CSWIP 3.

1 – Welding Inspector
WIS5

Training and Examination Services

Granta Park, Great Abington
Cambridge CB21 6AL
United Kingdom
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CSWIP 3.1 – Welding Inspector

Contents
Section Subject

1 Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors

1.1 General
2 Terms and Definitions
2.1 Types of weld
2.2 Types of Joints (see BS EN ISO 15607)
2.3 Features of the completed weld
2.4 Weld preparation
2.5 Size of butt welds
2.6 Fillet weld
2.7 Welding position, slope and rotation
2.8 Weaving
3 Welding Imperfections and Materials Inspection
3.1 Definitions
3.2 Cracks
3.3 Cavities
3.4 Solid inclusions
3.5 Lack of fusion and penetration
3.6 Imperfect shape and dimensions
3.7 Miscellaneous imperfections
3.8 Acceptance standards
4 Destructive Testing
4.1 Test types, pieces and objectives
4.2 Macroscopic examination
5 Non-destructive Testing
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Radiographic methods
5.3 Ultrasonic methods
5.4 Magnetic particle testing
5.5 Dye penetrant testing
6 WPS/Welder Qualifications
6.1 General
6.2 Qualified welding procedure specifications
6.3 Welder qualification
7 Materials Inspection
7.1 General
7.2 Material type and weldability
7.3 Alloying elements and their effects
7.4 Material traceability
7.5 Material condition and dimensions
7.6 Summary
8 Codes and Standards
8.1 General
8.2 Definitions
8.3 Summary

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9 Welding Symbols
9.1 Standards for symbolic representation of welded joints on drawings
9.2 Elementary welding symbols
9.3 Combination of elementary symbols
9.4 Supplementary symbols
9.5 Position of symbols on drawings
9.6 Relationship between the arrow and joint lines
9.7 Position of the reference line and weld symbol
9.8 Positions of the continuous and dashed lines
9.9 Dimensioning of welds
9.10 Complimentary indications
9.11 Indication of the welding process
9.12 Weld symbols in accordance with AWS 2.4
10 Introduction to Welding Processes
10.1 General
10.2 Productivity
10.3 Heat input
10.4 Welding parameters
10.5 Power source characteristics
11 Manual Metal Arc/Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMA/SMAW)
11.1 MMA basic equipment requirements
11.2 Power requirements
11.3 Welding variables
11.4 Summary of MMA/SMAW
12 TIG Welding
12.1 Process characteristics
12.2 Process variables
12.3 Filler wires
12.4 Tungsten inclusions
12.5 Crater cracking
12.6 Common applications
12.7 Advantages
12.8 Disadvantages
13 MIG/MAG Welding
13.1 Process
13.2 Variables
13.3 MIG basic equipment requirements
13.4 Inspection when MIG/MAG welding
13.5 Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)
13.6 Summary of solid wire MIG/MAG
14 Submerged Arc Welding
14.1 Process
14.2 Fluxes
14.3 Process variables
14.4 Storage and care of consumables
14.5 Power sources

15 Thermal Cutting Processes

15.1 Oxy-fuel cutting
15.2 Plasma arc cutting
15.3 Arc air gouging
15.4 Manual metal arc gouging

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16 Welding Consumables
16.1 Consumables for MMA welding
16.2 AWS A 5.1– and AWS 5.5-
16.3 Inspection points for MMA consumables
16.4 Consumables for TIG/GTW
16.5 Consumables for MIG/MAG
16.6 Consumables for SAW welding
17 Weldability of Steels
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Factors that affect weldability
17.3 Hydrogen cracking
17.4 Solidification cracking
17.5 Lamellar tearing
17.6 Weld decay
18 Weld Repairs
18.1 Two specific areas
19 Residual Stresses and Distortions
19.1 Development of residual stresses
19.2 What causes distortion?
19.3 The main types of distortion?
19.4 Factors affecting distortion?
19.5 Prevention by pre-setting, pre-bending or use of restraint
19.6 Prevention by design
19.7 Prevention by fabrication techniques
19.8 Corrective techniques
20 Heat Treatment
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Heat treatment of steel
20.3 Postweld heat treatment (PWHT)
20.4 PWHT thermal cycle
20.5 Heat treatment furnaces
21 Arc Welding Safety
21.1 General
21.2 Electric shock
21.3 Heat and light
21.4 Fumes and gases
21.5 Noise
21.6 Summary
22 Calibration
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Terminology
22.3 Calibration frequency
22.4 Instruments for calibration
22.5 Calibration methods

23 Application and Control of Preheat

23.1 General
23.2 Definitions
23.3 Application of preheat
23.4 Control of preheat and interpass temperature
23.5 Summary

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24 Gauges

Appendix 1 Homework Multiple Choice Questions

Appendix 2 Plate Reports and Questions
Appendix 3 Pipe Reports and Questions
Appendix 4 Welding Crossword
Appendix 5 Macro Practicals

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Examination Contents

30 General multiple choice questions

45 minutes

60 Technology questions
90 minutes

20 Macroscopic questions
45 minutes

20 Plate Butt questions

75 minutes

20 Pipe Butt questions

105 minutes

70% is required in each section

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 CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector

CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector

WIS5

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WIS5-80116

CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector Course Objectives

 To understand factors which influence the quality of

fusion welds in steels.
 To recognise characteristics of commonly used welding
processes in relation to quality control.
 To interpret drawing instructions and symbols to ensure
Introduction that specifications are met.
 To set up and report on inspection of welds,
macrosections and other mechanical tests.
 To assess and report on welds to acceptance levels.
 To confirm that incoming material meets stipulated
requirements and recognise the effects on weld quality
of departure from specification.
 To be in a position to pass the Welding Inspector - Level
2 examinations.

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The Course Course Contents

The CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector course  Roles and duties of a  Heat treatments.
provides an introduction to a wide range of Welding Inspector.  Weldability of steels.
topics related to Welding Inspection and Quality.  Welding defects.  Joint design.
 Mechanical testing.  Welding procedures.
 What does it contains?  Main welding  Welder qualification.
processes.  Stress and distortion.
 Welding symbols.  Macro examination.
 Non-destructive  Codes and standards.
testing.
 Welding consumables.
 Inspection reporting.
 Thermal cutting.
 Welding terminology.
 Welding safety.

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0-1
 Course Assessment CSWIP 3.1 Examination

 Exam after  No continuous Before attempting the examination, you MUST

completion of course assessment provide the following:

 Two passport size photographs, with your name

and signature on reverse side of both.
 Eye test certificate, the certificate must show near
vision and colour tests (N4.5 or Times Roman
numerals standard) and verified enrolment.
 Completed examination form, you can print from
the website www.twitraining.com
 It is the sole responsibility of the candidate to
provide the above. Failure to do so will delay
results and certification being issued.

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CSWIP 3.1 Examination CSWIP 3.1 Examination

Multiple Choice Examination  Any standard/code

required for the
 30 x General Multiple Choice Questions 45 Minutes examinations will be
provided on the
 60 x Technology Questions 90 Minutes
examination day.
 24 x Macroscopic Questions 45 Minutes
 20 x Plate Butt Questions 75 Minutes
 20 x Pipe Butt Questions 105 Minutes

Closed book exam

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Notification of Examination Results CSWIP 3.1 - 5 Year Prolongation

It is a mandatory
requirement to keep an
70% pass
mark
up to date log book as
documentary evidence
of your activities.

This will be required to

be presented to CSWIP
For every section to be after 5 years to prolong
awarded the certificate your qualification.
2 copies of certificates and an
identity card sent to delegates sponsor.

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0-2
 CSWIP 3.1 - 10 Year Renewals CSWIP Certification Scheme

 3.0 Visual Welding Inspector.

 10 years Renewal  3.1 Welding Inspector.
examination.  3.2 Senior Welding Inspector.
 Welding Quality Control Coordinator.
 30 General multiple
choice questions.

For further information

 Assessment of a
please see website
welded sample.
www.cswip.com

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CSWIP Certificate Scheme TWI Certification Ltd

CSWIP Secretariat
Certificate Scheme for Personnel
TWI Certification Ltd
Granta Park
Great Abington
Cambridge CB21 6AL
United Kingdom

Tel: + 44 (0) 1223 899000

Fax: + 44 (0) 1223 894219
E-mail: twicertification@twi.co.uk
Web : www.cswip.com

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0-3
 Section 1

Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors

1 Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors
1.1 General
Welding inspectors are employed to assist with the quality control (QC)
activities necessary to ensure that welded items meet specified requirements
and are fit for their application.

For employers to have confidence in their work, welding inspectors need to to

understand/interpret the various QC procedures and also have a sound
knowledge of welding technology.

Visual inspection is one of the non-destructive examination (NDE) disciplines

and for some applications may be the only form.

For more demanding service conditions, visual inspection is usually followed by

one or more of the other non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques - surface
crack detection and volumetric inspection of butt welds.

Application Standards/Codes usually specify (or refer to other standards) that

give the acceptance criteria for weld inspection and may be very specific about
the particular techniques to be used for surface crack detection and volumetric
inspection; they do not usually give any guidance about basic requirements for
visual inspection.

Guidance and basic requirements for visual inspection are given by:

ISO 17637 (Non-destructive examination of fusion welds - visual

Examination)

1.1.1 Basic requirements for visual inspection (to ISO 17637)

ISO 17637 provides the following:

 Requirements for welding inspection personnel.

 Recommendations about conditions suitable for visual examination.
 Advice on the use of gauges/inspection aids that may be needed/helpful for
inspection.
 Guidance about information that may need to be in the inspection records.
 Guidance about when inspection may be required during fabrication.

A summary of each of these topics is given in the following sections.

1.1.2 Welding inspection personnel

Before starting work on a particular contract, ISO 17637 states that welding
inspectors should:

 Be familiar with relevant standards, rules and specifications for the

fabrication work to be undertaken.
 Be informed about the welding procedure(s) to be used.
 Have good vision – in accordance with EN 473 and checked every 12
months.

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Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors 1-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 ISO 17637 does not give or make any recommendation about a formal
qualification for visual inspection of welds. However, it has become industry
practice for inspectors to have practical experience of welding inspection
together with a recognised qualification in welding inspection – such as a CSWIP
qualification.

1.1.3 Conditions for visual inspection

Illumination
ISO 17637 states that the minimum illumination shall be 350 lux but
recommends a minimum of 500 lux (normal shop or office lighting).

Access
Access to the surface for direct inspection should enable the eye to be:

 Within 600mm of the surface being inspected.

 In a position to give a viewing angle of not less than 30°.

600mm (max.)

30° (min.)

Figure 1.1 Access for visual inspection.

1.1.4 Aids to visual inspection

Where access for direct visual inspection is restricted, a mirrored boroscope or a
fibre optic viewing system, may be used – usually by agreement between the
contracting parties.

It may also be necessary to provide auxiliary lighting to give suitable contrast

and relief effect between surface imperfections and the background.

Other items of equipment that may be appropriate to facilitate visual

examination are:

 Welding gauges (for checking bevel angles and weld profile, fillet sizing,
measuring undercut depth).
 Dedicated weld gap gauges and linear misalignment (hi-lo) gauges.
 Straight edges and measuring tapes.
 Magnifying lens (if a magnification lens is used it should be X2 to X5).

ISO 17637 shows a range of welding gauges together with details of what they
can be used for and the precision of the measurements.

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1.1.5 Stages when inspection may be required
ISO 17637 states that examination is normally performed on welds in the as-
welded condition. This means that visual inspection of the finished weld is a
minimum requirement.

However, ISO 17637 says that the extent of examination and the stages when
inspection activity is required should be specified by the Application Standard or
by agreement between client and fabricator.

For fabricated items that must have high integrity, such as pressure vessels and
piping or large structures inspection, activity will usually be required throughout
the fabrication process:

 Before welding.
 During welding.
 After welding.

Inspection activities at each of these stages of fabrication can be considered the

duties of the welding inspector and typical inspection checks that may be
required are described in the following section.

1.1.6 Typical duties of a welding inspector

The relevant standards, rules and specifications that a welding inspector should
be familiar with at the start of a new contract are all the documents he will
need to refer to during the fabrication sequence in order to make judgements
about particular details.

Typical documents that may need to be referred to are:

 The Application Standard (or Code): For visual acceptance criteria:

Although most of the requirements for the fabricated item should be
specified by National Standards, client standards or various QC procedures,
some features are not easy to define precisely and the requirement may be
given as to good workmanship standard.
 Quality plans or inspection check lists: For the type and extent of
inspection.
 Drawing: For assembly/fit-up details and dimensional requirements.
 QC procedures: Company QC/QA procedures such as those for document
control, material handling, electrode storage and issue, Welding Procedure
Specifications, etc.

Examples of requirements difficult to define precisely are some shape

tolerances, distortion, surface damage or the amount of weld spatter.

Good workmanship is the standard that a competent worker should be able to

achieve without difficulty when using the correct tools in a particular working
environment.

In practice the application of the fabricated item will be the main factor that
influences what is judged to be good workmanship or the relevant client
specification will determine what the acceptable level of workmanship is.

Reference samples are sometimes needed to give guidance about the

acceptance standard for details such as weld surface finish and toe blend, weld
root profile and finish required for welds that need to be dressed, by grinding or
finishing.

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Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors 1-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 A welding inspector should also ensure that any inspection aids that will be
needed are:

 In good condition.
 Calibrated as appropriate/as specified by QC procedures.

Safety consciousness is a duty of all employees and a welding inspector should:

 Be aware of all safety regulations for the workplace.

 Ensure that safety equipment that will be needed is available and in suitable
condition.

Duties before welding

Check Action

Material In accordance with drawing/WPS.

Identified and can be traced to a test certificate.
In suitable condition (free from damage and contamination).

WPSs Approved and available to welders (and inspectors).

Welding equipment In suitable condition and calibrated as appropriate.

Weld preparations In accordance with WPS (and/or drawings).

Welder qualifications Identification of welders qualified for each WPS to be used.

All welder qualification certificates are valid (in date).

Welding consumables Those to be used are as specified by the WPSs, are

stored/controlled as specified by the QC procedure.

Joint fit-ups In accordance with WPS/drawings tack welds are to good

workmanship standard and to code/WPS.

Weld faces Free from defects, contamination and damage.

Preheat (if required) Minimum temperature is in accordance with WPS.

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 Duties during welding

Check Action

Site/field welding Ensure weather conditions are suitable/comply with Code

(conditions will not affect welding).

Welding process In accordance with WPS.

Preheat (if required) Minimum temperature is being maintained in accordance

with WPS.

Interpass temperature Maximum temperature is in accordance with WPS.

Welding consumables In accordance with WPS and being controlled as procedure.

Welding parameters Current, volts, travel speed are in accordance with WPS.

Root run Visually acceptable to Code before filling the joint (for single
sided welds).

Gouging/grinding By an approved method and to good workmanship standard.

Inter-run cleaning To good workmanship standard.

Welder On the approval register/qualified for the WPS being used.

Duties after welding

Check Action

Weld identification Each weld is marked with the welder's identification and is
identified in accordance with drawing/weld map.

Weld appearance Ensure welds are suitable for all NDT (profile, cleanness,
etc).

Visually inspect welds and sentence in accordance with Code.

Dimensional survey Check dimensions are in accordance with drawing/Code.

Drawings Ensure any modifications are included on as-built drawings.

NDT Ensure all NDT is complete and reports are available for
records.

Repairs Monitor in accordance with the procedure.

PWHT (if required) Monitor for compliance with procedure (check chart record).

Pressure/load test Ensure test equipment is calibrated.

(if required)
Monitor test to ensure compliance with procedure/Code.

Ensure reports/records are available.

Documentation records Ensure all reports/records are completed and collated as

required.

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1.1.7 Examination records
The requirement for examination records/inspection reports varies according to
the contract and type of fabrication and there is frequently no requirement for a
formal record.

When an inspection record is required it may be necessary to show that items

have been checked at the specified stages and have satisfied the acceptance
criteria.

The form of this record will vary, possibly a signature against an activity on an
inspection checklist or quality plan, or it may be an individual inspection report
for each item.

For individual inspection reports, ISO 17637 lists typical details for inclusion
such as:

 Name of manufacturer/fabricator.
 Identification of item examined.
 Material type and thickness.
 Type of joint.
 Welding process.
 Acceptance standard/criteria.
 Locations and types of all imperfections not acceptable (when specified, it
may be necessary to include an accurate sketch or photograph).
 Name of examiner/inspector and date of examination.

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Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors 1-6 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Duties of a WI Objectives

When this presentation has been completed you

will have a greater understanding of the
requirements of a Welding inspector before,
during, and after welding. Where he/she stands
in the hierarchy and the core competencies and
Typical Duties of Welding Inspectors skills required in his/her duties and obligations
to quality whilst trying to facilitate, and not hold
Section 1 up production.

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Main Responsibilities Personal Attributes

 Code compliance. Important qualities that good Inspectors

are expected to have are:
 Workmanship control.  Honesty.
 Integrity.
 Documentation control.
 Knowledge.
 Good communicator.

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Standard for Visual Inspection

Welding Inspection
Basic Requirements
BS EN ISO 17637 - Non-destructive examination Conditions for Visual Inspection (to BS EN ISO 17637)
of fusion welds - Visual examination.
Illumination:
 350 lux minimum required.
Welding Inspection Personnel should:  (recommends 500 lux - normal shop or office lighting).

 Be familiar with relevant standards, rules and Vision access:

specifications applicable to the fabrication work  Eye should be within 600mm of the surface.
to be undertaken.  Viewing angle (line from eye to surface) to be not less
 Be informed about the welding procedures to be than 30°.
used. 600mm
 Have good vision (which should be checked
every 12 months). 30°

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1-1
 Welding Inspection Welding Inspectors Equipment

Aids to Visual Inspection (to BS EN ISO 17637) Measuring devices:

 Flexible tape, steel rule.
 When access is restricted may use:
 Temperature indicating crayons.
 A mirrored borescope.
 A fibre optic viewing system. }
usually by agreement
 Welding gauges.
 Voltmeter.
Other aids:  Ammeter.
 Welding gauges (for checking bevel angles, weld profile,  Magnifying glass
fillet sizing, undercut depth).
 Torch/flash light.
 Dedicated weld-gap gauges and linear misalignment
(high-low) gauges.  Gas flowmeter.
 Straight edges and measuring tapes.
 Magnifying lens (if magnification lens used it should
have magnification between X2 to X5).

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Welding Inspectors Gauges Welding Inspectors Equipment

5
6

Multi-meter capable of
measuring amperage
HI-LO Single Purpose Welding Gauge

IN
0 1/4 1/2 3/4

and voltage.

TWI Multi-purpose Welding Gauge Misalignment Gauges

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Welding Inspection Duties of a Welding Inspector

Stages of Visual Inspection (to BS EN ISO 17637)  Before welding:

Extent of examination and when required should be  (before assembly).

defined in the application standard or by agreement  (after assembly).

between the contracting parties.
 During welding.
For high integrity fabrications inspection required  After welding.
throughout the fabrication process:
 Before welding.
 During welding.
 After welding.

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1-2
 Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector

Before welding Before welding

Preparation:
Welding procedures:
Familiarisation with relevant documents…
 Are applicable to joints to be welded and
 Application standard/code - for visual acceptance approved.
requirements.  Are available to welders and inspectors.
 Drawings - item details and positions/tolerances etc.
 Quality Control Procedures - for activities such as Welder qualifications:
material handling, documentation control, storage  List of available qualified welders related to WPS’s.
and issue of welding consumables.  Certificates are valid and in-date.
 Quality Plan/Inspection and Test Plan/Inspection
Checklist - details of inspection requirements,
inspection procedures and records required.

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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector

Before welding Before welding

Equipment: Consumables:
 All inspection equipment is in good condition and  In accordance with WPS’s.
calibrated as necessary.  Are being controlled in accordance with procedure.
 All safety requirements are understood and
necessary equipment available. Weld preparations:
 Comply with WPS/drawing.
Materials:  Free from defects and contamination.
 Can be identified and related to test certificates.
 Are of correct dimensions. Welding equipment:
 Are in suitable condition (no damage/contamination).  In good order and calibrated as required by
procedure.

