PROCESS CONTROL_ochnatngonese McGRAW-HILL SERIES IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Max S. Peters, Consulting Editor EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD Charles F. Bonilla, Professor of Chemi- cal Engineering, Columbia University Cecil H. Chilton. Chemical Engineering Editor-in-Chief, Sidney D. Kirkpatrick, Consulting Edi- tor, McGraw-Hill Series in Chemical Engineering, 1929-1960 Walter E, Lobo. Engineer Consulting Chemical Carl C. Monrad. Chairman, Depart- ment of Chemical Engineering, Carne- gie Institute of Technology Robert L. Pigford. Chairman, Depart- ment of Chemical Engineering, Uni- versity of Delaware Mott Souders. Associate Director of Research, Shell Development Com- pany Richard H. Wilhelm. Chairman, De- partment of Chemical. Engineering, Princeton University BUILDING THE LITERATURE OF A PROFESSION Fifteen prominent chemical engineers first met in New York more than 30 years ago to plan a continuing literature for their rapidly growing profession. From industry came such pioneer practitioners as Leo H. Baekeland, Arthur D. Little, Charles L. Reese, John V, N. Dorr, M. C. Whitaker, and R.§. McBride, From the universities came such eminent educators as William H. Walker, Alfred H. White, D. D, Jackson, J. H, James, Warren K. Lewis, and Harry A. Curtis. H. C. Parmelee, then editor of Chemical & Metallurgical Engineering, served as chairman and was joined subse quently by S. D. Kirkpatrick as consulting editor. After several meetings, this first Editorial Advisory Board submitted its report to the McGraw-Hill Book Company in September, 1925. In it were detailed speci- fications for a correlated series of more than a dozen texts and reference books which have since become the McGraw-Hill Series in Chemical Engineering, Since its origin the Editorial Advisory Board has been benefited by the guidance and continuing interest of such other distinguished chemical engineers as Manson Benedict, John R. Callaham, Arthur W. Hixson, H. Fraser Johnstone, Webster N. Jones, Paul D. V. Manning, Albert E. Marshall, Charles M, A. Stine, Edward R, Weidlein, and Walter G. Whitman. No small measure of credit is due not only to the pioneering members of the original board but also to those engineering educators and industrialists who have succeeded them in the task of building a permanent literature for the chemical engineering profession.THE SERIES ANDERSEN AND Wanznt—Introduction of Chemical Engineering Anes AND Newron—Chemical Engineering Cost Estimation Bapeer anp Bancumzo—Iniroduction io Chemical Engineering Benner aNp Myzrs—Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transfer Conminas—High Pressure Technology Corcoran AND Lacny—Introduction of Chemical Hngineering Problems Covanaxowr ann Korrss—-Process Systems Analysis and Control Doper—Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics Griswoun-Fuels, Combustion, and Furnaces Groaains—Unit Processes in Organic Synthesis Hannrorr—Process Control Henuzy anp Brapun—Chemical Engineering Calculations Howtieron—Natural Gas and Natural Gasoline z Jounstone anp Turina—Pilot Plants, Models, and Scale-up Methods in Chemical | Engineering : Karz, Connuut, Kopavasit, Ponrrmann, Vary, Evensaas, anp Wetvauc—Hand- | book of Natural Gas Engineering Kirxsrre—Chemical Engineering Fundamentals Kwupsen anp Katz—Fheid Dynamics ond Heat Transfer Kou. anp Rinsenrenp—Gas Purification Laripus—Digilal Computation for Chemical Engineers : Leva—Fluidization Lewis, Rapascn, aND Lewis—Industrial Stoichiometry Manteti.—Adsorption. Manrnut-—Blectrochemical Engineering McAvams—Heat Transmission MoCase anv Smurn, J. C.—Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering Mickey, SHERWOOD, AND Rump—Applied Mathematics in Chemical Engineering Ne.son—Petrolewm Refinery Engineering Perry (Eprror)—Chemical Business Handbook Purny (Eprror)—Chemical Engineers’ Handbook ! Persrs—Elementary Chemical Engineering Purmrs—Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers Prerce—Chemical Engineering for Production Supervision Rew ann Sxurwoop—The Properties of Gases and Liquids Ruopzs, T. J.—Industrial Instruments for Measurement and Control Ronson ann GrutiLanp—Elements of Fractional Distillation Scumur anp Maruiss—Principles of High-polymer Theory and Practice ScnwEvEer—Process Engineering Econernics Sunrwoop anp Prcrorp—Absorplion and Butraction Sureve—The Chemical Process Industries Sours, B. D.