crisp winter day on January 20th, 1961, John Fitzgerald Kennedy was sworn
in as the 35th President of the United States. It was not the official ceremony of
the swearing in of the first Catholic president that was the most memorable event
of that day--it was the President’s inaugural address. “We stand today on the
edge of a New Frontier,” were the words the president used to describe his

332
domestic agenda--one relations events. Along with their young daughter Caroline and
that would ask infant son John F. Kennedy, Jr., America watched as the youthful
Americans what they and glamorous first family vacationed at the Kennedy Compound
had to give to their in Hyannisport, Massachusetts and lived vicariously at the White
country as he House. To many, the first family’s daily life was seen as a fairy
proceeded to describe tale.
the domestic
In addition to promoting the young president’s image as a family
challenges of the
man, JFK received praise for surrounding himself with young
nation.
businesspeople and intellectuals as his advisors in the west wing.
The President’s Those most notable who the president turned to regularly
inauguration ushered in included McGeorge Bundy as a national security adviser, Robert
a new tone for a new McNamara as secretary of defense, Dean Rusk as secretary of
era at the White House. state along with the two individuals he relied most heavily upon
On the podium sat for counsel in all matters: Kenneth O’Donnell, a close college
numerous writers, https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/e5/09/23/ friend to both Jack and Bobby Kennedy, and JFK’s younger
e509232adb3b5e25562523f7bd8fa6fd.jpg
artists, and scientists brother, Robert, known as Bobby whom he appointed as Attorney
that the Kennedy General shortly after he took office. It was Kennedy’s inner circle
family had invited to give birth to an era of grace, elegance, of what became known as the “best and brightest” that was
intelligence, and wit. These qualities would continue throughout responsible for the success of Kennedy’s embodiment of a
the remaining days of the young, charismatic, charming politics of idealism and aspiration.
president’s tenure in the White House.
“The New Frontier”
The Kennedy Mystique
President Kennedy had campaigned on a broad vision of
There is no question that the American public was fascinated with progress for the country, calling on Americans to be “new
the first family and both President Kennedy and his beautiful, pioneers” and to embrace exploration as a way of finding
classy, elegant wife, Jackie were masters of image-shaping public solutions to both foreign and domestic challenges. Once
333
president, Kennedy’s goal was to transform what had been seen America through a foreign aid program known as the Alliance for
as a broad political agenda into a legislative agenda. Kennedy’s Progress. Money was spent to build schools, houses, and
domestic program, the New Frontier, was filled with hope for sanitation facilities to help increase the standard of living in many
Americans. The domestic program called for the increase of Latin American countries.
federal funds to education, the raising of the minimum wage, the
increase of social security payout, the increase of medical Kennedy also pushed for the United States to take lead in the

assistance for the elderly, the creation of a department to help space race. After the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957,

urban affairs, and the passage of civil rights legislation. Since Kennedy vowed that the United States would land a man on the

Kennedy had won the 1960 by a slim margin he lacked a popular moon before the end of the decade in 1961. Congress agreed
with Kennedy about the importance of winning the space race
mandate--a concrete indication that the voters approved of his
and within a few weeks after his address to Congress, the
political agenda. His education and medical programs were
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) began
stalled greatly by a conservative Congress. However, Kennedy
constructing launch facilities in Cape Canaveral, Florida along
had successes with some New Frontier legislation proposals
with a mission control center located in Houston, Texas. The first
which resulted in a 20% increase in spending for the Department
success came on May 5, 1961 when Mercury Freedom 7
of Defense. Congress also approved an increase in the minimum
launched the first American, Alan B. Shepard Jr., into space.
wage ($1.25/hour), extended unemployment insurance, and
Less than a year later, on February 20, 1962, Colonel John Glenn
provided financial assistance to cities that reported high rates of
orbited the earth three times. New
unemployment.
advancements in space flight Interactive 10.10 The
Moon Landing
The New Frontier also launched the Peace Corps. This program continued throughout the decade
involved idealistic Americans providing services to third world and on July 20, 1969, President
countries. Thousands of Americans including teachers, Kennedy’s goal to land a man on
agricultural workers, health care workers, and others answered the moon was achieved when
Kennedy’s call in aiding other nations. In the time of the Cold Eagle’s astronauts Neil Armstrong,
War, this project’s underlying goal was to increase the United Buzz Aldrin, and Alan Shepherd
States’ relations with underdeveloped nations. Kennedy also took the first steps on the moon.
hoped to increase relations and push for democracy in Latin

334
The accomplishments of the space program had a substantial profiled the 42 million people who lived at or below the poverty
impact on other initiatives throughout American society. Science line, shocking millions of Americans. Combined with the growing
programs were ramped up at all levels of education, federal mass movement against segregation, in 1963, President Kennedy
funding for research and development increased which gave rise called for a “national assault on the causes of poverty.” Included
to new industries, many of which resulted in the development and in this initiative was the directive to his brother Bobby for the
rapid advancement of consumer products. Many space and Justice Department, under his leadership, to investigate the racial
defense-related industries sprang up in many western and injustices in the South.
southern states.

While many sectors

of the American
economy benefitted
from the economic
boom largely brought
about by the race for
space, there were
other places
throughout the
country where the
only increases that
were occurring were
the numbers of
people living in
poverty. Published in
1962, Michael
Harrington’s book,
The Other America https://images.newrepublic.com/483bbbadb1a3f479ff7ed62777d47eb4ea2ea08d.jpeg?
w=400&q=65&dpi=1&fm=pjpg&h=400

http://images.gr-assets.com/books/1209669296l/3260501.jpg 335
 The End of Camelot doctors tried to revive the fallen president but it was too late.
President Kennedy died less than a hour after he had been shot.
While not formally announced, President Kennedy was looking
forward to what he hoped would be an overwhelming victory in
his bid for reelection in the fall of 1963. With an approval rating
of approximately 60%, the President and Mrs. Kennedy believed
their visit to Dallas would be successful in mending political
fences with some of the state’s Democratic party members. On
November 22nd, as the Kennedy’s rode in the backseat of Texas
Governor John Connally’s open-air limousine with the governor
and his wife, President Kennedy was fatally shot by Lee Harvey
Oswald. The limousine rushed to Parkland Hospital where

http://themillenniumreport.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/8bd2e3ea-70fd-443f-
ac01-6ef5d6a49981_HTRA211_VV178_H.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/John_F._Kennedy_motorcade%2C_Dallas_crop.png

336
 This brief video clip illustrates the Interactive 10.11 JFK
immediate tone of macabre as the Assassination
nation learned from CBS’s Walter
Cronkite that President Kennedy
had died from his wounds.

John F. Kennedy Jr. Salutes his father’s casket: Source: http://static01.nyt.com/images/2012/03/05/

obituaries/05stearns1/05stearns1-articleLarge.jpg

LBJ Taking Oath: Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/

Lyndon_B._Johnson_taking_the_oath_of_office,_November_1963.jpg
337
 Section 3

The Great Society

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

1. What programs of President Johnson’s Lyndon B. Johnson

Great Society assisted certain groups of
Americans? Lyndon B. Johnson had been on the national stage since 1937. He was elected to
the House of Representatives in 1937 and the Senate in 1948. Known as having
2. How did Johnson’s Great Society create
opportunities for all Americans? limitless ambition and drive, the legendary Texan had been selected as John F.
Kennedy’s vice presidential nominee to help bring the southern Democrat vote in

3. How were the decisions of the Warren

the 1960 election. After being sworn in as the thirty-sixth president after the
Court reflective of the dominant political assassination of Kennedy, Johnson stayed true to Kennedy’s plan. As a master of
climate during the Johnson administration? politics and political party maneuvering which usually took place behind the
scenes, Johnson was the key figure in helping Congress draft and pass an $11
4. To what extent did the government- billion tax cut in February of 1964. In July of 1964, Johnson was again successful
sponsored programs of Johnson’s Great in persuading Southern democrats to stop blocking the passage of the Civil Rights
Society prompt far-reaching and long-
lasting social change? legislation and on July 2nd, signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law. Viewed
by many as one of the most important achievements of the civil rights era, the act
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
prohibited discrimination in public accommodations, housing, and jobs based on
Civil Rights Act of 1964 race, religion, national origin, and gender. Additionally, the act granted new power
24th Amendment
to the federal government to enforce the act’s provisions.
Economic Opportunity Act (EOA)
Great Society
As President Johnson was well aware of the many other types of discrimination
Elementary and Secondary Education Act
Housing and Urban Development Act
that plagued the country during this decade, he was a great supporter of the
Medicare passage of the 24th Amendment to the Constitution which prohibited the use of a
Medicaid poll tax in federal elections.
Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1965
Voting Rights Act of 1965
338
Miranda v. Arizona
Like his predecessor, Johnson too had been greatly impacted by electoral votes. The stage was now set for Johnson to launch his
the depth of poverty that Harrington’s The Other America had own reform program for the country.
revealed. In August of 1964, Johnson’s declaration of an
“unconditional war on poverty in America” had paid off.
Congress enacted the Economic Opportunity Act (EOA), which
dedicated almost $1 billion for antipoverty measures, small
business loans, youth programs, and job training. Additionally
the legislation created the Volunteers in Service to America
(VISTA) program, the Job Corps youth training program, and
Project Head Start--an education program for underprivileged
preschool students.

The 1964 Presidential Election

By the fall of 1964, President Johnson had a wide appeal and a

favorable approval rating. The Republicans knew it would be an Electoral College Map of 1964 Election. Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
uphill battle to win the presidential election even if they nominated c/ce/ElectoralCollege1964.svg/349px-ElectoralCollege1964.svg.png

the most appealing candidate possible. The Republicans chose

Senator Barry Goldwater, a conservative candidate who did not
believe in the government’s responsibility to play a part in fixing Johnson’s Great Society
some of society’s ills like discrimination, poverty, and lack of
Johnson’s “war on poverty” was realized with his domestic
opportunity. As most Americans were more in sync with
program known as the Great Society as he demonstrated on the
Johnson’s liberal goals than Goldwater’s conservative ones, and
campaign trail. The Great Society aimed to improve the lives of
agreed with Johnson that the United States would stay out of
Americans, specifically the poor, by improving the environment,
Vietnam, Johnson sailed to victory by defeating Goldwater with
the education system, and the urban centers. As the United
more than 15 million popular votes and a walloping 486 to 52
States was leaning liberal in this era, Johnson was able to
maintain support of the American public and used his personal

339
connections in Congress to push through Great Society two years later that one of the Interactive 10.12 The
Legislation. longest running educational History of Sesame Street
programs for children, Sesame
Johnson passed key pieces of legislation that protected the
Street, aired on November 10,
American environment. He passed the Wilderness Preservation
1969. While no longer housed on
Act which saved 9 million acres of land from development in
PBS stations, the show continues
1964. The following year, LBJ passed the Land and Water
in its 48th year to educate children
Conservation Act of 1965 which provided funds for conservation
around the world.
efforts at the local, state, and federal levels. Johnson also was
able to pass legislation that called for stronger restrictions on air While President Johnson signed
and water pollution. legislation that provided Americans with tools to lift themselves
out of poverty, he also worked on laws to aid those in alleviating
Education was a cornerstone of Johnson’s plan to uplift
the current stresses of those living below the poverty line. On
Americans out of poverty as approximately one fourth of all
August 10. 1965 Johnson signed the Housing and Urban
American families were living beneath the poverty line. In
Development Act. The goal of this act was to make housing more
addition to the already existing education-based programs that
affordable to Americans. It called for the increase of funds for
Johnson had helped pass in 1964, additional programs were
public housing projects,rent subsidies for the elderly and
added. In 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
economic redevelopment in inner cities.
directed money to schools for learning materials such as
textbooks and library resources, along with materials for special Along with helping the elderly and disabled with housing,
education programs. Also in 1965, the Higher Education Act was President Johnson added to New Deal Social Security legislation
put into place to fund scholarships and low-interest loans for by expanding healthcare benefits. In 1964, roughly 44 percent of
college students. Additionally, the National Foundation on the seniors did not have health coverage. By amending the Social
Arts and Humanities was founded to create financial assistance Security Act in 1965, Johnson enabled the majority of the elderly
to those involved in the arts such as painters, actors, and to have health coverage via medicare. Medicare would be
musicians. And in 1967, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting expanded to cover certain disabled Americans under the age of
was formed to fund educational television programs. It was just sixty-five. Johnson also amended the Social Security Act to

340
 include medicaid which provided insurance to some individuals States and also to attract skilled labor immigrants whereas the
who lived underneath the poverty line. previous quota act focused on reunited families. The United
States did place caps on the number of immigrants who would be
Immigration and Discrimination
allowed to relocate to the United States from each country. From
Inspired by the civil rights movement, which you’ll learn more the onset, thousands of immigrants came from war torn
about in the next chapter, Kennedy and Johnson looked to reform Southeast Asia for the chance at a better life. As time
immigration laws. From the 1920s to the 1960s, the immigration progressed, more immigrants would come from Latin American
plan was based on a quota system which originally targeted nations.

immigrants from Eastern Europe and Asia. The Immigration and

Naturalization Act of 1965 revised the quota system by
allowing entire immigrant families to move to the United

Immigrants by Top Ten Countries 1960 and 2013: Source: http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/fifty-years-1965-immigration-and-

nationality-act-continues-reshape-united-states

Immigrants by Contintient: 1960-2013: Source: http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/fifty-years-1965-immigration-

and-nationality-act-continues-reshape-united-states
341
As immigrants tended to be one minority group that often faced could not afford representation and in another case, the justices
discrimination at the voting booth, President Johnson was ruled that an accused person has a right to have a lawyer present
extremely pleased when Congress passed the Voting Rights Act when being questioned by the police. But perhaps one of the
in 1965. The act ended the practice of requiring voters to pass more widely known (and some argue most important) Court
literacy tests and again, granted the federal government the decisions was that of the Miranda v. Arizona case that ruled that
authority to monitor the provisions of the act. all suspects must be “read their rights” prior to being questioned
by authorities. Although the liberal rulings of the Court greatly
Even the Supreme Court leans Liberal
divided public opinion, one topic that was not segregated among
As Johnson’s Great Society reforms were often labeled as liberal, party lines was the expansion of both the power and reach of the
the period of liberal reform also characterized the actions of the federal government.
Supreme Court during the Johnson administration. Often referred
President Johnson’s years in office saw the greatest expansion of
to as the Warren Court from 1953-1969 because of the Court’s
government since FDR’s administration and his New Deal
Chief Justice, Earl Warren, the court was responsible for the
programs. To this day a great philosophical debate still exists as
expansion of civil rights and civil liberties as well as the expansion
to whether or not Johnson’s 40+ “Great Society” programs have
of role and power of the judiciary. For example, the Warren Court
predominantly lifted Americans up from deprivation of the usual
banned prayer in public schools and declared loyalty oaths by
comforts or necessities of life, or worsened the situation by
states unconstitutional. Additionally censorship power was
trapping the poor in a continuous state of dependency. While
limited by community entities and the meanings of symbolic
President Kennedy’s ambition and President Johnson’s
speech, seen as expressions of free speech were extended under
determination are not the subject of such philosophical debates,
the Court’s decisions. Other decisions handed down by the
Americans continue to debate whether government-sponsored
Warren Court expanded rights of those accused of crimes.
programs, are in fact, the impetus for far-reaching and lasting
Through the Court’s expressed opinions in several cases,
social change.
individual rights and protections were expanded. For example, in
Mapp v. Ohio, evidence obtained illegally could not be used in
state courts. Other extensions of individual rights included free
legal counsel to be provided to those accused of a crime that

342
Section Wrap-Up Questions:

1. How did domestic programs under John F. Kennedy and

Lyndon B. Johnson benefit various groups of Americans?

2. To what extent did American foreign policy impact the

domestic programs of Kennedy and Johnson?

3. To what extent were the domestic programs under Kennedy

and Johnson a continuation of the New Deal programs
established by President Roosevelt?

343
Chapter 11

How successful was the

US in expanding
opportunities for all
Americans?

1. How did different groups react to changes in

American society?