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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector

Before welding During welding

Fit-up Weather conditions

 Complies with WPS.  Suitable if site/field welding.
 Number/size of tack welds to code/good
workmanship. Welding process(es)
 In accordance with WPS.
Pre-heat
 If specified. Welder
 Minimum temperature complies with WPS.  Is approved to weld the joint.
 Pre-heat (if required).
 Minimum temperature as specified by WPS.
 Maximum interpass temperature as WPS.

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 Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector

During welding During welding

Welding consumables Inter-run dressing

 In accordance with WPS.  In accordance with an approved method (and back
 In suitable condition. gouging) to good workmanship standard.
 Controlled issue and handling.  Distortion control.
 Welding is balanced and over-welding is avoided.
Welding parameters
 Current, voltage and travel speed – as WPS.
 Root runs.
 If possible, visually inspect root before single-sided
welds are filled up.

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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector

After welding After welding

Weld identification Repairs

 Identified/numbered as required.  Monitor repairs to ensure compliance with
 Is marked with welder’s identity. procedure PWHT.
 Monitor for compliance with procedure.
Visual inspection
 Check chart records confirm procedure compliance.
 Ensure weld is suitable for all NDT.
 Visually inspect and sentence to code
Pressure/load test
requirements.
 Ensure test equipment is suitably calibrated.
Dimensional survey  Monitor to ensure compliance with procedure.
 Ensure dimensions comply with code/drawing.  Ensure all records are available.
Other NDT
 Ensure all NDT is completed and reports available.
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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector WI Duties Before Welding

After welding Resume:

 Check all documentation.
Documentation  Check all consumables.
 Ensure any modifications are on as-built drawings.  Check materials, dimensions and condition.
 Ensure all required documents are available.  Preheating, method and temperature.
 Collate/file documents for manufacturing records.  Check fit and set-up.
 Sign all documentation and forward it to QC  Ensure no undue stress is applied to the joint.
department.  Check welding equipment.

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1-4
 WI Duties During Welding WI Duties After Welding

Resume: Resume:
 Check amperage, voltage, polarity.  Post cleaning.
 Ensure the correct technique, run sequence.  Visual inspection of completed welded joint.
 Check run out lengths, time lapses.  Check weld contour and width.
 Cleaning between passes.  PWHT.
 Interpass temperatures.  Dimensional accuracy.
 Consumable control.  Weld reports.
 Maintenance of records and reports.  Tie up with NDT.
 Monitor any repairs.

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Summary of Duties Summary of Duties

It is the duty of a Welding Inspector to ensure A Welding Inspector must:

all the welding and associated actions are carried
Observe
out in accordance with the specification and any
 To observe all relevant actions related to weld
applicable procedures. quality throughout production.
Record
 To record, or log all production inspection points
relevant to quality, including a final report showing
all identified imperfections.
Compare
 To compare all recorded information with the
acceptance criteria and any other relevant clauses
in the applied application standard.

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Any Questions

?
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1-5
 Section 2

Terms and Definitions

2 Terms and Definitions
The following definitions are taken from BS 499-1: Welding terms and symbols
– Glossary for welding, brazing and thermal cutting.

Brazing
A process of joining generally applied to metals in which, during or after
heating, molten filler metal is drawn into or retained in the space between
closely adjacent surfaces of the parts to be joined by capillary attraction. In
general, the melting point of the filler metal is above 450C but always below
the melting temperature of the parent material.

Braze welding
The joining of metals using a technique similar to fusion welding and a filler
metal with a lower melting point than the parent metal, but neither using
capillary action as in brazing nor intentionally melting the parent metal.

Joint
A connection where the individual components, suitably prepared and
assembled, are joined by welding or brazing.

Weld
A union of pieces of metal made by welding.

Welding
An operation in which two or more parts are united by means of heat, pressure
or both, in such a way that there is continuity in the nature of the metal
between these parts.

WIS5-80116
Terms and Definitions 2-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Table 1.1 Joint types, sketches and definitions.
Type of Sketch Definition
joint

Butt Connection between the ends or edges

of two parts making an angle to one
another of 135-180 inclusive in the
region of the joint.

T Connection between the end or edge of

one part and the face of the other part,
the parts making an angle to one
another of more than 5 up to and
including 90 in the region of the joint.

Corner Connection between the ends or edges

of two parts making an angle to one
another of more than 30 but less than
135 in the region of the joint.

Edge A connection between the edges of two

parts making an angle to one another
of 0-30 inclusive in the region of the
joint.

Cruciform A connection in which two flat plates or

two bars are welded to another flat
plate at right angles and on the same
axis.

Lap Connection between two overlapping

parts making an angle to one another
of 0-5 inclusive in the region of the
weld or welds.

WIS5-80116
Terms and Definitions 2-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
2.1 Types of weld
2.1.1 From the configuration point of view (as per 2.2)

Figure 2.1 Butt weld. Figure 2.2 Fillet weld.

In a butt joint

Butt weld In a T joint

In a corner joint

Figure 2.3 Configurations of a butt weld.

Autogenous weld
A fusion weld made without filler metal by TIG, plasma, electron beam, laser or
oxy-fuel gas welding.

Slot weld
A joint between two overlapping components made by depositing a fillet weld
round the periphery of a hole in one component so as to join it to the surface of
the other component exposed through the hole.

Figure 2.4 Slot weld.

WIS5-80116
Terms and Definitions 2-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Plug weld
A weld made by filling a hole in one component of a workpiece with filler metal
so as to join it to the surface of an overlapping component exposed through the
hole (the hole can be circular or oval).

Figure 2.5 A plug weld.

2.1.2 From the penetration point of view

Full penetration weld
A welded joint where the weld metal fully penetrates the joint with complete
root fusion. In the US the preferred term is complete joint penetration (CJP)
weld (see AWS D1.1.).

Figure 2.6 A full penetration weld.

Partial penetration weld

A welded joint without full penetration. In the US the preferred term is partial
joint penetration (PJP) weld.

Figure 2.7 A partial penetration weld.

2.2 Types of joints (see BS EN ISO 15607)

Homogeneous
Welded joint in which the weld metal and parent material have no significant
differences in mechanical properties and/or chemical composition. Example:
Two carbon steel plates welded with a matching carbon steel electrode.

Heterogeneous
Welded joint in which the weld metal and parent material have significant
differences in mechanical properties and/or chemical composition. Example: A
repair weld of a cast iron item performed with a nickel-based electrode.

WIS5-80116
Terms and Definitions 2-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Dissimilar/Transition
Welded joint in which the parent materials have significant differences in
mechanical properties and/or chemical composition. Example: A carbon steel
lifting lug welded onto an austenitic stainless steel pressure vessel.

2.3 Features of the completed weld

 Parent metal
Metal to be joined or surfaced by welding, braze welding or brazing.

 Filler metal
Metal added during welding, braze welding, brazing or surfacing.

 Weld metal
All metal melted during the making of a weld and retained in the weld.

 Heat-affected zone (HAZ)

The part of the parent metal metallurgically affected by the heat of welding
or thermal cutting but not melted.

 Fusion line
Boundary between the weld metal and the HAZ in a fusion weld.

 Weld zone
Zone containing the weld metal and the HAZ.

 Weld face
The surface of a fusion weld exposed on the side from which the weld has
been made.

 Root
Zone on the side of the first run furthest from the welder.

 Toe
Boundary between a weld face and the parent metal or between runs. This
is a very important feature of a weld since toes are points of high stress
concentration and often are initiation points for different types of cracks (eg
fatigue and cold cracks). To reduce the stress concentration, toes must
blend smoothly into the parent metal surface.

 Excess weld metal

Weld metal lying outside the plane joining the toes. Other non-standard
terms for this feature are reinforcement and overfill.

WIS5-80116
Terms and Definitions 2-5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Weld
Parent zone
Weld
face metal

Parent
metal

Toe

HAZ

Weld
metal Root Fusion
line Excess weld
metal
Penetration

Figure 2.8 Labelled features of a butt weld.

Parent metal

Excess
weld metal

Weld zone
Toe

Fusion
line
Weld face

Root Parent metal

Weld
Metal HAZ

Figure 2.9 Labelled features of a fillet weld.

WIS5-80116
Terms and Definitions 2-6 Copyright © TWI Ltd
2.4 Weld preparation
A preparation for making a connection where the individual components,
suitably prepared and assembled, are joined by welding or brazing. The
dimensions below can vary depending on WPS.

2.4.1 Features of the weld preparation

Angle of bevel
The angle at which the edge of a component is prepared for making a weld.

For an MMA weld on carbon steel plates, the angle is:

 25-30 for a V preparation.

 8-12 for a U preparation.
 40-50 for a single bevel preparation.
 10-20 for a J preparation.

Included angle
The angle between the planes of the fusion faces of parts to be welded. For
single and double V or U this angle is twice the bevel angle. In the case of
single or double bevel, single or double J bevel, the included angle is equal to
the bevel angle.

Root face
The portion of a fusion face at the root that is not bevelled or grooved. Its value
depends on the welding process used, parent material to be welded and
application; for a full penetration weld on carbon steel plates, it has a value of
1-2mm (for the common welding processes).

Gap
The minimum distance at any cross-section between edges, ends or surfaces to
be joined. Its value depends on the welding process used and application; for a
full penetration weld on carbon steel plates, it has a value of 1-4mm.

Root radius
The radius of the curved portion of the fusion face in a component prepared for
a single or double J or U, weld.

Land
Straight portion of a fusion face between the root face and the radius part of a J
or U preparation can be 0. Usually present in weld preparations for MIG welding
of aluminium alloys.

WIS5-80116
Terms and Definitions 2-7 Copyright © TWI Ltd
2.4.2 Types of preparation
Open square butt preparation
Used for welding thin components from one or both sides. If the root gap is
zero (ie if components are in contact), this preparation becomes a closed
square butt preparation (not recommended due to problems caused by lack of
penetration)!

Figure 2.10 Open square butt preparation.

Single V preparation
One of the most common preparations used in welding and can be produced
using flame or plasma cutting (cheap and fast). For thicker plates a double V
preparation is preferred since it requires less filler material to complete the joint
and the residual stresses can be balanced on both sides of the joint resulting in
lower angular distortion.

Included angle

Angle of
bevel

Root face

Root gap

Figure 2.11 Single V preparation.

Double V preparation
The depth of preparation can be the same on both sides (symmetric double V
preparation) or deeper on one side (asymmetric double V preparation). Usually,
in this situation the depth of preparation is distributed as 2/3 of the thickness of
the plate on the first side with the remaining 1/3 on the backside. This
asymmetric preparation allows for a balanced welding sequence with root back
gouging, giving lower angular distortions. Whilst a single V preparation allows
welding from one side, double V preparation requires access to both sides (the
same applies for all double sided preparations).

WIS5-80116
Terms and Definitions 2-8 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Figure 2.12 Symmetric double V preparation.

Single U preparation
U preparations can be produced only by machining (slow and expensive),
however, tighter tolerances give a better fit-up than with V preparations.
Usually applied to thicker plates compared with single V preparation as it
requires less filler material to complete the joint, lower residual stresses and
distortions. Like for V preparations, with very thick sections a double U
preparation can be used.

Included angle

Angle of
bevel

Root
radius

Root face

Root gap

Land

Figure 2.13 Single U preparation.

Double U preparation
Usually this type of preparation does not require a land, (except for aluminium
alloys).

Figure 2.14 Double U preparation.

WIS5-80116
Terms and Definitions 2-9 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Single V preparation with backing strip
Backing strips allow production of full penetration welds with increased current
and hence increased deposition rates/productivity without the danger of burn-
through. Backing strips can be permanent or temporary.

Permanent types are made of the same material as being joined and are tack
welded in place. The main problems with this type of weld are poor fatigue
resistance and the probability of crevice corrosion between the parent metal
and the backing strip.

It is also difficult to examine by NDT due to the built-in crevice at the root of
the joint. Temporary types include copper strips, ceramic tiles and fluxes.

Figure 2.15 Single V preparation with backing strip.

Figure 2.16 Single bevel preparation.

Figure 2.17 Double bevel preparation.

WIS5-80116
Terms and Definitions 2-10 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Figure 2.18 Single J preparation.

Figure 2.19 Double J preparation.

All these preparations (single/double bevel and J) can be used on T joints as

well. Double preparations are recommended for thick sections. The main
advantage of these preparations is that only one component is prepared
(cheap, can allow for small misalignments).

For further details regarding weld preparations, please refer to Standard BS EN

ISO 9692.

2.5 Size of butt welds

Actual throat Design throat

thickness thickness

Figure 2.20 Full penetration butt weld.

Actual throat Design throat

thickness thickness

Figure 2.21 Partial penetration butt weld.

WIS5-80116
Terms and Definitions 2-11 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 As a general rule:

Actual throat thickness = design throat thickness + excess weld metal.

Actual throat thickness =

design throat thickness

Figure 2.22 Full penetration butt weld ground flush.

Design throat
Actual throat thickness = maximum thickness =
thickness through the joint thickness of the
thinner plate

Figure 2.23 Butt weld between two plates of different thickness.

Run (pass)
The metal melted or deposited during one pass of an electrode, torch or
blowpipe.

Figure 2.24 Single run weld. Figure 2.25 Multi-run weld.

Layer
A stratum of weld metal consisting of one or more runs.

Types of butt weld (from accessibility point of view)

Figure 2.26Single side weld. Figure 2.27 Double side weld.

WIS5-80116
Terms and Definitions 2-12 Copyright © TWI Ltd
2.6 Fillet weld
A fusion weld, other than a butt, edge or fusion spot weld, which is
approximately triangular in transverse cross-section.

2.6.1 Size of fillet welds

Unlike butt welds, fillet welds can be defined using several dimensions.

Actual throat thickness

Perpendicular distance between two lines, each parallel to a line joining the
outer toes, one being a tangent at the weld face and the other being through
the furthermost point of fusion penetration.

Design throat thickness

The minimum dimension of throat thickness used for design purposes, also
known as effective throat thickness. (a on drawings).

Leg length
Distance from the actual or projected intersection of the fusion faces and the
toe of a fillet weld, measured across the fusion face (z on drawings).

Actual throat
thickness

Leg
length

Leg length

Design throat
thickness

Figure 2.28 Fillet weld.

2.6.2 Shape of fillet welds

Mitre fillet weld
A flat face fillet weld in which the leg lengths are equal within the agreed
tolerance. The cross-section area of this type of weld can be considered to be a
right angle isosceles triangle with design throat thickness a and leg length z.
The relation between design throat thickness and leg length is:

a = 0.707  z or z = 1.41  a

WIS5-80116
Terms and Definitions 2-13 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Figure 2.29 Mitre fillet weld.

Convex fillet weld

A fillet weld in which the weld face is convex. The above relation between
leg length and design throat thickness for mitre fillet welds is also valid for this
type of weld. Since there is excess weld metal present, the actual throat
thickness is bigger than the design throat thickness.

Figure 2.30 Convex fillet weld

Concave fillet weld

A fillet weld in which the weld face is concave. The relation between leg
length and design throat thickness specified for mitre fillet welds is not valid for
this type of weld. Also, the design throat thickness is equal to the actual throat
thickness.

Due to the smooth blending between the weld face and the surrounding parent
material, the stress concentration effect at the toes of the weld is reduced
compared with the previous type. This is why this type of weld is highly desired
in applications subjected to cyclic loads where fatigue phenomena might be a
major cause for failure.

Figure 2.31 Concave fillet weld.

WIS5-80116
Terms and Definitions 2-14 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Asymmetrical fillet weld
A fillet weld in which the vertical leg length is not equal to the horizontal leg
length. The relation between leg length and design throat thickness is not valid
for this type of weld because the cross-section is not an isosceles triangle.

Horizontal leg
size

Vertical leg
size

Throat size

Figure 2.32 Asymmetrical fillet weld.

Deep penetration fillet weld

A fillet weld with a deeper than normal penetration. It is produced using high
heat input welding processes (ie SAW or MAG with spray transfer). This type of
weld uses the benefits of greater arc penetration to obtain the required throat
thickness whilst reducing the amount of deposited metal needed thus leading to
a reduction in residual stress level.

To produce consistent and constant penetration, the travel speed must be kept
constant at a high value. Consequently this type of weld is usually produced
using mechanised or automatic welding processes. Also, the high depth-to-
width ratio increases the probability of solidification centreline cracking. To
differentiate this type of weld from the previous types, the throat thickness is
symbolised with s instead of a.

Figure 2.33 Deep penetgration fillet weld.

2.6.3 Compound of butt and fillet welds

A combination of butt and fillet welds used for T joints with full or partial
penetration or butt joints between two plates with different thickness. Fillet
welds added on top of the groove welds improve the blending of the weld face
towards the parent metal surface and reduce the stress concentration at the
toes of the weld.

WIS5-80116
Terms and Definitions 2-15 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Bevel
Fillet
weld weld

Figure 2.34 Double bevel compound weld.

2.7 Welding position, slope and rotation

Welding position
Orientation of a weld expressed in terms of working position, weld slope and
weld rotation (for further details see ISO 6947).

Weld slope
Angle between root line and the positive X axis of the horizontal reference
plane, measured in mathematically positive direction (ie counter-clockwise).

Figure 2.35 Weld slope.

Weld rotation
Angle between the centreline of the weld and the positive Z axis or a line
parallel to the Y axis, measured in the mathematically positive direction (ie
counter-clockwise) in the plane of the transverse cross-section of the weld in
question.

Figure 2.36 Weld rotation.

WIS5-80116
Terms and Definitions 2-16 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Table 2.1 Welding position, sketches and definition.
Welding Sketch Definition and symbol
position according to ISO 6947

Flat Welding position in which the

welding is horizontal with the
centreline of the weld vertical.

PA.

Horizontal- Welding position in which the

vertical welding is horizontal (applicable
in case of fillet welds).

PB.

Horizontal Welding position in which the

welding is horizontal, with the
centreline of the weld horizontal.

PC.

Vertical-up Welding position in which the

welding is upwards.

PF.

Vertical-down Welding position in which the

welding is downwards.
PG
PG.

PF

Overhead A welding position in which the

welding is horizontal and
overhead (applicable in fillet
welds).

PE.

Horizontal- Welding position in which the

overhead welding is horizontal and
overhead with the centreline of
the weld horizontal.

PD.

WIS5-80116
Terms and Definitions 2-17 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Figure 2.37 Tolerances for the welding positions.

2.8 Weaving
Transverse oscillation of an electrode or blowpipe nozzle during the deposition
of weld metal, generally used in vertical-up welds.

Figure 2.38 Weaving.

Stringer bead
A run of weld metal made with little or no weaving motion.

Figure 2.39 Stringer bead.

WIS5-80116
Terms and Definitions 2-18 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Terminology Objective

When this presentation has been completed you

will have a greater understanding of typical
international language used in joint design and
compilation of welding documentation.

Welding Terminology and Definitions

Section 2

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Welding Terminology and Definitions Welding Terminology and Definitions

What is a Weld? What is a Joint?

 A localised coalescence of metals or non-metals  The junction of members or the edges of

produced either by heating the materials to the members that are to be joined or have been
welding temperature, with or without the joined (AWS).
application of pressure, or by the application of
pressure alone (AWS).  A configuration of members (BS EN).

 A permanent union between materials caused by

heat, and or pressure BS EN.

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Joint Terminology Butt Preparations

T Edge Cruciform

Square Edge Square Edge

Closed Butt Open Butt

Butt Lap Corner

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2-1
 Single Sided Butt Preparations Double Sided Butt Preparations

Single sided preparations are normally made on thinner Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker
materials, or when access form both sides is restricted. materials, or when access form both sides is unrestricted.