—Design of Equilibrium Stage Processes Sura, J. M.—Chemical Engineering Kinetics Surrx, J. M., anp Van Nuss—Irdroduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodydamies Trevnal—Ligquid Extraction | ‘TreyBati—Mass-Transfer Operations Tyter anp Winter—Chemical Engineering Economics Vitnranpt anv Drypan—Chemical Engineering Plant Design Voux—Applied Statistics for Engineers Waxas—Reaction Kinetics for Chemical Engineers { Ware, Lewis, McApams, anp Grntiaxp—Prineiples of Chemical Engineering Wisiams ann Joanson—Stoichiometry for Chemical Engineers Wiuson anp Rims—Principles of Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics Witson ann Waits—Coal, Coke, and Coal Chemicals sceneON Fe Peer PROCESS CONTROL PETER HARRIOTT Associate Professor of Chemical Engineering Cornell University McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY New York San Francisco Toronto LondonPROCESS CONTROL Copyright © 1964 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. Al Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This book, or aris thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publishers, Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 63-21782 26785 Wa) Of oe oe os 8 S ~ D ~ 4M Oop 8 To My Wife and ParentsPreface This book is an introduction to the theory of automatic control and its application to the chemical process industries, Emphasis is placed on the dynamic behavior of processes and processing equipment rather than on the mechanical features of instruments and controllers, The book is intended panty , for, chemical engineers, but the information on process dynamics 8 bE useful to mechanical and electrical engineers who help design process control systems, The book is suitable for a senior or introductory graduate course in process control or for self-study by practicing engineers. A knowledge of calculus and elementary differential equations is assumed, and the reader is expected to become familiar with the use of Laplace transforms, as most of the equations and problems use transformed notation. The Laplace transform is presented in Chap, 2, and the simple transformation rules can. be grasped in one or two periods. The mathematical level of the book is suitable for a junior course, but the material on process dynamics will mean more to the student who has had courses in unit operations or in fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and mass transfer. Some knowledge of the steady- state behavior of heat exchangers, distillation columns, and reactors is assumed in discussing the dynamic behavior of these devices. ‘The first half of the. book deals mainly with general control theory. ‘The open-loop and closed-loop response of systems consisting of first-order and second-order elements plus dead time are discussed. Both transient response and frequency response are discussed, but frequency-response analysis is emphasized, since this seems the easiest and most useful technique for process control studies. The root-locus method is left Yor advanced courses, because it is fairly complex and is not practical for systems with dead time or distributed parameters. The second part of the book gives introductory theory and practical examples dealing with the response and control of heat exchangers, flow control, level control, distillation control, and the control of temperature, composition, and pH in chemical reactors, These topics were chosen ixx PREFACE partly because of the author's interests and partly to illustrate certain types of behavior. A tubular exchanger is an example of a distributed-parameter system. Flow control is a case where the process is much faster than the measuring and controlling elements. Level control serves to illustrate the use of averaging controllers, which might be used for pressure systems as well. The response of a distillation column depends on the dynamics of fluid flow, heat transfer, and mass transfer, and one of the main problems is deci ing which variables to control. A chemical reactor is particularly interesting because it is one of the few systems which can be open-loop unstable. For a one-term course in process control, the first half of the book could be used, along with two or three topics selected from Chaps. 11 to 16. The last few topics in Chaps. 