2. How did the second women’s movement increase

rights for women?

3. How did rights increase for disabled Americans?

 Section 1

Taking on Segregation: Challenges and Triumphs

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

1. How did different groups react to changes The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement
in American society?
Segregation in the South in the 1950s might not have existed if, in 1883, the
2. How did the second women’s movement
Supreme Court hadn’t declared The Civil Rights Act of 1875 unconstitutional. A
increase rights for women?
federal law enacted during Reconstruction, the Civil Rights Act of 1857 was to
3. How did rights increase for disabled
guarantee African Americans equal treatment in public accommodations like
Americans?
hotels, restrooms, and other public spaces, and public transportation, and
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE prohibited exclusion from serving on a jury. Additionally, the 14th Amendment
Plessy v. Ferguson
declared that all races were to be granted equal treatment under the law.
De facto segregation
However, an 1883 Supreme Court decision clarified that the law did not apply to
De jure segregation
private persons or corporations. In the decade that followed, a number of other
The Civil Rights Act of 1875
federal court decisions and state laws severely restricted the rights of African
Jim Crow laws
Americans. For example, in 1890, the State of Louisiana passed a law that
Ku Klux Klan (KKK)
required railroads to provide “equal but separate accommodations for the white
and colored races.”

Plessy Challenges Segregation

Homer Plessy challenged the Louisiana law and the legality of “separate but
equal”. In the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson case, the Supreme Court ruled that the
concept of “separate but equal” was fair and did not violate the 14th Amendment.
In other words, the decision validated the legality of “separate but equal”, turning

345
what had been de-facto segregation (acts of segregation “by Carolina were placed under martial law and thousands were
fact” rather than by formal laws) into de jure segregation, where arrested.
separate facilities for African Americans were deemed “equal” by
Segregation and economic strife led to the relocation of 6 million
the courts. Separate facilities, ranging from schools, churches,
African Americans from the rural south to the northern cities and
restaurants, and even public restrooms and drinking fountains
factory opportunities. World War I created a demand for
began appearing all over the South, as well as in the North.
industrial workers and this urban growth lasted until the 1970s.
These segregation laws
Interactive 11.1 Literacy And although segregation was illegal in the North, racism and
commonly known as Jim Crow
Test prejudice was still a problem. For example, it was common
laws, kept segregation at the
practice for white homeowners to refuse to sell to blacks and
forefront of society. Other laws
these actions and others like it were legal until 1948. High rents,
like poll taxes and literacy tests
and a resurgence of KKK activity in the North in 1915 increased
prevented African Americans
racial tensions and led to a wave of race riots. Chicago saw the
from voting but also made it
worst one in the summer of 1919. It lasted 13 days, killed 38,
illegal to serve on juries or run for
injured 537 and left 1,000 black families homeless. Despite
public office.
racism and unfair housing practices, African Americans were able
Click here to se a sample literacy
In the post Civil War South, test from Louisiana. to rise above and create their own cities within cities that fostered
several confederate veterans growth and culture and unity.
formed a secret social fraternity in 1865 called the Ku Klux Klan
(KKK). In order to achieve its primary goal of reestablishing white
supremacy in the South, the KKK engaged in an underground
campaign of intimidation and violence against African Americans
•
and their white supporters. Their tactics included intimidation,
destruction of property, assault, lynching and murder. In 1871
Congress authorized President Grant to use the military to
suppress the KKK and during this time nine counties in South

346
Strategy: Two-Voice Poetry Early attempts at addressing these injustices were addressed
through the formation of National Association for the
Two voice poetry is written from 2 different perspectives to
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909. Sprouting
represent two different angles or points of view in history. Using
from the early efforts of The Niagara Movement, started by WEB
the information from this unit, create a two voice poem that
du Bois in 1905, the NAACP was a much larger and more
shows how lives could have been drastically different for a
powerful group of both blacks and whites who were dedicated to
variety of groups in the United States.
seeking political, social, economic, and educational equality for
The poem should include the following: minority groups in the United States. Early efforts of the NAACP
included addressing the horrific practice of lynching in the south,
• Two developed, clearly recognizable voices as well as attacking segregationist practices nation wide that they
felt were violations of the 14th and 15th Amendments to the
• Depictions of the differences and similarities between the lives
or two groups or individual people in history Constitution.

World War II and its Impact on

• Accurate information from both sides of the story
the Movement

World War II played a pivotal role

Interactive 11.2 de facto/ in jumpstarting a more active
de jure Segregation
pursuit of Civil Rights than many
realize. African Americans
played an important role,
alongside women, in the
industrial war time economy that
effectively enabled the US to
help the Allies win the war. Had
Listen to each of the audio it not been for the need for
interviews in this interactive. On a image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
separate sheet of paper determine workers in these defense
File:UNITED_WE_WIN_-_NARA_-_513820.jpg
whether each is an example of de
facto or de jure segregation. 347
industry factories, leading to the second Great Migration of and the other guaranteeing fair employment practices in the civil
African American families out of the South in pursuit of these service.
jobs, some of the issues surrounding equal rights would have
Meanwhile, another group of brave African Americans fought
taken much longer to come out of the south and to the forefront
discrimination in the armed forces. Despite the strict
(Learn more about what caused this poster to be created! Click
segregationist policies of the US Army during World War II, this
here!).
did not stop the Tuskegee Airmen from proving their skill and
Despite the continued rejection of equality, this did not stop ability to be equal to that of white pilots. The Army deemed the
African Americans from partaking, in many cases willingly and integration of the Army Air Corps a failure before it even got off
with great achievement, in the fight for freedom abroad. African the ground, but participants in the program proved these initial
American soldiers, despite their segregation into colored only assessments to be blatantly false and unfounded. The 99th
units (typically under the command of white officers), served with Pursuit Squadron became the first unit of African American pilots
bravery and honor during both World War I, World War II, and to serve in the war, earning three Distinguished Unit Citations,
beyond.

During World War II, African Americans enlisted not only to fight
oppression abroad, but at home as well, in what became known
as the Double V Campaign. The Pittsburgh Courier, a widely read
black newspaper developed the idea of “Victory at Home and
Victory Abroad”, to fight the hypocrisy of the American war effort
abroad and the unequal treatment which African Americans were
subject to on the home front. In response to various protests,
President Roosevelt issued a directive that federal agencies and
all companies that were engaged in war work were prohibited
from practicing any kind of racial discrimination. This set the
stage for the actions of President Truman who in 1948 issued two
executive orders: one banning segregation in the armed forces

348
amongst many other recognitions for their valor in battle. The
Tuskegee Airmen played an integral role in challenging the Army’s
strict segregationist practices. With the efforts on the home front
of people like A. Philip Randolph and the NAACP, and the
continued valantry of other African American soldiers and units
across the globe, lead President Truman to issue Executive
Order 9981 in 1948, which effectively ended all discriminatory
practices in the military.

But the fight for equality was far from over, and if anything, was
just heating up.

349
 Section 2

Early Demands for Racial Equality

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Early Demands for Racial Equality

1. How did different groups react to changes
Rooted in religion and common sense, the earliest instances of what later became
in American society?
known as the Civil Rights Movement involved direct action that occurred at the
2. How did the second women’s movement
local level. In Atlanta, for example, after a state law was passed in 1891
increase rights for women?
segregating streetcars, black men and women carried out a successful strike in
3. How did rights increase for disabled 1892, partially because of the aid and blessings of institutions and businesses of
Americans?
the black community. Other instances of direct action as well as collective self-
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE defense by united African Americans in the city was the impetus for the
Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party establishment of the Niagara Movement by an Atlanta University professor, W.E.B.
Voting Rights Act of 1965 DuBois. Four years later as the National Association
NAACP for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was Interactive 11.3 The
Double V Campaign founded, the Niagara Movement had been the NAACP and the Birth of a
Tuskegee Airmen forerunner. Nation
Executive Order 9981
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) By 1942, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) was
Brown v. Board of Education founded by James Farmer and George Houser.
Little Rock Nine Along with the NAACP, CORE addressed
Boycott segregation on the homefront. Unlike the NAACP,
The Civil Rights Act of 1957 CORE took a more grassroots focus to its approach
Southern Christian Leadership Conference of dealing with segregation. CORE’s basis of
Nonviolent protest operations was in northern cities (such as Chicago,
Sit-ins
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee 350
where it was founded) and their protests were inspired by the with a batting average of .296 and was voted Rookie of the Year.
practices of Mahatma Gandhi, who practiced civil disobedience, Because of his self-control both on and off the field along with
rather than violent protests. CORE staged sit-in protests in an his determination to represent baseball to the best of his capacity,
attempt to draw attention to the injustices of segregated public by the end of his first season with the Dodgers, Robinson had
facilities such as restaurants and theaters and was often successfully broken the color barrier and paved the way for other
extremely successful in the North, conveying its message of black players to integrate the National Baseball League.
direct action to bring about social change. However, in 1955, as
CORE provided its philosophical commitment to nonviolent direct
action to the Montgomery Bus Boycott, CORE shifted the focus
of its energy to the South.

The Color Barrier is Broken in Baseball

“A life is not important except in the impact it has on other lives.”

Appropriately said by Jackie Robinson, the first African American
to play in baseball’s major league in over 50+ years when
selected by Branch Rickey, president of the Brooklyn Dodgers in
1947. On April 15, 1947, Robinson played his first major-league
game: "It was the most eagerly anticipated debut in the annals of
the national pastime," wrote Robert Lipsyte and Pete Levine in
Idols of the Game. "It represented both the dream and the fear of
equal opportunity, and it would change forever the complexion of
the game and the attitudes of Americans." Robinson was
subjected to endless taunts by players and fans and was a
physical target to some pitchers, but was able to practice self-
restraint and discipline by not lashing out or being a reckless
player. He tolerated a hostile press as he finished his first season
image source: https://dakiniland.files.wordpress.com/2016/09/jackie-robinson.jpg

351
The Supreme Court Takes on Segregation and Equal Rights The legal dismantling of the “separate but equal” precedent
established by the Plessy decision made huge gains in 1954 with
The 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson Supreme Court decision that
the Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education of
“separate was equal” had set a precedent which had
Topeka, Kansas. The case centered around Linda Brown and
detrimentally impacted equality through the eyes of the law for
her family’s struggle, along with twenty other African American
decades. Thanks to the efforts of organizations like the NAACP
families, who were denied admission to the elementary school in
and CORE, the individual contributions of minorities on the
her neighborhood because they were African American. The
homefront working in factories and staging grassroots
court ruled 9-0 in favor of the Brown family, and African American
movements, and those fighting abroad, the Supreme Court began
families nationwide, when Chief Justice Earl Warren stated in his
to take action to reverse some of the damage that had been done
majority opinion that “separate is inherently unequal.” De Jure
by the Plessy decision. In 1950,
segregation was now unconstitutional under the law, but the
with the cases of Sweatt v.
Interactive 11.4 battle of undoing what had been established by the Plessy
Painter and McLaurin v. Segregation/Integration decision was only just beginning.
Oklahoma State Regents, the
NAACP legal team led by future Excerpts from majority opinions Brown v. Board of Education:
Supreme Court Justice
“We come then to the question
Thurgood Marshall, devised a
presented: Does segregation of
plan to begin challenging and
children in public schools solely on the
dismantling the “separate but
basis of race, even though the
equal” precedent established
Read each argument and drag it physical facilities and other "tangible"
by the Plessy ruling, placing the to the appropriate side.
factors may be equal, deprive the
organization’s limited resources
children of the minority group of equal
in the direction of desegregating public education.
educational opportunities? We believe
that it does….

Justice Earl Warren

352
To separate [children in grade school and high school] from equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth
others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their Amendment.
race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the
Responses to Brown and Desegregation
community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way
unlikely ever to be undone. The effect of this separation on their While the Supreme Court may have unanimously ruled to reverse
educational opportunities was well stated by a finding in the “separate but equal”, there were many Americans who did not
Kansas case by a court which nevertheless felt compelled to rule share the court’s enthusiasm, and the tradition of de facto
against the Negro plaintiffs:Segregation of white and colored segregation was not going to go down without a fight.
children in public schools has a detrimental effect upon the
colored children. The impact is greater when it has the sanction of A year after the initial Brown decision, a second court case, which
the law, for the policy of separating the races is usually became known as Brown II, established that school
interpreted as denoting the inferiority of the negro group. A sense desegregation would happen with “all deliberate speed”. This
of inferiority affects the motivation of a child to learn. Segregation rather ambiguous statement left little certainty as to what “all
with the sanction of law, therefore, has a tendency to [retard] the deliberate speed” actually meant. In response to both Brown
educational and mental development of negro children and to decisions, many southern senators and representatives pledged
deprive them of some of the benefits they would receive in a their support to prevent the enforcement of the Brown ruling by all
racial[ly] integrated school system. [n10] Whatever may have “lawful means”, stating that the Supreme Court had
been the extent of psychological knowledge at the time of Plessy misinterpreted the 14th amendment. This “Southern Manifesto”
v. Ferguson, this finding is amply supported by modern authority. as it became known, may have had no legal standing, but
[n11]Any language [p495] in Plessy v. Ferguson contrary to this became the rallying cry of many southerners to save Jim Crow
finding is rejected. and defy the rulings of the court.

We conclude that, in the field of public education, the doctrine of The Little Rock Nine and Public School Desegregation
"separate but equal" has no place. Separate educational facilities
The Brown decision not only placed stronger emphasis on
are inherently unequal. Therefore, we hold that the plaintiffs and
eliminating the impacts of Plessy on the school system, but it also
others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought
challenged the relationship between state governments and the
are, by reason of the segregation complained of, deprived of the
federal government.
353
 segregationists and in the fall of 1957, he ordered the National
Guard to block the entry of nine African American students who
had volunteered to be the first students to integrate Central High
School. In response, that same afternoon, a federal judge
ordered the governor to let the students into school the following
day.

Eight of the nine students who had telephones received calls from
local ministers volunteering to escort them to school the following
day to ensure their safety. Elizabeth Eckford, however, did not
have a phone and therefore, was never notified of the plan. The
following day, wearing the dress she
had made for her first day at Central Interactive 11.5 Linking
image source: https://media2.fdncms.com/orlando/imager/u/original/2929116/littlerock.jpeg
High School, she set out alone to walk Past to Present
to school. Encountering an abusive
One of the more notorious confrontations pitting the demands of crowd of students and adults, Eckford
state and federal government against each other occurred in Little was finally able to make it to a bus
Rock, Arkansas. By the 1950s, the desegregation scene in Little stop where she waited until the bus
Rock was beginning to change as some labor unions had quietly arrived.
ended their Jim Crow practices. Additionally, two men who
publicly supported desegregation had been elected to the school Until the situation in Little Rock,
President Eisenhower had taken very Read the article above and
board, and the superintendent of the school began working on a
write a brief paragraph explain-
plan in 1953 for desegregation to occur gradually within the little public stance on the matter of
ing whether or not you agree
school system. However, state politics did not mirror the enforcing the Brown decision, or civil with Carlotta Walls LaNeir’s
rights in general. After Governor position that the issue over
“progressive view” of the Little Rock school system. In 1957, the transgender bathroom use
current governor of Arkansas, Orval Faubus, saw himself in the Faubus utilized the National Guard to marks a step backwards in his-
resist the mandate handed down by tory?
middle of a tight race for reelection. The governor backed

354
the federal courts, The President realized he had no choice but to the bus, and if a white passenger had nowhere to sit, African
take action. To ensure that the federal law was followed, Americans were required to give up their seat to the white
President Eisenhower placed the Arkansas National Guard under passenger.
his control and deployed the 101st Airborne Division to ensure
Rumblings of a boycott had been brewing surrounding the arrest
that The Little Rock 9 could enter the school to attend class.
of African American women on city buses who refused to give up
Problems for the nine students continued throughout the school
their seats to white passengers, but the arrest of Rosa Parks on
year by troublemakers who confronted them in the halls and
December 1, 1955 set the boycott into motion.
stairways and in the cafeteria. At the end of the school year,
Governor Faubus shut down Central High School
to ensure that he would not be forced to allow
further integration in the school system to
continue. The situation in Little Rock
demonstrated that President Eisenhower would
not tolerate open defiance of federal law by state
governments. But despite his firm stance, it
would be many years before public schools were
fully integrated.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

While the nation braced for the inevitable

disagreements over desegregating schools,
another storm had been brewing in Montgomery,
Alabama. Public transportation throughout much
of the south was ruled by strict de jure http://www.history.com/s3static/video-thumbnails/AETN-History_VMS/1017/447/
History_Rosa_Parks_Montgomery_Bus_Boycott_179889_SF_HD_still_624x352.jpg
segregationist practices. On city buses, African
Americans were required to sit near the back of

355
 Rosa Parks was an active member of the local chapter of the services. The following day, 90 percent of African Americans who
NAACP, and they quickly responded to her arrest. E.D. Nixon, a typically rode the bus united together and refused to ride,
long time leader for the NAACP, was credited with helping Miss choosing to carpool and walk instead. Inspired by the words of
Parks secure bail and went on to seek her permission to use her Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., the boycott lasted 381 days.
case as the test case to try to end segregation on public
transportation. Shortly after Parks’ arrest, a group of African
American ministers met to discuss how to respond. Since African As you read the following excerpt from Dr. King’s first public
speech, think about:
Americans made up an overwhelming majority of Montgomery’s
bus riding patrons, the decision was made to boycott the How the structure of his speech is used to emphasize key
ideas of nonviolent civil disobedience.
Montgomery Bus System starting on December 5th. The
Montgomery Improvement Association was formed to organize
How the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in this
the boycott and ministers under the leadership of a young, speech emphasize a desire to see political justice enforced.

dynamic pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, Dr. Martin

Luther King, Jr., spread word of the boycott during Sunday

“...And you know, my friends, there comes a time when people

get tired of being trampled over by the iron feet of oppression.
There comes a time, my friends, when people get tired of being
plunged across the abyss of humiliation, where they experience
the bleakness of nagging despair. There comes a time when
people get tired of being pushed out of the glittering sunlight of
life's July and left standing amid the piercing chill of an alpine
November. There comes a time.