Single-J Single-U Double-J Double-U

Single Bevel Single V Double-Bevel Double V

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Joint Preparation Terminology Joint Preparation Terminology

Included angle Included angle

Angle of bevel Angle of bevel
Angle of Angle
bevel of
bevel

Land
Root
Radius
Root Gap Root Gap Root Face
Root Face
Root Gap Root Radius Root Face
Root Face Land
Root Gap

Single-V butt Single-U butt Single-J Butt Single Bevel Butt

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Weld Terminology Welded Butt Joints

Fillet weld Edge weld Compound weld A butt welded butt joint

A fillet welded joint

Butt weld Plug weld Spot weld A compound welded butt joint

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2-2
 Welded T Joints Welded Lap Joints

A fillet welded lap joint

A fillet welded T joint

A spot welded lap joint

A butt welded T joint

A compound welded lap joint

A compound welded T joint

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Welded Closed Corner Joints Weld Zone Terminology

Face
A B
A fillet welded closed corner joint

Weld
metal
A butt welded closed corner joint
Heat
Affected Weld
Zone Boundary

A compound welded closed corner joint

C D A, B, C & D = Weld Toes
Root

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Weld Zone Terminology Weld Zone Terminology

Excess Weld width

Cap height

Excess Root
Penetration

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2-3
 Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) Toe Blend

Maximum Solid-liquid Boundary  Most codes quote the weld

Solid
Temperature weld 80° 6mm toes shall blend smoothly.
Grain growth zone
metal  This statement is not
Recrystallised zone quantitative and therefore
open to individual
Partially transformed zone
Poor weld toe interpretation.
Tempered zone
blend angle  The higher the toe blend
Unaffected base material angle the greater the
20° 3mm
amount of stress
concentration.
 The toe blend angle ideally
should be between 20-30°.
Improved weld
toe blend angle

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Features to Consider Fillet Weld Profiles

Fillet welds - toe blend

Mitre fillet

Concave fillet
A concave profile is preferred for
joints subjected to fatigue
loading.

Convex fillet

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Fillet Weld Leg Length Fillet Weld Features

Excess weld metal

Vertical
a leg
length
Design
b throat
a = Vertical leg length
b = Horizontal leg length
Horizontal
Note: The leg length should be approximately leg length
equal to the material thickness.

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2-4
 Deep Penetration Fillet Weld Features Deep Penetration Fillet Weld Features

a
b
a = Design throat thickness
b = Actual throat thickness

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Deep Penetration Fillet Weld Features Fillet Weld Sizes

Calculating throat thickness from a known leg

length:

Design throat thickness = leg length x 0.7

 Question: The leg length is 14mm.

What is the design throat?
a
b
 Answer: 14mm x 0.7 = 10mm throat thickness.
a = Design throat thickness
b = Actual throat thickness

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Fillet Weld Sizes Features to Consider

Calculating leg length from a known design

Throat Throat
throat thickness:
thickness thickness
is larger is smaller
Leg length = design throat thickness x 1.4

60° 120°
 Question: The design throat is 10mm.
What is the leg length?

 Answer: 10mm x 1.4 = 14mm leg length.

Fillet welds connecting parts with fusion faces with an
angle more than 120° or less than 60° should not use the
previous calculations.

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2-5
 Features to Consider Features to Consider

The design throat thickness of a flat or convex fillet Importance of fillet weld leg length size
weld connecting parts with the fusion faces which
form an angle between 600 and 1200 may be a b
calculated by multiplying the leg length by the
appropriate factors as given below:

Angle between fusion

Factor 4mm 8mm
faces in degrees
60 to 90 0.7
4mm 2mm
91 to 100 0.65
101 to 106 0.6
Approximately the same weld volume in both Fillet Welds but the
107 to 113 0.55 effective throat thickness has been altered, reducing
114 to 120 0.5 considerably the strength of weld B.

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Fillet Weld Sizes Fillet Weld Sizes

Importance of fillet weld leg length size Importance of fillet weld leg length size

6mm 4mm a 6mm b

4mm
a b
4mm 6mm
4mm 6mm
Area = 4 x 4 = 8mm2 Area = 6 x 6 = 18mm2
Cross Sectional Area 2 2
The CSA of b is over double the area of a without
Question: How much larger is the CSA b comparable to a? the extra excess weld metal being added.

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Features to Consider Joint Design and Weld Preparation

Effective Throat Thickness Bevel angle

a = Nominal throat thickness s = Effective throat thickness

Bevel angle must allow:

 Good access to the root.
 Manipulation of electrode to ensure sidewall
a s fusion.

Deep throat fillet welds from FCAW and SAW etc.

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2-6
 Joint Design and Weld Preparation Joint Design and Weld Preparation

Root face Root gap

Root face size set to: Root gap set to:
 Allow controlled root fusion.  Allow controlled root fusion.
 Reduce the risk of burn-  Reduce the risk of burn-
through. through.

Too large = burn-through Too small = lack of

Too small = burn-through Too large = lack of
root penetration
root penetration

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Weld Preparation Weld Preparation

Terminology and typical dimensions: V joints Joint design/weld preparation to reduce

weld volumes
included angle
12 to 15°
bevel angle
35°

root gap For MMA welding of pipe joints

root face
> ~20mm (compound bevel)
55°
~5
Typical dimensions ~6mm °
Bevel angle 30 to 35°
Root face ~1.5 to ~2.5mm
Root gap ~2 to ~4mm For mechanised GMAW of
For double-V joint for SAW pipework
of thicker sections

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Weld Preparation Weld Preparation

Welding process impacts upon weld preparation Welding process impacts upon weld preparation

Arc welding EBW

MMA MAG
High heat input process allow a larger root face, less weld
metal required, less distortions, higher productivity.

If the gap is too big risk of possible burn-through, if gap is

too small risk of lack of penetration.

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2-7
 Weld Preparation Weld Preparations

Preparation method impacts upon weld preparation Access impacts upon weld preparation

 Requires machining  Can be flame/plasma

slow and expensive. cut fast and cheap.
 Tight tolerance easier  Large tolerance set-
set-up. up can be difficult.

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Weld Preparations Weld Preparations

Access impacts upon weld preparation Access impacts upon weld preparation
Pipe weld preparation - one side access only!

for wall thickness up to 3mm

for wall thickness 3-20mm
for wall thickness over 20mm

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Weld Preparations Weld Preparations

Type of joint impacts upon weld preparation Type of joint impacts upon weld preparation

Corner joints require offset Lap and square edge butt joints do not require
preparation.

offset

Bevel angle = 30° Included angle =

Danger of burn-through Easy set-up no risk
Included angle = 60° Bevel angle = 50°
difficult to set-up of burn-through

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2-8
 Weld Preparations Weld Preparations

Type of parent material impacts upon weld preparation Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld preparation

To reduce distortions on stainless steels welds, reduce A single bevel groove requires a volume of weld metal
included angle and increase root face. proportional to the square of plate thickness
To avoid lack of side wall fusion problems aluminium Its lack of symmetry lead to distortions
require larger included angles than steel.

60º 70-90º
35-45º Reduce shrinkage by:
30º  Reducing weld volume.
 Using single pass welding.

Steel Aluminium

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Weld Preparations Weld Preparations

Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld
preparation preparation

Reduce weld volume by: Reduce weld volume by:

Reduced included angle Increase root face

Reduced root gap Use double bevel weld prep

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Weld Preparations Weld Preparations

Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld Thickness of parent material impacts upon weld
preparation preparation

Reduce weld volume by: Reduce distortions by using an asymmetric V prep

Use U prep instead V prep instead of a symmetric V prep.

t/3
t

U prep better than V prep

Weld first into the deeper side after welding to half of
V prep better than U prep the depth, back gouge the root. Complete welding on
the shallow side first.

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2-9
 Weld Preparation Weld Preparation

Welding position impacts upon weld preparation Type of loading impacts upon weld preparation

60° Static loads - prohibited application of one sided

60° fillet weld.
30°
15°

PF symmetric preparation PC asymmetric preparation

If symmetric preparation is used in the PC position

the weld may spill out of the groove.

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Weld Preparation Weld Preparation

Type of loading impacts upon weld preparation Type of loading impacts upon weld preparation
Static loads - equal throat T joints Static loads - equal throat T beams in bending
13mm
13mm
neutral axis neutral axis
60°

Weld area = 160mm2 Weld area = 90mm2 Normal fillet welds Deep penetration
fillet welds
 No preparation required.  Preparation required.
 Danger of lamellar  Reduced distortions. Lower neutral axis is more advantageous (also helps
tearing. to reduce residual distortions!)

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Weld Preparation Welding Terminology

Type of loading impacts upon weld preparation

Dynamic loads - full vs. partial penetration welds

Any Questions

?
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2-10
 Section 3

Welding Imperfections
and Materials Inspection
3 Welding Imperfections and Materials Inspection
3.1 Definitions (see BS EN ISO 6520-1)
Imperfection Any deviation from the ideal weld.
Defect An unacceptable imperfection.

Classification of imperfections according to BS EN ISO 6520-1:

This standard classifies the geometric imperfections in fusion welding dividing

them into six groups:

1 Cracks.
2 Cavities.
3 Solid inclusions.
4 Lack of fusion and penetration.
5 Imperfect shape and dimensions.
6 Miscellaneous imperfections.

It is important that an imperfection is correctly identified so the cause can be

established and actions taken to prevent further occurrence.

3.2 Cracks
Definition
Imperfection produced by a local rupture in the solid state, which may arise
from the effect of cooling or stresses. Cracks are more significant than other
types of imperfection as their geometry produces a very large stress
concentration at the crack tip making them more likely to cause fracture.

Types of crack:
 Longitudinal.
 Transverse.
 Radiating (cracks radiating from a common point).
 Crater.
 Branching (group of connected cracks originating from a common crack).

These cracks can be situated in the:

 Weld metal.
 HAZ.
 Parent metal.

Exception: Crater cracks are found only in the weld metal.

Depending on their nature, these cracks can be:

 Hot (ie solidification or liquation cracks).

 Precipitation induced (ie reheat cracks present in creep resisting steels).
 Cold (ie hydrogen induced cracks).
 Lamellar tearing.

WIS5-80116
Welding Imperfections and
Materials Inspection 3-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
3.2.1 Hot cracks
Depending on their location and mode of occurrence, hot cracks can be:

 Solidification cracks: Occur in the weld metal (usually along the centreline
of the weld) as a result of the solidification process.
 Liquation cracks: Occur in the coarse grain HAZ, in the near vicinity of the
fusion line as a result of heating the material to an elevated temperature,
high enough to produce liquation of the low melting point constituents
placed on grain boundaries.

3.2.2 Solidification cracks

Figure 3.1 Solidification crack.

Generally, solidification cracking can occur when:

 Weld metal has a high carbon or impurity (sulphur, etc) content.

 The depth-to-width ratio of the solidifying weld bead is large (deep and
narrow).
 Disruption of the heat flow condition occurs, eg stop/start condition.

The cracks can be wide and open to the surface like shrinkage voids or sub-
surface and possibly narrow.

Solidification cracking is most likely to occur in compositions and result in a

wide freezing temperature range. In steels this is commonly created by a higher
than normal content of carbon and impurity elements such as sulphur and
phosphorus.

These elements segregate during solidification, so that intergranular liquid films

remain after the bulk of the weld has solidified. The thermal shrinkage of the
cooling weld bead can cause these to rupture and form a crack.

WIS5-80116
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Materials Inspection 3-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Figure 3.2 Diagram of a solidification crack.

It is important that the welding fabricator does not weld on or near metal
surfaces covered with scale or contaminated with oil or grease. Scale can have
a high sulphur content and oil and grease can supply both carbon and sulphur.
Contamination with low melting point metals such as copper, tin, lead and zinc
should also be avoided.

Hydrogen induced cracks

Figure 3.3 Root (underbead) crack. Figure 3.4 Toe crack.

Hydrogen induced cracking occurs primarily in the grain coarsened region of the
HAZ and is also known as cold, delayed or underbead/toe cracking. It lies
parallel to the fusion boundary and its path is usually a combination of inter and
transgranular cracking.

The direction of the principal residual tensile stress can in toe cracks cause the
crack path to grow progressively away from the fusion boundary towards a
region of lower sensitivity to hydrogen cracking. When this happens, the crack
growth rate decreases and eventually arrests.

WIS5-80116
Welding Imperfections and
Materials Inspection 3-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Four factors are necessary to cause HAZ hydrogen cracking:

Hydrogen level > 15ml/100g of weld metal deposited

Stress > 0.5 of the yield stress
Temperature < 300°C
Susceptible microstructure > 400HV hardness

Figure 3.5 Factors susceptibility to hydrogen cracking.

If any one factor is not satisfied, cracking is prevented, so can be avoided

through control of one or more factors:

 Apply preheat slow down the cooling rate and thus avoid the formation of
susceptible microstructures.
 Maintain a specific interpass temperature (same effect as preheat).
 Postheat on completion of welding to reduce the hydrogen content by
allowing hydrogen to diffuse from the weld area.
 Apply PWHT to reduce residual stress and eliminate susceptible
microstructures.
 Reduce weld metal hydrogen by proper selection of welding
process/consumable (eg use TIG welding instead of MMA, basic covered
electrodes instead of cellulose).
 Use a multi-run instead of a single run technique and eliminate susceptible
microstructures by the self-tempering effect, reduce hydrogen content by
allowing hydrogen to diffuse from the weld area.
 Use a temper bead or hot pass technique (same effect as above).
 Use austenitic or nickel filler to avoid susceptible microstructure formation
and allow hydrogen to diffuse out of critical areas).
 Use dry shielding gases to reduce hydrogen content.
 Clean rust from joint to avoid hydrogen contamination from moisture
present in the rust.
 Reduce residual stress.
 Blend the weld profile to reduce stress concentration at the toes of the weld.

WIS5-80116
Welding Imperfections and
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 Lamellar tearing

Figure 3.6 Lamellar tearing.

Lamellar tearing occurs only in rolled steel products (primarily plates) and its
main distinguishing feature is that the cracking has a terraced appearance.

Cracking occurs in joints where:

 A thermal contraction strain occurs in the through-thickness direction of

steel plate.
 Non-metallic inclusions are present as very thin platelets, with their
principal planes parallel to the plate surface.

Figure 3.7 Diagram of lamellar tearing.

Contraction strain imposed on the planar non-metallic inclusions results in

progressive decohesion to form the roughly rectangular holes which are the
horizontal parts of the cracking, parallel to the plate surface. With further strain
the vertical parts of the cracking are produced, generally by ductile shear
cracking. These two stages create the terraced appearance of these cracks.

WIS5-80116
Welding Imperfections and
Materials Inspection 3-5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Two main options are available to control the problem in welded joints liable to
lamellar tearing:

 Use a clean steel with guaranteed through-thickness properties (Z grade).

 A combination of joint design, restraint control and welding sequence to
minimise the risk of cracking.

3.3 Cavities

Cavity

Gas cavity: Shrinkage cavity:

formed by Caused by shrinkage
entrapped gas during solidification

Gas pore Interdendritic

shrinkage
Uniformly distributed
porosity Crater pipe

Clustered (localised)
porosity Microshrinkage

Linear porosity

Elongated cavity
Interdendritic Transgranular
microshrinkage microshrinkage
Worm-hole

Surface pore

3.3.1 Gas pore

Figure 3.8 Gas pores.

WIS5-80116
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 Description
A gas cavity of essentially spherical shape trapped within the weld metal.

Gas cavities can be present in various forms:

 Isolated.
 Uniformly distributed porosity.
 Clustered (localised) porosity.
 Linear porosity.
 Elongated cavity.
 Surface pore.

Causes Prevention

Damp fluxes/corroded electrode (MMA) Use dry electrodes in good condition

Grease/hydrocarbon/water contamination Clean prepared surface

of prepared surface

Air entrapment in gas shield (MIG/MAG, Check hose connections

TIG)

Incorrect/insufficient deoxidant in Use electrode with sufficient deoxidation

electrode, filler or parent metal activity

Too great an arc voltage or length Reduce voltage and arc length

Gas evolution from priming paints/surface Identify risk of reaction before surface
treatment treatment is applied

Too high a shielding gas flow rate results Optimise gas flow rate
in turbulence (MIG/MAG, TIG)

Comment
Porosity can be localised or finely dispersed voids throughout the weld metal.

3.3.2 Worm holes

Figure 3.9 Worm holes.

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Welding Imperfections and
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 Description
Elongated or tubular cavities formed by trapped gas during the solidification of
the weld metal which can occur singly or in groups.

Causes Prevention

Gross contaminated of preparation Introduce preweld cleaning procedures.

surface.

Laminated work surface. Replace parent material with an

unlaminated piece.

Crevices in work surface due to joint Eliminate joint shapes which produce
geometry. crevices.

Comments
Worm holes are caused by the progressive entrapment of gas between the
solidifying metal crystals (dendrites) producing characteristic elongated pores of
circular cross-section. These can appear as a herringbone array on a radiograph
and some may break the surface of the weld.

3.3.3 Surface porosity

Figure 3.10 Surface porosity.

Description
A gas pore that breaks the surface of the weld.

WIS5-80116
Welding Imperfections and
Materials Inspection 3-8 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Causes Prevention
Damp or contaminated surface or Clean surface and dry electrodes
electrode

Low fluxing activity (MIG/MAG) Use a high activity flux

Excess sulphur (particularly free-cutting Use high manganese electrodes to

steels) producing sulphur dioxide produce MnS. Note free-cutting steels
(high sulphur) should not normally be
welded

Loss of shielding gas due to long arc or Improve screening against draughts and
high breezes (MIG/MAG) reduce arc length

A shielding gas flow rate that is too high Optimise gas flow rate
results in turbulence (MIG/MAG,TIG)

Comments
The origins of surface porosity are similar to those for uniform porosity.

3.3.4 Crater pipe

Figure 3.11 Crater pipe.

Description
A shrinkage cavity at the end of a weld run usually caused by shrinkage during
solidification.

Causes Prevention

Lack of welder skill due to using Retrain welder.

processes with too high a current.

Inoperative crater filler (slope out) Use correct crater filling techniques.
(TIG).

Comments
Crater filling is a particular problem in TIG welding due to its low heat input. To
fill the crater for this process it is necessary to reduce the weld current (slope
out) in a series of descending steps until the arc is extinguished.

WIS5-80116
Welding Imperfections and
Materials Inspection 3-9 Copyright © TWI Ltd
3.4 Solid inclusions
Definition
Solid foreign substances trapped in the weld metal.

Solid
inclusions

Slag Flux Oxide Metallic

inclusion inclusion inclusion inclusion

Tungsten

Copper

Linear Isolated Clustered Other metal

3.4.1 Slag inclusions

Figure 3.12 Slag inclusions.

Description
Slag trapped during welding which is an irregular shape so differs in appearance
from a gas pore.

Causes Prevention

Incomplete slag removal from underlying Improve inter-run slag removal

surface of multi-pass weld

Slag flooding ahead of arc Position work to gain control of slag.

Welder needs to correct electrode angle

Entrapment of slag in work surface Dress/make work surface smooth

WIS5-80116
Welding Imperfections and
Materials Inspection 3-10 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Comments
A fine dispersion of inclusions may be present within the weld metal,
particularly if the MMA process is used. These only become a problem when
large or sharp-edged inclusions are produced.

3.4.2 Flux inclusions

Flux trapped during welding which is an irregular shape so differs in appearance
from a gas pore. Appear only in flux associated welding processes (ie MMA,
SAW and FCAW).

Causes Prevention

Unfused flux due to damaged coating Use electrodes in good condition

Flux fails to melt and becomes trapped in Change the flux/wire. Adjust welding
the weld (SAW or FCAW) parameters ie current, voltage etc to
produce satisfactory welding conditions

3.4.3 Oxide inclusions

Oxides trapped during welding which is an irregular shape so differs in
appearance from a gas pore.

Cause Prevention

Heavy millscale/rust on work surface Grind surface prior to welding

A special type of oxide inclusion is puckering, which occurs especially in the

case of aluminium alloys. Gross oxide film enfoldment can occur due to a
combination of unsatisfactory protection from atmospheric contamination and
turbulence in the weld pool.

3.4.4 Tungsten inclusions

Figure 3.13 Tungsten inclusions

Particles of tungsten can become embedded during TIG welding appears as a

light area on radiographs as tungsten is denser than the surrounding metal and
absorbs larger amounts of X-/gamma radiation.