6 to 10 could be omitted or treated lightly to save time for a broader selection of applications. A weekly laboratory and computation period is recommended, and a suggested list of experiments is available from the author. The author wishes to acknowledge the many helpful comments of his students and the technical information furnished by specialists in process control, including Leonard Barnstone, Page Buckley, Louis Bertrand, Bruce Powell, Allan Catheron, Ted Williams, and Nathaniel Nichols. Professor Thomas Weber deserves special credit for giving detailed comments on every chapter. PETER HARRIOTTContents PREEACE ix CHAPTER |. INTRODUCTION 1 1-1 Historical Review 1 1-2 Block Diagrams 3 1-3. Closed-loop and Open-loop Control Systems 5 1-4 Basic Control Actions; On-Off Control 6 1-5. Proportional Control 7 1-6 The Stability Problem 10 1-7. Integral ‘and Derivative Action 12 CHAPTER 2. THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM = 15 CHAPTER 3. OPEN-LOOP RESPONSE OF SIMPLE SYSTEMS 21 > 3-1 First-order Elements 21 3.2 Response of a Thermometer Bulb 22 33 General Response to Step, Ramp, and Sinusoidal Taputs 3-4 Concentration Response of Stirred Tanks 35 Temperature Response of Stirred Tanks 3-6 Linearization of Liquid-level Systems 3-7 Response of Pressure Systems 3-8 Pure-capacity Elements 3-9 Second-order Systems; the Manometer 3-10 Response of Noninteracting First-order Elements in Series 47 3-11 Response of Interacting Elements in Series 49 3-12 Response of a Distributed System 54 CHAPTER 4. “TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF CONTROL SYSTEMS 59 4-1 Servo-operation and Regulator Operation 39 42. Types of Inputs 60 43. General Equations for the ‘Transient Response 60 44 Proportional Control of a Single-capacity Process 61 4-5 Proportional Control of a Two-capacity Process 63 4-6 Proportional Controt of a Thres-capacity Process to) xixli CONTENTS CHAPTER 5. CHAPTER 6. CHAPTER 7, CHAPTER 8. CHAPTER 9 4-7 Stability Limit 4-8 Integral Control 4-9 Proportional-Integral Control 4-10 Derivative Action 4-11 Effect of Measurement Lag 4-12 Effect of Time Delay FREQUENCY-RESPONSE ANALYSIS 87 5-1 Frequency Response of a First-order System 5-2 Bode Diagrams 53 Review of Complex Numbers 5-4 Using Complex Numbers to Get Frequency Response 5-5 Frequency Response of a Second-order Element 5.6 Response of Elements in Series 5-7 The Stability Criterion 5-8 Gain and Phase Margins 5-9 Comparing Control Systems 5-10 Effect of Time Delay 5-11 Response of Distributed Systems 5-12 Systems with Side Capacities FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CONTROLLERS ill 61 Proportional-Integral Controller 6-2 Proportional-Derivative Controller 63 Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller 6-4 Controllers with Limited Action 6-5 Interaction between Derivative and Integral Elements 6-6 Nonlinear Effects 67 . Electronic Controllers FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEMS 136 7-1 Changes in Set Point 7-2 Changes in Load 7-3. Use of Closed-loop Response te Predict Transient Response 7-4 BAlect of Measurement Lag COMPLEX CONTROL SYSTEMS — 153 8-1 Types of Control Schemes 82 Examples of Cascade Control 8-3 Controller Settings for Cascade Systems 8-4 Response of Cascade Systems to Load Changes 8-5 Feedforward Modifications 8-6 Interacting Control Systems OPTIMUM CONTROLLER SETTINGS = 178 9-1 Optimum Settings from the Plant Response Continuous-cycling Method Damped-oscillation Method Reaction-curve Method V1 115 121 123 126 130 131 136 140 145 149 453 154 158 162 166 171 178 178 179 180CHAPTER 10. CHAPTER II. CHAPTER 12. CONTENTS 9-2 Controller Settings for Minimum Error Integral 9-3 Control of Processes with a Time Delay CONTROL VALVES AND TRANSMISSION LINES — 194 10-1 Valve Types and Inherent Characteristics 10-2 Effective Valve Characteristics 10-3 Selecting Control Valves 10-4 Response of Pneumatic Transmission Lines and Valves 10-5 Valve Positioners THE DYNAMICS AND CONTROL OF HEAT EXCHANGERS = 215 11-1 Dynamics of Steam-heated Exchangers Response to Changes in Steam Temperature Resonance Effect Response to Load Changes Lag in Shell and Headers Steam-Air Exchangers 11-2 Countercurrent Exchangers 11-3 Control Schemes 11-4 Measurement Lag Response of Filled Bulbs Bulbs in Wells Thermocouple Response Resistance Thermometers 11-5 Reducing the Measurement Lag LEVEL CONTROL = 246 12-1 Level a Major Variable 12.2. Averaging Control 12-3 Tank