We are here, we are here this evening because we're tired now.
And I want to say that we are not here advocating violence. We
have never done that. I want it to be known throughout
Image source: http://www.crmvet.org/crmpics/mbb1.jpg
356
Montgomery and throughout this nation that we are Christian During the 381 days of the boycott, boycotters remained
people. We believe in the Christian religion. We believe in the nonviolent, despite some violent events that occurred. Late in
teachings of Jesus. The only weapon that we have in our hands 1956, in response to a lawsuit filed by the bus boycotters, the
this evening is the weapon of protest. That's all. Supreme Court outlawed bus segregation. On December 21,
1956, as Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. sat in the front seat of a
And certainly, certainly, this is the glory of America, with all of its
Montgomery bus, he commented that, “It was a great ride.”
faults. This is the glory of our democracy. If we were incarcerated
behind the iron curtains of a Communistic nation we couldn't do The Civil Rights Act of 1957 was signed into law not long after
this. If we were dropped in the dungeon of a totalitarian regime the end of the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the faceoff between
we couldn't do this. But the great glory of American democracy state and federal governments over school integration in Little
is the right to protest for right. My friends, don't let anybody make Rock, Arkansas. The act created the United States Civil Rights
us feel that we are to be compared in our actions with the Ku Klux Commission, which gave power to the US Attorney General to
Klan or with the White Citizens Council. There will be no crosses investigate violations of civil rights protected by the 14th and 15th
burned at any bus stops in Montgomery. There will be no white amendments. While it lacked some of the teeth to truly put the
persons pulled out of their homes issue of civil rights to rest, the act was chalked up as a symbolic
and taken out on some distant victory since it was the first piece of civil rights legislation passed
Interactive 11.6 Learn
road and lynched for not More since Reconstruction. The political and legal activism of groups
cooperating. There will be like CORE and the NAACP paired with the bravery of individuals
nobody amid, among us who will like Rosa Parks, the Little Rock Nine, and many others began to
stand up and defy the challenge the meaning of “liberty and justice for all” and draw
Constitution of this nation. We attention to the fact that the United States was falling short of
only assemble here because of living up to the full meaning of its creed.
our desire to see right exist. My
friends, I want it to be known that
Learn more about the bus boycott
we're going to work with grim and here!
bold determination to gain justice
on the buses in this city.”

357
African American Churches and the Civil Rights Movement The power of nonviolent protest in the Montgomery bus boycott
galvanized a new group of civil rights activists: students. African
The Montgomery bus boycott illustrated the power of unity as
American students anxious for integration were disappointed at
well as the impact of organized, nonviolent resistance. The
the rate “all deliberate speed” was being carried out by southern
success of the Montgomery bus boycott also demonstrated the
schools moving towards integration. But the schools were not
important role that African American churches played in the Civil
the only areas of society dragging their feet at the pace of “all
Rights movement. For centuries, the church had served as a
deliberate speed” when it came to integration. On February 1,
place for African Americans to join together communally and
1960, Four African American students enrolled at North Carolina
escape the horrors and injustices of slavery. The early meetings
Agricultural and Technical College staged one of the first “sit-ins”
to discuss the response to Rosa Parks’s arrest also thrust 26 year
old clergyman Martin Luther King, Jr. into the spotlight as the
charismatic leader of the Civil Rights movement.

King’s message of nonviolence became the focus of the newly

created Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in
the wake of the successful Montgomery bus boycott. The
practice of nonviolent protest and civil disobedience became
the mainstay of the early Civil Rights Movement. King’s focus on
nonviolence which King referred to as “soul force” centered
around his study and admiration of the teachings and practices
of Mohandas Ghandi, Henry David Thoreau, and A. Philip
Randolph. King’s adoption of nonviolence would empower and
inspire the next generation of Civil Rights Activists.

Nonviolence and the 1960s

Image source: http://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/6-legacy/images/sit-in.jpg

358
at a Woolworth’s lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina. supporting it as well as the tactics they were using to promote its
On the first day of the sit-in, the “Greensboro Four” as they message.
became known arrived and asked to receive service at the
Pressure on the federal government intensifies
counter. When they were denied service, and asked to leave,
they refused to comply with the request and sat at the counter In 1961, CORE’s leadership decided it was time to test the
until Woolworth’s closed. The next day they returned, and original Supreme Court’s decisions on the desegregation of bus seating
four were joined by twenty five more supporters. By the third day and bus terminal facilities. Two interracial teams of freedom
of the protest, more than 300 students had joined the Greensboro riders each boarded a bus with the intent of riding throughout the
Four, and the the sit-in movement was garnering national South challenging segregation. The rationale was that if
attention. instances of violence occurred, President Kennedy and his
administration would have no choice but to enforce
By the end of July, 1960, Woolworth’s announced that it would
desegregation laws. When the first bus reached the state line of
integrate its lunch counters serving any properly dressed and
Alabama, the violence began when six racists boarded the bus
“well-behaved” individual. The 6 month long nonviolent sit-in
and attacked both black and white members of the interracial
movement had been a success.
team violently. After the first incident, as the bus ventured further
The Evolution of the Movement into Alabama, a
hostile mob
The Greensboro sit-in protest sparked a surge of sit-in protests
attacked the group
around the country protesting segregation at a variety of public
again at the
places ranging from beaches to libraries and involved over 71,000
Birmingham bus
sit-in protesters and resulting in over 3,000 arrests. The
terminal. One of the
overwhelming success of many of these protests led to the a
riders, James Peck
meeting amongst student organizers in Raleigh, North Carolina in
was beaten
1960. The result of the meeting was the formation of the Student
unconscious and
Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). The Civil Rights
required fifty-three http://www.core-online.org/historyphotos/burning_bus.gif

movement was evolving and with it so too were the individuals stitches to sew up

359
his badly battered face and head. The ride of the first bus would
end there but the second bus continued southward. When the
second bus reached Anniston, Alabama, 200 angry whites
attacked bus two, damaging the sides and slashing its tires. The
mob continued the violence by blocking the doors and throwing a
fire bomb onto the back of the bus. Barely escaping in time, the
freedom riders forced open the door and ran to safety as the bus
exploded into a ball of flames.

When the bus company refused to continue the trip, most riders
boarded a flight to New Orleans. However, an interesting turn of
events would take place. Diane Nash, a leader within the SNCC
informed CORE’s director, James Farmer that a group of Nashville
SNCC members wanted to continue the freedom ride. Hesitantly,
Farmer agreed and the SNCC volunteers rode into Birmingham.
Once there, the police commissioner and his men proceeded to
pull the students off the bus, beating them before driving them
across state lines into Tennessee. Not to be discouraged, the
SNCC volunteers returned to the Birmingham terminal, waiting for
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/media/filer_public_thumbnails/filer_public/93/2b/
18 hours in the whites-only waiting room for a bus driver willing to 932bfeac-0f4d-4181-9f13-2aa8ce70c90d/
whatcamenext_bus_600.jpg__600x601_q85_crop_subsampling-2_upscale.jpg
transport them. After an angry phone call from Attorney General
Robert Kennedy, the bus company convinced their driver to drive protect the riders at their last stop in Jackson, Mississippi.
the students to Montgomery. Although Kennedy had been Additionally, the Interstate Commerce Commission along with
promised police protection for the riders, none were stationed at the attorney general issued an order banning all segregation in
the Montgomery terminal when the bus arrived. Newspapers interstate travel facilities.
across the country denounced the violence that had occurred.
This convinced President Kennedy to send U.S. marshals to

360
 Interactive 11.7 Robert F.
Kennedy at the University
Many Americans wondered if of Georgia
President Kennedy would
consistently defend endeavors
aimed at increasing civil rights
for African Americans. Listen
to how that question was
answered as President
Kennedy’s brother and
Attorney General Robert F.
Kennedy addresses graduates at The University of Georgia in
May of 1961.

As desegregation was slowly occurring at interstate travel

facilities, civil rights workers decided to turn their attention to
assisting with desegregation efforts in schools. By September of
https://acriticalreviewofthehelp.files.wordpress.com/2010/07/blocade-at-ole-miss.jpg
1962, James Meredith would make history as the first black
student to attend the University of Mississippi--most commonly continued to escort Meredith to class and protect his parents
known as Ole Miss. However, his admittance won through a after their home had been shot up by nightriders.
federal court case was only the first step. As Meredith arrived on
By 1963, things were heating up in Birmingham. Reverend Fred
campus to register, Governor Ross Barnett refused to let him
Shuttlesworth who was the head of the Alabama Christian
register as a student.
Movement for Human Rights had decided that the strict
As riots broke out on campus causing two deaths and requiring enforcement of segregation in all aspects of public life needed to
more than 5,000 soldiers over fifteen hours to stop the violence, end. Additionally, he had decided that it was time to put the
President Kennedy’s consistent use of federal troops to ensure power of nonviolence to the test so he invited Dr. Martin Luther
desegregation continued to prove effective as federal officials King, Jr. and the SCLC to help desegregate the city. At the end of
361
several days of demonstrations, agonizing pathos: “Daddy, why do white
King led a march into the streets people treat colored people so mean?”...then
of Birmingham where the you will understand why we find it difficult to
marchers were arrested, including wait.”
King. While in jail, Dr. King wrote
an open letter to the white
religious leaders who believed
that he was pushing for
desegregation too quickly.
Interactive 11.8 Letter from
“I guess it is easy for those who Birmingham Jail
have never felt the stinging darts
of segregation to say wait. But
when you have seen vicious
mobs lynch your mothers and
fathers at will and drown your
sisters and brothers at whim;
when you have seen hate-filled
To view the entire document
policemen curse, kick, brutalize, written by Dr. Martin Luther King,
and even kill your black brothers Jr., click here:

and sisters with impunity; when

you see the vast majority of your
20 million Negro brothers
smothering in an airtight cage of
https://sojo.net/sites/default/files/magazine/king.jpg
poverty in the midst of an affluent
society;...when you have to
concoct an answer for a five-year-old son who is asking in

362
 On April 20th, Dr. King was able to post bail. Upon his release he Finally, after continued protests, economic boycotts, and
began organizing more demonstrations. This time is was the continued negative media coverage, officials met King’s demands
children’s turn. On May 2nd, more than a thousand African to end segregation in the city of Birmingham. Considered by
American children marched in the streets of Birmingham. The many as an incredible victory for civil rights, many African
infamous police commissioner, Bull Connor, arrested 959 of the Americans across the country were inspired. Meanwhile,
children who demonstrated. The following day when more President Kennedy believed that nothing short of a new civil
children marched, Connor had his helmeted police force sweep rights act would end the disorder and violence and ensure racial
the children marchers off of their feet with high-pressure fire justice. Understanding that new legislation would take time,
hoses, set attack dogs on them, and clubbed the children who fell President Kennedy, in the meantime, continued to utilize federal
down. As television cameras recorded the entire scene, millions troops to assist with desegregation of public schools. On June
of television viewers witnessed the brutality of the police force as 11, 1963, Kennedy forced Alabama governor George Wallace to
well as the screams of children. honor a court order calling for the desegregation of the University
of Alabama; federal troops again had been utilized to ensure the
court order had been honored. Later that evening in
a nationally televised address, President Kennedy
demanded that Congress pass a new civil rights bill.
Listen to President Kennedy’s address on civil rights
here

Interactive 11.9 Kennedy’s

Civil Rights Address

https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/6e/9c/3e/6e9c3e3c75f75a0e8d429fa159ae00c7.jpg

363
Not everyone agreed with President Kennedy’s stance on the A Dream of Equality
need for new civil rights legislation. Just hours after the
The civil rights bill that President Kennedy sent to Congress was
president’s public address, white supremacist Byron de la
to guarantee equal access to all public accommodations,
Beckwith shot and killed Medgar Evers, an NAACP field secretary,
including public schools. Additionally, the bill gave power to the
in the driveway of his home in Jackson, Mississippi. As a field
U.S. Attorney General to file desegregation suits against schools.
worker, Evers had traveled throughout Mississippi encouraging
Determined to help persuade Congress to pass the bill, leaders
poor African Americans to register to vote and become active in
of the SCLC worked diligently to organize a massive march on the
the civil rights movement. Additionally, Evers played a key role in
nation’s capital. On August 28 of 1963, more than 250,000
obtaining witnesses and evidence for the Emmitt Till murder case,
marchers (75,000 of which were white) assembled on the grounds
a case that brought attention to the nation about the plight of
near the Washington
African Americans in the South.
Monument in
Washington D.C. and
walked to the Lincoln
Monument.
Assembled on the
mall plaza, people
listened to many of
the movement’s
leaders plead for
passage of the
president’s civil rights
bill.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2d/Medgar_Evers.jpg

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/
IhaveadreamMarines.jpg

364
When Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Interactive 11.10 King’s - I was the right of all citizens to enter parks, restrooms, libraries,
took the podium, the huge crowd Have a Dream Speech restaurants, theaters, and other public facilities.
erupted with thunderous applause.
Struggles for Voting Rights Continue
His “I Have a Dream” speech
appealed for peace and racial Although the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was seen as
harmony. Listen to an excerpt of it a victory for ensuring certain civil rights for African Americans,
here while paying attention to his members of both CORE and SNCC believed that expanding
repeated refrain and think about why voting rights for African Americans would be critical to the
it was so powerful. election of legislators who would support civil rights. Hoping for
national publicity to influence Congress to pass a voting rights
More Violence Occurs
act, CORE and SNCC led Freedom Summer, a voter registration
Even though King’s speech had inspired thousands on August project focused mainly in Mississippi. Almost immediately, the
28th, just two weeks later racial violence erupted again in project encountered violent opposition when three civil rights
Birmingham. On Sunday morning September 15th, a bomb workers disappeared. White volunteers from New York, Michael
thrown out of a speeding car exploded inside the Sixteenth
Street Baptist Church, killing four young girls and wounding
several others. The church had consisted of a predominantly
black congregation and had often served as a meeting place for
civil rights leaders.