WIS5-80116
Welding Imperfections and
Materials Inspection 3-11 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Causes Prevention

Contact of electrode tip with weld pool Keep tungsten out of weld pool; use HF
start

Contact of filler metal with hot tip of Avoid contact between electrode and filler
electrode metal

Contamination of the electrode tip by Reduce welding current; adjust shielding

spatter from the weld pool gas flow rate

Exceeding the current limit for a given Reduce welding current; replace electrode
electrode size or type with a larger diameter one

Extension of electrode beyond the normal Reduce electrode extension and/or

distance from the collet, resulting in welding current
overheating of the electrode

Inadequate tightening of the collet Tighten the collet

Inadequate shielding gas flow rate or Adjust the shielding gas flow rate; protect
excessive draughts resulting in oxidation the weld area; ensure that the post gas
of the electrode tip flow after stopping the arc continues for
at least five seconds

Splits or cracks in the electrode Change the electrode, ensure the correct
size tungsten is selected for the given
welding current used

Inadequate shielding gas (eg use of Change to correct gas composition

argon-oxygen or argon-carbon dioxide
mixtures that are used for MAG welding)

3.5 Lack of fusion and penetration

3.5.1 Lack of fusion
Lack of union between the weld metal and the parent metal or between the
successive layers of weld metal.

Lack of
fusion

Lack of Lack of inter- Lack of root

sidewall fusion run fusion fusion

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Welding Imperfections and
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 Figure 3.14 Lack of sidewall fusion.

Lack of union between the weld and parent metal at one or both sides of the
weld.

Causes Prevention

Low heat input to weld Increase arc voltage and/or welding

current; decrease travel speed

Molten metal flooding ahead of arc Improve electrode angle and work
position; increase travel speed

Oxide or scale on weld preparation Improve edge preparation procedure

Excessive inductance in MAG dip transfer Reduce inductance, even if this increases
welding spatter

During welding sufficient heat must be available at the edge of the weld pool to
produce fusion with the parent metal.

Lack of inter-run fusion

Figure 3.15 Lack of inter-run fusion.

WIS5-80116
Welding Imperfections and
Materials Inspection 3-13 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Lack of union along the fusion line between the weld beads.

Causes Prevention

Low arc current resulting in low fluidity of Increase current

weld pool

Too high a travel speed Reduce travel speed

Inaccurate bead placement Retrain welder

Lack of inter-run fusion produces crevices between the weld beads and causes
local entrapment of slag.

Lack of root fusion

Figure 3.16 Lack of root fusion.

Lack of fusion between the weld and parent metal at the root of a weld.

Causes Prevention

Low heat input Increase welding current and/or arc

voltage; decrease travel speed

Excessive inductance in MAG dip transfer Use correct induction setting for the
welding, parent metal thickness

MMA electrode too large Reduce electrode size

(low current density)

Use of vertical-down welding Switch to vertical-up procedure

Large root face Reduce root face

Small root gap Ensure correct root opening

Incorrect angle or electrode manipulation Use correct electrode angle.

Ensure welder is fully qualified and
competent
Excessive misalignment at root Ensure correct alignment

WIS5-80116
Welding Imperfections and
Materials Inspection 3-14 Copyright © TWI Ltd
3.5.2 Lack of penetration

Lack of
penetration

Incomplete Incomplete root

penetration penetration

Incomplete penetration

Figure 3.17 Incomplete penetration.

The difference between actual and nominal penetration.

Causes Prevention

Excessively thick root face, insufficient Improve back gouging technique and
root gap or failure to cut back to sound ensure the edge preparation is as per
metal when back gouging approved WPS

Low heat input Increase welding current and/or arc

voltage; decrease travel speed

Excessive inductance in MAG dip transfer Improve electrical settings and possibly
welding, pool flooding ahead of arc switch to spray arc transfer

MMA electrode too large Reduce electrode size

(low current density)

Use of vertical-down welding Switch to vertical-up procedure

WIS5-80116
Welding Imperfections and
Materials Inspection 3-15 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 If the weld joint is not of a critical nature, ie the required strength is low and
the area is not prone to fatigue cracking, it is possible to produce a partial
penetration weld. In this case incomplete root penetration is considered part of
this structure and not an imperfection This would normally be determined by
the design or code requirement.

Incomplete root penetration

Figure 3.18 Incomplete root penetration.

Both fusion faces of the root are not melted. When examined from the root
side, you can clearly see both of the root edges unmelted.

Causes and prevention

Same as for lack of root fusion.

3.6 Imperfect shape and dimensions

3.6.1 Undercut

Figure 3.19 Undercut.

An irregular groove at the toe of a run in the parent metal or previously

deposited weld metal due to welding. Characterised by its depth, length and
sharpness.

WIS5-80116
Welding Imperfections and
Materials Inspection 3-16 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Undercut

Continuous Intermittent Inter-run

undercut undercut undercut

Causes Prevention

Melting of top edge due to high welding Reduce power input, especially
current (especially at the free edge) or approaching a free edge where
high travel speed overheating can occur

Attempting a fillet weld in horizontal- Weld in the flat position or use multi-run
vertical (PB) position with leg length techniques
>9mm

Excessive/incorrect weaving Reduce weaving width or switch to multi-

runs

Incorrect electrode angle Direct arc towards thicker member

Incorrect shielding gas selection (MAG) Ensure correct gas mixture for material
type and thickness (MAG)

Care must be taken during weld repairs of undercut to control the heat input. If
the bead of a repair weld is too small, the cooling rate following welding will be
excessive and the parent metal may have an increased hardness and the weld
susceptible to hydrogen cracking.

3.6.2 Excess weld metal

Figure 3.20 Excess weld metal.

WIS5-80116
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 Excess weld metal is the extra metal that produces excessive convexity in fillet
welds and a weld thickness greater than the parent metal plate in butt welds. It
is regarded as an imperfection only when the height of the excess weld metal is
greater than a specified limit.

Causes Prevention

Excess arc energy (MAG, SAW) Reduction of heat input

Shallow edge preparation Deepen edge preparation

Faulty electrode manipulation or build-up Improve welder skill

sequence

Incorrect electrode size Reduce electrode size

Travel speed too slow Ensure correct travel speed is used

Incorrect electrode angle Ensure correct electrode angle is used

Wrong polarity used (electrode polarity Ensure correct polarity ie DC+ve

DC-ve (MMA, SAW ) Note DC-ve must be used for TIG

The term reinforcement used to designate this feature of the weld is misleading
since the excess metal does not normally produce a stronger weld in a butt
joint in ordinary steel. This imperfection can become a problem, as the angle of
the weld toe can be sharp leading to an increased stress concentration at the
toes of the weld and fatigue cracking.

3.6.3 Excess penetration

Figure 3.21 Excess penetration.

Projection of the root penetration bead beyond a specified limit, local or

continuous.

WIS5-80116
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Materials Inspection 3-18 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Causes Prevention

Weld heat input too high Reduce arc voltage and/or welding current;
increase welding speed

Incorrect weld preparation ie excessive Improve workpiece preparation

root gap, thin edge preparation, lack of
backing

Use of electrode unsuited to welding Use correct electrode for position

position

Lack of welder skill Retrain welder

The maintenance of a penetration bead of uniform dimensions requires a great

deal of skill, particularly in pipe butt welding. This can be made more difficult if
there is restricted access to the weld or a narrow preparation. Permanent or
temporary backing bars can assist in the control of penetration.

3.6.4 Overlap

Figure 3.22 Overlap.

Imperfection at the toe of a weld caused by metal flowing on to the surface of

the parent metal without fusing to it.

Causes Prevention

Poor electrode manipulation (MMA) Retrain welder

High heat input/low travel speed Reduce heat input or limit leg size to 9mm
causing surface flow of fillet welds maximum for single pass fillets

Incorrect positioning of weld Change to flat position

Wrong electrode coating type Change electrode coating type to a more

resulting in too high a fluidity suitable fast freezing type which is less fluid

WIS5-80116
Welding Imperfections and
Materials Inspection 3-19 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 For a fillet weld overlap is often associated with undercut, as if the weld pool is
too fluid the top of the weld will flow away to produce undercut at the top and
overlap at the base. If the volume of the weld pool is too large in a fillet weld in
horizontal-vertical (PB) position, weld metal will collapse due to gravity,
producing both defects (undercut at the top and overlap at the base), this
defect is called sagging.

3.6.5 Linear misalignment

Figure 3.23 Linear misalignment.

Misalignment between two welded pieces such that while their surface planes
are parallel, they are not in the required same plane.

Causes Prevention

Inaccuracies in assembly procedures or Adequate checking of alignment prior to

distortion from other welds welding coupled with the use of clamps
and wedges

Excessive out of flatness in hot rolled Check accuracy of rolled section prior to
plates or sections welding

Misalignment is not a weld imperfection but a structural preparation problem.

Even a small amount of misalignment can drastically increase the local shear
stress at a joint and induce bending stress.

WIS5-80116
Welding Imperfections and
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3.6.6 Angular distortion

Figure 3.24 Angular distortion.

Misalignment between two welded pieces such that their surface planes are not
parallel or at the intended angle.

Causes and prevention are the same as for linear misalignment.

3.6.7 Incompletely filled groove

Figure 3.25 Incompletely filled groove.

Continuous or intermittent channel in the weld surface due to insufficient

deposition of weld filler metal.

Causes Prevention

Insufficient weld metal Increase the number of weld runs

Irregular weld bead surface Retrain welder

This imperfection differs from undercut, as it reduces the load-bearing capacity

of a weld, whereas undercut produces a sharp stress-raising notch at the edge
of a weld.

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3.6.8 Irregular width

Figure 3.26 Irregular width.

Excessive variation in width of the weld.

Causes Prevention

Severe arc blow Switch from DC to AC, keep arc length

as short as possible

Irregular weld bead surface Retrain welder

Although this imperfection may not affect the integrity of the completed weld, it
can affect the width of HAZ and reduce the load-carrying capacity of the joint
(in fine-grained structural steels) or impair corrosion resistance (in duplex
stainless steels).

3.6.9 Root concavity

Figure 3.27 Root concavity.

WIS5-80116
Welding Imperfections and
Materials Inspection 3-22 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 A shallow groove that occurs due to shrinkage at the root of a butt weld.

Causes Prevention

Insufficient arc power to produce positive Raise arc energy

bead

Incorrect preparation/fit-up Work to WPS

Excessive backing gas pressure (TIG) Reduce gas pressure

Lack of welder skill Retrain welder

Slag flooding in backing bar groove Tilt work to prevent slag

flooding

A backing strip can be used to control the extent of the root bead.

3.6.10 Burn-through

Figure 3.28 Burn-through.

A collapse of the weld pool resulting in a hole in the weld.

Causes Prevention

Insufficient travel speed Increase the travel speed

Excessive welding current Reduce welding current

Lack of welder skill Retrain welder

Excessive grinding of root face More care taken, retrain welder

Excessive root gap Ensure correct fit-up

WIS5-80116
Welding Imperfections and
Materials Inspection 3-23 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 This is a gross imperfection which occurs due to lack of welder skill but can be
repaired by bridging the gap formed into the joint, but requires a great deal of
attention.

3.7 Miscellaneous imperfections

3.7.1 Stray arc

Figure 3.29 Stray arc.

Local damage to the surface of the parent metal adjacent to the weld, resulting
from arcing or striking the arc outside the weld groove. This results in random
areas of fused metal where the electrode, holder or current return clamp have
accidentally touched the work.

Causes Prevention

Poor access to the work Improve access (modify assembly

sequence)
Missing insulation on electrode holder Institute a regular inspection scheme
or torch for electrode holders and torches

Failure to provide an insulated resting Provide an insulated resting place

place for the electrode holder or torch
when not in use

Loose current return clamp Regularly maintain current return

clamps
Adjusting wire feed (MAG welding) Retrain welder
without isolating welding current

An arc strike can produce a hard HAZ which may contain cracks, possibly
leading to serious cracking in service. It is better to remove an arc strike by
grinding than weld repair.

WIS5-80116
Welding Imperfections and
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3.7.2 Spatter

Figure 3.30 Splatter.

Globules of weld or filler metal expelled during welding adhering to the surface
of parent metal or solidified weld metal.

Causes Prevention

High arc current Reduce arc current

Long arc length Reduce arc length

Magnetic arc blow Reduce arc length or switch to AC

power
Incorrect settings for GMAW process Modify electrical settings (but be
careful to maintain full fusion!)

Damp electrodes Use dry electrodes

Wrong selection of shielding gas Increase argon content if possible,

(100%CO2) however if too high may lead to lack of
penetration

Spatter is a cosmetic imperfection and does not affect the integrity of the weld.
However as it is usually caused by an excessive welding current, it is a sign that
the welding conditions are not ideal so there are usually other associated
problems within the structure, ie high heat input.

Some spatter is always produced by open arc consumable electrode welding

processes. Anti-spatter compounds can be used on the parent metal to reduce
sticking and the spatter can then be scraped off.

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Welding Imperfections and
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3.7.3 Torn surface
Surface damage due to the removal by fracture of temporary welded
attachments. The area should be ground off, subjected to a dye penetrant or
magnetic particle examination then restored to its original shape by welding
using a qualified procedure.

Some applications do not allow the presence of any overlay weld on the surface
of the parent material.

3.7.4 Additional imperfections

Grinding mark
Local damage due to grinding.

Chipping mark
Local damage due to the use of a chisel or other tools.

Underflushing
Lack of thickness of the workpiece due to excessive grinding.

Misalignment of opposite runs

Difference between the centrelines of two runs made from opposite sides of the
joint.

Temper colour (visible oxide film)

Lightly oxidised surface in the weld zone, usually occurs in stainless steels.

Figure 3.31 Temper colour of stainless steel.

3.8 Acceptance standards

Weld imperfections can seriously reduce the integrity of a welded structure.
Prior to service of a welded joint, it is necessary to locate them using NDE
techniques, assess their significance and take action to avoid their
reoccurrence.

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Welding Imperfections and
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 The acceptance of a certain size and type of defect for a given structure is
normally expressed as the defect acceptance standard, usually incorporated in
application standards or specifications.

All normal weld imperfection acceptance standards totally reject cracks. In

exceptional circumstances and subject to the agreement of all parties, cracks
may remain if it can be demonstrated beyond doubt that they will not lead to
failure. This can be difficult to establish and usually involves fracture mechanics
measurements and calculations.

It is important to note that the levels of acceptability vary between different

applications and in most cases vary between different standards for the same
application. Consequently, when inspecting different jobs it is important to use
the applicable standard or specification quoted in the contract.

Once unacceptable weld imperfections have been found they have to be

removed. If the weld imperfection is at the surface, the first consideration is
whether it is of a type shallow enough to be repaired by superficial dressing.
Superficial implies that after removal of the defect the remaining material
thickness is sufficient not to require the addition of further weld metal.

If the defect is too deep it must be removed and new weld metal added to
ensure a minimum design throat thickness.

Replacing removed metal or weld repair (as in filling an excavation or re-

making a weld joint) has to be done in accordance with an approved procedure.
The rigour with which this procedure is qualified depends on the application
standard for the job.

In some cases it will be acceptable to use a procedure qualified for making new
joints whether filling an excavation or making a complete joint. If the level of
reassurance required is higher, the qualification will have to be made using an
exact simulation of a welded joint, which is excavated then refilled using a
specified method. In either case, qualification inspection and testing will be
required in accordance with the application standard.

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Welding Imperfections and
Materials Inspection 3-27 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Welding Imperfections Objective

When this presentation has been completed you

will have a greater understanding of the types of
defects during visual inspection. You should be
able to asses the defect against an acceptance
Welding Imperfections and criteria and accept or reject accordingly.
Materials Inspection
Section 3

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Features to Consider Features to Consider

Butt welds - size Butt welds - toe blend

x
Weld cap width
Excess weld
metal height

Root bead width

Root
penetration
x x
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Welding Defects Welding Defects

Incomplete root penetration

a. Excessively thick root face.

Causes b. Too small a root gap.

 Too small a root gap.
 Arc too long.
 Wrong polarity.
 Electrode too large for joint preparation.
c. Misplaced welds.
 Incorrect electrode angle.
 Too fast a speed of travel for current.

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3-1
 Welding Defects Welding Defects

Too large diameter

d. Power input too low. electrode.

Smaller (correct)
e. Arc (heat) input too low. diameter electrode.

Lack of sidewall fusion

due to arc deflection.
Parallel
magnetic
Deflection
field
of arc

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Welding Defects Welding Defects

Incomplete root fusion Root concavity

Causes Causes
 Too small a root gap.  Root gap too large.
 Arc too long.  Insufficient arc energy.
 Wrong polarity.  Excessive back purge TIG.
 Electrode too large for joint
preparation.
 Incorrect electrode angle.
 Too fast a speed of travel for current.

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Welding Defects Welding Defects

Excess root penetration Root undercut

Causes
 Excessive amperage during
welding of root. Causes
 Excessive root gap.  Root gap too large.
 Poor fit up.  Excessive arc energy.
 Excessive root grinding.  Small or no root face.
 Improper welding
technique.

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3-2
 Welding Defects Welding Defects

Cap undercut

Overlap

Causes
 Excessive welding current.
 Welding speed too high.
 Incorrect electrode angle.
 Excessive weave.
 Electrode too large.
Excess weld
metal

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Welding Defects Welding Defects

Lack of fusion Incompletely filled groove

and lack of side wall fusion

Causes
 Contaminated weld
preparation.
 Amperage too low.
 Amperage too high (welder Causes
increases speed of travel).  Insufficient weld metal
deposited.
 Improper welding technique.

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Welding Defects Welding Defects

Inter run incompletely filled groove Incompletely filled groove

Causes
 Insufficient weld metal deposited.
 Improper welding technique.

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3-3
 Welding Defects Welding Defects

Gas pores/porosity Gas pores/porosity

Causes
 Excessive moisture in flux or preparation.
 Contaminated preparation.
 Low welding current.
 Arc length too long.
 Damaged electrode flux.
 Removal of gas shield.
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Welding Defects Welding Defects

Inclusions - slag Inclusions - slag

Causes
 Insufficient cleaning between passes. Causes
 Contaminated weld preparation.  Insufficient cleaning between passes.
 Welding over irregular profile.  Contaminated weld preparation.
 Incorrect welding speed.  Welding over irregular profile.
 Arc length too long.  Incorrect welding speed.
 Arc length too long.

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Welding Defects Welding Defects

Inclusions - tungsten Burn through

Causes
Contamination of weld caused by excessive current Causes
through electrode, tungsten touching weld metal or  Excessive amperage during welding of root.
parent metal during welding using the TIG welding  Excessive root grinding.
process.  Improper welding technique.

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3-4
 Welding Defects Welding Defects

Spatter Arc strikes

Causes
 Electrode straying
onto parent metal.
 Electrode holder with
Causes poor insulation.
 Excessive arc energy.  Poor contact of earth
 Excessive arc length. clamp.
 Damp electrodes.
 Arc blow.

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Welding Defects Welding Defects

Mechanical damage Non-alignment of two abutting edges

Chisel
Chisel Marksmarks
Grinding marks
Chisel Marks

2mm

Also known as: Hi low, mismatch or misalignment.

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Welding Defects Welding Defects

Linear
Excess weld metal
height lowest plate to
highest point
50mm
3mm

3mm
Excess penetration lowest
plate to highest point Angular
Angular distortion
 Measure the distance to the edge of the plate (50mm).
 Use a straight edge (rule) to find the amount of
distortion then measure the space (3mm). 3mm
 This is reported as angular distortion 3mm in 50mm.
Angular misalignment measured in mm.

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3-5
Any Questions

?
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3-6
 Section 4

Destructive Testing
4 Destructive Testing
Introduction
European Welding Standards require test coupons made for welding procedure
qualification testing to be subjected to non-destructive and then destructive
testing.

The tests are called destructive tests because the welded joint is destroyed
when various types of test piece are taken from it.

Destructive tests can be divided into two groups, those used to:

 Measure a mechanical property – quantitative tests.

 Assess the joint quality – qualitative tests.

Mechanical tests are quantitative because a quantity is measured, a mechanical

property such as tensile strength, hardness or impact toughness.

Qualitative tests are used to verify that the joint is free from defects, of sound
quality and examples of these are bend tests, macroscopic examination and
fracture tests (fillet fracture and nick-break).