Dynamics 12-4 Measurement Lag Dynamics of Float Cages .12-5 Performance of Averaging Controllers CHAPTER 13. CHAPTER 14. FLOW CONTROL 257 13-1 Process Lag 13-2 Measurement Lag 13-3 Effect of Transmission Lag on Flow Control 13-4 Control with Noisy Signals 13-5 Nonlinearities in Flow Systems THE DYNAMICS AND CONTROL OF DISTILLATION COLUMNS 269 Part 1 Survey of Control Schemes 14-1 Basic Features of Composition Control Schemes 14-2 Control of Overhead Composition 14-3 Control of Bottom Composition 14-4 Control of Both Product Compositions 14-5 Location of the Sensing Element 14-6 Controt of Columns with Varying Feed Rates xitl 18L 187 194 198 201 204 21h 216 217 218 222 223 224 227 230 234 235 239 239 240 241 246 247 247 248 248 252 258 259 262 262 264 269 270 271 273 273 276 278xiv CONTENTS 14-7 Pressure Control 14-8 Control of Feed Temperature 14-9 Internal Reflux Control Part II Dynamic Behavior of Distillation Columns 14-10 Types of Lags 14-11 Lag in Liquid Flow 1412 Lag in Vapor Flow 14-13 Experimental Values of Flow Lags 14-14 Concentration Lags 14-15 Frequency Response of Columns 14-16 Experimental Frequency-response Studies 14-17 Predicting the Behavior of Control Systems CHAPTER [5. THE STABILITY AND CONTROL OF CHEMICAL REACTORS 308 15-1. Stirred-tank Reactors 15-2 Control of Stirred Reactors 15-3 Effect of Other Lags in the Control Loop 15-4 Stability of Tubular Reactors 15-5 Control of Tubular Reactors 15-6 Batch Reactors 15-7 Packed-bed Reactors 15-8 Special Stability Problems 15-9 Composition Control CHAPTER 16. CONTROL OF pH AND CONTROL OF BLENDING PROCESSES 343 16-1 Response of Agitated Tanks Mixing-delay Data Mixing-time Studies 16-2. Control of pH Process Characteristic Curves Response of pH Electrodes 16-3. Examples of pH Control Systems APPENDIX 361 INDEX 367 1 Nyquist Stability Criterion 2 Routh’s Stability Criterion 279 283 283 285 285 286 289 291 292, 296 298 299 309 312 31s 319 324 325 326 329 333 343 344 348 348 351 353 361 364Nomenclature > PoweFan o > > Le mas Ame aos Qe OO Bee eek Parameter in Eq. (11-5), constant Heat-transfer area, cross-section area, constant, concentration of A Amplitude ratio Bandwidth for proportional control, constant, parameter in Eq. (11-5) Bottoms flow rate, constant, concentration of B Concentration Heat capacity Capacity, total capacity Diameter, distillate flow rate Error, base of natural logarithms Frequency in cycles per unit time, friction factor Volumetric flow rate, feed rate Operators meaning “function of” Gravitational constant Newton’s-law conversion factor, 32.2 ft-lbjlb force-sec Transfer function Head or depth of fluid, film coefficient of heat transfer ‘Transfer function for measurement lag, liquid holdup on 4 distitlation plate Heat of reaction Interaction term in Eqs. (6-27), (6-31) vol Reaction-rate constant, thermal conductivity, constant in flow equation Gain Time delay, load variable, inductance, length, liquid flow rate Laplace-transform operator Inverse Laplace-transform operator Integer Mass Peak gain of closed-loop frequency response Integer Maximum slope of reaction curve, stirrer speed Fractional change in controller output Pressure, period of oscillation Heat-generation rate, heat-transfer rate, volume of gas xvxvi Naw ¥e Rews S £ Pp SeMeEneonewe bow ye Da NOMENCLATURE ‘Chemical reaction rate, root of a polynomial, fractional change in flow, radius . Resistance, ratio of time constants, ratio of pressure drops, reflux flow rate Complex variable Controller sensitivity, cross-section area Time ‘Time constant, absolute temperature, tank diameter Derivative time Holdup time Integral time Reset time Overall heat-transfer coefficient Velocity Volume, vapor flow rate Width of stirrer Mass flow rate Valve-stem position, fraction converted, length, mole fraction Dimensionless heat-generation parameter in Eq. (15-16), valve position Fractional response to a step input, mole fraction Film thickness Depth of liquid Greek Letters Thermal diffusivity K/pc,, closed-loop phase angle Constant Dimensionless stability parameters in Eq. (15-8) Damping coefficient ‘Temperature, controlled variable Heat of vaporization Viscosity Density Summation Phase angle Frequency in radians per unit time Natural frequency Subscripts adiabatic average Chemical substances Bottom product Set point, control point, controller Distillate product Effective Fluid Feed Input Jacket Load, liquid