Two months after the bombing of the Sixteenth Street Baptist

Church, President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas
on November 22, 1963. The succeeding president, Lyndon
Baines Johnson vowed to carry on the work that President
Kennedy had accomplished and on July 2, 1964, the president
signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, prohibiting discrimination
based on race, religion, national origin, and gender. Paramount
365
Schwerner and Andrew Goodman and James Chaney, an African The Selma Campaign
American volunteer from Mississippi were beaten and then
Early in 1965, the SCLC decided Selma, Alabama would be the
murdered by Klansmen with the support of local police.
focus of a concentrated voter registration drive. Dr. King, who
In Mississippi, the murders shook the project as threats and predicted a hostile white response, was hopeful that if would
violence continued. Many workers resented the lack of federal convince the president’s administration of the need to sponsor a
protection and the slowness of the investigation into the murders federal voting-rights law. The month of January saw over 2,000
of the three SNCC volunteers. The result was mounting distrust African Americans arrested in demonstrations, many of which had
between blacks and white workers and while fifty Freedom been brutally attacked by sheriff Jim Clark and his men. In
Schools were organized, the result was minimal--only 1200 February officers shot and killed a demonstrator. In response, Dr.
African Americans were registered. King announced a 50 mile protest march beginning in Selma and
ending at the state’s capital of Montgomery. Approximately 600
Another setback came in August when President Johnson’s
protesters gathered to begin the march on March 7, 1965 but
administration pressured civil rights leaders to try and convince
didn’t get far until they encountered Alabama state troopers.
members of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
Armed with whips, nightsticks, and tear gas, the troopers rushed
(MFDP) to accept a compromise of 2 of Mississippi’s 68 seats at
the crowd at the Edmund Pettus Bridge, pushing the crowd back
the convention along with a promise to ban discrimination at the
into the city of Selma. The nationally televised scene shocked
1968 Democratic Convention. On the state front, members of the
Americans and demonstrators from around the country poured
MFDP felt they had been betrayed by civil rights leaders, leading
into Selma to join the march. President Johnson responded by
to conflict among various civil rights groups. Regionally, a deep
asking Congress to quickly pass a new voting rights act. On
division arose between those who believed in integration and
Sunday, March 31st, 3,000 once again set out for Montgomery
nonviolence and mostly young African Americans who doubted
with federal protection. By the time the marchers reached
that racial equality could be achieved through peaceful
Montgomery, some 25,000 demonstrators had joined as they all
endeavors. While the movement remained active, it began to lose
walked into Montgomery.
the component of solidarity that had been the key to success in
the movement.

366
 northern cities leading to violent disturbances in the second half
of the decade.

http://www.miamiherald.com/news/local/community/miami-dade/kummwn/picture7402148/alternates/FREE_640/
Selma%20march%202.jpg

Ten weeks after the Selma march to Montgomery, Congress

passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, eliminating literacy tests
that had disqualified so many voters. Additionally, the act also
allowed for federal examiners to enroll voters denied suffrage by
local officials. Although seen as a major civil rights victory to
many, some African Americans felt the law did not go far enough.
Social and economic inequities had been the result of over two
hundred years of discrimination. Anger boiled over in many

367
Organization Key People Key Features

Focused on legal cases to

NAACP Thurgood Marshall
end segregation

Advocated separation of the

Nation of Islam Malcom X
races

Grassroots campaigns in
James Famer mostly Northern cities
CORE
Greg Houser organizing civil disobedience
responses as protests

At King’s urging, consistent

practices of civil disobedience
Martin Luther King
SCLC and nonviolent protests in
Jr. Ralph Abernathy
response to racially
segregated actions

Black and white college

James Lawson
volunteers with single goal of
SNCC Ella Baker
registering African American
Stokely Carmichael
voters mainly in the deep
South

Grassroots “survival
programs” for African
Black Panther Huey Newton Americans in cities across the
Party Bobby Seale country; fought against police
brutality and education
inequality

368
Section 3

Continuing to Seek Greater Equality

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Northern Segregation

1. How did different groups react to changes
While most segregation in the South was de jure segregation (segregation by law),
in American society?
segregation problems in the North had been the result of de facto segregation
2. How did the second women’s movement
(segregation that exists due to practices and social customs). Because the
increase rights for women?
elimination of each type of segregation required different measures, social activists
3. How did rights increase for disabled found it much more difficult to change de facto segregation in the North;
Americans?
convincing whites to share both economic and social power with African
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE Americans was a monumental task.
“White flight”
African American migration to Northern cities after World War II which caused
“Black Power” “white flight” in which huge numbers of whites living in cities moved to newly built
Black Panther Party suburbs. By the middle of the 1960s, most urban dwellers living in large and in
many cases somewhat old cities found themselves living in slums that were not
Survival Programs
up-to-code with local housing ordinances. Not surprisingly, city schools
Kerner Commission
deteriorated along side local neighborhoods and along with the mass exodus of
Civil Rights Act of 1968 white workers and their salaries, unemployment rates among African Americans
Affirmative action were at least twice as high as their white working counterparts.

Urban Violence Explodes

Although gains in voting rights and the desegregation of public schools had been
widely publicized, the result in northern cities was that of impatience for

369
 discrimination in other areas such as housing, wages, job time it had ended over 100 people had been injured and several
opportunities, and equal treatment by police forces that patrolled hundred arrested.
their streets. It seemed as though urban cities were powder kegs
This riot sparked other riots throughout the state that would occur
ready to explode.
throughout the month of July, one of which took place in
On July 18th,1964, a clash between African American teenagers Rochester, a town 330 miles northwest of New York City. The
and white police officers in New York City, ending in the death of Rochester Riot occurred from July 24-26, sparked by an arrest at
a 15 year old student, ignited a race riot in central Harlem. By the a street party resulting in three days of rioting. The struggle for
equality that the Civil Rights movement brought to the South had
taken a turn in the North.

To better understand the situation in the North, take a look at two

perspectives of individuals who lived in Rochester at the time of
the riots:
Interactive 11.11 The Race
Roberta Abbott Buckle, a white
Riots Revisited
teenager, lost her father, the head
of civil defense for the city when
the helicopter he was flying in
crashed. She talks about her own
racist feelings and how and when
those feelings changed:

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Demonstrators-Harlem-1964.jpg

370
Similar conflicts took place between the summer of 1964 and the
spring of 1968. Look at the chart below to obtain a sense of the
extent of racial disturbances in a time period of less than four
years during the 1960s.

Questions to think about with regard to race riots throughout the

nation’s history:

Riots in Chicago after the death of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Is there a certain time of year where rioting has more frequently
occurred?
https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/93/81/
d7/9381d7bc0b77ee3fcc65af296b0d6f4d.jpg What role, if any, does geography play in where riots tend to
occur?
Which riots have been ranked as the most deadly?
Which year has seen the most rioting?

371
Visit the site below to find answers to some of these intriguing
questions:

Interactive 11.12 Brief

History of Race Riots

New Leaders on the Scene

The anger responsible for most of the riots that had occurred was
rooted, in large part, from African American leaders who had
revived the belief that African Americans needed to take complete
control of their own communities, cultures, and livelihoods. https://www.vocate.me/blog/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/malcolmx1.png

Malcolm X was one of those leaders. Born Malcolm Little on

hierarchy to become one of Muhammad’s most famous disciples
May 19, 1925 in Omaha, Nebraska, Malcolm at the age of 20 was
within the Nation of Islam (NOI) organization. An engaging
sent to jail for burglary. It was in prison where he studied Islam
speaker, Malcolm X openly preached that whites were the cause
through the teachings of Elijah Muhammad, the head of the
of the conditions of blacks throughout the country. By 1959,
Nation of Islam.
Mike Wallace, a well-known new reporter featured Malcolm X in a
By 1952, after his release from prison, Malcolm (now ridding week-long television special. Titled, The Hate That Hate
himself of his last name and taking the name of “X”) had become Produced, the program explored the fundamental beliefs of the
a minister of Islam, quickly rising in the ranks of the religion’s Nation of Islam and showed his rise as one of the NOI’s most

372
important leaders. Furthermore, he preached that blacks should stage at the Audubon Ballroom in Harlem, speaking to a crowd of
separate from white society. By 1964, he was also advocating for 400, he was shot fifteen times by three men; Malcolm X was dead
armed self-defense by blacks. at age 39.

In March of 1964, due to differences in beliefs about NOI strategy The Emergence of “Black Power”
and doctrine, Malcolm left the Nation of Islam and formed another
By June of 1966, tensions between SNCC and the other civil
Muslim organization, the Muslim Mosque, Inc. Shortly thereafter
rights groups finally exploded in Mississippi. James Meredith (the
he embarked on a pilgrimage to Mecca. While on the pilgrimage,
first black male to integrate the University of Mississippi in 1962)
Malcolm’s thinking was radically changed when he learned that
set out on a 220-mile “march against fear.” Although Meredith’s
orthodox Islam preached the equality of all races. Upon his
plan was to walk from the Tennessee border to Jackson,
return to the U.S. his attitudes towards whites had changed. By
Mississippi, he was shot by a white man on the second day of the
1965, his new slogan was,
march and was too injured to continue. Dr. King leading the
“Ballots or bullets.” As Interactive 11.13 Malcom
SCLC, Floyd McKissick of CORE, and Stokely Carmichael of
Malcolm explained, “Well, if X Returns from Mecca
SNCC decided to finish what Meredith has started with their
you and I don’t use the
respective marchers. Plans for a unity march between the three
ballot, we’re going to be
organizations went awry soon after it due to militant behavior
forced to use the bullet. So
from SNCC and CORE marchers. Attempts by King to de-
let us try the ballot.” For a
militarize the tone by leading marchers in a refrain of “We Shall
clip from one of his press
Overcome” fell short. Soon after, Carmichael was arrested for
conferences after his return
setting up a tent on the grounds of an all-black high school which
from Mecca, view here:
prompted a hasty protest by SNCC marchers. Near the end of
Relations between Malcolm X and his former teacher the rally, Carmichael, his face swollen from being beaten,
Muhammad, had grown increasingly volatile. Undercover FBI emerged on the platform and spoke to the stunned crowd.
agents inside the Nation of Islam had become aware of plans to
assassinate Malcolm and after repeated attempts on his life,
assassins had finally succeeded. On February 21, 1965, while on

373
“This is the twenty-seventh time I’ve been arrested--and I ain’t A Political Party is Formed
going to jail no more!...We been saying freedom for six years--and
we ain’t got nothin’. What we’re gonna start saying now is Later the same year, the Black Panther Party was formed by

BLACK POWER.” --Stokely Carmichael as quoted in The Civil Huey Newton and Bobby Seale in Oakland, California. Formed

Rights Movement: An Eyewitness History from their relationships with other civil rights organizations, the
party’s goal of fighting police brutality in the ghetto was only one
part of its mission. What is often overlooked about the party is
the ideological basis behind its founding. More clearly with the
Panthers than with any other national civil rights organization, the
party paralleled its fight against racism with the fight against
capitalism. Many members of the party believed that the
foundation of the country’s capitalistic success was rooted in the
evils of slavery--capitalism in its most extreme form. Therefore,
the mission of the Black Panther Party was to fight both racism
and capitalism. Paramount to the belief in achieving its mission,
the Panthers understood that blacks could not achieve socialism
singlehandedly and their work to build multiracial coalitions that
http://thenewliberator.files.wordpress.com/2010/04/scarmichael.jpg were anti-capitalist in nature depended on that ideological belief.
The party also fought in black communities across the nation for
Even though Carmichael’s slogan of “Black Power” electrified providing for the poor the access to decent housing, health care,
marchers, leaders like King urged him to stop using it because of education, and other services.
their fears that it would provoke violence and further antagonize
whites. He refused, going a step further and urging the While most Panthers wore black from head-to-toe: black berets,
organization to stop enlisting the assistance of whites and focus dark sunglasses, black leather jackets, black trousers, and shiny
solely on developing African American pride. shoes which caused fear and distrust of the party by white
leaders, the party invoked feelings of suspiciousness by the
police as well as the FBI who often conducted (through illegal

374
means) investigations of the Panthers. However, the Panther’s
activities at the grassroots level, often referred to as Survival
Programs--the establishment of free daycare centers, free
breakfast programs for children (which the federal government
later adopted), Liberation schools, pocket lawyers, and medical
care centers truly mirrored the progressive reforms of the early
1900s and won support in ghettos across the country.

1968: A Pivotal Year for the Civil Rights Movement

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., could not accept the fiery, dramatic,
militaristic approach of the Black Panther Party, even though the
movement was taking root in many urban cities. After the March
Against Fear in Mississippi in 1966, King felt his message of
nonviolence would resonate more favorably in cities in the North
and planned to leave the South.
http://a.abcnews.go.com/images/US/gty_mlk_funeral_colleagues_kb_130403_blog.jpg

Dr. King appeared to sense that his death was imminent. While
in Memphis on April 3rd, he addressed a crowd to show his as the 1968 Democratic candidate,
support for the city’s striking garbage workers. King said to the feared that news of King’s death would Interactive 11.14 Robert
spark riots, made an impassioned plea Kennedy on King’s Death
crowd, “I may not get there with you, but I want you to know
tonight that we as a people will get to the Promised Land.” The for nonviolence as he spoke in an
next day, as King stepped out onto the balcony of his hotel room, African American neighborhood in
he was shot in the neck by James Earl Ray with a high powered Indianapolis. To hear one of Robert
rifle. Like Malcolm X, King was dead at age 39. Kennedy’s most eloquent and
passionate speeches, the subject of
The night Dr. King was assassinated, Robert F. Kennedy who was which was Dr. King, click here:
campaigning for the nomination of the Democratic National Party

375
Even though many leaders followed suit in calling for peace, it Legacy of the Civil Rights Movement
was not to be. At least 125 cities across the country experienced
During the last four years of his presidential administration,
the worst rioting in the history of the United States as a result of
President Johnson had been made aware of countless instances
the rage over King’s death.
of racially motivated violence. On March 2nd, 1968, the Kerner
Another pivotal event to the Civil Rights Movement occurred on Commission reported their findings from the Johnson appointed
June 5th when Robert F. Kennedy, was assassinated by Sirhan study of the causes of urban violence. In its issuance of the
Sirhan at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles after winning the 200,000 word report, the commission named the one main cause
state’s Democratic primary as he sought the Democratic party’s to be white racism. The report then called for the nation to
nomination for President in the 1968 election. As the former U. S. construct new housing, create more jobs, and put an end to de
Attorney General to during his brother’s presidential facto segregation to eliminate ghetto environments. Many of the
administration and later a U.S. Senator from New York, RFK commission’s recommendations were ignored because of the
advocated tirelessly for civil rights from committing federal troops amount of opposition to changes that were seen as too
to assist with desegregation at The University of Mississippi, to sweeping. Many Americans asked themselves how successful
working closely with Presidents Kennedy and Johnson to had the civil rights movement been.
construct language for The Civil
Rights Act of 1964. When Gains of the Civil Rights Movement
Interactive 11.15 Ted
President Johnson announced Kennedy’s Eulogy to his The movement was responsible for the end of de jure segregation
in the spring of 1968 that he Brother
through the passage of legislation such as the Civil Rights Act of
would not seek reelection,
1968 which banned discrimination in housing. Additionally,
many Americans believed that
graduation rates for African Americans increased significantly, as
Robert Kennedy was the only
did the numbers of those who went onto college. And among
candidate who could unify the
college students (both black and white) many demanded Black
fractured nation from the
Studies programs that highlighted history and literature.
standpoint of civil rights. His
assassination, for many, ended
any hope for future progress with respect to civil rights.