4.1 Test types, pieces and objectives

Various types of mechanical test are used by material manufacturers/
suppliers to verify that plates, pipes, forgings, etc have the minimum property
values specified for particular grades.

Design engineers use the minimum property values listed for particular grades
of material as the basis for design and the most cost-effective designs are
based on an assumption that welded joints have properties that are no worse
than those of the base metal.

The quantitative (mechanical) tests carried out for welding procedure

qualification are intended to demonstrate that the joint properties satisfy design
requirements.

The emphasis in the following sub-sections is on the destructive tests and test
methods widely used for welded joints.

4.1.1 Transverse tensile tests

Test objective
Welding procedure qualification tests always require transverse tensile tests to
show that the strength of the joint satisfies the design criterion.

Test specimens
A transverse tensile test piece typical of the type specified by European Welding
Standards is shown below.

Standards, such as EN 895, that specify dimensions for transverse tensile test
pieces require all excess weld metal to be removed and the surface to be free
from scratches.

WIS5-80116
Destructive Testing 4-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Parallel
length

Figure 4.1 Transverse tensile test piece.

Test pieces may be machined to represent the full thickness of the joint but for
very thick joints it may be necessary to take several transverse tensile test
specimens to be able to test the full thickness.

Method
Test specimens are accurately measured before testing, then fitted into the
jaws of a tensile testing machine and subjected to a continually increasing
tensile force until the specimen fractures.

The tensile strength (Rm) is calculated by dividing the maximum load by the
cross-sectional area of the test specimen, measured before testing.

The test is intended to measure the tensile strength of the joint and thereby
show that the basis for design, the base metal properties, remain the valid
criterion.

Acceptance criteria
If the test piece breaks in the weld metal, it is acceptable provided the
calculated strength is not less than the minimum tensile strength specified,
which is usually the minimum specified for the base metal material grade.

In the ASME IX code, if the test specimen breaks outside the weld or fusion
zone at a stress above 95% of the minimum base metal strength the test result
is acceptable.

4.1.2 All-weld tensile tests

Objective
On occasion it is necessary to measure the weld metal strength as part of
welding procedure qualification, particularly for elevated temperature designs.

The test is to measure tensile strength and also yield (or proof strength) and
tensile ductility.

All-weld tensile tests are regularly carried out by welding consumable

manufacturers to verify that electrodes and filler wires satisfy the tensile
properties specified by the standard to which the consumables are certified.

WIS5-80116
Destructive Testing 4-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Specimens
Machined from welds parallel with their longitudinal axis and the specimen
gauge length must be 100% weld metal.

Figure 4.2 Diagram of a tensile specimen.

Round tensile specimen from a Round tensile specimen from an

welding procedure qualification electrode classification test piece.
test piece.

Figure 4.3 Round cross-section tensile specimens.

Method
Specimens are subjected to a continually increasing force in the same way that
transverse tensile specimens are tested.

Yield (Re) or proof stress (Rp) are measured by an extensometer attached to the
parallel length of the specimen that accurately measures the extension of the
gauge length as the load is increased.

Typical load extension curves and their principal characteristics are shown
below.

WIS5-80116
Destructive Testing 4-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Load extension curve for a steel Load-extension curve for a steel (or
that shows a distinct yield point at other metal) that does not show a
the elastic limit. distinct yield point; proof stress is a
measure of the elastic limit.

Figure 4.4 Typical load extension curves.

Tensile ductility is measured in two ways:

 Percent elongation of the gauge length.

 Percent reduction of area at the point of fracture.

The figure below illustrates these two ductility measurements.

Note: The term necking is often

used to describe reduction in
diameter.

Figure 4.5 Two ductility measurements.

To calculate elongation: 100 %

To calculate UTS:

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Destructive Testing 4-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
4.1.3 Impact toughness tests

Objective
Charpy V notch test pieces are the internationally accepted method for
assessing resistance to brittle fracture by measuring the energy to initiate and
propagate a crack from a sharp notch in a standard sized specimen subjected to
an impact load.

Design engineers need to ensure that the toughness of the steel used for a
particular item will be sufficient to avoid brittle fracture in service and so impact
specimens are tested at a temperature related to the design temperature for
the fabricated component.

C-Mn and low alloy steels undergo a sharp change in their resistance to brittle
fracture as their temperature is lowered so that a steel that may have very
good toughness at ambient temperature may show extreme brittleness at sub-
zero temperatures, as illustrated below.

Temperature range Ductile fracture

47 Joules

Transition range Ductile/Brittle

transition
point

28 Joules
Energy absorbed
Brittle fracture
- 50 - 40 - 30 - 20 - 10 0
Testing temperature - Degrees Centigrade
Three specimens are normally tested at each temperature

Figure 4.6 Impact toughness tests.

The transition temperature is defined as the temperature midway between the

upper shelf (maximum toughness) and lower shelf (completely brittle). In the
above the transition temperature is -20°C.

Specimens
Test specimen dimensions have been standardised internationally and are
shown below for full size specimens. There are also standard dimensions for
smaller sized specimens, for example 10 x 7.5mm and 10 x 5mm.

Figure 4.7 Charpy V notch test piece dimensions for full size specimens.

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Destructive Testing 4-5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Specimens are machined from welded test plates with the notch position
located in different positions according to the testing requirements but typically
in the centre of the weld metal and at positions across the HAZ, as shown
below.

Figure 4.8 Typical notch positions for Charpy V notch test specimens from
double V butt welds.

Method
Test specimens are cooled to the specified test temperature by immersion in an
insulated bath containing a liquid held at the test temperature.

After allowing the specimen temperature to stabilise for a few minutes it is

quickly transferred to the anvil of the test machine and a pendulum hammer
quickly released so that the specimen experiences an impact load behind the
notch.

The main features of an impact test machine are shown below.

Impact specimen on
the anvil showing
the hammer position
at point of impact.

Figure 4.9 Impact testing machine.

WIS5-80116
Destructive Testing 4-6 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Figure 4.10 Charpy V notch test pieces after and before testing.

The energy absorbed by the hammer when it strikes each test specimen is
shown by the position of the hammer pointer on the scale of the machine.
Energy values are given in Joules (or ft-lbs in US specifications).

Three Impact test specimens are taken for each notch position as there is
always some degree of scatter in the results, particularly for weldments.

Acceptance criteria
Each test result is recorded and an average value calculated for each set of
three tests. These values are compared with those specified by the application
standard or client to establish whether specified requirements have been met.

After impact testing, examination of the test specimens provides additional

information about their toughness characteristics and may be added to the test
report:

 Percent crystallinity: % of the fracture face that has crystalline appearance

which indicates brittle fracture; 100% indicates completely brittle fracture.

 Lateral expansion: Increase in width of the back of the specimen behind the
notch, as indicated below; the larger the value the tougher the specimen.

Non lateral expansion a + b = lateral expansion

brittle fracture ductile fracture

Figure 4.11 After impact testing.

WIS5-80116
Destructive Testing 4-7 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 A specimen that exhibits extreme brittleness will show a clean break, both
halves of the specimen having a completely flat fracture face with little or no
lateral expansion.

A specimen that exhibits very good toughness will show only a small degree of
crack extension, without fracture and a high value of lateral expansion.

4.1.4 Hardness testing

Objective
The hardness of a metal is its’ resistance to plastic deformation, determined by
measuring the resistance to indentation by a particular type of indenter.

A steel weldment with hardness above a certain maximum may be susceptible

to cracking, either during fabrication or in-service and welding procedure
qualification testing for certain steels and applications requires the test weld to
be hardness surveyed to ensure no regions exceed the maximum specified
hardness.

Specimens prepared for macroscopic examination can also be used for taking
hardness measurements at various positions of the weldments, referred to as a
hardness survey.

Methods
There are three widely used methods:

 Vickers - uses a square-based diamond pyramid indenter.

 Rockwell - uses a diamond cone indenter or steel ball.
 Brinell - uses a ball indenter.

The hardness value is given by the size of the indentation produced under a
standard load, the smaller the indentation, the harder the metal.

WIS5-80116
Destructive Testing 4-8 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 The Vickers method of testing is illustrated below.

d1  d2
d
2

Figure 4.12 The Vickers method of testing.

Both the Vickers and Rockwell methods are suitable for carrying out hardness
surveys on specimens prepared for macroscopic examination of weldments.

A typical hardness survey requires the indenter to measure the hardness in the
base metal (on both sides of the weld), the weld metal and across the HAZ (on
both sides of the weld).

The Brinell method gives an indentation too large to accurately measure the
hardness in specific regions of the HAZ and is mainly used to measure the
hardness of base metals.

WIS5-80116
Destructive Testing 4-9 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 A typical hardness survey (using Vickers hardness indenter) is shown below:

Figure 4.13 Typical hardness survey.

Hardness values are shown on test reports as a number followed by letters

indicating the test method, for example:

240HV10 = hardness 240, Vickers method, 10kg indenter load.

22HRC = hardness 22, Rockwell method, diamond cone indenter (scale C).

238HBW = hardness 238, Brinell method, tungsten ball indenter.

4.1.5 Crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) testing.

Objective
Charpy V notch testing enables engineers to make judgements about the risk
of brittle fracture occurring in steels, but a CTOD test measures a material
property - fracture toughness.

Fracture toughness data enables engineers to carry out fracture mechanics

analyses such as:

 Calculating the size of a crack that would initiate a brittle fracture under
certain stress conditions at a particular temperature.
 The stress that would cause a certain sized crack to give a brittle fracture at
a particular temperature.

This data is essential for making an appropriate decision when a crack is

discovered during inspection of equipment that is in-service.

Specimens
A CTOD specimen is prepared as a rectangular or square shaped bar cut
transverse to the axis of the butt weld. A V notch is machined at the centre of
the bar, which will be coincident with the test position, weld metal or HAZ.

A shallow saw cut is made at the bottom of the notch and the specimen put into
a machine that induces a cyclic bending load until a shallow fatigue crack
initiates from the saw cut.

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Destructive Testing 4-10 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 The specimens are relatively large, typically having a cross-section B x 2B and
length ~10B (B = full thickness of the weld). The test piece details are shown
below.

Figure 4.14 A CTOD specimen.

Method
CTOD specimens are usually tested at a temperature below ambient and the
specimen temperature is controlled by immersion in a bath of liquid cooled to
the required test temperature.

A load is applied to the specimen to cause bending and induce a concentrated

stress at the tip of the crack and a clip gauge, attached to the specimen across
the mouth of the machined notch, gives a reading of the increase in width of
the crack mouth as the load is gradually increased.

For each test condition (position of notch and test temperature) it is usual to
carry out three tests.

The figures below illustrate the main features of the CTOD test.

Figure 4.15 The main features of the CTOD test.

WIS5-80116
Destructive Testing 4-11 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Figure 4.15 Cross section of specimen.

Fracture toughness is expressed as the distance the crack tip opens without
initiation of a brittle crack.

The clip gauge enables a chart to be generated showing the increase in width of
the crack mouth against applied load from which a CTOD value is calculated.

Acceptance criteria
An application standard or client may specify a minimum CTOD value that
indicates ductile tearing. Alternatively, the test may be for information so that a
value can be used for an engineering critical assessment (ECA).

A very tough steel weldment will allow the mouth of the crack to open widely by
ductile tearing at the tip of the crack whereas a very brittle weldment will tend
to fracture when the applied load is quite low and without any extension at the
tip of the crack.

CTOD values are expressed in millimetres - typical values might be <<~0.1mm

= brittle behaviour; >~1mm = very tough behaviour.

4.1.6 Bend testing

Objective
Bend tests routinely taken from welding procedure qualification test pieces and
sometimes welder qualification test pieces.

Subjecting specimens to bending is a simple way of verifying there are no

significant flaws in the joint. Some degree of ductility is also demonstrated, it is
not measured but shown to be satisfactory if test specimens can withstand
being bent without fracture or fissures above a certain length.

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Destructive Testing 4-12 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Specimens
There are four types of bend specimen:

 Face
Taken with axis transverse to butt welds up to ~12mm thickness and bent
so that the face of the weld is on the outside of the bend (face in tension).

 Root
Taken with axis transverse to butt welds up to ~12mm thickness and bent
so that the root of the weld is on the outside of the bend (root in tension).

 Side
Taken as a transverse slice (~10mm) from the full thickness of butt welds
>~12mm and bent so that the full joint thickness is tested (side in tension).

 Longitudinal bend
Taken with axis parallel to the longitudinal axis of a butt weld; specimen
thickness is ~12mm and the face or root of weld may be tested in tension.

Figure 4.16 Four types of bend specimens.

WIS5-80116
Destructive Testing 4-13 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Method
Guided bend tests are usually used for welding procedure and welder
qualification.

Guided means that the strain imposed on the specimen is uniformly controlled
by being bent around a former with a certain diameter.

The diameter of the former used for a particular test is specified in the code,
having been determined by the type of material being tested and the ductility
that can be expected from it after welding and any PWHT.

The diameter of the former is usually expressed as a multiple of the specimen

thickness (t) and for C-Mn steel is typically 4t but for materials that have lower
tensile ductility the radius of the former may be greater than 10t.

The standard that specifies the test method will specify the minimum bend
angle the specimen must experience and is typically 120-180°.

Acceptance criteria
Bend tests pieces should exhibit satisfactory soundness by not showing cracks
or any signs of significant fissures or cavities on the outside of the bend.

Small indications less than about 3mm in length may be allowed by some
standards.

4.1.7 Fracture tests

Fillet weld fractures

Objective
The quality/soundness of a fillet weld can be assessed by fracturing test pieces
and examining the fracture surfaces.

This method for assessing the quality of fillet welds may be specified by
application standards as an alternative to macroscopic examination.

It is a test method that can be used for welder qualification testing according to
European Standards but is not used for welding procedure qualification.

Specimens
A test weld is cut into short (typically 50mm) lengths and a longitudinal notch
machined into the specimen as shown below. The notch profile may be square,
V or U shape.

WIS5-80116
Destructive Testing 4-14 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Figure 4.17 Longitudinal notch in fillet welds.

Method
Specimens are made to fracture through their throat by dynamic strokes
(hammering) or by pressing, as shown below. The welding standard or
application standard will specify the number of tests (typically four).

Hammer stroke Moving press

Figure 4.18 Hammer stroke and pressing specimens.

Acceptance criteria
The standard for welder qualification, or application standard, will specify the
acceptance criteria for imperfections such as lack of penetration into the root of
the joint and solid inclusions and porosity that are visible on the fracture
surfaces.

Test reports should also give a description of the appearance of the fracture and
location of any imperfection.

Butt weld fractures (nick-break tests)

Objective
The same as for fillet fracture tests.

These tests are specified for welder qualification testing to European Standards
as an alternative to radiography and are not used for welding procedure
qualification testing.

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Destructive Testing 4-15 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Specimens
Taken from a butt weld and notched so that the fracture path will be in the
central region of the weld. Typical test piece types are shown below.

Figure 4.19 Notched butt weld.

Method
Test pieces are made to fracture by hammering or three-point bending.

Acceptance criteria
The standard for welder qualification or application standard will specify the
acceptance criteria for imperfections such as lack of fusion, solid inclusions and
porosity that are visible on the fracture surfaces.

Test reports should also give a description of the appearance of the fracture and
location of any imperfection.

4.2 Macroscopic examination

Transverse sections from butt and fillet welds are required by the European
Standards for welding procedure qualification testing and may be required for
some welder qualification testing for assessing the quality of the welds.

This is considered in detail in a separate section of these course notes.

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Destructive Testing 4-16 Copyright © TWI Ltd
4.2.1 European Standards for destructive test methods
The following Standards are specified by the European Welding Standards for
destructive testing of welding procedure qualification test welds and for some
welder qualification test welds.

BS EN ISO 9016 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials - impact

tests - test specimen location, notch orientation and
examination.

BS EN ISO 4136 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials -

transverse tensile test.

BS EN ISO 5173 +A1 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials - bend

tests.

BS EN ISO 17639 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials - macro

and microscopic examination of welds.

BS EN ISO 6892-1 Metallic materials - Tensile testing. Part 1: Method of

test at ambient temperature.

BS EN ISO 6892-2 Tensile testing of metallic materials. Part 5: Method of

test at elevated temperatures.

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Destructive Testing 4-17 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Destructive testing Objective

When this presentation has been completed you

should be able to recognise a wide range of
mechanical tests and their purpose. You should
also be able to make calculations using
formulae and tables to determine various values
Destructive Testing of strength, toughness, hardness and ductility.

Section 4

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Destructive Testing Definitions Destructive Tests

What is destructive testing? Destructive tests include:

3x
The destruction of a welded  Bend test. Toughness
(Charpy V
unit or by cutting out  Impact test. notch)
selected specimens from the
weld, is carried out to check  Tensile test. 2 x Ductile
the mechanical properties of  Hardness test. (Bend test)
the joint materials.
 Macro/micro
examination. 2 x Strength
They can be produced to (transverse
 Approve welding procedures (BS EN 15614). tensile)

 Approve welders (BS EN ISO 9606).

 Production quality control.

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Qualitative and Quantitative Tests Definitions

The following mechanical tests have units and are termed Mechanical properties of metals are related to the
quantitative tests to measure mechanical properties of amount of deformation which metals can withstand
the joint.
under different circumstances of force application.
 Tensile tests (transverse welded joint, all weld metal).
 Toughness testing (Charpy, Izod, CTOD).  Malleability.
 Hardness tests (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers).
 Ductility. Ability of a material to
withstand deformation
 Toughness.
The following mechanical tests have no units and are under static compressive
termed qualitative tests for assessing weld quality.  Hardness. loading without rupture.
 Macro testing.  Tensile Strength.
 Bend testing.
 Fillet weld fracture testing.
 Butt weld nick-break testing.

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4-1
 Mechanical Test Samples Destructive Testing

Tensile specimens Welding procedure qualification testing

CTOD specimen
Top of fixed pipe
2 Typical positions for test
pieces and specimen
type position

 Macro + hardness. 5
Bend test 3
specimen  Transverse tensile. 2, 4
 Bend tests. 2, 4
Charpy  Charpy impact tests. 3
specimen
 Additional tests. 3
4
Fracture fillet specimen 5

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Mechanical Testing Hardness Testing

Definition
 Measurement of resistance of a material against
penetration of an indenter under a constant
load.
Hardness Testing  There is a direct correlation between UTS and
hardness.

Hardness tests:
 Brinell.
 Vickers.
 Rockwell.

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Hardness Testing Hardness Testing

Objectives: Usually the hardest region

 Measuring hardness in different areas of a 1.5 to 3mm
welded joint. Fusion
 Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold line or
HAZ
cracking and corrosion sensitivity. fusion
boundary
Information to be supplied on the test
report:
 Material type. Hardness test methods Typical designations
 Location of indentation.  Vickers 240 HV10
 Type of hardness test and load applied on the  Rockwell Rc 22
indenter.  Brinell 200 BHN-W
 Hardness value.

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4-2
 Vickers Hardness Test Vickers Hardness Test

Typical location of the indentations Vickers hardness tests:

 Indentation body is a square based diamond
pyramid (136° included angle).
 The average diagonal (d) of the impression is
Butt weld from
converted to a hardness number from a table.
one side only  It is measured in HV5, HV10 or HV025.
Adjustable
Diamond Indentation shutters
indentor

Butt weld from

both side

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Vickers Hardness Test Machine Brinell Hardness Test

 Hardened steel ball of given diameter is

subjected for a given time to a given load.
 Load divided by area of indentation gives
Brinell hardness in kg/mm2.
 More suitable for on site hardness testing.

30KN

Ø=10mm
steel ball

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Rockwell Hardness Test Portable Hardness Test

Rockwell B Rockwell C

1KN
1.5KN

 Dynamic and very portable hardness test.

Ø=1.6mm 120° diamond
 Accuracy depends on the the condition of the
steel ball cone
test/support surfaces and the support of the test
piece during the test.
 For more details, see ASTM E448.

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4-3
 Mechanical Testing Charpy V-Notch Impact Test

Weld metal Fusion Line (FL) FL+2mm FL+5mm Parent material

Objectives:
Impact Testing  Measuring impact strength in different weld joint areas.
 Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture.