376
Political gains were made as well. By the beginning of the new remain a serious problem for African Americans whose poverty
decade, (1970), it was estimated that two-thirds of African rate was three times greater than that for whites.
Americans eligible to vote were registered to do so thus
As education and jobs were the largest issues, in the 1960s, the
increasing the number of African American elected officials.
government had begun to promote affirmative action
Many civil rights activists went on to seek political leadership
programs--programs that required special efforts to hire or in the
positions such as the Reverend Jesse Jackson who ran for
case of education, enroll groups that had experienced
president in 1988 and Andrew Young who served as an
discrimination of some type in the past. Many colleges and
ambassador to the United Nations as well as the mayor of
companies seeking to do business of some sort with the federal
Atlanta.
government adopted these programs. By the late 1970s, some
Work that Lie Ahead began criticizing these programs as they saw them as “reverse
discrimination programs” asserting that hiring or enrollment
From the standpoint of the repeal of many discriminatory laws,
quotas deprived whites of opportunities. In the 1980s,
the civil rights movement had been quite successful. However, as
affirmative-action requirements had been eased for some
the decade of the 70s emerged, the challenges for the movement
government contractors and debate continues even today as the
that lay ahead were quite different. Overcoming housing and job
fate of affirmative action programs has yet to be determined. And
discrimination, educational inequality, racism, and poverty
while the legacy of the civil rights movement continues to be an
involved the much more difficult task of changing people’s
ongoing debate, one tenant that is not debated is that in all
attitudes and ultimately, their behavior. It was at this point where
regions of the United States today, African Americans and whites
public support for the movement declined as some whites were
interact daily on a level that could only have been imagined or
frightened by riots and what many saw as the militant message of
dreamed about before the civil rights movement began.
the Black Panthers.

As many whites continued the trend of moving to suburbs and

leaving cities behind, de facto segregation became a greater
problem. By 1990, much of the progress that had been made by
the elimination of de jure segregation in public schools had been
undone by de facto segregation. A lack of jobs continued to
377
Section 4

Expanding Civil Rights

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Role of Women Entering the 1960s

1. How did different groups react to changes
At the debut of the 1960s, it was conventional for women to embrace the
in American society?
glorification of being a housewife. Women were expected to marry in their late
2. How did the second women’s movement
teens or twenties, have children, and spend their days caring for their husband
increase rights for women?
and children. College educated women were said to earn their “M.R.S.” degree as
3. How did rights increase for disabled they typically found a husband in college. However, thirty-eight percent of women
Americans?
were employed in 1960. White middle class women typically maintained standard
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE jobs in clerical work, teaching, and nursing. They made up six percent of doctors
The Feminine Mystique and three percent of lawyers and were often not welcome in professional programs
National Organization for Women (NOW) as these programs were often considered traditional male professions. African
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) American women were worse off than white women. Approximately one third of
Phyllis Schlafly African American women were domestic servants and averagely earned sixty-three
Roe v. Wade cents to every dollar earned by white women.

Stonewall Riots
The Feminine Mystique
Gay Liberation Front
Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell In 1963, Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, which, in her words,
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act challenged “the problem that has no name.” Friedan noted that women were left
Rehabilitation Act of 1973 “unfilled” with their primary role of homemaker and that “society reflected via
American with Disabilities Act (ADA) advertisements and publications is what women wanted.” While this book

378
targeted college educated women The women’s rights movement did not have a single leader or
Interactive 11.16 Excerpts
on the east coast, it is said to have from the Feminine Mystique group to spearhead the movement. Women were divided
sparked the second wave of between classes, ages, and races in how to handle issues that
feminism. they faced. The National Organization for Women (NOW) was
one major group that was founded by Betty Friedan and Pauli
Murray in 1966 who were disappointed in the ineffectiveness of
the Equal Opportunity Commission.

NOW put pressure on the Equal Opportunity Commission to

combat inequalities commonly found in the workplace. In 1967,
Second Wave of Women’s Rights they endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). The Equal
Rights Amendment was drafted to be added to the Constitution
The second wave of The Women’s Rights Movement focused on
to state that no one should be
creating equality in the workplace in regards to equal pay and
denied their rights based upon
anti-discrimination legislation. With a mixed group of women
their sex. The amendment was
based on color and socio economic classes, their common goals
quickly ratified in thirty states
were noticed and acted upon by the federal government. In 1961,
but never made it to the needed
President Kennedy created the Commission on the Status of
thirty-eight by the 1982
Women to investigate women’s issues including employment and
deadline.
education. Results came back with no discrimination was done
towards women. In 1963, the Equal Rights Act was amended to One major opponent of ERA
include that there should be no wage discrimination based on was Phyllis Schlafly. She
sex. President Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to maintained the view that the role
ban discrimination in the workplace based on sex. However, with women played as homemakers
federal progress, women continued to face the enforcement of was of greatest importance to
theses laws in the courts. American society. She viewed
that a woman’s job was to
Phyllis Schlafly: Source: https://www.nwhm.org/media/categor
maintain education/biography/biographies/schlafly.jpg
379
the sanctity of a household with emphasis on family life and women’s rights including wages and reproduction rights. Steinen
Christian tradition. Phyllis Schlafly also argued that there were also helped pave the way by getting sexual harassment and
secret parts of ERA that allowed the government to support abuse issues to the masses which sparked reform and an
abortions through taxpayer dollars and encouraged the LGBTQ increase in shelters for women.
agenda. She toured around the country speaking against ERA.
Roe vs. Wade

The privacy of a woman’s body and abortion was a major issue

Interactive 11.17 Schlafly v
among the second wave of feminism. The birth control pill was
Friedan: Who is right?
approved in 1960 allowed women to take control over their
reproduction. However, abortions were only permitted when it
endangered the mother’s life. In 1973, the Texas case was
brought to the Supreme Court arguing that a woman’s body was
being unconstitutionally violated by Texas law in regards to
abortion. In the highly controversial Roe v. Wade case, the
Supreme Court decided 7-2 that a woman had the right to have
an abortion in the first trimester. The court’s decision was a
While the women’s movement victory for the feminist movement and still remains controversial
progressed forward, there were throughout the United States.
many negative stereotypes that
By 1980, the feminist movement died down as it was fractured
followed them. These stereotypes
and running out of steam. Throughout the sixties and seventies
included unattractive and man
women achieved gains in equal opportunity for employment,
hating women. Gloria Steinem
contraceptive options, health clinics, rape shelters, and increased
was a woman who challenged
access to education. While still unequal, women’s pay increased
those beliefs in their writings and
to their male counterparts. Betty Friedan wrote “What used to be
images. Gloria Steinem wrote
the feminist agenda is now an everyday reality...Our daughters
Ms. Magazine which focused on
grow up with the same possibilities as our sons.”
Gloria Steinem: Source: http://
www.feministezine.com/feminist/funny/images/ 380
Gloria-Steinem-02.jpg
 The LGBTQ communities began to organize and fight the notion
that they were unfit for mainstream society. In 1950, Harry Hay
founded the first national gay organization, the Mattachine
Society. This underground society allowed gays and lesbians to
discuss their experiences with others for the first time. They sent
out political surveys to politicians to obtain information on their
attitudes towards homosexuals. Ultimately, the original group
disbanded as they were linked to communism but newer chapters
would survive. The first lesbian organization, the Daughters of
Bilitis (DOB), was founded in San Francisco and hosted events for
Source: http://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/images/2007/jan/wk2/ lesbians in 1955. The DOB focused on feminist issues along with
art03.gif bringing concerns of female homosexuality to the forefront. It
disbanded in 1970 as younger members and older members did
The LGBTQ Movement
not voice the same concerns.
The LGBTQ communities struggled for rights throughout the
As LGBTQ began to organize, they faced issues with the
twentieth century. In 1950, “Employment of Homosexuals and
American public and police. In 1966, the New York Liquor
Other Sex Perverts in Government,” the United States Senate
Authority banned the serving of gays in bars as homosexuals.
noted that homosexuals were security risks. In 1952, the
The New York chapter of the Mattachine Society had a “sip-in”
American Psychological Association added homosexuality to its
and the New York Liquor Authority reversed its decision. Police
list as a personality disorder. The following year, President
throughout the nation often raided LGBTQ bars. On June 28th,
Eisenhower used Executive Order 10450 to ban homosexuals
1969; police raided the Stonewall Inn in New York City. As
from working for the federal government. As homosexual
employees of the bar were arrested along with patrons, other
behavior was considered an illness, thousands were sent to
patrons threw bottles at the police. A three day riot followed
asylums and were forced to undergo conversion therapy and/or
when thousands of demonstrators voiced their concerns for equal
lobotomies.
rights. The Stonewall Riots sparked the beginning of the Gay
Liberation Front and set the tone for pride festivals in the future.

381
The Gay Liberation Front (GLF) represented the left wing of the from attending school, he became an
LGBTQ movement. The group took on major beliefs of other activist for AIDS. In 1990, just months
movements including ending racism, ending hunger, closing the after his death, George H. W. Bush
income gap between the rich and poor, and ending the war in signed the Ryan White CARE Act
Vietnam. The GLF faced its own divisions as the “Lavender which provided funds for people living
Menace” focused on women’s rights and the transexual groups with AIDS.
focused on their rights. All parts of the GLF would host
demonstrations and protests linked to major issues of the era. In
1979, LGBTQ protestors marched on Washington to demand Interactive 11.18 The Ryan
protective civil rights legislation. No legislation would pass at the Ryan White in 1989. Source: https:// White Story
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
national level. commons/9/97/Ryan_White.jpg

As the LGBTQ communities were becoming more political, gains

were made throughout the second half of the twentieth century. In
1956, psychologist Evelyn Hooker’s research concluded that With gains on the AIDS front,
homosexuals do not differ from heterosexuals. The American the LGBTQ communities still
Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from its list of faced struggles with the
federal government. In 1993, Check out Ryan’s story here!
illnesses in 1973. The following year, Kathy Kozachenko becomes
the first openly gay official as a seat on the Ann Arbor City the Department of Defense
Council. In 1982, Wisconsin becomes the first state to ban adopted “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” which forbade applicants from
discrimination based on sexual orientation. disclosing of their sexual orientation and outlawing homosexual
behavior in the armed forces. President Clinton signed the
Political gains were challenged by the rise of the AIDS epidemic Defense of Marriage Act which defined marriage as a union
in the 1980s. AIDS was often linked to the gay community, between one man and one women. LGBTQ activists continue to
whose members were infected by the thousands. In 1987, fight these laws throughout the 1990s and into the 2000s.
Ronald Reagan addressed the issue as thousands of activists Vermont becomes the first state to recognize civil unions
marched on Washington. Ryan White, a hemophiliac teenager, between same sex partners in 2000 and Massachusetts becomes
was diagnosed with AIDS at the age of thirteen. After being
barred 382
the first state to legalize gay marriage in 2004. The Human Rights schools. While disabled students were included, they still did not
Campaign, a major activist group, encourages political discussion received proper education as many still did not attend public
on LGBTQ rights. In 2010, “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” is repealed. In schools. In 1973, the Education for All Handicapped Children
2015 with the Obergefell v. Hodges case, the Supreme Court Act was passed by Congress. This act noted that all students
declared marriage equality for all fifty states. had a right to an education. Children with disabilities were now
mainstreamed with all students unless their specific disability
Americans with Disabilities
would prevent them from reaching their educational potential in
Just as other minority groups continuously struggled to find that setting. This act would be later named Individuals with
acceptance and rights in mainstream society, Americans with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990. The new version of the
disabilities faced similar challenges. They were often negatively legislation allows for parent input and allows for the decision on
stereotyped and often placed on the outskirts of society. how disabled children will receive special education services
Disabled World War II veterans first demonstrated the challenges most appropriate for their education. Students received
as they sacrficed themselves for country and returned to find individual educational plans that provide them the maximum
challenges in the United States.It was not until the civil rights support for their best learning potential.
movement took off in the early 1960s when Americans with
Civil Rights
disablities and their advocates greatly challenged the United
States government for equal rights and opportunities. Disabled Americans struggled to deal with everyday life. Those
who were mentally disabled struggled to find employment. Those
Educational Opportunities
who were physically disabled had limited access to numerous
Physically and mentally disabled children faced great diversity public places as accommodations were not available to handle
when receiving an education. As they were viewed with negative their disabilities. In 1970, disabled Americans and their advocates
stereotypes, they attended other institutions or asylums instead marched on Washington to pressure Congress to pass legislation
of attending public schools. Their parents became the largest to help their cause. Three years later, Congress passed the
advocates. They pressured local, state and federal governments Rehabilitation Act of 1973 which provided equal opportunity for
for reforms. In 1965, President Johnson signed the Primary and employment for federal government programs for physically and
Secondary Education Act which provided funds for public mentally disabled. Section 504 of this act allowed accessibility

383
 so disabled were able to complete the demands of these jobs. Americans and prohibit employers from discriminating against
While headway was made at the federal level, disabled Americans disabled employees. The act also called for businesses to have
still faced challenges. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 did not include proper services to accommodate the needs of disabled
the protection of their rights in regards to employment and Americans.
accessibility to services. They continued to confront
discrimination that did not allow them to move forward in society.
After years of advocating for equal protection, George H. W. Section Wrap-Up Activity
Bush signed the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) into law
in 1990. This act provided equal opportunity for disabled Using the timeline of civil rights for all
groups from 1950 through the 1980s, Interactive 11.19 Timeline
Americans in both public and private sectors. Employers needed
of Civil Rights
to provide necessary accommodations to employed disabled answer the following questions.

1. What inferences can you

make about minority movements
expansion of civil rights to those of
the African American Civil Rights
Movement?
2. How did rights expand to
the following groups in this era:
A) Women
B) LGBTQ
C) Americans with disabilities
D) Latinos
E) Native Americans

384
Source: https://everybody.si.edu/sites/default/files/styles/overlay/public/C14.JPG?itok=8C7_vFib
 Chapter 12

What impact did the war

in Vietnam have on
American politics,
economics, and social
issues domestically as
well as abroad?
1. Under what circumstances were the French ousted from Vietnam post-WWII?

2. In what ways was the government of President Diem responsible for the intensifying
unrest within Vietnam?

3. How did the U.S. misinterpret Vietnam’s civil war as a component in the global
struggle between communism and democracy that defined the Cold War?

4. How were conflicting ideas between communism and democracy during the Cold
War responsible for U.S. involvement in Vietnam?

5. How is the Vietnam War reflective of the issue of presidential vs. congressional
authority during wartime?

6. Why was the TET Offensive in 1968 considered the turning point of the war?

7. If the U.S. was fighting for freedom and democracy in Vietnam, why did some actions
by American soldiers constitute war crimes?

8. Did President Nixon genuinely fulfill his promise to the American people to end the
war in Vietnam through “peace with honor?”

9. What ramifications of the Vietnam War are still evident in American society today?
 Section 1

Roots of American Involvement

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

1. Under what circumstances were the French ousted from The First of Many
Vietnam post-WWII?
The surrender of Imperial Japan was announced on August
2. In what ways was the government of President Diem
responsible for the intensifying unrest within Vietnam? 15th and formally signed on September 2nd,1945, officially

3. How did the U.S. misinterpret Vietnam’s civil war as a

ending WWII. Less than a month later, on the morning of
component in the global struggle between communism and September 26th, American Lieutenant Colonel A. Peter
democracy that defined the Cold War?
Dewey was shot in the head at a Vietnamese roadblock in
4. How were conflicting ideas between communism and Saigon. Serving in the Office of Strategic Services, the chief
democracy during the Cold War responsible for U.S. involvement
in Vietnam?
intelligence-gathering body of U.S. military, Dewey had been
sent to Vietnam (recently freed from Japanese rule during
5. How is the Vietnam War reflective of the issue of presidential vs.
congressional authority during wartime? WWII), as the leader of a seven person team instructed to
assess what was becoming an explosive situation in
6. Why was the TET Offensive in 1968 considered the turning point
of the war? Vietnam.
7. If the U.S. was fighting for freedom and democracy in Vietnam,
In accordance with the provisions of the Potsdam Conference, the British were
why did some actions by American soldiers constitute war
crimes? assigned the responsibility of disarming Japanese soldiers south of the 16th
8. Did President Nixon genuinely fulfill his promise to the American parallel. When the Japanese surrendered, Ho Chi Minh and the Viet Minh
people to end the war in Vietnam through “peace with honor?” declared themselves as the rightful government of Vietnam. French colonial
9. What ramifications of the Vietnam War are still evident in officials and the remaining French soldiers who had been disarmed and
American society today? imprisoned by the Japanese were angered by the declaration and urged British
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE Maj. Gen. Douglas D. Gracey to help them regain governmental control. Gracey,
Ho Chi Minh
who was not fond of the Viet Minh or their cause, rearmed 1,400 French soldiers
Viet Minh
Domino Theory
Geneva Accords 386

Gulf of Tonkin incident

to help his British troops maintain order. The next day, French and Causes of the Vietnam Conflict
British forces ousted the Viet Minh from the offices that they had
The first major involvement of the United States in Vietnam was a
only recently occupied. Lt. Col. Dewey’s sympathy was with the
result of Japanese expansion in Southeast Asia during World War
Viet Minh, many of whom were nationalists who did not want to
II. Indochina, including the modern countries of Laos, Cambodia
see a return to colonial rule by the French. The American officer
and Vietnam had been under direct French rule since 1887, while
was an outspoken man who soon angered British Maj. Gracey,
French missionaries had been in the region for centuries. During
eventually resulting in the British general ordering him to leave
World War II, the French lost control of much of the region to the
Indochina. On the way to the airport, accompanied by another
Japanese. While some countries decided to end their colonial
OSS officer, Capt. Henry Bluechel, Dewey refused to stop at a
presence in the region like the British in Burma in 1948 and the
roadblock manned by three Viet Minh soldiers. He yelled back at
United States in the Philippines in 1946, others tried to reassert
them in French and they opened fire, killing Dewey instantly.
their pre-war presence.
Bluechel was unhurt and escaped on foot. It was later determined
that the Viet Minh had fired on Dewey thinking he was French. The French fought against the Vietminh to reestablish their colony
Dewey would prove to be the first of nearly 59,000 Americans in Vietnam. Led by communist Ho Chi Minh, the Vietminh’s main
killed in Vietnam between 1945 and 1973. goal was nationalistic--independence from the French. Between
1946 and 1954, the French and Vietminh fought over control of
Interactive 12.1 The First Vietnam and at the Dien Bien Phu valley. The French surrendered
American Casualties
after being surrounded by Ho’s artillery where it bombarded the
French base. Ironically, the ideas of US President Woodrow
Wilson in his Fourteen Points inspired Ho to fight for the
independence of Vietnam under Wilson’s idea of self-
determination and even quoted the US Declaration of
Independence as he declared Vietnam's independence from the
French in September of 1945.

387
As World War II ended, a new conflict was surfacing between ...So, the possible consequences of the loss are just incalculable
those that supported the ambitions of the United States and other to the free world.
western allies and those that supported the USSR. The United
Even though Eisenhower didn’t coin the phrase “Domino
States embarked on a quest of containment to halt the spread of
communism. In an address on April 7, 1954, President Theory,” this response would influence US policy not just in

Eisenhower addressed the importance of “Indochina.” Answering Southeast Asia, but in other parts of the world during the Cold

a question asked by a reporter, he stated: War for years to come. From Eisenhower’s perspective it seemed
logical that the next domino to fall would be in Southeast Asia.
You have, of course, both the specific and the general when you The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917 formed a communist
talk about such things. First of all, you have the specific value of a USSR. In 1949, the communist revolution occurred in China. In
locality in its production of materials that the world needs. Then the aftermath of the Korean War between northern communist
you have the possibility that many human beings pass under a forces and the United Nations in the South, the United States
dictatorship that is inimical to the free world. Finally, you have believed it was the duty of the United States to aid in the
broader considerations that might follow what you would call the suppression of communist influence in Vietnam. In order for the
"falling domino" principle. You have a row of dominoes set up, US to continue the policy of containment, the president believed
you knock over the first one, and what will happen to the last one the US may need to increase its involvement in the region. Since
is the certainty that it will go over very quickly. So you could have the Vietminh were successful in ousting the French and were
a beginning of a disintegration that would have the most profound supported by both the Soviets and communist China, all of
influences. Vietnam would potentially be the next country to end up under
communist control.
Now, with respect to the first one, two of the items from this
particular area that the world uses are tin and tungsten. They are Formally ending French colonialism in Vietnam, the main players
very important. There are others, of course, the rubber plantations at the Geneva Conference eventually adopted an agreement that
and so on. Then with respect to more people passing under this spelled out what superficially seemed to be a sensible path to
domination, Asia, after all, has already lost some 450 million of its peace and independence for Vietnam. The signatories of the
peoples to the Communist dictatorship, and we simply can't Geneva Accords agreed to the following provisions:
afford greater losses.

388
 1. The French would remove themselves from Laos, became increasingly autocratic and unpopular with the South
Cambodia and Vietnam. Vietnamese. He prevented the elections that were intended to
reunite the North and South of Vietnam. Diem had difficulty
2. Vietnam would be divided temporarily along the 17th
consolidating his control over the Buddhist majority and primarily
parallel for two years into North and South thus attempting to end
ruled through military might and economic support from the
hostilities between pro-French forces and pro-Communist forces.
United States. Diem was fighting a civil war between South
3. Elections would be held the following July in 1956 to Vietnam and the Vietcong--supporters of the North Vietnamese
decide the governmental system of Vietnam under the communist government. By September of 1963, President
supervision of international observers. Kennedy firmly believed that the U.S. should only play a limited
role in the country’s involvement in South Vietnam and the Diem
4. Both sides of the conflict agreed not to enter any regime. Watch the short clip below to hear President Kennedy’s
military alliances with outside powers. stance on U.S. involvement.

Interactive 12.2 JFK’s

Even though these accords were agreements and not treaties,
Stance on Vietnam
most of the countries at the conference agreed to be bound by
them with two major exceptions--the United States and the South
Vietnamese government.

Even though the United States under President Harry Truman had
been sending military aid to the French since 1950, the
Eisenhower administration continued to help fund the French
effort to defeat the Vietminh and then in 1955, after the Geneva
Accords, sent military advisors. The United States continued to
support South Vietnam and by 1956, the new President of the
Republic of Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem. The support of the Diem
government would continue during the Eisenhower administration
and the first part of the Kennedy administration even though Diem
389
As unrest grew as a result of Diem’s military, social, and political As Lyndon Johnson assumed the presidency, chaos ensued in
policies, the Kennedy administration began to back away from Vietnam. A string of military leaders attempted to lead the
Diem. The final act of the Diem regime involved an intensified country after Diem’s death, but to no avail. While each
attack on Buddhism. A devout Catholic, Diem became fed up consecutive regime proved to be more unstable than the previous
with ongoing public demonstrations by Buddhist monks and regime, the Vietcong’s influence across the countryside was
nuns, imprisoning hundreds and destroying their temples. In steadily increasing. To the new President, a takeover of South
protest, several nuns and monks publicly burned themselves to Vietnam by Communist forces would be disastrous. Terrified of
death. This prompted American officials, horrified by what was being viewed as the president who “lost Vietnam,” Johnson
happening, to urge Diem to stop the persecution of Buddhists. approved OPLAN 34A-64 on January 16, 1964, calling for
Diem refused. It was clear that Diem and his regime would have stepped up infiltration and covert operations against North
to go. On November 1, 1963, a U.S. supported military coup Vietnam to be transferred from the Central Intelligence Agency
ended Diem’s regime. Against the wishes of President Kennedy, (CIA) to the military. After operation Hop Tac failed to clear
Diem was executed. Only a few weeks after the killing of Diem, Communist guerillas from areas near Saigon, Johnson approved
John Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas on November NSAM 288 in late March 1964, calling for more U.S. involvement
22, 1963. Vice-President Lyndon Baines Johnson succeeded in South Vietnamese affairs and a greater use of U.S. force,
Kennedy as U.S. involvement in Vietnam would reach new levels. including planning for air strikes against North Vietnam.

Johnson and Vietnam By August, 1964, there were incidents that happened in the Gulf
Interactive 12.3 Kennedy of Tonkin near the North Vietnamese coast. On August 2, the USS
Less than a month before his Announces Intent to Maddox fired on and was attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo
death, President Kennedy had Withdraw boats. The second Vietnamese attack on a US ship supposedly
announced his intent to
took place on August 4, 1964. Robert McNamara, Secretary of
withdraw U.S. forces from
Defense at the time, later admitted that the attack on August 2nd
Vietnam in a press conference
happened but the incident on August 4th did not. Regardless of
on the last day of October,
what actually occurred, the Johnson administration was able to
1963. View the clip below:
use the Gulf of Tonkin incident to ask Congress for the funding to
escalate US involvement in Southeast Asia. President Johnson

390
addressed the American people the evening of August 4th
stating:

My fellow Americans:

As President and Commander in Chief, it is my duty to the

American people to report that renewed hostile actions against
United States ships on the high seas in the Gulf of Tonkin have
today required me to order the military forces of the United States
to take action in reply.

...In the larger sense this new act of aggression, aimed directly at
our own forces, again brings home to all of us in the United States
the importance of the struggle for peace and security in southeast
Asia. Aggression by terror against the peaceful villagers of South
Viet-Nam has now been joined by open aggression on the high
seas against the United States of America.

Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution on August 7, 1964

giving the Johnson administration nearly a blank check and nearly
unlimited power to fight the North Vietnamese and the Viet Cong.

391
Primary Source: The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution should be left in peace to work out their destinies in their own
way: Now, therefore be it
Eighty-eighth Congress of the United States of America
Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
AT THE SECOND SESSION United States of America in Congress assembled, That the
Congress approves and supports the determination of the
Begun and held at the City of Washington on Tuesday, the
President, as Commander in Chief, to take all necessary measures
seventh day of January, one thousand nine hundred and sixty-four
to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States
Joint Resolution and to prevent further aggression.

To promote the maintenance of international peace and security in Section 2. The United States regards as vital to its national
southeast Asia. interest and to world peace the maintenance of international
peace and security in southeast Asia. Consonant with the
Whereas naval units of the Communist regime in Vietnam, in Constitution of the United States and the Charter of the United
violation of the principles of the Charter of the United Nations and Nations and in accordance with its obligations under the
of international law, have deliberately and repeatedly attacked Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty, the United States is,
United States naval vessels lawfully present in international therefore, prepared, as the President determines, to take all
waters, and have thereby created a serious threat to international necessary steps, including the use of armed force, to assist any
peace; and member or protocol state of the Southeast Asia Collective

Whereas these attackers are part of deliberate and systematic Defense Treaty requesting assistance in defense of its freedom.

campaign of aggression that the Communist regime in North Section 3. This resolution shall expire when the President shall
Vietnam has been waging against its neighbors and the nations determine that the peace and security of the area is reasonably
joined with them in the collective defense of their freedom; and assured by international conditions created by action of the

Whereas the United States is assisting the peoples of southeast United Nations or otherwise, except that it may be terminated

Asia to protest their freedom and has no territorial, military or earlier by concurrent resolution of the Congress.

political ambitions in that area, but desires only that these people

392
 Section 2

Escalation of War
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

1. Under what circumstances were the French ousted from Waging the War in Vietnam
Vietnam post-WWII?

2. In what ways was the government of President Diem The US ramped up its military involvement in Vietnam with the passage of the Gulf
responsible for the intensifying unrest within Vietnam? of Tonkin Resolution. Beginning in 1965, the Johnson administration started
3. How did the U.S. misinterpret Vietnam’s civil war as a sending a large number of troops to Vietnam. By the end of the year there were
component in the global struggle between communism and over 184,000 US troops in Vietnam--eight times the number of troops present in
democracy that defined the Cold War?
1964. The U.S. commander in South Vietnam, General William Westmoreland,
4. How were conflicting ideas between communism and
continued to request more troops. The Johnson administration complied with
democracy during the Cold War responsible for U.S. involvement
in Vietnam?

5. How is the Vietnam War reflective of the issue of presidential vs.

congressional authority during wartime?
Interactive 12.4 Vietnam Troops Interactive Timeline
6. Why was the TET Offensive in 1968 considered the turning point
of the war?

7. If the U.S. was fighting for freedom and democracy in Vietnam,

why did some actions by American soldiers constitute war
crimes?

8. Did President Nixon genuinely fulfill his promise to the American

people to end the war in Vietnam through “peace with honor?”

9. What ramifications of the Vietnam War are still evident in

American society today?
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
Guerrilla warfare Napalm
Vietcong Credibility gap
Ho Chi Minh Trail
Search and destroy
393
Agent Orange
Westmoreland’s requests. By 1967, the number of U.S. troops in
Vietnam had reached approximately 500,000.

War in the Jungle

Both the geography and topography of Vietnam impacted how

the war was fought. The climate of Vietnam ranges from tropical
in the south to more temperate in the north. Its land area is about
1.25 greater than that of Michigan. Vietnam has highlands, valleys
in many areas in the north and center of the country and a
massive river delta in the South. Parts of the year and depending
on location, there are massive monsoon rains.

US Troops were asked to accomplish a difficult task. In a conflict

where it is a challenge to tell ally from foe, how does one know
who the enemy is? Guerilla warfare became the way that the
Vietcong (VC) fought, often engaging US troops in a hit and run
style. In many areas there were networks of tunnels where the
Vietnamese could go underground and have bases for supplies
and shelter. In the south, the Vietcong were supplied from a
supply line running on the border with Cambodia. This route was
known as the Ho Chi Minh trail. The supply line was vital to
providing those fighting for the North Vietnamese in their fight
against the United States and South Vietnamese.

394
In order to combat the guerrilla style warfare of the Vietcong and Fighting in dense forest and jungle provided its own set of
North Vietnamese, US troops often engaged in “search and challenges for US forces in Vietnam. Starting in 1961, the Diem
destroy” missions. During these missions the objective was to government of South Vietnam asked the United States to begin
seek out and destroy the enemy and their supply lines. American aerial spraying of a herbicide-defoliant
troops were often dropped into an area via helicopter, and often referred to as Agent Orange.
Interactive 12.5 The Girl in
evacuated out upon completion of the mission. Agent Orange was sprayed over vast the Picture CBS News
swaths of territory especially near the Sunday Morning
Mekong River delta. By defoliating
the trees and plants, it was harder for
the Vietcong to hide from spotters in
the air. The United States between
1961 and 1971 sprayed nearly 4.5
million acres of Vietnam with
herbicides and defoliants.

395
The US also used napalm which was an incendiary created and As the numbers of troops involved in Vietnam continued to
first used in World War II. Napalm was originally used in mount, the war grew more costly. As a result, the national
flamethrowers, but as the war progressed it was later dropped by economy began to suffer as did Johnson’s Great Society
bombers. Napalm had devastating human cost. The gel-like Programs. By 1969, the rate of inflation which had been at 2% in
consistency stuck to skin and continued to burn and melt flesh. the early 1960s had almost tripled. Although President Johnson
In a conflict that people saw nightly on their televisions in the was determined to pay for both his Great Society Programs and
United States, the images of people being burned by napalm had the war, the cost of financing the war became too great. In
a tremendously negative effect on how the war was viewed. August of 1967, the President asked Congress for a tax increase
to help finance the war. Conservatives in Congress agreed to the
Morale Dwindles
tax increase but only after insisting that $6 billion would come
from money earmarked for Johnson’s domestic reforms.
The combination of guerrilla warfare, brutal conditions in the
jungle, and one military failure after another in making substantial As Vietnam was the first widely televised war, it was the television
headway against the enemy took their toll on the morale of U.S. coverage that played a major role in heightening the nation’s
troops. As the war continued, morale continued to dwindle; many growing concern about the war. Often referred to as America’s
soldiers turned to alcohol, marijuana, and other drugs to try and first “living-room war,” vivid images of combat and casualties
cope with life as a soldier in an unpopular war. Some soldiers brought the war in Southeast Asia into American homes and
even resorted to the murder of their superior officers by lobbing greatly contradicted the optimistic war scenario that the Johnson
grenades at them during battles. administration was projecting.