Information to be supplied on the test report:

 Material type.
 Notch type.
 Specimen size.
 Test temperature.
 Notch location.
 Impact strength value.

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Charpy V-Notch Impact Test Charpy V-Notch Impact Test Specimen

Pendulum Specimen dimensions according ASTM E23

Specimen (striker)

Anvil (support)
ASTM: American Society of Testing Materials.

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Charpy Impact Test Ductile/Brittle Transition Curve

10 mm
22.5° 100% Brittle Mn < 1.6 % Temperature range
Ductile fracture
2 mm

Machined notch. increases toughness

in steels, and lower
energy input used. 47 Joules
Fracture surface
8 mm

100% bright
crystalline Transition range Ductile/Brittle
brittle fracture.
transition point
100% Ductile
Machined notch. 28 Joules
Large reduction
in area, shear Brittle fracture Energy absorbed
lips. - 50 - 40 - 30 - 20 - 10 0
Randomly torn,
dull gray Testing temperature - Degrees centigrade
fracture surface.
Three specimens are normally tested at each temperature

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4-4
 Comparison Charpy
Charpy Impact Test
Impact Test Results
Impact energy joules Reporting results
 Location and orientation of notch.
Room Temperature -20°C Temperature
 Testing temperature.
 Energy absorbed in joules.
1. 197 Joules 1. 49 Joules
 Description of fracture (brittle or ductile).
2. 191 Joules 2. 53 Joules
 Location of any defects present.
3. 186 Joules 3. 51 Joules  Dimensions of specimen.

Average = 191 Joules Average = 51 Joules

The test results show the specimens carried out at room
temperature absorb more energy than the specimens carried
out at -20°C.

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Mechanical Testing Tensile Testing

Tensile Testing

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UTS Tensile Test Tensile Tests

Rm

ReH
ReL

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4-5
 Tensile Test Tensile Tests

Rp 0.2% - Proof stress. Refers to materials Different tensile tests:

which do not have a defined yielding such as  Transverse tensile.
aluminium and some steels.  All-weld metal tensile test.
 Cruciform tensile test.
 Short tensile test (through thickness test).

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Tensile Test Transverse Joint Tensile Test

All weld Metal

All-Weld metalTensile
tensile
specimen
Specimen

Objective:
Measuring the overall strength of the weld joint.
Information to be supplied on the test report:
Transverse
TransverseTensile
tensile  Material type.
Specimen
specimen  Specimen type
 Specimen size (see QW-462.1).
 UTS.
 Location of final rupture.

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Transverse Joint Tensile Test Transverse Tensile Test

Maximum load applied = 220 kN

Cross sectional area = 25 mm X 12 mm

UTS = Maximum load applied

Weld on plate csa

UTS = 220 000

25mm X 12mm

Multiple cross joint specimens

UTS = 733.33 N/mm2
Weld on pipe

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4-6
 Transverse Tensile Test All-Weld Metal Tensile Test

Reporting results: BS 709/BS EN 10002

 Type of specimen eg reduced section. All Weld Metal Tensile Testing
 Whether weld reinforcement is removed.
 Dimensions of test specimen. Direction of the test *
 The ultimate tensile strength in N/mm2, psi or
Mpa.
 Location of fracture.
 Location and type of any flaws present if any.

Tensile test piece cut along weld specimen.

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All-Weld Metal Tensile Test All-Weld Metal Tensile Test

Original gauge length = 50mm Gauge length

Increased gauge length = 64 Object of test:

 Ultimate tensile
strength.
Elongation % = Increase of gauge length X 100  Yield strength.
Original gauge length  Elongation
%(ductility).

Elongation % = 14
X 100
50

Elongation = 28% Increased gauge length

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All-Weld Metal Tensile Test All-Weld Metal Tensile Test

Two marks are made Two marks are made

Gauge length 50mm Gauge length 50mm

During the test, yield and tensile strength are recorded During the test, yield and tensile strength are recorded
The specimen is joined and the marks are re-measured
The specimen is joined and the marks are re-measured

Force Applied

Increased gauge length 75mm

Increased gauge length 75mm
A measurement of 75mm will give Elongation of 50%. A measurement of 75mm will give Elongation of 50%.

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4-7
 STRA (Short Transverse
All-Weld Metal Tensile Test
Reduction Area)
Reporting results:
 Type of specimen eg reduced section.
 Dimensions of test specimen.
 The UTS, yield strength in N/mm2, psi or Mpa.
 Elongation %.
 Location and type of any flaws present if any.

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STRA Test UTS Calculation

A welded sample has undergone a transverse tensile test.

The specimen before testing 120mm long and after testing
had a length 150mm, the maximum load applied was
140Kn. The cross sectional area before testing was 10mm
in depth and 40mm in width.

Original CSA Please calculate the elongation % and UTS.

Change in
length (150 – 120) = 30
= 0.25 x 100 = 25%
Original 120
length

Reduced CSA Load 140 Kn 14,000 n

= 350 n/mm²
CSA 10 x 40 400

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STRA Test Mechanical Testing

Probable freedom from

tearing in any joint type

Some risk in highly restrained

20 joints eg node joint, joints Macro/Micro Examination
between sub-fabs
STRA %
Some risk in moderately
Reduction 15 restrained joints eg box
of CSA columns

Some risk in lightly restrained

10 joints T-joints eg I-beams

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4-8
 Macro Preparation Macro Preparation

Purpose Specimen preparation

To examine the weld cross-section to give assurance  Full thickness slice taken from the weld (typically ~10mm
that: thick).
 Width of slice sufficient to show all the weld and HAZ on
 The weld has been made in accordance with the
both sides plus some unaffected base material.
WPS.
 One face ground to a progressively fine finish (grit sizes
 The weld is free from defects. 120 to ~400).
 Prepared face heavily etched to show all weld runs and all
HAZ.
 Prepared face examined at up to x10 (and usually
photographed for records).
 Prepared face may also be used for a hardness survey.

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Macro Preparation Macro Preparation

Purpose Specimen preparation

To examine a particular region of the weld or HAZ  A small piece is cut from the region of interest (typically
in order to: up to ~20mm x 20mm).
 The piece is mounted in plastic mould and the surface of
 To examine the microstructure.
interest prepared by progressive grinding (to grit size
 Identify the nature of a crack or other 600 or 800).
imperfection.  Surface polished on diamond impregnated cloths to a
mirror finish.
 Prepared face may be examined in as-polished condition
and then lightly etched.
 Prepared face examined under the microscope at up to
~100 – 1000X.

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Macro/Micro Examination Macro/Micro Examination

Object: Will reveal:

 Macro/microscopic examinations are used to  Weld soundness.
give a visual evaluation of a cross-section of a  Distribution of inclusions.
welded joint.  Number of weld passes.
 Carried out on full thickness specimens.  Metallurgical structure of weld, fusion zone and
 The width of the specimen should include HAZ, HAZ.
weld and parent plate.  Location and depth of penetration of weld.
 They maybe cut from a stop/start area on a  Fillet weld leg and throat dimensions.
welders approval test.

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4-9
 Macro Macro/Micro Examination Metallographic Examination

Macro Micro
 Visual examination for  Visual examination for
defects. defects and grain
 Cut transverse from the structure.
weld.  Cut transverse from a
 Ground and polished weld.
P400 grit paper.  Ground and polished P1200
 Acid etch using 5-10% grit paper, 1µm paste.
nitric acid solution.  Acid etch using 1-5% nitric
 Wash and dry. acid solution.
 Visual evaluation under  Wash and dry.
5x magnification.  Visual evaluation under
 Report on results. 100-1000x magnification. Macro examination Micro examination
 Report on results.

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Metallographic Examination Metallographic Examination

Objectives: Information to be supplied on the test report:

 Detecting weld defects (macro).  Material type.
 Measuring grain size (micro).  Etching solution.
 Detecting brittle structures, precipitates, etc.  Magnification.
 Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold  Grain size.
cracking and corrosion sensitivity.  Location of examined area.
 Weld imperfections (macro).
 Phase, constituents, precipitates (micro).

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Mechanical Testing Bend Tests

Object of test:
To determine the soundness of the weld zone. Bend testing
can also be used to give an assessment of weld zone
ductility.

Bend Testing There are three ways to perform a bend test:

Root bend Face bend Side bend

Side bend tests are normally carried
out on welds over 12mm in thickness.

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4-10
 Bending Test Bending Test Methods

Types of bend test for welds

(acc BS EN ISO 5173+A1):

Root/face
t up to 12 mm
bend

Thickness of material - t

t over 12 mm Side bend

Guided bend test Wrap around bend test

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Bend Testing Bend Tests

Face bend Side bend Root bend Reporting results:

 Thickness and dimensions of specimen.
 Direction of bend (root, face or side).
 Angle of bend (90°, 120°, 180°).
 Diameter of former (typical 4T).
 Appearance of joint after bending eg type and
location of any flaws.
Defect indication generally this
specimen would be unacceptable.
Acceptance for minor ruptures
on tension surface depends upon
code requirements.

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Bend Testing Mechanical Testing

Fillet Weld Fracture Testing

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4-11
 Fillet Weld Fracture Tests Fillet Weld Fracture Tests

Object of test: Hammer

 To break open the joint through the weld to
permit examination of the fracture surfaces.
 Specimens are cut to the required length.
 A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is 2mm
applied along the fillet welds length. notch
 Fracture is usually made by striking the
specimen with a single hammer blow.
 Visual inspection for defects.

Fracture should break weld saw cut to root

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Fillet Weld Fracture Tests

Hammer

2mm
notch
This fracture indicates This fracture has occurred
lack of fusion saw cut to root

Lack of penetration
Fracture should break weld saw cut to root

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Fillet Weld Fracture Tests

Hammer
Reporting results:
 Thickness of parent material.
 Throat thickness and leg lengths.
 Location of fracture.
 Appearance of joint after fracture.
 Depth of penetration.
 Defects present on fracture surfaces.

This fracture indicates

lack of fusion

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4-12
 Mechanical Testing Nick-Break Test

Object of test:
 To permit evaluation of any weld defects across
the fracture surface of a butt weld.
 Specimens are cut transverse to the weld.
Nick-Break Testing  A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is
applied along the welds root and cap.
 Fracture is usually made by striking the
specimen with a single hammer blow.
 Visual inspection for defects.

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Nick-Break Test Nick-Break Test

Notch cut by hacksaw

3 mm
19 mm Alternative nick-break test
specimen, notch applied all
3 mm
way around the specimen
Approximately 230 mm

Weld reinforcement
may or may not be
removed Lack of root Inclusions on fracture
penetration or fusion line

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Nick-Break Test Summary of Mechanical Testing

Reporting results: We test welds to establish minimum levels of mechanical

 Thickness of parent material. properties, and soundness of the welded joint
 Width of specimen.
We divide tests into qualitative and quantitative
 Location of fracture.
methods:
 Appearance of joint after fracture.
 Depth of penetration. Quantitative: (Have Qualitative: (Have no
 Defects present on fracture surfaces. units) units)
 Hardness (VPN & BHN).  Macro tests.
 Toughness (Joules &  Bend tests.
ft.lbs).  Fillet weld fracture tests.
 Strength (N/mm2 & PSI,  Butt Nick break tests.
MPa).
 Ductility/Elongation (E%).

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4-13
 Hydrostatic Test Hydrostatic Test

Under pressure leakage proof test Test procedure:

 Blank off all openings with solid flanges.
Vessel configuration:  Use correct nuts and bolts, not G clamps.
 The test should be done after any stress relief.  Two pressure gauges on independent tapping
 Components that will not stand the pressure test points should be used.
(eg flexible pipes, diaphragms) must be  For safety purposes bleed all the air out.
removed.  Pumping should be done slowly (no dynamic
 The ambient temperature MUST be above 0°C pressure stresses).
(preferably 15-20°C).
 Test pressure - see relevant standards (PD 5500,
ASME VIII). Usually 150% design pressure.
 Hold the pressure for minimum 30 minutes.

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Hydrostatic Test

What to look for:

 Leaks (check particularly around seams and
nozzle welds)!
Any Questions
 Dry off any condensation.

?
 Watch the gauges for pressure drop.
 Check for distortion of flange faces, etc.

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4-14
 Section 5

Non-destructive Testing
5 Non-destructive Testing
5.1 Introduction
Radiographic, ultrasonic, dye penetrant and magnetic particle methods are
briefly described below. Their relative advantages and limitations are discussed
in terms of their applicability to the examination of welds.

5.2 Radiographic methods

In all cases radiographic methods as applied to welds involve passing a beam of
penetrating radiation through the test object. The transmitted radiation is
collected by some form of sensor, capable of measuring the relative intensities
of penetrating radiations impinging upon it. In most cases this sensor is
radiographic film; however the use of various electronic devices is on the
increase. These devices facilitate so-called real-time radiography and examples
may be seen in the security check area at airports. Digital technology has
enabled the storing of radiographs using computers. The present discussion is
confined to film radiography since this is still the most common method applied
to welds.

5.2.1 Sources of penetrating radiation

Penetrating radiation may be generated from high energy electron beams and
(X-rays), or from nuclear disintegrations (atomic fission), in which case they are
termed gamma rays. Other forms of penetrating radiation exist but are of
limited interest in weld radiography.

5.2.2 X-rays
X-rays used in the industrial radiography of welds generally have photon
energies in the range 30keV up to 20MeV. Up to 400keV they are generated by
conventional X-ray tubes which, dependent upon output may be suitable for
portable or fixed installations. Portability falls off rapidly with increasing
kilovoltage and radiation output. Above 400keV X-rays are produced using
devices such as betatrons and linear accelerators, not generally suitable for use
outside of fixed installations.

All sources of X-rays produce a continuous spectrum of radiation, reflecting the

spread of kinetic energies of electrons within the electron beam. Low energy
radiations are more easily absorbed and the presence of low energy radiations
within the X-ray beam, gives rise to better radiographic contrast and therefore
better radiographic sensitivity than is the case with gamma-rays which are
discussed below. Conventional X-ray units are capable of performing high
quality radiography on steel of up to 60mm thickness, betatrons and linear
accelerators in excess of 300mm.

5.2.3 Gamma rays

Early sources of gamma rays used in industrial radiography were in generally
composed of naturally occurring radium. The activity of these sources was not
very high so they were large by modern standards even for quite modest
outputs of radiation and the radiographs produced were not of a particularly
high standard.

Radium sources were also extremely hazardous to the user due to the
production of radioactive radon gas as a product of the fission reaction. Since
the advent of the nuclear age it has been possible to artificially produce
isotopes of much higher specific activity than those occurring naturally which do
not produce hazardous fission products.

WIS5-80116
Non-Destructive Testing 5-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Unlike X-ray sources gamma sources do not produce a continuous distribution
of quantum energies. Gamma sources produce a number of specific quantum
energies unique for any particular isotope. Four isotopes in common use for the
radiography of welds; are in ascending order of radiation energy: Thulium 90,
ytterbium 169, iridium 192 and cobalt 60.

In terms of steel thulium 90 is useful up to a thickness of about 7mm, it’s

energy is similar to that of 90keV X-rays and due to it’s high specific activity
useful sources can be produced with physical dimensions of less than 0.5mm.

Ytterbium 169 has only fairly recently become available as an isotope for
industrial use, it’s energy is similar to that of 120keV X-rays and is useful for
the radiography of steel up to approximately 12mm thickness.

Iridium 192 is probably the most commonly encountered isotopic source of

radiation used in the radiographic examination of welds. It has a relatively and
high specific activity and output sources with physical dimensions of 2-3mm in
common usage, it’s energy is approximately equivalent to that of 500keV X-
rays and is useful for the radiography of steel of 10-75mm thickness.

Cobalt 60 has an energy approximating that of 1.2MeV X-rays, so suitable

source containers are large and heavy so Cobalt 60 sources are not fully
portable. They are useful for the radiography of steel in 40-150mm of
thickness. The major advantages of using isotopic sources over X-rays are:

 Increased portability.
 No need for a power source.
 Lower initial equipment costs.

Against this the quality of radiographs produced by gamma ray techniques is

inferior to those produced by X-ray the hazards to personnel may be increased
(if the equipment is not properly maintained or if the operating personnel have
insufficient training) and due to their limited useful lifespan new isotopes have
to be purchased on a regular basis so that the operating costs may exceed
those of an X-ray source.

5.2.4 Radiography of welds

Radiographic techniques depend on detecting differences in absorption of the
beam, ie changes in the effective thickness of the test object, to reveal
defective areas. Volumetric weld defects such as slag inclusions (except in
special cases where the slag absorbs radiation to a greater extent than does the
weld metal) and various forms of gas porosity are easily detected by
radiographic techniques due to the large negative absorption difference
between the parent metal and the slag or gas.

Planar defects such as cracks or lack of sidewall or inter-run fusion are much
less likely to be detected by radiography since they may cause little or no
change in the penetrated thickness. Where defects of this type are likely to
occur other NDE techniques such as ultrasonic testing are preferable.

This lack of sensitivity to planar defects makes radiography unsuitable where a

fitness-for-purpose approach is taken when assessing the acceptability of a
weld. However, film radiography produces a permanent record of the weld
condition which can be archived for future reference and provides an excellent
means of assessing the welder’s performance so it is often still the preferred
method for new construction.

WIS5-80116
Non-Destructive Testing 5-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Figure 5.1 X-ray equipment. Figure 5.2 Gamma ray equipment.

Figure 5.3 X-ray of a welded seam showing porosity.

WIS5-80116
Non-Destructive Testing 5-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
5.2.5 Radiographic testing

Advantages Limitations

Permanent record Health hazard. Safety (important)

Good for sizing non-planar defects/ Classified workers, medicals required

flaws

Can be used on all materials Sensitive to defect orientation

Direct image of defect/flaws Not good for planar defect detection

Real-time imaging Limited ability to detect fine cracks

Can be positioned inside pipe Access to both sides required

(productivity)

Very good thickness penetration Skilled interpretation required

No power required with gamma Relatively slow

High capital outlay and running costs

Isotopes have a half-life (cost)

5.3 Ultrasonic methods

The velocity of ultrasound in any given material is a constant for that material
and ultrasonic beams travel in straight lines in homogeneous materials. When
ultrasonic waves pass from a given material with a given sound velocity to a
second material with different velocity, refraction and a reflection of the sound
beam will occur at the boundary between the two materials. The same laws of
physics apply to ultrasonic waves as to light waves.

Ultrasonic waves are refracted at a boundary between two materials having

different acoustic properties so probes may be constructed which can beam
sound into a material at (within certain limits) any given angle. Because sound
is reflected at a boundary between two materials having different acoustic
properties ultrasound is a useful tool for the detection of weld defects.

Since velocity is a constant for any given material and sound travels in a
straight line (with the right equipment) ultrasound can also be used to give
accurate positional information about a given reflector.

Careful observation of the echo pattern of a given reflector and its behaviour as
the ultrasonic probe is moved together with the positional information obtained
above and knowledge of the component history enables the experienced
ultrasonic operator to classify the reflector as slag, lack of fusion or a crack.

WIS5-80116
Non-Destructive Testing 5-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
5.3.1 Equipment for ultrasonic testing
Equipment for manual ultrasonic testing consists of:

A flaw detector:

 Pulse generator.
 Adjustable time base generator with an adjustable delay control.
 Cathode ray tube with fully rectified display.
 Calibrated amplifier with a graduated gain control or attenuator.

An ultrasonic probe:

 Piezo-electric crystal element capable of converting electrical vibrations into

mechanical vibrations and vice versa.
 Probe shoe, normally a Perspex block to which the crystal is firmly attached
using suitable adhesive.
 Electrical and/or mechanical crystal damping facilities to prevent excessive
ringing.

Such equipment is lightweight and extremely portable. Automated or

semi-automated systems for ultrasonic testing the same basic use equipment
although since in general this will be multi-channel it is bulkier and less
portable.

Probes for automated systems are set in arrays and some form of manipulator
is necessary to feed positional information about them to the computer.
Automated systems generate very large amounts of data and make large
demands upon the RAM of the computer. Recent advances in automated UT
have led to a reduced amount of data being recorded for a given length of weld.

Simplified probe arrays have greatly reduced the complexity of setting-up the
automated system to carry out a particular task. Automated UT systems now
provide a serious alternative to radiography on such constructions as pipelines
where a large number of similar inspections allow the unit cost of system
development to be reduced to a competitive level.

Figure 5.4 Ultrasonic equipment.

WIS5-80116
Non-Destructive Testing 5-5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Figure 5.5 Compression and a shear wave probe.

Figure 5.6 Example of a scanning technique with a shear wave probe.

Figure 5.7 Typical screen display when using a shear wave probe.

WIS5-80116
Non-Destructive Testing 5-6 Copyright © TWI Ltd
5.3.2 Ultrasonic testing

Advantages Limitations

Portable (no mains power) battery No permanent record

Direct location of defect Only ferritic materials (mainly)

(3 dimensional)

Good for complex geometry High level of operator skill required

Safe operation (can be done next to Calibration of equipment required

someone)

Instant results Special calibration blocks required

High penetrating capability No good for pin pointing porosity

Can be done from one side only Critical of surface conditions (clean
smooth)

Good for finding planar defects Will not detect surface defects

Material thickness >8mm due to dead

zone

5.4 Magnetic particle testing

Surface breaking or very near surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials
give rise to leakage fields when high levels of magnetic flux are applied. These
leakage fields attract magnetic particles (finely divided magnetite) to
themselves leading to the formation of an indication.

The magnetic particles may be visibly or fluorescently pigmented to provide

contrast with the substrate or conversely the substrate may be lightly coated
with a white background lacquer to contrast with the particles.

Fluorescent magnetic particles normally provide the greatest sensitivity in a

liquid suspension, usually applied by spraying. In certain cases dry particles
may be applied by a gentle jet of air. The technique is applicable only to
ferromagnetic materials at a temperature below the Curie point (about 650°C).

The leakage field will be greatest for linear discontinuities at right angles to the
magnetic field so for a comprehensive test the magnetic field must normally be
applied in two directions, mutually perpendicular. The test is economical to
carry out in terms of equipment cost and rapidity of inspection and the level of
operator training required is relatively low.

WIS5-80116
Non-Destructive Testing 5-7 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Figure 5.8 Magnetic particle inspection using a yoke.

Figure 5.9 Crack found using magnetic particle inspection.

Advantages Limitations

Inexpensive equipment Only magnetic materials

Direct location of defect May need to demagnetise components

Surface conditions not critical Access may be a problem for the yoke

Can be applied without power Need power if using a yoke

Low skill level No permanent record

Sub-surface defects found 1-2mm Calibration of equipment

Quick, instant results Testing in two directions required

Hot testing (using dry powder) Need good lighting - 500 lux minimum

Can be used in the dark (UV light)

WIS5-80116
Non-Destructive Testing 5-8 Copyright © TWI Ltd
5.5 Dye penetrant testing
Any liquid with good wetting properties will act as a penetrant, which is
attracted into surface-breaking discontinuities by capillary forces. Penetrant
which has entered a tight discontinuity will remain even when the excess is
removed.

Application of a suitable developer will encourage the penetrant within

discontinuities to bleed out. If there is a suitable contrast between the
penetrant and the developer an indication visible to the eye will be formed.
Provided by either visible or fluorescent dyes.

Use of fluorescent dyes considerably increases the sensitivity of the technique.

The technique is not applicable at extremes of temperature as at below 5°C the
penetrant vehicle, normally oil, will become excessively viscous causing an
increase in the penetration time with a consequent decrease in sensitivity.

Above 60°C the penetrant will dry out and the technique will not work.

Figure 5.10 Methods of applying the red dye during dye penetrant inspection.

Figure 5.11 Crack found using dye penetrant inspection.

WIS5-80116
Non-Destructive Testing 5-9 Copyright © TWI Ltd
5.5.1 Dye penetrant

Advantages Limitations

All non porous materials Will only detect defects open to the
surface
Portable Requires careful space preparation

Applicable to small parts with complex Not applicable to porous surfaces

geometry

Simple Temperature dependent

Inexpensive Cannot retest indefinitely

Sensitive Potentially hazardous chemicals

Relatively low skill level No permanent record

(easy to interpret)

Time lapse between application and

results

Messy

5.5.2 Surface crack detection (magnetic particle/dye penetrant)

When considering the relative value of NDE techniques it should not be
forgotten that most catastrophic failures initiate from the surface of a
component, so the value of the magnetic particle and dye penetrant techniques
should not be under-estimated.

Ultrasonic inspection may not detect near-surface defects easily since the
indications may be masked by echoes arising from the component geometry
and should therefore be supplemented by an appropriate surface crack
detection technique for maximum test confidence.

WIS5-80116
Non-Destructive Testing 5-10 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Non Destructive Testing Objective

When this presentation has been completed you

will have a greater understanding of and
recognise various NDT methods and their
differences ,capabilities and why one particular
method may be chosen based on the advantages
Non-Destructive Testing and disadvantages over other methods. Why we
choose or don’t choose a particular method for a
Section 5 certain material and the potential risks in safety
and production issues.

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Non-Destructive Testing Non-Destructive Testing

A welding inspector should have a working Surface crack detection

knowledge of NDT methods and their  Liquid penetrant (PT or dye-penetrant).
applications, advantages and  Magnetic particle inspection (MT or MPI).
disadvantages.
Volumetric inspection
Four basic NDT methods  Ultrasonics (UT).
1. Magnetic particle inspection (MT).  Radiography (RT).
2. Dye penetrant inspection (PT). Each technique has advantages and
3. Radiographic inspection (RT). disadvantages with respect to:
4. Ultrasonic inspection (UT).  Technical capability and cost.
Note: The choice of NDT techniques is based on
consideration of these advantages and disadvantages.

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Penetrant Testing

Main features:
 Detection of surface breaking defects only.
 This test method uses the forces of capillary
action.
Penetrant Testing (PT)  Applicable on any material type, as long they are
non porous.
 Penetrants are available in many different types:
 Water washable contrast.
 Solvent removable contrast.
 Water washable fluorescent.
 Solvent removable fluorescent.
 Post-emulsifiable fluorescent.

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5-1
 Penetrant Testing Penetrant Testing

Step 1: Pre-cleaning Step 2: Apply penetrant

 Ensure surface is very clean normally with the use of a  After the application, the penetrant is normally left on
solvent. the components surface for approximately 15-20
minutes (dwell time).
 The penetrant enters any defects that may be present
by capillary action.

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Penetrant Testing Penetrant Testing

Step 3: Clean off penetrant Step 3: Apply developer

 The penetrant is removed after sufficient penetration  After the penetrant has be cleaned sufficiently, a thin
time (dwell time). layer of developer is applied.
 Care must be taken not to wash any penetrant out off  The developer acts as a contrast against the penetrant
any defects present. and allows for reverse capillary action to take place.

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Penetrant Testing Penetrant Testing

Step 4: Inspection/development time Fluorescent penetrant

 Inspection should take place immediately after the Bleed out viewed under
developer has been applied. a UV-A light source
 any defects present will show as a bleed out during
development time.
 After full inspection has been carried out post cleaning
is generally required.

Bleed out viewed

under white light Colour contrast Penetrant

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5-2
 Penetrant Testing Penetrant Testing

Advantages Disadvantages Comparison with magnetic particle inspection

 Simple to use.  Surface breaking defect
 Inexpensive. only. Advantages
 Quick results.  Little indication of  Easy to interpret results.
 Can be used on any non- depths.  No power requirements.
porous material.  Penetrant may
 Portability. contaminate component.
 Relatively little training required.
 Low operator skill  Surface preparation  Can use on all materials.
required. critical.
 Post cleaning required. Disadvantages
 Potentially hazardous  Good surface finish needed.
chemicals.  Relatively slow.
 Can not test unlimited
 Chemicals - health and safety issue.
times.
 Temperature dependant.

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Any Questions

?
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)

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Magnetic Particle Testing Magnetic Particle Testing

Main features: Collection

 Surface and slight sub-surface detection. of ink
 Relies on magnetization of component being tested. particles
 Only ferro-magnetic materials can be tested. due to
 A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen being leakage
tested. field
 Methods of applying a magnetic field, yoke,
permanent magnet, prods and flexible cables. Electro-magnet (yoke) DC or AC
 Fine particles of iron powder are applied to the test
area.
 Any defect which interrupts the magnetic field, will
create a leakage field, which attracts the particles.
 Any defect will show up as either a dark indication or
in the case of fluorescent particles under UV-A light a
Prods DC or AC
green/yellow indication.

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5-3
 Magnetic Particle Testing Magnetic Particle Testing

A crack like
indication

Alternatively to contrast inks, fluorescent inks may be

used for greater sensitivity. These inks require a UV-A
light source and a darkened viewing area to inspect
the component.

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Magnetic Particle Testing Magnetic Particle Testing

Typical sequence of operations to inspect a Advantages Disadvantages

weld  Simple to use.  Surface or slight
 Clean area to be tested.  Inexpensive. sub-surface
 Apply contrast paint.  Rapid results. detection only.
 Apply magnetisism to the component.  Little surface  Magnetic materials
 Apply ferro-magnetic ink to the component preparation required. only.
during magnatising.  No indication of
 Possible to inspect
 Iterpret the test area. through thin defects depths.
 Post clean and de-magnatise if required. coatings.  Only suitable for
linear defects.
 Detection is required
in two directions.

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Magnetic Particle Testing

Comparison with penetrant testing

Advantages
Any Questions

?
 Much quicker than PT.
 Instant results.
 Can detect near-surface imperfections (by current
flow technique).
 Less surface preparation needed.
Disadvantages
 Only suitable for ferromagnetic materials.
 Electrical power for most techniques.
 May need to de-magnetise (machine components).

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5-4
 Ultrasonic Testing

Main features:
 Surface and sub-surface detection.
 This detection method uses high frequency sound
waves, typically above 2MHz to pass through a material.
 A probe is used which contains a piezo electric crystal to
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses and display the
signals on a cathode ray tube or digital display.
 The actual display relates to the time taken for the
ultrasonic pulses to travel the distance to the interface
and back.
 An interface could be the back of a plate material or a
defect.
 For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be
introduced between the probe and specimen.

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Ultrasonic Testing Ultrasonic Testing

Pulse echo Digital Defect Back wall

signals A UT Set, Initial pulse echo echo
scan
display

Material Thk
defect

0 10 20 30 40 50

Compression probe Checking the material Thickness Compression probe CRT Display

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Ultrasonic Testing Ultrasonic Testing

UT set
A scan Initial pulse
display
Defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50

½ Skip CRT Display

initial pulse

defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50
Angle probe
Full Skip CRT Display

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5-5
 Ultrasonic Testing Ultrasonic Testing

Advantages Disadvantages Comparison with radiography

 Rapid results.  Trained and skilled
 Both surface and sub- operator required. Advantages
surface detection.  Requires high operator  Good for planar defects.
 Safe. skill.
 Good for thick sections.
 Capable of measuring the  Good surface finish
depth of defects. required.  Instant results.
 May be battery powered.  Defect identification.  Can use on complex joints.
 Portable.  Couplant may  Can automate.
contaminate.
 Very portable.
 No permanent record.
 Calibration required.
 No safety problems (parallel working is
 Ferritic Material (mostly).
possible).
 Low capital and running costs.

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Ultrasonic Testing

Comparison with radiography

Disadvantages
Any Questions

?
 No permanent record (with standard
equipment).
 Not suitable for very thin joints <8mm.
 Reliant on operator interpretation.
 Not good for sizing porosity.
 Good/smooth surface profile needed.
 Not suitable for coarse grain materials (eg,
castings).
 Ferritic materials (with standard equipment).

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Radiographic Testing

The principles of radiography

 X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test
object.
 Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees
dependant upon the density of the material
Radiographic Testing (RT)
through which it is travelling.
 Thinner areas and materials of a less density
show as darker areas on the radiograph.
 Thicker areas and materials of a greater density
show as lighter areas on a radiograph.
 Applicable to metals, non-metals and
composites.

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5-6
 Radiographic Testing Radiographic Testing

Source

Image quality indicator

Radiation beam

X–rays Gamma rays

Electrically generated. Generated by the decay Test specimen
of unstable atoms. Radiographic film

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Radiographic Testing Radiographic Testing

Source Density - relates to the degree of darkness.

Image quality indicator
Radiation beam

Densitometer

Test specimen Contrast - relates to the degree of difference.

Definition - relates to the degree of sharpness.
Sensitivity - relates to the overall quality of the radiograph.
Radiographic film with latent image after exposure

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Radiographic Sensitivity Radiographic Sensitivity

Step/hole type IQI

7FE12

Wire type IQI

Step/Hole type IQI Wire type IQI

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5-7
 Radiographic Techniques Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)

Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)

 Film inside, source outside.

Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic

 Film outside, source inside (internal exposure).
Film
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
 Film outside, source outside (external
exposure). Film

Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

 Film outside, source outside (elliptical
IQI’s should be placed source side
exposure).

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Single Wall Single Image Panoramic Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)

Film
Film
 IQI’s are placed on the film side.
 IQI’s are placed on the film side.  Source outside film outside (multiple exposure).
 Source inside film outside (single exposure).  This technique is intended for pipe diameters over 100mm.

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Double Wall Single Image (DWSI) Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)

Identification
 Unique identification.
 IQI placing.
 Pitch marks indicating EN W10

readable film length.

A B

ID MR11

Radiograph
Radiograph

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5-8
 Double Wall Double Image (DWDI) Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

Identification
 Unique identification. 4 3
 IQI placing.
EN W10
 Pitch marks indicating
readable film length.

Film 1 2
 IQI’s are placed on the source or film side.
ID MR12
 Source outside film outside (multiple exposure).
 A minimum of two exposures.
 This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than Shot A Radiograph
100mm.

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Double Wall Double Image (DWDI) Radiography

Penetrating power

4 3 Question: What determines the penetrating power

of an X-ray?
 The kilo-voltage applied (between anode and
cathode).

Question: What determines the penetrating power

of a gamma ray?
1 2  The type of isotope (the wavelength of the gamma
rays).
Elliptical radiograph

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Radiography Radiographic Testing

Gamma sources Advantages Disadvantages

 Permanent record.  Expensive consumables.
Isotope Typical thickness range  Little surface  Bulky equipment.
 Iridium 192 10 to 50 mm (mostly used) preparation.  Harmful radiation.
 Cobalt 60 > 50mm  Defect identification.  Defect require significant
 No material type depth in relation to the
 Ytterbium < 10mm
limitation. radiation beam (not good
 Thulium < 10mm  Not so reliant upon for planar defects).
 Caesium < 10mm operator skill.  Slow results.
 Thin materials.  Very little indication of
depths.
 Access to both sides
required.

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5-9
 Radiographic Testing Radiographic Testing

Comparison with ultrasonic examination Comparison with ultrasonic examination

Advantages Disadvantages
 Good for non-planar defects.  Health and safety hazard.
 Good for thin sections.  Not good for thick sections.
 Gives permanent record.  High capital and relatively high running costs.
 Easier for 2nd party interpretation.  Not good for planar defects.
 Can use on all material types.  X-ray sets not very portable.
 High productivity.  Requires access to both sides of weld.
 Direct image of imperfections.  Frequent replacement of gamma source needed
(half life).

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Any Questions

?
Copyright © TWI Ltd

5-10
 Section 6

WPS/Welder Qualifications
6 WPS/Welder Qualifications
6.1 General
When structures and pressurised items are fabricated by welding, it is essential
that all the welded joints are sound and have suitable properties for their
application.

Control of welding is by WPSs that give detailed written instructions about the
welding conditions that must be used to ensure that welded joints have the
required properties.

Although WPSs are shopfloor documents to instruct welders, welding inspectors

need to be familiar with them because they will refer to them when checking
that welders are working within the specified requirements.

Welders need to be able to understand WPSs, make non-defective welds and

demonstrate these abilities before being allowed to make production welds.

6.2 Qualified welding procedure specifications

It is industry practice to use qualified WPSs for most applications.

A welding procedure is usually qualified by making a test weld to demonstrate

that the properties of the joint satisfy the requirements specified by the
application standard and the client/end user.

Demonstrating the mechanical properties of the joint is the principal purpose of

qualification tests, but showing that a defect-free weld can be produced is also
very important.

Production welds made in accordance with welding conditions similar to those

used for a test weld should have similar properties and therefore be fit for their
intended purpose.

Table 6.1 is a typical WPS written in accordance with the European Welding
Standard format giving details of all the welding conditions that need to be
specified.

WIS5-80116
WPS/Welder Qualifications 6-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Table 6.1 Typical sequence for welding procedure qualification by means of a
test weld.

The welding engineer writes a preliminary Welding Procedure Specification

(pWPS) for each test coupon to be welded.

 A welder makes the test coupon in accordance with the pWPS.

 A welding inspector records all the welding conditions used to make the
test coupon (the as-run conditions).

An independent examiner/examining body/third party inspector may be

requested to monitor the procedure qualification.

The test coupon is subjected to NDT in accordance with the methods

specified by the Standard – visual inspection, MT or PT and RT or UT.

 The test coupon is destructively tested (tensile, bend, macro tests).

 The code/application standard client may require additional tests such
as hardness, impact or corrosion tests – depending on the material and
application.

 A WPQR is prepared by the welding engineer giving details of:

– As run welding conditions.
– Results of the NDT.
– Results of the destructive tests.
– Welding conditions allowed for production welding.
 If a third party inspector is involved he will be requested to sign the
WPQR as a true record of the test.

WIS5-80116
WPS/Welder Qualifications 6-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
6.2.1 Welding standards for procedure qualification
European and American Standards have been developed to give comprehensive
details about:

 How a welded test piece must be made to demonstrate joint properties.

 How the test piece must be tested.
 Which welding details need to be included in a WPS.
 The range of production welding allowed by a particular qualification test
weld.

The principal European Standards that specify these requirements are:

EN ISO 15614
Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials,
welding procedure test.

Part 1
Arc and gas welding of steels and arc welding of nickel and nickel alloys.

Part 2
Arc welding of aluminium and its alloys.

The principal American Standards for procedure qualification are:

ASME Section IX
Pressurised systems (vessels and pipework).

AWS D1.1
Structural welding of steels.

AWS D1.2
Structural welding of aluminium.

6.2.2 The qualification process for welding procedures

Although qualified WPSs are usually based on test welds made to demonstrate
weld joint properties; welding standards also allow qualified WPSs for some
applications to be written based on other data.

Some alternative ways that can be used for writing qualified WPSs for some
applications are:

 Qualification by adoption of a standard welding procedure - test welds

previously qualified and documented by other manufacturers.
 Qualification based on previous welding experience - weld joints that have
been repeatedly made and proved to have suitable properties by their
service record.

Procedure qualification to European Standards by a test weld (similar in ASME

Section IX and AWS) requires a sequence of actions typified by those shown by
Table 6.1.

A successful procedure qualification test is completed by the production of a

WPQR, an example of which is shown in Figure 6.1.

WIS5-80116
WPS/Welder Qualifications 6-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 111:MMA
Manual
17.5 – 70.0
Greater than 500.0
BS EN ISO 2560 46 6 mn 1 ml b12 h5
none
PA,FC,PE,PF
50
200
DC +VE
Multi-pass only
Max 3.2
n/a
n/a

Figure 6.1 Example of WPQR (qualification range) to EN15614 format.

WIS5-80116
WPS/Welder Qualifications 6-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
6.2.3 Relationship between a WPQR and a WPS
Once a WPQR has been produced, the welding engineer can write qualified
WPSs for the various production weld joints that need to be made.

The welding conditions that are allowed to be written on a qualified WPS are
referred to as the qualification range and depend on the welding conditions
used for the test piece (as-run details) and form part of the WPQR.

Welding conditions are referred to as welding variables by European and

American Welding Standards and are classified as either essential or non-
essential variables and can be defined as:

 Essential variable
Variable that has an effect on the mechanical properties of the weldment
and if changed beyond the limits specified by the standard will require the
WPS to be re-qualified.

 Non-essential variable
Variable that must be specified on a WPS but does not have a significant
effect on the mechanical properties of the weldment and can be changed
without the need for re-qualification but will require a new WPS to be
written.