Another obstacle that soldiers couldn’t overcome was the corrupt

and unstable government in South Vietnam. Refusing to step
down, Nguyen Cao Ky remained in power from 1965-1967, while
South Vietnam continued to fight a civil war within a civil war,
As US citizens watched the nightly news, they were also
leaving U.S. officials angry and confused.
confronted with official government statistics, which often
Johnson’s Great Society is a Casualty of the War contradicted the brutal images of battle. Body Count (the number
of Americans killed, compared to the number of Viet Cong killed)

396
statistics seemed to show that the American military was making
progress against the Vietcong and lined up with what General
Westmoreland and Secretary of Defense, Robert McNamara were
proclaiming. However as the war continued to drag on, so did
the constant images of Americans dying in battle arriving home in
body bags. A credibility gap developed between what the
government reported and what was really happening in Vietnam.
This discrepancy in information continued to cause some
Americans to question America’s role in Vietnam.

Listen to the clip below of Don Interactive 12.6 The

Hewitt, a producer at CBS talk Impact of War
about the extent to which tv
coverage of the war impacted
Americans views on U.S.
involvement.

By 1967, a small percentage of

people outside of mainstream
America had begun actively
protesting the war. As the war raged on, those voices would
continue to grow louder ultimately capturing the attention of the
nation.

397
 Section 3

A Divided Nation
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

1. Under what circumstances were the French ousted from The Economics of the Draft
Vietnam post-WWII?

2. In what ways was the government of President Diem Established in 1940 during WWII, the Selective Service System was the system
responsible for the intensifying unrest within Vietnam? that drafted men into combat for Vietnam as well. Under this system, all males
3. How did the U.S. misinterpret Vietnam’s civil war as a had to register with their local draft board once they turned 18. In the event of a
component in the global struggle between communism and war, local draft boards called men between the ages of 18-26 as they were
democracy that defined the Cold War?
needed. Naturally, as America’s doubts continued to grow about U.S. involvement
4. How were conflicting ideas between communism and
in Vietnam, many young men tried to avoid military service for fear of being sent to
democracy during the Cold War responsible for U.S. involvement
in Vietnam? fight and perhaps be killed in Vietnam.

5. How is the Vietnam War reflective of the issue of presidential vs.

Many young men were successful in what many referred to as “dodging the draft”;
congressional authority during wartime?
others were not. One type of deferment involved medical excuses so some men
6. Why was the TET Offensive in 1968 considered the turning point
of the war?
sought out doctors known to be sympathetic in order to obtain medical
deferments. Because draft boards were local, qualifications varied. This
7. If the U.S. was fighting for freedom and democracy in Vietnam,
why did some actions by American soldiers constitute war prompted some men to change residences in order to stand before draft boards
crimes? that were more lenient than others. Still, others joined the Coast Guard or National
8. Did President Nixon genuinely fulfill his promise to the American Guard to secure deferment from active military service in Vietnam.
people to end the war in Vietnam through “peace with honor?”
One of the most common ways to avoid the draft involved a college deferment
9. What ramifications of the Vietnam War are still evident in
American society today? which allowed a young man the opportunity to put off military service until after he
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
could earn a college degree. Many young men from the middle and upper classes
Selective Service Students for a Democratic Society
(a huge majority of which were white), who could afford to go to college, did so to
Pardon Free Speech Movement
Draft dodgers Doves
New Left Hawks
398
avoid military service. Because of this, many of the young men African Americans in Vietnam
being drafted and sent to Vietnam who were less privileged
The number of African Americans that served in Vietnam was
economically, included lower economic classes of whites and
disproportionate to the percentage that made up the African
minorities. Vietnam could definitely be considered a working
American population in the U.S. In the first few years of the war,
class war.
black soldiers accounted for more than 20 percent of U.S.
Fortunate Son” by Creedence Clearwater Revival, 1969 combat deaths even though only about 10 percent of the U.S.
population at the time was black. In an attempt to try and correct
Some folks are born made to wave the flag
the imbalance, in 1969, the Department of Defense instituted a
Ooh, they're red, white and blue lottery system within the draft. Even though black soldiers had
fought in every U.S. war, the Vietnam War was the first major
And when the band plays "Hail to the chief" conflict in which they were fully integrated. Like changes back in
the States, integration on paper was one thing; complete equality
Ooh, they point the cannon at you, Lord
and substantive integration in the armed forces in Vietnam was
It ain't me, it ain't me, I ain't no senator's son, son another. Eventually, the racial tension that had been occurring at
home erupted in Vietnam in the summer of 1967 in the form of a
It ain't me, it ain't me; I ain't no fortunate one, no
race riot at a U.S. Army stockade at Long Binh. While the main
As the draft continued, some Americans met the government’s cause of the riot was due to the inability of military leaders to
call to serve in Vietnam with outright resistance. Some Americans address legitimate complaints of racial discrimination, domestic
tried to evade the draft by leaving the country and moving to tensions back home also played a role. Many black soldiers
Canada. Others openly defied draft conscription through burning responded in proactive ways by forming organizations such as
their draft cards in protest. Still others tried to physically harm the Minority Servicemen’s Association, the Concerned Veteran
themselves, so they would not pass the draft physical. Other Association, Black Brothers United, the Zulu 1200s, De Mau Mau
draft dodgers went to jail instead of honoring their draft notice. and the Black Liberation Front of the Armed Forces in part to
Although draft resistance occurred, in 1977 president Jimmy protect themselves and in part to represent their collective
Carter offered a full and complete pardon to Vietnam draft interests.
dodgers.
399
Women in Vietnam contentment and conformity of 1950s youth gave way to a
decade of social, political, economic, and cultural extremes,
In the 1960s, the United State’s Military did not allow women to
transformational change, and bizarre contrasts. By the end of the
serve in combat situations. Even so, although very little official
1960s, many young people believed that the nation was in need
data exists, estimates from the Vietnam Women’s Memorial
of fundamental change.
Foundation approximate that 11,000 military women were
stationed in Vietnam during the war. Serving as nurses, The New Left
physicians, air traffic controllers, intelligence officers, clerks, and
Many different activist groups and organizations became known
other positions, women served in the U.S. Women’s Army Corps,
as the New Left, a youth-dominated political movement of the
the U.S. Navy, Air Force, Marines, and the Army Medical
1960s that demanded sweeping changes in American society.
Specialist Corps. Along with women serving in the armed forces,
According to historians Maurice Isserman and Michael Kazin, in
an unknown number of civilian women volunteered through the
their book, America Divided: The Civil War of the 1960s, "The
Red Cross, the United Service Organizations (USO), Catholic
Left blazed through the Sixties like a meteor, reshaping the
Relief Services, and other humanitarian organizations. Some
cultural landscape, particularly in the areas of gender and race."
worked as foreign correspondents for various news organizations.
In March of 1965, the Johnson administration dispatched the first
An Era of Youthful Opposition
combat troops to Vietnam. 3,500 Marines landed at Da Nang
Prior to U.S. involvement in Vietnam, an atmosphere of protest airbase in Vietnam. Earlier that same month, the US had begun
was growing across the country on many college campuses. Operation Rolling Thunder, a sustained bombing campaign
Some were surprised that the youth of the 1960s had become against North Vietnam. In the midst of these actions, students
more socially and politically active and would question and professors at the University of Michigan staged the first
government policies and actions. Others were not surprised teach-in. The teach-in held in March of 1965, was originally
because they were quick to realize that the personal experiences started by 10 educators and eventually garnered over 3,000
of the youth coming of age in the 1950s and the experiences of participants. Students and teachers delivered speeches and led
the youth coming of age in the 1960s differed greatly due to the discussions as a form of protest against the war in Vietnam.
extremely different dynamics of the economic and political events Soon teach-ins spread to other college campuses across the
that occurred in each group’s frame of reference. The general nation.
400
The Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) was part of the campus. Later fueled by opposition to the Vietnam War, the FSM
driving force behind the teach-ins and other forms of anti-war was the first revolt of the decade to bring to a college campus the
protests on college campuses. A leftist-student organization, the mass civil disobedience tactics first pioneered during the Civil
SDS was founded in the early 1960s by Tom Hayden and Al Rights Movement. The strategies and tactics used by the FSM
Haber. Its first convention was held in Port Huron, Michigan, along with the SDS, quickly spread to colleges across the
where the group adopted “The Port Huron Statement,” a political country. Visit the site below to see pictures of this historic, two-
manifesto, calling for citizens to take an active role in month protest along with a timeline of events:
government to affect change. The SDS and other student groups,
Interactive 12.8 The Free
such as the Free Speech Movement founded at UC Berkeley in
Speech Movement
1964, launched a youth movement that became better known as
“The New Left.”

Interactive 12.7 The Port

Huron Statement

From Protest to Resistance, Doves and Hawks Remain

Divided

Throughout the spring of 1965, some colleges began hosting

“teach-ins” to protest the war. As the war continued, the number
In 1964, another New Left group was gaining momentum. The
of protests grew and continued to divide the nation. In April of
Free Speech Movement (FSM) at the University of California at
1965, SDS orchestrated a protest march in Washington, D.C.
Berkeley, first grew out of a clash between administrators of the
Nearly 25,000 people participated in the demonstration that
school and students over students’ First Amendment rights such
started at the US Capitol and ended at the Washington
as free speech, academic freedom, and political gatherings on
Monument. Anti-war protests would continue to increase, as
401
opposition to the war continued. Students became involved in In the two years between 1965 and 1967, the antiwar movement
the movement for many reasons. Many objected on moral intensified. By 1967, the US government had committed close to
grounds, believing it was wrong for the United States to become 500,000 troops to the conflict in Vietnam. While casualties
entangled in what was seen as a civil war between North and mounted, as many as 40,000 men were drafted per month. As
South Vietnam. As the draft intensified, students objected to sentiment against the draft intensified, so did the protest. In
serving in a war in which they could not find purpose. October of 1967, over 100,000 including former veterans
gathered at the Lincoln Memorial to protest continued American
Beyond college campuses the antiwar movement grew
involvement in the country of Vietnam. Approximately 1,500
throughout other groups of American society. In addition to the
demonstrators were injured and at least 700 were arrested as
hundreds of protests taking place across the nation, many
protesters broke past military police.
musicians across multiple genres openly opposed the war
through their music. Folk singers such as Peter, Paul and Mary By 1967, the divide between the doves--those who strongly
and Joan Baez blazed the trail with their lyrical protests later opposed the war, and the hawks--those who felt that American
followed by pop singers such as Barry McGuire, Phil Ochs, and military force was necessary to end the war, was a chasm.
Bob Dylan. Take a listen to one of Dylan’s most famous anti- However, despite the dramatic images portrayed at antiwar
Vietnam War songs: protests, polls indicated that approximately two-thirds of
Americans still felt that the war was justified. Those less certain
Interactive 12.9 Blowin’ in about America’s role in Vietnam still struggled to understand how
the Wind protesters could be so publicly critical about a war where fellow
Americans were fighting and dying.

Johnson is Still Committed to the Fight

Despite the division that encompassed the entire nation and the
turmoil that it caused, President Johnson was committed to the
continuation of his policy of slow escalation in Vietnam.

402
 Section 4

A Major Turning Point

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

1. Under what circumstances were the French ousted from The TET Offensive
Vietnam post-WWII?

2. In what ways was the government of President Diem

The Tet Offensive, a surprise attack, occurred on January 30th,1968, when the
responsible for the intensifying unrest within Vietnam? Vietcong and North Vietnamese forces launched a massive attack in many
3. How did the U.S. misinterpret Vietnam’s civil war as a locations in South Vietnam. The name Tet Offensive is given to the event because
component in the global struggle between communism and it occurred on the Vietnamese New Year called Tet. There were signs that the North
democracy that defined the Cold War?
Vietnamese strategy was shifting before the Tet Offensive, but the massive scale of
4. How were conflicting ideas between communism and
the attacks on cities and bases, even though it was not a military success, seemed
democracy during the Cold War responsible for U.S. involvement
in Vietnam? to demonstrate that the Johnson administration’s portrayal of the war to the

5. How is the Vietnam War reflective of the issue of presidential vs.

American public was
congressional authority during wartime? different than what seemed
6. Why was the TET Offensive in 1968 considered the turning point to be happening in
of the war? Vietnam. As battles waged
7. If the U.S. was fighting for freedom and democracy in Vietnam, on following Tet, the
why did some actions by American soldiers constitute war negative impact on the
crimes?
public’s opinion was
8. Did President Nixon genuinely fulfill his promise to the American
enormous. The result was
people to end the war in Vietnam through “peace with honor?”
that more and more
9. What ramifications of the Vietnam War are still evident in
American society today? Americans began to
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE question America’s role in
The Tet Offensive
the war.

403
One of the key people involved in U.S. military action in Vietnam the general could not have been more incorrect. The aftershock
was General William Westmoreland. A distinguished veteran of of the Tet Offensive significantly changed America’s opinion about
both WWII and the Korean War, Westmoreland was chosen by its involvement in Vietnam.
President Johnson to command the U.S. Military Assistance
One such Westmoreland critic was historian Lewis Sorley, a West
Command in Vietnam (MACV) from June,1964 until June,1968.
Point graduate and Vietnam veteran who worked for
When the general arrived in Vietnam in 1964, there were
Westmoreland. In his latest book, Westmoreland: The General
approximately 16,000 U.S. troops in the region. General
Who Lost Vietnam, Sorley writes with regard to Westmoreland’s
Westmoreland immediately pushed for an increased military
leadership that, “the most important, and also the saddest, is that
presence in South Vietnam to help keep the unstable government
in Vietnam and thereafter Westmoreland was willing to shade or
in Saigon from collapsing under the Communist North
misremember or deny or invent the record when his perceived
Vietnamese (NVA) and the National Liberation Front (NLF) also
interests were at stake. This was true in matters both great and
known as the Viet Cong. After the Gulf of Tonkin incident in 1964,
small.”
Westmoreland’s request seemed to be legitimate and additional
troops were sent to Vietnam. Interactive 12.10 The
General Who Lost Vietnam
Westmoreland’s strategy in Vietnam was dependent upon
superior U.S. firepower both on the ground and from intensive
aerial bombardments. The goal was not to seize any territory but
instead to inflict more losses than the Communists could sustain,
thus forcing surrender by the Viet Cong and the NLF.

“Militarily, we succeeded in Vietnam. We won every engagement

we were involved in out there.” --General William Westmoreland

The general’s “war of attrition” strategy was what many believed

was Westmoreland’s leadership downfall in Vietnam. From a
purely military standpoint, he was right--Viet Cong losses were
substantial. But from a psychological and political perspective,
404
Tet is Responsible for Significant Changes fighting with more and more casualties on the U.S. side and no
end in sight to the action.”
The aftershock of the Tet Offensive caused a substantial shift in
public opinion about the war. As coverage of the fighting in Clifford wasn’t the only member of Johnson’s cabinet affected by
Vietnam continued by mainstream media across millions of the seismic shift in public opinion. Secretary of State, Dean Rusk
television sets throughout the nation, what once had been reluctantly acknowledged that America’s mood had changed after
described as balanced coverage of the war had now shifted and the Tet Offensive. Once President Johnson realized he had lost
the media openly criticized the war. One of the nation’s most the support of Walter Cronkite, he lamented, “If I’ve lost Walter
respected journalists at the time, Walter Cronkite, began using Cronkite, then it’s over. I’ve lost Mr. Average Citizen.” On March
the word, “stalemate” in his reporting on the war. View a sample 31, 1968, President Johnson finally responded to the growing
of what America’s first televised war coverage looked like: division within the Democratic Party. In an address widely
televised, Johnson announced that the U.S. would negotiate the
Interactive 12.11 First ending of the war in Vietnam thus ending the policy of U.S.
Televised War Coverage
escalation. The President then went on to declare that because
he didn’t want the presidency to become involved in divisions
within the party, he would not seek reelection.