Because essential variables can have a significant effect on mechanical

properties they are the controlling variables that govern the qualification range
and determine what can be written in a WPS.

If a welder makes a production weld using conditions outside the range given
on a particular WPS there is a danger that the welded joint will not have the
required properties and there are two options:

1 Make another test weld using similar welding conditions to those used for
the affected weld and subject this to the same tests used for the relevant
WPQR to demonstrate that the properties still satisfy specified
requirements.

2 Remove the affected weld and re-weld the joint strictly in accordance with
the designated WPS.

Most of the welding variables classed as essential are the same in both the
European and American Welding Standards but their qualification ranges may
differ.

Some application standards specify their own essential variables and it is

necessary to ensure these are considered when procedures are qualified and
WPSs written.

Examples of essential variables (according to European Welding Standards) are

given in Table 6. 2.

WIS5-80116
WPS/Welder Qualifications 6-5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Table 6.2 Typical examples of WPS essential variables according to EU Welding
Standards.
Variable Range for procedure qualification

Welding process No range – process qualified must be used in production.

PWHT Joints tested after PWHT only qualify PWHT production joints.
Joints tested as-welded only qualify as-welded production joints.

Parent material Parent materials of similar composition and mechanical

type properties are allocated the same Material Group No;
qualification only allows production welding of materials with the
same Group No.

Welding Consumables for production welding must have the same

consumables European designation –general rule.

Material thickness A thickness range is allowed – below and above the test coupon
thickness.

Type of current AC only qualifies for AC; DC polarity (+ve or -ve) cannot be
changed; pulsed current only qualifies for pulsed current
production welding.

Preheat The preheat temperature used for the test is the minimum that
temperature must be applied.

Interpass The highest interpass temperature reached in the test is the

temperature maximum allowed.

Heat input (HI) When impact requirements apply the maximum HI allowed is
25% above test HI.
When hardness requirements apply the minimum HI allowed is
25% below test HI.

6.3 Welder qualification

The use of qualified WPSs is the accepted method for controlling production
welding but will only be successful if the welders understand and work in
accordance with them.

Welders also need to have the skill to consistently produce sound (defect-free)
welds.

Welding Standards have been developed to give guidance on which test welds
are required to show that welders have the required skills to make certain types
of production welds in specified materials.

WIS5-80116
WPS/Welder Qualifications 6-6 Copyright © TWI Ltd
6.3.1 Welding standards for welder qualification
The principal EU Standards that specify requirements are:

BS EN ISO 9606-1
Qualification test of welders – Fusion welding.
Part 1: Steels.

EN ISO 9606-2
Qualification test of welders – Fusion welding.
Part 2: Aluminium and aluminium alloys.

EN 1418
Welding personnel – Approval testing of welding operators for fusion welding
and resistance weld setters for fully mechanised and automatic welding of
metallic materials.

The principal American Standards that specify requirements for welder

qualification are:

ASME Section IX
Pressurised systems (vessels & pipework).

AWS D1.1
Structural welding of steels.

AWS D1.2
Structural welding of aluminium.

6.3.2 The qualification process for welders

Qualification testing of welders to European Standards requires test welds to be
made and subjected to specified tests to demonstrate that the welder is able to
understand the WPS and produce a sound weld.

For manual and semi-automatic welding tests demonstrate the ability to

manipulate the electrode or welding torch.

For mechanised and automatic welding the emphasis is on demonstrating the

ability to control particular types of welding equipment.

American Standards allow welders to demonstrate they can produce sound

welds by subjecting their first production weld to NDT.

Table 6.3 shows the steps required for qualifying welders in accordance with EU
Standards.

WIS5-80116
WPS/Welder Qualifications 6-7 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Table 6.3 The stages for qualification of a welder.

The welding engineer writes a WPS for a welder qualification test piece.

 The welder makes the test weld in accordance with the WPS.
 A welding inspector monitors the welding to ensure that the welder is
working in accordance with the WPS.

An independent examiner/examining body/third party inspector may be

requested to monitor the test.

 The test coupon is subjected to NDT in accordance with the methods

specified by the Standard (visual inspection, MT or PT and RT or UT).
 For certain materials, and welding processes, some destructive testing
may be required (bend tests or macros).

 A welder’s Qualification Certificate is prepared showing the welding

conditions used for the test piece and the range of qualification allowed
by the Standard for production welding.
 If a third party is involved they would endorse the Qualification
Certificate as a true record of the test.

Figure 6.2 shows a typical welder qualification certificate in accordance with EU

Standards.

WIS5-80116
WPS/Welder Qualifications 6-8 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 ESAB OK 53.08 Hytuf 1Nl
Yield strength
BS EN ISO 2560 E 46 6 Min 1 Nl B 12 H5
3.25 & 4.0
35
B basic

Figure 6.2 Example of a WPQR document (test weld details) to EN15614

format.

WIS5-80116
WPS/Welder Qualifications 6-9 Copyright © TWI Ltd
6.3.3 Welder qualification and production welding allowed
The welder is allowed to make production welds within the range of qualification
recorded on his Welder Qualification Certificate.

The range of qualification is based on the limits specified by the Welding

Standard for welder qualification essential variables - defined as:

A variable that if changed beyond the limits specified by the Welding

Standard may require greater skill than has been demonstrated by the
test weld.

Some welding variables classed as essential for welder qualification are the
same types as those classified as essential for welding procedure qualification,
but the range of qualification may be significantly wider.

Some essential variables are specific to welder qualification.

Examples of welder qualification essential variables are given in Table 6.4.

Table 6.4 Typical examples of welder qualification essential variables according

to EU Welding Standards.
Variable Range for welder qualification

Welding process No range – process qualified is the process that a welder can use
in production.

Type of weld Butt welds cover any type of joint except branch welds.
Fillet welds only qualify fillets.

Parent material Parent materials of similar composition and mechanical

type properties are allocated the same Material Group No;
qualification only allows production welding of materials with the
same Group No. but the Groups allow much wider composition
ranges than the procedure Groups.

Filler material Electrodes and filler wires for production welding must be within
the range of the qualification of the filler material.

Material thickness A thickness range is allowed; for test pieces above 12mm allow 
5mm.

Pipe diameter Essential and very restricted for small diameters:

Test pieces above 25mm allow  0.5 x diameter used (minimum
25mm).

Welding positions Position of welding very important; H-L045 allows all positions
except PG.

WIS5-80116
WPS/Welder Qualifications 6-10 Copyright © TWI Ltd
6.3.4 Period of validity for a Welder Qualification Certificate
A welder’s qualification begins from the date of welding the test piece.

 The welding co-ordinator or other responsible person can confirm that the
welder has been working within the initial range of qualification.
 The Certificate needs to be confirmed every 6 months otherwise the
Certificate(s) become(s) invalid.
 The validity of the Certificate may be extended.
 The chosen method of extension must be stated on the Certificate at the
time of issue.
Retest every three years.
Valid for two years provided that:
- The welder is working for the same manufacturer.
- The manufacturer has a quality system to ISO 3834-2 or ISO 3834-3.

6.3.5 Prolongation of welder qualification

A welder’s qualification certificate can be prolonged by an examiner/examining
body but certain conditions need to be satisfied:

 Records/evidence are available that can be traced to the welder and the
WPSs used for production welding.
 Supporting evidence must relate to volumetric examination of the welder’s
production welds (RT or UT) on two welds made during the six months prior
to the extension date.
 Supporting evidence welds must satisfy the acceptance levels for
imperfections specified by the EU welding standard and have been made
under the same conditions as the original test weld.

WIS5-80116
WPS/Welder Qualifications 6-11 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Figure 6.3 Example of WPQR document (details of weld test) to EN15614
format.

WIS5-80116
WPS/Welder Qualifications 6-12 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 06/07/2005
3463-001
n/a Rev. 0
WPS – 013 Rev. 0
BS EN ISO 9606-1
Third Party Ltd
TPL/XYZ/3463-1
05/07/2007

111:MMA
Manual
Nb: without backing
BS EN ISO 2560 E 46 6 Min NI B
n/a
B basic
12.70
H-LD45

Figure 6.4 Example of a welder qualification test certificate (WPQ) to EN9606-1

format.

WIS5-80116
WPS/Welder Qualifications 6-13 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 WPS Objective

When this presentation has been completed you

will have a greater understanding of the
terminology used in welding and welder
documentation and the order in which it should
be completed. This section does not state how to
Welding Procedures write a procedure to a code as this is the duty,
according to international standards as the role
Section 6 of a qualified Welding Engineer and not the role
of a WI. We will however discuss the contents of
WPQR and its associated documentation.

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Welding Procedure Qualification Welding Procedure Qualification

Question: What is the main reason for carrying According to EN ISO 15614
out a welding procedure qualification test?
(What is the test trying to show?) Preliminary welding procedure specification
Answer: To show that the welded joint has the (pWPS).
properties* that satisfy the design requirements
(fit for purpose).
Welding procedure qualification record (WPQR).
Properties*
 Mechanical properties are the main interest - Welding procedure specification (WPS).
always strength but toughness hardness may
be important for some applications.
 Test also demonstrates that the weld can be
made without defects.

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Welding Procedure Qualification Welding Procedure Qualification

Preliminary welding procedure specification Welding procedure qualification record (WPQR)

(pWPS)  A welder makes a test weld in accordance with the
pWPS.
Welding engineer writes a preliminary Welding  A welding inspector records all the welding conditions
Procedure Specification (pWPS) for each test weld to used for the test weld (referred to as the as-run
be made. conditions).
 An independent examiner/examining body/third party
inspector may be requested to monitor the
qualification process.

The finished test weld is subjected to NDT in accordance

with the methods specified by the EN ISO Standard -
Visual, MT or PT and RT or UT.

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6-1
 Welding Procedure Qualification Welding Procedure Qualification

Welding procedure qualification record (WPQR) Welding procedure specification (WPS)

Test weld is subjected to destructive testing (tensile, bend,
macro). The application standard, or client, may require
The welding engineer writes qualified welding
additional tests such as impact tests, hardness tests (and for procedure specifications (WPS) for production
some materials - corrosion tests). welding.

Welding procedure qualification record (WPQR) details:

Production welding conditions must remain within
The welding conditions used for the test weld the range of qualification allowed by the WPQR.
 Results of the NDT.
 Results of the destructive tests.
 The welding conditions that the test weld allows for
production welding.

The Third Party may be requested to sign the WPQR as a true

record.

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Welding Procedure Qualification Welding Procedure Qualification

According to EN Standards According to EN Standards

Welding conditions are called welding variables. Welding essential variables
Welding variables are classified by the EN ISO Standard as:
 Essential variables. Question: Why are some welding variables
 Non-essential variables. classified as essential?
 Additional variables.

Note: Additional variables = ASME supplementary essential. Answer: A variable, that if changed beyond
The range of qualification for production welding is based on
certain limits (specified by the Welding Standard)
the limits that the EN ISO Standard specifies for essential may have a significant effect on the properties*
variables*. of the joint.

(* and when applicable - the additional variables) * particularly joint strength and ductility.

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Welding Procedure Qualification Welding Procedure Qualification

According to EN Standards According to EN Standards

Welding additional variables Some typical essential variables
 Welding process.
Question: Why are some welding variables
 Post weld heat treatment (PWHT).
classified as additional?
 Material type.
Answer: A variable, that if changed beyond  Electrode type, filler wire type (classification).
certain limits (specified by the welding standard)  Material thickness.
may have a significant effect on the toughness  Polarity (AC, DC+ve/DC-ve).
and/or hardness of the joint.  Pre-heat temperature.
Some typical additional variables
Note: ASME calls variables that affect toughness as
 Heat input.
supplementary essential variables (but does not refer to
hardness).  Welding position.

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 Welding Procedures Welding Procedures

Producing a welding procedure involves: In most codes reference is made to how the
 Planning the tasks. procedure are to be devised and whether approval
of these procedures is required.
 Collecting the data.
 Writing a procedure for use of for trial. The approach used for procedure approval
 Making a test welds. depends on the code:
 Evaluating the results.
Example codes:
 Approving the procedure.
 AWS D.1.1: Structural Steel Welding Code.
 Preparing the documentation.
 BS 2633: Class 1 Welding of Steel Pipe Work.
 API 1104: Welding of Pipelines.
 BS 4515: Welding of Pipelines over 7 Bar.

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Welding Procedures Welding Procedures

Other codes may not specifically deal with the Components of a welding procedure
requirement of a procedure but may contain Parent material
information that may be used in writing a weld  Type (grouping).
procedure.  Thickness.
 Diameter (pipes).
 Surface condition.
EN 1011 Process of Arc Welding Steels.
Welding process
 Type of process (MMA, MAG, TIG, SAW).
 Equipment parameters.
 Amps, volts, travel speed.
Welding consumables
 Type of consumable/diameter of consumable.
 Brand/classification.
 Heat treatments/storage.

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Welding Procedures Welding Procedures

Components of a welding procedure Object of a welding procedure test

Joint design To give maximum confidence that the welds
 Edge preparation. mechanical and metallurgical properties meet the
 Root gap, root face. requirements of the applicable code/specification.
 Jigging and tacking.
 Type of baking.
Welding Position Each welding procedure will show a range to which
 Location, shop or site. the procedure is approved (extent of approval).
 Welding position eg 1G, 2G, 3G etc.
 Any weather precaution.
If a customer queries the approval evidence can be
Thermal heat treatments supplied to prove its validity.
 Preheat, temps.
 Post weld heat treatments eg stress relieving.

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 Welding Procedures Welding Procedures

Purpose of a WPS
Example:  To achieve specific properties, mechanical
strength, corrosion resistance, composition.
Welding
 To ensure freedom from defects.
procedure
 To enforce QC procedures.
specification  To standardise on methods and costs.
(WPS)  To control production schedules.
 To form a record.
 Application standard or contract requirement.

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Welding Procedures Welding Procedures

Monitoring heat input PA 1G/1F Flat/Downhand

As Required by BS EN ISO 15614-1:2004 PB 2F Horizontal-Vertical
In accordance with EN 1011-1:1998.
PC 2G Horizontal

When impact and/or hardness requirements are PD 4F Horizontal-Vertical (Overhead)

specified, impact test shall be taken from the weld
PE 4G Overhead
in the highest heat input position and hardness
tests shall be taken from the weld in the lowest PF 3G/5G Vertical-Up
heat input position in order to qualify for all
PG 3G/5G Vertical-Down
positions.
H-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Upwards)

J-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Downwards)

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Welding Procedures

Monitoring heat input

PG As Required by BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012
PA In accordance with EN 1011-1:1998
PF  When impact requirements apply, the upper limit of
PB heat input qualified is 25% greater than that used in
welding the test piece.
PC
 When hardness requirements apply, the lower limit of
PD heat input qualified is 25% lower than that used in
welding the test piece.
PE  Heat input is calculated in accordance with EN1011-1.
 If welding procedure tests have been preformed at
both a high and low heat input level, then all
intermediate heat inputs are also qualified.

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 Welding Procedures Welding Procedures

EN 288 PART 2 15614-1-2-3 BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012 (Replaced BS EN 288-3)

 Does not invalidate previous … approvals made to
former national standards… providing the intent of the
Specifies contents of WPS technical requirements is satisfied… approvals are
Shall give details of how a welding operation is to relevant.
be performed and contain all relevant information.  Where additional tests… make the approval technically
equivalent… only necessary to do the additional tests….
 Approval is valid… in workshops or sites under the same
Definitions technical and quality control of that manufacturer….
 Processes to be designated in accordance with  Service, material or manufacturing conditions may
ISO 4063. require more comprehensive testing….
 Welding positions in accordance with ISO 6947.  Application standard may require more testing.
 Typical WPS form.

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Welding Procedures Welding Procedures

Table 5 BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012 Table 6 BS EN ISO 15614-1:2004

Thickness of Range of qualification Thickness of Range of qualification

test piece test piece Throat Thickness
Material
t Single run Multi run t Thickness Single run Multi run

t<3 0.7t to 2t t<3 0.75 a to No

0.7t to 1.3ta 0.7 to 2 t
1.5 a restriction
3<t<12 3 to 2ta
0.5t (3 min) to 1.3ta 0.5t (3 min) 0.75 a to No
3<t<30
to 2 t 1.5 a restriction
0.5t to 2t
12<t<100 0.5t to 1.1t
No
t>30 >5 a
50 to 2t restriction
t>100 Not applicable

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Welding Procedures Welding Procedures

BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012 (Replaced BS EN 288-3) BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012

Covers arc, gas welding of steels, arc welding of (Replaced BS EN 288-3)
nickel and nickel alloys. Range of approval

111 - MMA 114 - FCAW - no gas shield

12 - SAW 131 - MIG Other quirks
135 - MAG 136 - FCAW - active gas  Approval valid only for process used.
311 – Oxy-Acetylene 141 – TIG  Multi-process - valid for order used…during
15 - Plasma Arc approval test.
 Processes… Processes may be approved
The principle of this European Standard may be separately or in combination….
applied to other fusion welding processes.  Cannot change multi-run to single run or vice
versa.

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 Welding Procedures Welding Procedures

BS EN ISO 15614-1:2012 Note 1:

(Replaced BS EN 288-3) a is the throat as used for the test piece.
Thickness definitions
Note 2:
 Butt: Parent metal thickness at the joint.
Where the fillet weld is qualified by means of a
 Fillet: Parent metal thickness. butt test, the throat thickness range qualified shall
 Set-on branch: Parent metal thickness. be based on the thickness of the deposited metal.
 Set-in/through branch: Parent metal thickness.
 T-butt: Parent metal thickness. For special applications only. Each fillet weld shall
For branch connections and fillet welds, the range of be proofed separately by a welding procedure test.
qualification shall be applied to both parent
materials independently.

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Welding Procedures Welding Procedures

Table 7 BS EN ISO 15614-1:2004

Diameter of the test piece Range of Qualification

Da, mm

0.5 D to 2 D Monitoring Heat Input

D<25

D>25 >0.5 D (25 mm min)

NOTE For structural hollow sections D is the dimension of

the smaller side
a D is the outside diameter of the pipe or outside
diameter of the branch pipe

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Monitoring Heat Input Monitoring Heat Input

Arc energy and heat input

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 Monitoring Heat Input Monitoring Heat Input

Arc energy Heat input

The amount of heat generated in the welding arc  The energy supplied by the welding arc to the
per unit length of weld. Expressed in kilo Joules work piece.
per millimetre length of weld (kJ/mm).  Expressed in terms of; arc energy x thermal
efficiency factor.
 Arc energy (kJ/mm) = Volts x Amps.  Thermal efficiency factor is the ratio of heat
 Welding speed(mm/s) x 1000. energy introduced into the weld to the electrical
energy consumed by the arc.

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Monitoring Heat Input Monitoring Heat Input

Thermal efficiency factor k of welding processes Abbreviations and symbols

Process No Process Factor k

121 Submerged arc welding with wire 1.0 I Arc welding current (Amps)
111 Metal-arc welding with covered electrodes 0.8
131 MIG welding 0.8
k Thermal efficiency factor
135 MAG welding 0.8 v Welding speed (mm/min)
114 Flux-cored wire metal-arc welding without gas shield 0.8
Q Heat input (kJ/mm)
136 Flux-cored wire metal-arc welding with active gas shield 0.8
U Arc voltage (Volts)
137 Flux-cored wire metal-arc welding with inert gas shield 0.8

138 Metal-cored wire metal-arc welding with active gas shield 0.8 Q= k U x I x 10-3 = kJ/mm or Amp x volts x time
v ROL x 1000
139 Metal-cored wire metal-arc welding with inert gas shield 0.8

141 TIG welding 0.6

15 Plasma arc welding 0.6

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Monitoring Heat Input Monitoring Heat Input

Example
A MAG weld is made and the following conditions
AE (kJ/mm) = Volts x amps
were recorded;
Travel speed(mm/ sec) x 1000
= 24 x 240
 Arc volts = 24
 Welding amperage = 240 (300/60) x 1000
 Travel speed = 300mm/minute. = 5760
5000
What is the arc energy and heat input?
AE = 1.152 or 1.2kJ/mm.
HI = 1.2 x 0.8 = 0.96kJ/mm.

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6-7