The 1968 Presidential Election is Brutal

The year 1968 was a tumultuous year for many reasons, so it

wasn’t a surprise that the presidential election was one of many
events that involved violence. With President Johnson not
Minds were also changing at the White House too. Clark Clifford, seeking reelection, two well-known candidates vied for the
the recently appointed Secretary of Defense after the departure of Democratic nomination. While Eugene McCarthy was supported
Robert McNamara, quickly concluded that the war in Vietnam by the antiwar populace, Hubert Humphrey was a loyal party man
was unwinnable. Clifford commented, “we seem to have a who had the support of the President.
sinkhole. We put in more--they match it. I see more and more

405
As delegates arrived in Chicago for the Democratic National Additionally, the entry of George Wallace, the former governor of
Convention, they met with 10,000 protesters with a multitude of Alabama, as a third-party candidate, helped Nixon’s candidacy.
goals. Some were hoping to persuade the DNC to adopt an Wallace, a former Democrat was a longtime champion of states’
antiwar platform while others were hoping to provoke violence to rights and school segregation. Running as an independent
discredit the party. The mayor of Chicago, Richard Daley, was candidate, Wallace won in 5 Southern states and attracted many
insistent that law and order would prevail in his city. He mobilized Northern white working-class voters who were disgusted with
12,000 Chicago police officers and 5,000 National Guardsmen to riots that were occurring in the inner cities and antiwar protests.
keep control of the city. While Nixon only captured 43% of the popular vote, he ended up
defeating Humphrey by more than 100 electoral votes. America’s
Inside the convention hall, disorder continued as delegates
involvement in Vietnam was now Nixon’s albatross.
debated bitterly over whether or not the party would adopt an
antiwar platform. As delegates received word of the rioting
occurring outside the convention hall, they shouted angrily at the
mayor who in turn returned hostile shouting at the delegates. The
entire scene, both inside and out of the convention hall was
captured on tv with millions of Americans witnessing the disorder
in Chicago.

Meanwhile, the Republican candidate, Richard Nixon benefited

greatly from the disorder in the Democratic party. With a political
career that had been all but dead, Nixon campaigned for, and
helped Republicans win back 47 House seats and 3 Senate seats
from Democrats in the 1966 Congressional election. Tapping into
the many Republican alliances he had formed, he won the
Republican party’s nomination.

406
 Section 5

The Legacy of the War

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

1. Under what circumstances were the French ousted from Nixon and Vietnamization
Vietnam post-WWII?

2. In what ways was the government of President Diem

As President Nixon moved into the White House in January of 1969, negotiations
responsible for the intensifying unrest within Vietnam? that began during the Johnson presidency had quickly stalled. On one side, the
3. How did the U.S. misinterpret Vietnam’s civil war as a United States and South Vietnam had demanded that all North Vietnamese forces
component in the global struggle between communism and would withdraw from South Vietnam and that the government of Nguyen Van Thieu
democracy that defined the Cold War?
government would remain in power. The North Vietnamese and the Viet Cong
4. How were conflicting ideas between communism and demanded that the United States would withdraw its troops and that the Thieu
democracy during the Cold War responsible for U.S. involvement
in Vietnam? government would step aside in order for a coalition government to be instated
that would include the Viet Cong.
5. How is the Vietnam War reflective of the issue of presidential vs.
congressional authority during wartime?
In the middle of the stalemate, President Nixon announced his strategy of
6. Why was the TET Offensive in 1968 considered the turning point
Vietnamization which called for a gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops in order for the
of the war?
South Vietnamese to take on a more active combat role in the war.
7. If the U.S. was fighting for freedom and democracy in Vietnam,
why did some actions by American soldiers constitute war
In the summer of 1969, President Nixon announced the first troop withdrawals
crimes?
from Vietnam. Referring to Vietnam, Nixon said, “One of the nightmares is war
8. Did President Nixon genuinely fulfill his promise to the American
people to end the war in Vietnam through “peace with honor?” without end.” But as troops were being pulled out of Vietnam, the U.S. began to
secretly extend the war into the countries of Cambodia and Laos, bombing
9. What ramifications of the Vietnam War are still evident in
American society today? Vietnamese sanctuaries, including the Ho Chi Minh Trail--the route that was used
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE by the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong to siphon troops, weapons, and supplies
Peace with honor
into South Vietnam. Nixon continued the war in Vietnam, attempting to achieve
Silent majority
Pentagon Papers
Post-traumatic stress disorder
407
detente
what he called, “peace with honor.” Nixon’s goal was to silent majority--moderate, mainstream Americans who quietly
maintain U.S. dignity as troops continued to return home while supported his strategies.
still preserving clout at the negotiation table in Vietnam. It was
Nixon’s “Silent Majority” Speech
important to Nixon that the South Vietnamese government remain
in place in South Vietnam. November 3, 1969
Through the bombing of
Interactive 12.12 Troop
Timeline Good evening, my fellow Americans:
neighboring countries, Nixon
wanted the North Vietnamese
Tonight I want to talk to you on a subject of deep concern to all
that even though U.S. troops
Americans and to many people in all parts of the world -- the war
were being withdrawn, he was
in Vietnam.
capable of anything. It was
this policy that critics would I believe that one of the reasons for the deep division about
argue prolonged the war for Vietnam is that many Americans have lost confidence in what their
several additional years, many If needed, review this interactive Government has told them about our policy. The American people
timeline from earlier in the chapter.
of which were bloody. cannot and should not be asked to support a policy which
involves the overriding issues of war and peace unless they know
Perspective From the Home Front the truth about that policy.

Even though Nixon Tonight, therefore, I would like to answer some of the questions
had been in office that I know are on the minds of many of you listening to me.
for less than a year,
he felt it was Let us all understand that the question before us is not whether
important to seek some Americans are for peace and some Americans are against
support for his peace. The question at issue is not whether Johnson’s war
policies in Vietnam. becomes Nixon's war.
He appealed to
The great question is: How can we win America’s peace?
what he called the

408
At the time we launched our search for peace I recognized we The Vietnamization plan was launched following Secretary [Melvin]
might not succeed in bringing an end to the war through Laird's visit to Vietnam in March. Under the plan, I ordered first a
negotiation. I, therefore, put into effect another plan to bring substantial increase in the training and equipment of South
peace -- a plan which will bring the war to an end regardless of Vietnamese forces.
what happens on the negotiating front.
In July, on my visit to Vietnam, I changed General [Creighton]
It is in line with a major shift in U.S. foreign policy which I Abrams' orders so that they were consistent with the objectives of
described in my press conference at Guam on July 25. I laid down our new policies. Under the new orders, the primary mission of
in Guam three principles as guidelines for future American policy our troops is to enable the South Vietnamese forces to assume
toward Asia: the full responsibility for the security of South Vietnam.

-- First, the United States will keep all of its treaty commitments. Our air operations have been reduced by over 20 percent.

-- Second, we shall provide a shield if a nuclear power threatens And now we have begun to see the results of this long overdue
the freedom of a nation allied with us or of a nation whose survival change in American policy in Vietnam.
we consider vital to our security.
Let me now turn to our program for the future.
-- Third, in cases involving other types of aggression, we shall
We have adopted a plan which we have worked out in
furnish military and economic assistance when requested in
cooperation with the South Vietnamese for the complete
accordance with our treaty commitments. But we shall look to the
withdrawal of all U.S. combat ground forces, and their
nation directly threatened to assume the primary responsibility of
replacement by South Vietnamese forces on an orderly scheduled
providing the manpower for its defense.
timetable. This withdrawal will be made from strength and not
After I announced this policy, I found that the leaders of the from weakness. As South Vietnamese forces become stronger,
Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, South Korea, and other nations the rate of American withdrawal can become greater.
which might be threatened by Communist aggression, welcomed
And so tonight -- to you, the great silent majority of my fellow
this new direction in American foreign policy.
Americans -- I ask for your support.

409
I pledged in my campaign for the Presidency to end the war in a The speech was extremely successful--as a result, tens of
way that we could win the peace. I have initiated a plan of action thousands of letters and telegrams of support were sent to the
which will enable me to keep that pledge. President at the White House. Not only did the speech affect the
war and Nixon presidency but also it promoted a political
The more support I can have from the American people, the
opportunity in the Republican Party to amass a New Majority and
sooner that pledge can be redeemed; for the more divided we are
promote conservative policies. Others disagreed with the
at home, the less likely the enemy is to negotiate at Paris.
president, and voiced their opposition in letters and further
Let us be united for peace. Let us also be united against defeat. demonstrations including another Moratorium later in November
Because let us understand: North Vietnam cannot defeat or 1969.
humiliate the United States. Only Americans can do that.
The My Lai Massacre
Fifty years ago, in this room and at this very desk, President
Labelled by many as one of the most horrific incidents of violence
Woodrow Wilson spoke words which caught the imagination of a
committed against unarmed civilians during the Vietnam War, was
war-weary world. He said: "This is the war to end war." His dream
the My Lai Massacre. Although the event occurred on March 16,
for peace after World War I was shattered on the hard realities of
1968, the American public did not become aware of the atrocity
great power politics and Woodrow Wilson died a broken man.
until journalist Seymour Hersh
Tonight I do not tell you that the war in Vietnam is the war to end broke the story in November of Interactive 12.13 The My
Lai Massacre
wars. But I do say this: I have initiated a plan which will end this 1969. On March 16, 1968 a
war in a way that will bring us closer to that great goal to which company of American soldiers
Woodrow Wilson and every American President in our history has brutally killed most of the
been dedicated -- the goal of a just and lasting peace. inhabitants of the village (women,
children, and elderly men) of My Lai
[Source: Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, after the company determined that
Richard Nixon, 1969. Washington: U.S. Government Printing there were no enemy inhabitants in
Office, 1971.] the village. The brutal slaughter of To understand multiple
perspectives of those who were at
more than 500 civilians sparked the massacre, click on this brief,
video
410
international outrage. The brutality of the massacre along with Viet Cong, college students across the country erupted in protest.
what was deemed as a cover up by the U.S. military further Known as the first general student strike in U.S. history, more
divided the United States over the Vietnam War. than 1.5 million college students closed down approximately
1,200 campuses.
The My Lai Massacre could have ended with many more civilian
murders if it hadn’t been for the actions of an American helicopter Kent State
pilot, Hugh Thompson and his crew. Learn about his heroic
As massive student protests were occurring on campuses across
actions in this clip.
the nation, disaster struck
Interactive 12.14 The Hugh hardest at Kent State University Interactive 12.15 The Kent
Thompson Story in Ohio on May 4th when soldiers State Massacre
of the National Guard fired into a
crowd of campus protesters,
killing four and wounding nine.
For a complete but brief
explanation of how the event
escalated to the extremity it did,
view the following clip.

Cambodia is Invaded Ten days after the Kent State incident, violence erupted at
Jackson State College in Mississippi. Twelve students were
Even though news of the My Lai Massacre shocked the nation, by
wounded and two were killed.
1970, the mood of the nation appeared to be lessening in its
explosivity as troops were returning home and the war was The Pentagon Papers
winding down. Across many college campuses student attention
was shifting from the antiwar movement to the environment. But Nixon’s policy of the invasion of Cambodia was extremely costly

when on April 30th, 1970, President Nixon announced that U.S. in terms of political support, especially in Congress. His failure to

troops had invaded Cambodia to clear the supply centers of the notify Congress about the invasion of Cambodia angered many in
Congress. Their response was the repeal of the Tonkin Gulf
411
Resolution on December 31, 1970. Up until that point, the As the war dragged on, knowing what Ellsberg knew, his opinion
president had experienced almost complete independence in on U.S. involvement in Vietnam had changed. Ellsberg secretly
forming U.S. policy in Vietnam. copied the report in 1969 and in 1971, gave the 7,000 page study
to the New York Times, the
The President’s support took another substantial hit when in June Interactive 12.16 Pentagon
Washington Post, and 17 other
of 1971 Daniel Ellsberg leaked the Pentagon Papers. A top- Papers
newspapers. Ellsberg was charged
secret Department of Defense study of U.S. military and political
by the U.S. government with 12
involvement in Vietnam from 1945 to 1967, the Pentagon Papers
felony counts. By 1973, the charges
contained damning secrets about U.S. actions in Vietnam. The
against him were dismissed due to
information in the papers indicated that the Kennedy
misconduct by the government,
administration had actively helped overthrow and assassinate
eventually leading to the convictions
Diem in 1963. Additionally, the report contradicted official U.S.
of several White House aides.
government pronouncements about the intensive bombing of
North Vietnam which the report determined that there had been The War Finally Ends
no impact on the enemy’s will to fight.
By the middle of 1972, as a grueling stalemate continued, the
Ellsberg had served as an officer in the U.S. Marine Corps from growing social division throughout the nation combined with the
1954 to 1957 and in 1959 joined the RAND Corporation as a upcoming presidential election, convinced the Nixon
strategic analyst. In 1964, working for the Department of administration to change its negotiation policy in Paris. Nixon
Defense, he worked on the escalation of the war in Vietnam. In sent Henry Kissinger, his adviser for national security affairs to
1965, Ellsberg transferred to the State Department serving two Vietnam to serve as his top negotiator. Kissinger had been
years at the U.S. Embassy in Saigon, evaluating pacification in privately meeting with North Vietnam’s chief negotiator, Le Duc
the field. Upon his return to the RAND Corporation in 1967, he Tho since 1969 and eventually dropped the administration’s
worked on Robert McNamara’s top secret study regarding U.S. insistence that all North Vietnamese troops be removed from
Decision-making in Vietnam from 1945-1968, which were later South Vietnam. One week before the presidential election,
referred to as the Pentagon Papers. Kissinger announced, “Peace is at hand.”

412
Nixon won reelection but the peace that Kissinger had promised unstable, which led to further war in Cambodia. In the U.S., the
was not to occur right away. The Thieu regime, frightened at the Vietnam conflict left many extremely cautious when it came to
thought of North Vietnamese troops stationed in South Vietnam, foreign affairs and when it came to domestic issues, many were
rejected Kissinger’s plan. As talks broke off, in December, the quite cynical.
president unleashed a series of intense bombings against the two
Many veterans who returned to the United States, came home to
largest cities in North Vietnam--Hanoi and Haiphong. At the
an ungrateful nation. In contrast to veterans who served in earlier
beginning of the new year of 1973, negotiations resumed. On
American wars such as World War II, veterans of the Vietnam
January 27, 1973, the U.S. signed an agreement ending the war
conflict were not welcomed home by parades and fanfare.The
and restoring peace in Vietnam. North Vietnamese troops would
Vietnam conflict was an unpopular war and many Americans
remain in South Vietnam but the U.S. would become involved if
desired to put it behind them.
the peace agreement were violated. For the United States, the
war was over. For some American families, however, the war lingered. Some
Americans were unaccounted for and listed by the US
Despite the peace agreement, the war continued. After just a few
government as prisoners of war (POWs) or missing in action
months after the departure of U.S. troops, the cease-fire
(MIA). Other veterans who returned home faced various issues
agreement collapsed. The North Vietnamese, after several years
related to their experiences in Vietnam. Many suffered from and
of fighting, launched a full-scale invasion against South
continue to suffer from
Vietnamese forces in March, 1975. Thieu asked for for help from
post-traumatic stress
the U.S. The U.S. provided aid economically but refused to send
any troops. In April of 1975, North Vietnamese tanks rolled into disorder (PTSD). PTSD

Saigon and captured the city. Soon after, the South Vietnamese is caused by a person

surrendered to the North Vietnamese. The war had ended. experiencing traumatic,
stressful situations that
The War’s Legacy is a Painful One can lead to
psychological effects
By the time America’s participation in Vietnam had ended, 58,000
including memory
Americans had been killed and some 365,000 had been
lapses, nightmares and
wounded. Politically, the war had left Southeast Asia highly
413
flashbacks among other effects. In addition to psychological
effects, many veterans suffered from a myriad of other health
related issues.

Although the war had ended, it did impact many changes to U.S.
policy. The first major change was the abolishment of the draft.
Secondly, Congress took steps to curb the president’s power to
make war with the passage of the War Powers Act in 1973. Its
major provision was that a president must inform Congress within
48 hours if U.S. forces were sent into hostile areas without a
declaration of war. Additionally, troops could only remain in the
area for a maximum of 90 days unless Congress approves the
president’s actions or declares war.

With regard to the larger picture, the war in Vietnam significantly

changed the nation’s views about foreign policy. The nation had
become quite cynical about its government and suspicious of a
democracy that had consistently provided so much misleading
information and concealed so many activities that many felt had
cost millions of dollars and thousands of young lives.

414